৪১তম BCS িলিখত

ফল কাস
ইংেরিজ
লকচার: ০২
টিপক: Sentences and Clauses, Use of Linking
words, Joining Sentences, Conditional
Structures, Use of Relative Pronouns,
Introductory “It” and “There”

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 LECTURE PLAN

1 Sentences and Clauses 2 Use of Linking words

3 Joining Sentences 4 Conditional Structures

5 Use of Relative Pronouns 6 Introductory “It” and “There”

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 CLAUSES
Clauses:
A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. (A clause functions as an
adjective, an adverb, or a noun.)

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 CLAUSES

Examples of Clauses:

 During the day, the vampire slept in a coffin.

 (The subject of this clause is “the vampire." The verb is "slept." "During the day" is a
phrase because there is no verb.)

 When the Moon shone, he lurked in the shadows.

 (The subject of the first clause is "the Moon." The verb is "shone." The subject of the
second clause is "he." The verb is "lurked.")

 He stalked a pretty milkmaid, who lived in the neighboring village. (The subject of the first
clause is "He." The verb is "stalked." The subject of the second clause is "who." The
verb is "lived.")

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NOUN CLAUSE

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 NOUN CLAUSE

What the UN is thinking would turn out to be a catastrophe.

What the country requires most is the concerted efforts from all the stakeholders.

UN needs to determine how to address the humanitarian crisis in Yemen.

Donald Trump seemed not to understand why the Paris Agreement was necessary.

The world knows who are the culprit behind climate change.

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 NOUN CLAUSE

A noun clause is a clause that plays the role of a noun. For example (noun clauses shaded)

Examples of Noun Clauses:

 Here are some easy examples of noun clauses. In each example, the noun clause is shaded,
the subject of the clause is bold, and the verb of the noun clause is underlined.

 I know that the story is true.

 I saw how the accident happened.

 I understand why it was necessary.

 I know who said that.

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ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

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 ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The federal government in Delhi, however, remains reluctant to impose a

national lockdown, citing the damage this would do to the economy, which
shrank dramatically last year.

The Paris Agreement that was singed in 2015 requires the parties to declare
their respective NDCs.

The pharmaceutical sector of Bangladesh that has been steadily growing

over the years may fall under the intellectual property rights regime.

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 ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

An adjective clause is a multiword adjective that includes a subject and a verb.

Examples of Adjective Clauses:

 The carpets that you bought last year have rotted.

 The follies which a man regrets most in his life are those which he didn't commit when he

had the opportunity. (US journalist Helen Rowland, 1876-1950)

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ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

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 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Countries must endeavour to cut Carbon until the global temperature is

reduced.

After the game is finished, the King and the pawns go to the same box.

Whenever a resolution is proposed against Israel, USA, Israel's all

weather ally, vetoes against it.

The way the negotiation is progressing shows that it will take ages to
resolve the problem.

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 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

An adverbial clause is a group of words that plays the role of an adverb. (Like all clauses, an
adverbial clause contains a subject and a verb.

Example of an Adverbial Clause:

 Keep hitting the gong until I tell you to stop.

 Compare the example above with the similar sentence below, which features an example
with a normal adverb.

 Keep hitting the gong hourly.

 (This bold text is a normal adverb, not an adverbial clause.)

 In the two examples above, the adverbial clause and the normal adverb both tell
us when the gong is to be hit. Therefore, they are both adverbs of time.

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 USES OF ADVERBS

Adverbs of Time (When?):

An adverb of time states when something happens or how often.

Here are some examples:

 After the game has finished, the king and pawn go into the same box. (Italian Proverb)

 I stopped believing in Santa Claus when my mother took me to see him in a department
store, and he asked for my autograph. (Actress Shirley Temple)

 As soon as you trust yourself, you will know how to live. (Writer Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe)

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 USES OF ADVERBS

Adverbs of Place (Where?):

An adverb of place states where something happens

Here are some examples:

 Anywhere the struggle is great, the level of ingenuity and inventiveness is high. (Economist
Eleni Zaude Gabre-Madhin)

 I am not afraid of the pen, the scaffold, or the sword. I will tell the truth wherever I
please. (Lobbyist Mother Jones)

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 USES OF ADVERBS

Adverbs of Manner (How?):

An adverb of manner states how something is done. An adverb of manner often starts with
one of the following subordinating conjunctions: "as," "like," or "the way."

Here are some examples:

 He acts like it is a joke.

 We don't have conversations. You talk at me the way a teacher talks to a naughty student.

 Except for an occasional heart attack, I feel as young as I ever did. (Comedian Robert
Benchley)

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 LINKERS

Contrast:

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 LINKERS

Cause and effect:

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 LINKERS

Sequence:

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 LINKERS

Similarity and emphasis:

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 LINKERS

Conclusion/summary:

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 LINKERS

In language, linkers are the words that connect one sentence or idea with another
Form
 clause + conjunction + clause
It was raining so I stayed at home.
 conjunction + clause + clause
Although it was raining, I went for a walk.
 preposition + noun (phrase) + clause
Despite the rain, I went for a walk.
 sentence + adverbial + sentence
It was a cold winter afternoon and the sky threatened rain. Nevertheless, we decided
to go for a walk.

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 USING LINKERS

Reasons and results

 It was raining. I stayed at home.
 It was raining, so I stayed at home.
 It was raining. Therefore, I stayed at home.

Contrast
 It was raining. I went for a walk.
 It was raining, but I went for a walk.
 Although it was raining, I went for a walk.
 It was raining. However, I went for a walk.

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 CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES

If it rains, I take an umbrella.

If it rains, I will take an umbrella.

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CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES

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 CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES

If I visited UK, I would see the Tower Bridge.

If I had gone to USA, I would have seen the Statue of Liberty.

Had I gone to France, I could have seen the Eifel Tower.

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 CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES

Had the BJP won Bengal, it would have been spun as validation of their nationwide Covid approach.

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 CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES

There are four types of conditional sentences.

 It’s important to use the correct structure for each of these different conditional sentences

because they express varying meanings.

 Pay attention to verb tense when using different conditional modes.

 Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause

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 CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES

There are four different types of conditional sentences in English. Each expresses a different

degree of probability that a situation will occur or would have occurred under certain

circumstances.

 Zero Conditional Sentences

 First Conditional Sentences

 Second Conditional Sentences

 Third Conditional Sentences

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 CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES
How to Use Zero Conditional Sentences

Zero conditional sentences express general truths—situations in which one thing always causes

another. When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking about a general truth rather than a

specific instance of something. Consider the following examples:

 If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities.

 When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers.

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 CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES

How to Use First Conditional Sentences

First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome is likely (but

not guaranteed) to happen in the future. Look at the examples below:

 If you rest, you will feel better.

 If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

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 CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES

How to Use Second Conditional Sentences

Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are completely

unrealistic or will not likely happen in the future. Consider the examples below:

 If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

 If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

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 CONDITIONAL STRUCTURES

How to Use Third Conditional Sentences

Third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances would be different

if something different had happened in the past. Look at the following examples:

 If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

 If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

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 RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses. The most common relative pronouns are who,

whom, whose, which, that. The relative pronoun we use depends on what we are referring to

and the type of relative clause.

 We don’t know the person who donated this money.

 We drove past my old school, which is celebrating its 100th anniversary this year.

 He went to the school (that) my father went to.

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 RELATIVE PRONOUNS

who, whom, whose, which, that

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 RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative pronouns: who

We use who in relative clauses to refer to people, and sometimes to pet animals. We use it to
introduce defining and non-defining relative clauses:

 I think there’d be a lot of children who’d love to have a climbing wall in school. (defining)

 That’s the dog who doesn’t like me. (defining; referring to a pet animal)

 There’s this guy at work, who’s one of my friends, well he’s never been on a train. (non-
defining)

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 RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns: whom

 The first book was a terrible historical novel for children which was turned down by every
publisher to whom it was sent. (whom refers to every publisher and is the complement of
the preposition to)

 Drama in schools is particularly good for pupils for whom English is a second language
Compare
More formal Less formal
There was only one person to whom the old
There was only one person who the old man spoke to.
man spoke.

She smiled as she remembered the quiet scholar with She smiled as she remembered the quiet
whom she had shared a love of books. scholar who she had shared a love of books with.

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 RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns: whom

The first book was a terrible historical novel for children which was turned down by every
publisher it was sent. (whom refers to every publisher and is the complement of the
preposition to) Drama in schools is particularly good for pupils English is a second language.

Relative pronoun: whose

 He’s marrying a girl whose family don’t seem to like him. (The family of the girl he’s
marrying don’t seem to like him.)
 There was me and there was Kate, whose party it was, and then there were two other
people. (It was Kate’s party.) It is a rambling Tudor house,
 It is a rambling Tudor house, whose sitting room looks out over a wonderful walled garden.
(The sitting room of the house looks out over …)

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 RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns: which

 You need to tick the box which says yes. (defining)

 He won’t have much time to prepare for the meeting, which is this afternoon. (non-defining)

 She had to get up and walk all the way to the other side of the room, which isn’t easy with
a bad back. (which refers to the whole sentence before it)

Relative Pronoun : That

 We met somebody last night that did the speech therapy course two years after you. (refers
to a person)
 The 8.30 is the train that you need to get. (refers to a thing)
 She blamed herself for everything that had happened.

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 RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative pronouns: typical errors
We can’t use that instead of who, whom or which in non-defining relative clauses:
 It gives me a good chance to improve my Italian, which has become a little bit rusty.
 Not: It gives me a good chance to improve my Italian, that has become a little bit rusty.

We don’t use what as a relative pronoun:

 So, he can make himself easily understood in the two languages, which helps a lot.
 Not: So, he can make himself easily understood in the two languages, what helps a lot.

We don’t use who for things:

 She’s written some great cookery books which have got pictures of delicious-looking recipes.
 Not: She’s written some great cookery books who have got pictures of delicious-looking
recipes.
 Take care to spell which correctly: not ‘wich’.

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 INTRODUCTORY ”IT”

Use

We can use it as an ’empty’ subject. This is a grammatical device to introduce or identify

something later in the phrase. It is followed by a definite noun phrase:

‘Who’s that?’ It’s Alan.’

 Hello, it’s Steve here. Could I speak to Jane?

‘What’s worrying you?’ It’s the children.

 It can refer to one or many things, but grammatically it is always singular:

Correct: It’s Alan and Margaret at the door

Incorrect: It are Alan and Margaret at the door.

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 INTRODUCTORY ”IT”

It’ll be cold in Edinburgh at this time of year.

Weather/Environment
It was damp and foggy in London that autumn

It is eight o’clock in the morning

Time/Date
Thank goodness it’s Friday today

It’s so quiet and peaceful here

Conditions/Situation
It was becoming increasingly dangerous

Distance It’s quiet a long way to the nearest town

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 INTRODUCTORY ”THERE”

Use
 If you’re looking for a café: there’s one opposite the station. (new information)
[Fifty-one states exist in the USA] There are fifty-one states in the USA.
[Three murders happen in the film.] There are three murders in the film.
[Is a bank situated near here?] Is there a bank near here?
 We often use there is/ are to introduce or describe a character or place, or to ‘set the
scene’ when telling a story or joke:
 At the top of the hill there’s a small café with wonderful views over the bay.
 There’s an Englishman, an Irishman and a Scotsman who go into a bar

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PRACTICES FOR WRITING

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India’s prime minister has suffered a rare political defeat in a key state
election, amid signs of a voter backlash over his handling of the coronavirus
disaster as the country reported a record number of deaths.
Narendra Modi had been expected to make significant gains on Sunday in
West Bengal, one of few states where his rightwing Bharatiya Janata party
(BJP) does not have a parliamentary majority. Instead, Mamata Banerjee, a
powerful regional politician and prominent Modi critic, won a third term as
chief minister.
Banerjee’s All India Trinamool Congress won a comfortable majority, clocking
up 216 seats in the 294-seat assembly. The BJP won 75 seats, up on its
performance in 2016 when it got just three but well short of predictions.
Modi made dozens of speeches on the campaign trail in West Bengal, together
with his home minister, Amit Shah, who visited as recently as last weekend.
Both have been accused of prioritising politics over their response to the
Covid-19 pandemic.
On Sunday, India’s new coronavirus cases fell slightly but there were a record
3,689 new deaths. Grim scenes continued to unfold, with people dying in
hospital corridors, on roads and in their homes. Car parks have been turned
into cremation grounds, while desperate families scramble to find medicines
and oxygen.
Authorities reported 392,488 new cases, with the total now at 19.56 million.
The virus has killed 215,542 people, according to official figures. The actual
death toll is estimated to be two to five times higher.
The UK said it would step up its help to the Indian government by providing a
further 1,000 ventilators for use in hospitals, although there was no sign it
planned to send more vaccines.
The election was the most drawn-out in Bengal’s history, conducted in eight
phases over a month. The election commission, in effect controlled by the
BJP, refused early requests from opposition parties to shrink the poll into a
shorter period and to make campaigning virtual. In the state capital, Kolkata,
the proportion of Covid test results that are positive has reached 50%,
according to some laboratories.
Despite warnings from scientists of a looming second wave in India, Modi
addressed large rallies in West Bengal throughout February and March. He
refused to wear a mask, and there was little sign of social distancing. His
decision to turn a blind eye to the rising infection rate was fuelled by an
apparent desperation to win the state. In recent weeks this took up all the
government’s attention.
Modi’s failure to seize Bengal can be seen in part as a response to his handling of the
pandemic. But voters also rejected the BJP’s divisive anti-Muslim politics in Bengal, which
was the main thrust of its campaign. It is testament, too, to the enduring popularity of
Banerjee, India’s only female chief minister, in power since 2011 and the target of repeated
Modi attacks.

“The BJP is not an unstoppable force. It can be defeated by a strong-rooted regional

leader,” the columnist Swati Chaturvedi wrote on Sunday. “The political pendulum is now
swinging away from the BJP. The awful central handling of the vicious second wave of Covid
and its tragic oxygen shortage will cost Modi.”
Vinay Sitapati, an assistant professor of political science at Ashoka University, said: “Had the
BJP won Bengal, it would have been spun as validation of their nationwide Covid approach.
We should not make the opposite mistake: the Bengal loss is because of a combination of
longstanding local factors.” He predicted regional leaders and an “eventual patchwork of
parties” – rather than a weakened Congress party – would now take on Modi nationally.

Votes were being counted in several other Indian states including Assam, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Puducherry. The BJP was on track to keep Assam. In Kerala the leftwing chief
minister, Pinarayi Vijayan, was re-elected, an unprecedented feat for an incumbent.

Most of the votes in the state elections were cast in March but polling in some
constituencies continued through April, just as India started detecting thousands of fresh
coronavirus infections every day. On Saturday, new cases reached a record daily high of
401,993.
The world’s leading climate scientists have warned there is only a dozen years for global
warming to be kept to a maximum of 1.5C, beyond which even half a degree will significantly
worsen the risks of drought, floods, extreme heat and poverty for hundreds of millions of
people.
The authors of the landmark report by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) released on Monday say urgent and unprecedented changes are needed to reach the
target, which they say is affordable and feasible although it lies at the most ambitious end of
the Paris agreement pledge to keep temperatures between 1.5C and 2C.
The half-degree difference could also prevent corals from being completely eradicated and
ease pressure on the Arctic, according to the 1.5C study, which was launched after approval
at a final plenary of all 195 countries in Incheon in South Korea that saw delegates hugging
one another, with some in tears.
Extreme weather events broke records across the world, from hurricanes and cyclones in
the US and India, heatwaves in Australia and the Arctic, floods in large parts of Africa and
Asia, and wildfires in the US.
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