Achieving U.S.

Safe Drinking Water Standards

Using Distillation Desalination
Tory L. Champlin, Jaime Banchs, Mike G. Sweet, and Ezra A. Barkai

D
istillation as a desalination technol- Water Standards and an Unregulated
ogy is not commonly used in the Contaminant List, neither of which are Tory L. Champion, Ph.D., P.E., is a sen-
United States for producing potable enforced but are provided as goals. ior water process engineer with the
drinking water. Reverse osmosis (RO), which Tampa office of Parsons, an engineering
uses thin film membranes, has been the pre- Desalination Plant Description consulting firm. Mike G. Sweet, P.E., is
ferred choice. Distillation has been labeled as Figure 1 shows a process diagram of vice president of business development
more expensive because of the perceived EcoEléctrica’s seawater desalination water- for Parsons. Jaime Banchs is operational
~
treatment plant. The plant includes: manager for EcoElectrica in Panuelas,
higher usage of energy associated with heat-
Puerto Rico. Ezra Barkai is vice presi-
ing water and higher capital costs. (1) Intake Structure dent of North American operations for
Today’s distillation technologies, which (2) Pretreatment/preconditioning Ambient Technologies in Plantation.
include Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) and (3) Multi-effect distillation (MED) units
Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC), can (4) Raw water storage tank
be cost-competitive, especially when they are (5) Remineralization system different chemicals may be added: a disinfec-
collocated with a power plant or resource- (6) Chlorine disinfection tant, a macrofouling inhibitor, a scale
recovery facility such as an incinerator or (7) Service/fire water storage tank inhibitor, and an anti-foam emulsion. A dis-
refinery, where a source of waste steam is avail- (8) Supply pumps infectant is added at the intake structure to
able. Thermal technologies can utilize this minimize the attachment and proliferation of
steam—which would otherwise be lost in the Intake Structure: Seawater is pumped to sulfate-reducing bacteria that cause pinhole
form of stack gases, cooling-water streams, or the desalination plant through an intake leaks in the stainless-steel supply lines. A
low-pressure exhaust steam—as a primary or structure located approximately 1,000 yards macrofouling inhibitor is also added to con-
supplemental source of heat for distillation. offshore, adjacent to an unloading pier for trol biological fouling. A scale inhibitor is
This is accomplished, in part, by the use of liquid natural gas. The intake structure is used to minimize the buildup of scale on the
thermo-compressors and vacuum ejectors. divided into three separate chambers, each heat-transfer tubes. An anti-foam emulsion is
The vacuum ejectors lower the effective tem- provided with a bar screen to remove debris added to reduce foaming in the flash cham-
perature needed to achieve boiling from 100º C and a submerged centrifugal pump. bers caused by high concentrations of certain
(212º F) at 1.0 absolute atmosphere to below Pretreatment/Preconditioning: The sea- marine organisms.
70º C (158º F) at 0.34 absolute atmosphere. water is first filtered through two course filters Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) Units:
The EcoEléctrica Power Plant, located to remove medium-to-large solid particles. It is Two distillation units manufactured by IDE
on Puerto Rico’s southern coast, is the first then passed through two ion traps to remove Technologies Ltd. of Ra’anana, Israel, are
facility of its type combining a 507-megawatt trace amounts of copper and heavy metals that used to distill the pretreated/preconditioned
power plant, a liquid natural-gas terminal, could corrode the aluminum tubes in the distil- seawater. Each unit is capable of producing 1
and a seawater distillation desalination facili- lation units. Inside each ion trap are low-grade million gallons of product water or distillate
ty—all financed in a single project. The aluminum rings that serve as a sacrificial source per day (1-mgd). The units utilize IDE’s low-
power plant consists of two gas-combustion for corrosion, preventing such corrosion from temperature, horizontal-tube, falling-film
turbines and one steam turbine. Each pro- occurring within the distillation units. MED process. Each unit consists of a heat-
duces waste steam, a byproduct that is used Depending on the water quality, four rejection condenser and four
by two 3,785 m3/day (1-mgd) MED units to
distill seawater from the Caribbean Sea, pro-
ducing cooling water for a nearby power SYSTEM
AT 8 ATA
EXHAUST GASES

plant and potable drinking water for EXTRACTION STEAM

EcoElectrica and the Puerto Rico Aqueduct LIQUID
NATURAL GAS
STEAM
Sewer Authority (PRASA) for distribution to RECYCLE VAPOR TURBINE
GEN
surrounding communities. P
HRSG
As a commonwealth of the United STEAM GAS TURBINE
@ 45 PSIG
States, Puerto Rico requires its drinking- THERMO-
M.E.D. COMPRESSOR
COARSE Al
water providers to meet all regulations as FILTERS TRAPS CONDENSATE
issued and enforced under the Safe Drinking Cl 2
FEED
Water Act (SDWA). Included in these regula- PRODUCT WATER SERVICE/ ECOELECTRICA
tions are the Primary Drinking Water STORAGE P P
FIRE
SEA P PRASA
Standards, which list limits referred to as WATER
STORAGE
P FIRE
PUMP
Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for COOLANT &
BRINE OUT
REMINERALIZATION
FILTERS
83 contaminants and specified treatment PREPA
P
techniques for nine other contaminants. The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
has also established Secondary Drinking Figure 1: Process diagram of EcoEléctrica’s seawater distillation desalination facility

28 • NOVEMBER 2002 • FLORIDA WATER RESOURCES JOURNAL

vaporization/condensation effects. and pumped into a 250,000-gallon raw-water injected to lower the pH of the distillate
The seawater is fed into the heat-rejec- storage tank. This water supplies the reminer- ahead of the limestone filters, enhancing the
tion condenser, where it adsorbs the heat alization system, backwash of the remineral- dissolution of the calcium carbonate. Caustic
rejected from the fourth effect while being ization system, and PREPA’s South Coast soda is then injected to neutralize the pH
de-aerated. The now-preheated seawater is Power Station. prior to chlorine disinfection with sodium
split into two streams: one discharging to the Distillate from the first effect is pumped hypochlorite.
sea with the brine discharge and the other out separately and discharged to a 100,000- Service/Fire Water Storage Tank: The
feeding the distillation unit. gallon condensate storage tank. This water is disinfected water is stored in a 400,000-gallon
Inside each effect are a series of spray noz- polished and stored in a 750,000-gallon dem- service/fire-water storage tank. A standpipe
zles that distribute the seawater over a bank of ineralized-water storage tank for use as boiler drain mounted within the tank is used to
heated tubes, vaporizing part of the flow into feed water for the power plant. draw off potable water from the top quarter
steam. This steam flows through a series of spe- Remineralization System: The distillate of the tank, or 100,000 gallons. This water is
cial demisters to the cooler condensing section is remineralized by passing it through two pumped to EcoEléctrica’s service-water and
of the next effect, where it is condensed into the limestone filters, adding dissolved calcium potable-water systems and PRASA. The
product water or distillate. carbonate into the water. Sulfuric acid is Continued on page 39
The remaining flow,
now slightly more concen- Table 1: Final Primary Drinking Water Contaminant Standards
trated, is pumped to the sec-
ond, third, and fourth Maximum Maximum SDWA
Reporting Contaminant Contaminant Compliance
effects, where the spray- Contaminant Units Effective Level Goal Level Sample (a) Compliant
vaporization procedure is (MCLG) (MCL) (yes/no)
repeated to produce addi- Fluoride Rule (b)
tional distillate. From the Fluoride mg/L Now 4.0 4.0 <0.050 yes
fourth effect (the hottest
Phase I Rule - Volatile Organics (c)
effect), however, the remain- Benzene mg/L Now Zero 0.005 <0.00050 yes
ing flow is discharged as a Carbon Tetrachloride mg/L Now Zero 0.005 <0.00050 yes
concentrated brine, which is p-dichlorobenzene mg/L Now 0.075 0.075 <0.00050 yes
1,2-dichloroethane mg/L Now Zero 0.005 <0.00050 yes
cascaded through a series of 1,1-dichloroethylene mg/L Now 0.007 0.007 <0.00050 yes
flashing tanks where it is Trichloroethylene mg/L Now Zero 0.005 <0.00050 yes
cooled before being re- 1,1,1-trichloroethane mg/L Now 0.2 0.2 <0.00050 yes
Vinyl chloride mg/L Now Zero 0.002 <0.00050 yes
turned to the sea. The col-
lected distillate is then dis- Phase II Rule – Inorganics (d)
charged and pumped to the Asbestos fibers (>10 µm) MFL (e) Now 7 7 <0.20 yes
Barium µg/L Now 2000 2000 <10 yes
post-treatment system. Cadmium µg/L Now 5 5 <1.0 yes
Because the MED units Chromium (total) µg/L Now 10 10 <5 yes
utilize a vacuum to enhance Mercury (inorganic) µg/L Now 2 2 <0.20 yes
Nitrate µg/L Now 10 10 0.11 yes
boiling, the temperature of Nitrite µg/L Now 2 2 <0.050 yes
distillate in each effect is Nitrate + Nitrite µg/L Now 10 10 0.11 yes
lower than would be expected Selenium µg/L Now 50 50 <2.0 yes

at atmospheric conditions. Phase II Rule – Organics (d, f)

Distillate water temperatures Acrylamide mg/L Now Zero TT (q) (g) NA
Alachlor mg/L Now Zero 0.002 <0.0010 yes
in each effect are reported as Aldicarb mg/L Delayed - - <0.0020 NA
57.7, 61.2, 64.7, and 67.7º C Aldicarb sulfone mg/L Delayed - - <0.0020 NA
(Email communications with Aldicarb sulfoxide mg/L Delayed - - <0.0020 NA
Atazine mg/L Remanded - - <0.0015 NA
Ben Yaish Jacky, IDE Carbofuran mg/L Now 0.04 0.04 <0.0020 yes
Technologies, 2000). Chlordane mg/L Now Zero 0.002 <0.000020 yes
The distillate remains Chlorobenzene mg/L Now 0.1 0.1 <0.00050 yes
2,4-D mg/L Now 0.07 0.07 <0.00011 yes
at these temperatures for o-Dichlorobenzene mg/L Now 0.6 0.6 <0.00050 yes
approximately two minutes cis-1,2-dichloroethylene mg/L Now 0.07 0.07 <0.00050 yes
before becoming mixed trans-1,2-dichloroethylene mg/L Now 0.1 0.1 <0.00050 yes
Dibromochloropropane mg/L Now Zero 0.0002 <0.000020 yes
with the distillates from the 1,2-dichloropropane mg/L Now Zero 0.005 <0.00050 yes
other effects. Since the flow Epichlorohydrin mg/L Now Zero TT (g,q) (g) NA
rates from each of the effects Ethylbenzene mg/L Now 0.7 0.7 <0.00060 yes
Ethylene dibromide mg/L Now Zero 0.00005 <0.000010 yes
are almost equal, an average Heptachlor mg/L Now Zero 0.0004 <0.000030 yes
temperature for the distil- Heptachlor epoxide mg/L Now Zero 0.0002 <0.000010 yes
late of 62.8º C can be Lindane mg/L Now 0.0002 0.0002 <0.000010 yes
Methoxychlor mg/L Now 0.04 0.04 <0.000070 yes
assumed (Email communi- Pentachlorophenol mg/L Now Zero 0.001 <0.000044 yes
cations with Ben Yaish Jacky, PCB 1016 mg/L Now - - <0.00010 NA
PCB 1221 mg/L Now - - <0.00010 NA
IDE Technologies, 2000).
PCB 1232 mg/L Now - - <0.00010 NA
Raw-Water Storage PCB 1242 mg/L Now - - <0.00010 NA
Tank: The distillate streams PCB 1248 mg/L Now - - <0.00010 NA
PCB 1254 mg/L Now - - <0.00010 NA
from the second, third, and PCB 1260 mg/L Now - - <0.00010 NA
fourth effects are combined PCB Total mg/L Now Zero 0.0005 <0.00010 yes

FLORIDA WATER RESOURCES JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 2002 • 29

Distillation nants detected. All were below current MCLs.
Measured seven-day (168-hour) tri-
ferent stages through the facility. Results
showed reductions in TOC concentrations
Continued from page 29 halomethane and haloacetic acid formation from 4.0 mg/L measured in the seawater to
remaining 300,000 gallons are used for fire potentials of 0.0045 and 0.0067 mg/L, respec- 1.2 mg/L after pretreatment/preconditioning
protection at EcoEléctrica. tively, were an order of magnitude less than to < 1.0 mg/L after distillation.
the MCLs required by Stage 1 of the D/DBP
Governing Standards Rule of 0.080 and 0.060 mg/L, respectively. Compliance with
To be certified for distribution of potable Because of matrix interferences with Treatment Techniques
water in Puerto Rico requires compliance seawater, influent concentrations could not Treatment techniques are listed for con-
with the SDWA’s Primary Drinking Water be measured for the contaminants, making it taminants that can not be economically or
Standards and standards imposed by Puerto impossible to assess removals by distillation. feasibly measured. These include most of the
Rico’s Department of Health. Table 1 lists the Although not listed, total organic carbon microbiological contaminants such as viruses
regulated contaminants, their maximum con- (TOC) concentrations were measured at dif- Continued on page 40
taminant level goals
(MCLGs) and maximum Table 1: Final Primary Drinking Water Contaminant Standards (continued)
contaminant levels (MCLs),
Maximum Maximum SDWA
and their reporting units. In Reporting Contaminant Contaminant Compliance
addition, all chemicals Contaminant Units Effective Level Goal Level Sample (a) Compliant
(MCLG) (MCL) (yes/no)
added must be certified by
the American National Phase II Rule - Organics con’t. (d, f)
Standards Institute/National Styrene mg/L Now 0.1 0.1 <0.00050 yes
Tetrachloroethylene mg/L Now Zero 0.005 <0.00050 yes
Sanitation Foundation In- Toluene mg/L Now 1 1 0.0011 yes
ternational (ANSI/NSF) Toxaphene mg/L Now Zero 0.003 <0.00018 yes
Standard 60 for potable 2,4,5-TP mg/L Now 0.05 0.05 <0.00022 yes
Xylenes mg/L Now 10 10 0.00093 yes
water use as required by the
Puerto Rico’s Department of Phase V Rule – Inorganics (h)
Health. Antimony µg/L Now 6 6 <3.0 yes
Beryllium µg/L Now 4 4 <1.0 yes
Cyanide mg/L Now 0.2 0.2 <0.0050 yes
Compliance with Nickel µg/L Remanded - - <10 NA
Thallium µg/L Now 0.5 2 <1.0 yes
Maximum
Contaminant Levels Phase V Rule – Organics (h)
Adipate (di(2-ethylhexyl) mg/L Now 0.4 0.4 <0.0016 yes
Results from one Dalapon mg/L Now 0.2 0.2 <0.0011 yes
SDWA sample collected Dichloromethane mg/L Now Zero 0.005 <0.00050 yes
after the service/fire-water Dinoseb mg/L Now 0.007 0.007 <0.00022 yes
Diquat mg/L Now 0.02 0.02 <0.00040 yes
storage tank, along with an Dioxin mg/L Now Zero 30 <1.5855 yes
indication of compliance Endothall mg/L Now 0.1 0.1 <0.0090 yes
with the primary standards Endrin mg/L Now 0.002 0.002 <0.000020 yes
Glyphosate mg/L Now 0.7 0.7 <0.0060 yes
(i.e., yes/no), are listed in Hexachlorobenzene mg/L Now Zero 0.001 <0.00010 yes
the last two columns of Hexachlorocycle-pentadiene mg/L Now 0.05 0.05 <0.00010 yes
Table 1. For the disinfection Oxamyl (vydate) mg/L Now 0.2 0.2 <0.002 yes
PAHs (benzo(a)-pyrene) mg/L Now Zero 0.0002 <0.00010 yes
byproducts listed under Phthalate (di(2-ethlhexyl) mg/L Now Zero 0.006 <0.0020 yes
Stage 1 of the Disinfectant/ Picloram mg/L Now 0.5 0.5 <0.00011 yes
Disinfection Byproduct Simazine mg/L Now 0.004 0.004 <0.0015 yes
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene mg/L Now 0.07 0.07 <0.00050 yes
(D/DBP) Rule, seven-day 1,1,2-Trichloroethane mg/L Now 0.003 0.005 <0.00050 yes
(168-hour) formation po-
Lead and Copper Rule (i)
tentials with chlorine were
Lead µg/L Now Zero TT (j,q) <1.0 yes
performed in the laboratory Copper µg/L Now 1,300 TT (k,q) <10 yes
to ascertain their potential
Standards for Radionuclides (l)
concentrations in the distri- Beta/photon emitters pCi/L Now Zero 50 <1.0+/-0.5 yes
bution system. Alpha emitters pCi/L Now Zero 15 <0.8+/-0.4 yes
Based on results, the Radium 226 pCi/L Now Zero 20 <0.3+/-0.2 yes
Radium 228 pCi/L Now Zero 20 <0.9+/-0.6 yes
distillation desalination Uranium µg/L Now Zero 30 No data No data
plant complied with all stan-
dards listed with an estab- Standards for Arsenic (m)
Arsenic mg/L Now - 0.01 <0.0050 yes
lished MCL as currently reg-
ulated. For most of the con- Stage 1 Disinfectant/Disinfection By-Product (D/DBP) Rule (n)
taminants, analyses indicate Bromate ion mg/L Now Zero 0.01 < 0.005 yes
Chlorite ion mg/L Now 0.8 1.0 <0.010 yes
levels that are below detec-
tion limits. Only for a few, Total trihalomethanes
such as nitrate, ethylben- Chloroform mg/L Now 0.0013 (o) NA
Bromoform mg/L Now Zero <0.00050 (o) NA
zene, toluene, xylenes, and Bromodichloromethane mg/L Now Zero 0.0020 (o) NA
trihalomethanes, and halo- Dibromochloromethane mg/L Now 0.06 0.0012 (o) yes
acetic acids, were contami- Total mg/L Now Zero 0.080 0.0045 (o) yes

FLORIDA WATER RESOURCES JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 2002 • 39

Continued from page 39
Table 1: Final Primary Drinking Water Contaminant Standards (concluded)
and protozoan cysts.
Treatment techniques are Maximum Maximum SDWA
also required in cases where Reporting Contaminant Contaminant Compliance
the analytical method is Contaminant Units Effective Level Goal Level Sample (a) Compliant
(MCLG) (MCL) (yes/no)
either not available or not
reliable for a particular con- Stage 1 Disinfectant/Disinfection By-Product (D/DBP) Rule continued (n)
taminant. Haloacetic Acids
Monochloroacetic acid mg/L Now Zero <0.002 (o) NA
The Surface Water Dichloroacetic acid mg/L Now Zero 0.0032 (o) NA
Treatment Rule (SWTR), Trichloroacetic acid mg/L Now 0.03 0.0016 (o) Yes
Interim Enhanced Surface Monobromoacetic acid mg/L Now Zero <0.001 (o) NA
Dibromoacetic acid mg/L Now Zero 0.0019 (o) NA
Water Treatment Rule Total mg/L Now Zero 0.060 0.0067 (o) Yes
(IESWTR), and Long-Term
Disinfectants
1 Enhanced Surface Water
Chlorine mg/L Cl2 Now 4 4 No data No data
Treatment Rule (LT1ESWTR) Chloramines mg/L Cl2 Now 4 4 < 0.50 No data
were developed to reduce Chlorine Dioxide mg/L ClO2 Now 0.3 0.8 No data No data
pathogenic contaminants in Total Coliform Rule (p)
drinking water. The SWTR Escherichia coli NA Now Zero NA (q)
requires systems using sur- Fecal coliforms NA Now Zero TT (r) NA (q)
Total coliforms NA Now Zero (s) NA (q)
face water to disinfect and NA
physically remove and/or Surface Water Treatment Rule (t)
inactivate 3-logs (99.9 per- Giardia lamblia NA Now Zero TT (q) NA (q)
Heterotrophic bacteria Colony/mL Now Zero < 500 NA (q)
cent) of Giardia and 4-logs Legionella NA Now Zero TT (q) NA (q)
(99.99 percent) of viruses. Viruses NA Now Zero TT (q) NA (\q)
The IESWTR expanded on Turbidity NA Now Zero PS (u) No Data No Data
the SWTR by requiring sys- Interim and Long Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (u)
tems to physically remove 2- Cryptosporidium NA Now Zero TT (r) NA (w)
logs (99 percent) of cryp- Profiling and Benchmarking NA Now NA NA NA (x)
Turbidity NA Now Zero PS (u) No Data No Data
tosporidium and included
groundwater systems that (a) Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Compliance Sample.
are determined to be under (b) USEPA. “National Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Regulations; Fluoride.” Federal Register, 51, 1986: 11396-
the direct influence of sur- 11412.
face-water contamination. (c) USEPA. “National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Synthetic Organic Chemicals; Monitoring for Unregulated
Contaminants.” Federal Register, 52, 1987: 25690-2517.
Relevant to distillation (d) USEPA. “Draft Drinking Water Health Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles, Chloropicrin, and Cyanogen Chloride”.
is the requirement to Washington D.C.: Criteria and Standards Divisions, Office of Drinking Water, 1991.
demonstrate by pilot studies (e) Million of fibers per liter.
(f) USEPA. “National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Synthetic Organic chemicals.” Federal Register, 56, 1991:
or other means that an alter-
30266-30281.
native filtration technology (g) An approved analysis method has not been determined or published.
in combination with disin- (h) USEPA “National Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Regulations; Synthetic Organic Chemicals and Inorganic
fection can consistently Chemicals; National Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Regulations Implementation.” Federal Register, 57, 1992:
31776-31849.
achieve these stated removals (i) USEPA. “Maximum Contaminant Level Goals and National Primary Drinking Water Regulations for Lead and Cooper.”
and/or inactivation limits. Federal Register, 56, 1991, 26460-26564.
The LT1ESWTR expands on (j) Action level = 0.015 mg/L.
the IESWTR by requiring (k) Action level = 1.3 mg/L.
(l) USEPA. “National Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Regulations; Radionuclides: Final Rule.” Federal Register,
systems serving less than 65, No. 236, 2000: 76708-76753.
10,000 people to comply. (m) USEPA. “National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Arsenic and Clarifications to Compliance and New Source
Distillation can remove Contaminants Monitoring; Final Rule.” Federal Register. January 22, 2001, Volume 66, Number 14.
(n) USEPA. “Microbial and Disinfection Byproduct Rules Simultaneous Compliance Guidance Manual.” EPA 815-R-99-
microbial contaminants by 011. Office of Water (4607). August 1999.
both physical removal and (o) Formation potentials measured after reacting with chlorine for 168 hours.
heat sterilization inactiva- (p) USEPA. “National Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Regulations; Fluoride.” Federal Register, 51, 1989: 22062-
tion. Physical removal occurs 22160.
(q) Compliance discussed later.
as a result of the water being (r) Treatment Technique (TT) required to achieve compliance with regulation.
evaporated in one chamber (s) No more than 5 percent of the samples per month may be positive. For systems collecting fewer than 40 samples per
and condensed in another. month, no more than one sample per month may be positive. Every sample that has total coliforms must be analyzed
for fecal coliforms. There can not be any fecal coliforms.
This change in state from a
(t) USEPA. “Drinking Water: National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Filtration, Disinfection; Turbidity, Giardia lam-
liquid to a vapor and back to blia, Viruses, Legionella and Heterotrophic Bacteria.” Federal Register, 54, 1989: 22062-22160.
a liquid creates a physical (u) Performance standards.
barrier preventing microbial (v) USEPA. “Microbial and Disinfection Byproduct Rules Simultaneous Compliance Guidance Manual.” EPA 815-R-99-
011. Office of Water (4607). August 1999.
contaminants from trans- (w) USEPA. “National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule; Final
mitting from the feed water Rule.” Federal Register, 63, 1998: 69478-69521.
to the distillate. Rose, et al (x) Systems are required to develop a disinfection profile for Giardia if their distribution system running annual average
(1999), demonstrated using for either total trihalomethane or five haloacetic acid concentrations is greater or equal to 0.064 mg/L and 0.048 mg/L,
respectively. USEPA. “Disinfection Profiling and Benchmarking Guidance Manual.” EPA 815-R-99-013. Office of Water
a three-stage, multi-effect (4607). August 1999.

40 • NOVEMBER 2002 • FLORIDA WATER RESOURCES JOURNAL

distillation pilot plant, 5-log Table 2: Secondary Drinking Water Contaminant Standards
(99.999 percent) removal of
spiked fluorescent beads, similar Maximum SDWA
in size to cryptosporidium. Reporting Contaminant Compliance
Heat sterilization, similar Contaminant Units Effective Level Goal Sample Compliant
to disinfection, inactivates (MCLG) (yes/no)
microbial contaminants, mak-
ing them non-viable. Spiking
Aluminum µg/L Now 5-200 <100 yes
with live bacteria and viruses in
the same pilot plant, Rose, et al Chloride mg/L Now 250 3.2 yes
(1999), further demonstrated Color CU Now 15 <5.0 yes
2.3-logs (99.5 percent) and 5- Copper µg/L Now 1,000 <10 yes
logs (99.999 percent) physical Corrosivity NA Now Non-corrosive Slightly no
removal/heat sterilization inac- corrosive
tivation, respectively. In a Fluoride mg/L Now 2 <0.050 yes
review of microbial contami- Foaming Agents mg/L Now 0.5 <0.10 yes
nants in foods, Rose and Slifko
Iron µg/L Now 300 <40 yes
(1999) report work by Fayer
showing greater than 3-log Manganese µg/L Now 50 <5.0 yes
(99.9 percent) inactivation by Odor TON Now 3 <1.0 yes
heat sterilization for cryp- PH S.U. Now 6.8-8.5 7.83 yes
tosporidium in distilled water Silver µg/L Now 100 <10 yes
held at a temperature of 60º C Sulfate mg/L Now 250 65 yes
for a period of one minute. For Total dissolved solids mg/L Now 500 180 yes
the average temperature of Zinc µg/L Now 5,000 <20 yes
62.8º C and average time of two
minutes reported for the four- drinking water and are not enforced by the References
stage MED units, greater than 3.0-log (99.9 EPA or the Puerto Rico Department of
• AWWA (1999). Water Quality & Treatment, A
percent) inactivation by heat sterilization Health; they are intended as guidelines. Based
handbook of Community Water Supplies, Fifth
would also be expected. on the one sample collected, the finished- Edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, New York.
Based on these reports, it is apparent the water quality is well below the SMCLs and, in
• Electronic mail communications with Ben Yaish
combination of physical removal and heat most cases, below detection limits (as indicat-
Jacky, IDE Technologies, (October 19, 2000)
sterilization inactivation provided by the ed by “<”). The water was slightly corrosive, as
regarding the temperature profile of the distillate
four-stage MED units far exceed the 2-log indicated by negative Langlier and Saturation
in EcoEléctrica’s four-stage, multi-effect unit.
removal (> 99 percent) of cryptosporidium Indices of –0.21 and –0.21, respectively.
• Federal Register (1998). National Primary
required by the IESWTR and LT1ESWTR. Neutral to slightly positive values are more Drinking Water Regulations: Interim Enhanced
For giardia and viruses, the disinfection con- desirable to minimize copper and lead corro-
Surface Water Treatment Rule, Final Rule.
tact time provided by the service/fire-water sion in downstream piping. More calcium
Federal Register/Vol. 63, No. 241/Wednesday,
storage tank is more than adequate to achieve carbonate can be added by the remineraliza-
December 16, 1998/Rules and Regulations. p.
3-log and 4-log inactivation with chlorine, tion filters to make the water less corrosive.
69478.
respectively, without any need for physical
• Pontius, F.W. (2000). “Regulations in 2000 and
removal based on EPA criteria (EPA, 1999). Conclusions Beyond.” Journal of the American Water Works
Although, as described, distillation has been EcoEléctrica’s distillation desalination Association, Vol. 92, No. 3, March 2000, p. 40-54.
demonstrated to provide over 5-logs physical facility is capable of providing potable water
• EPA (1998). “Small System Compliance
removal/heat sterilization inactivation for that complies with the SDWA regulations.
Technology List for the Surface Water Treatment
both giardia and viruses (Rose et al, 1999), The two four-stage MED units are capable of
Rule and Total Coliform Rule. EPA 815-R-98-
combined with the inactivation provided by producing exceptionally high-quality water
001. Office of Water. September 1998.
chlorine disinfection, total log removals as that is below detection limits for most of the
• EPA (1999). “Disinfection Profiling and
high as 9-logs (99.9999999 percent) for giar- contaminants listed. Those few contaminants
Benchmarking Guidance Manual.” EPA 815-R-
dia and viruses are possible. detected were below current regulated levels. 99-013. Office of Water. August 1999.
Of particular interest was the effectiveness in • White, G.C. (1999). Handbook of Chlorination
Compliance with reducing natural organic matter (NOM), the and Alternative Disinfectants, Fourth Edition.
Secondary Standards precursor in the formation of disinfection John Wiley & Sons. New York, New York.
Secondary Drinking Water Contaminant byproducts. Samples taken at different stages • Rose, J., P. Hauch, D. Friedman, and T.
Standards pertain to those contaminants such through the facility showed removals from Whalen (1999). “The Boiling Effect: Innovation
as taste, odor, and color that may adversely 4.0 mg/L in the seawater to 1.2 mg/L after for Achieving Sustainable Clean Water.” Water
affect the aesthetic quality of the drinking pretreatment and < 1.0 mg/L as TOC after 21, Magazine of the International Water
water. Table 2 lists the Secondary Maximum distillation. Consequently, disinfection Association. September-October, 1999,
Contaminant Levels (SMCLs), reporting byproduct formation potentials, both • Rose, J.B. and T.R. Slifko (1999). “Giardia,
units, and results from the Safe Drinking THMFPs and HAAFPs, which were also Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and Their
Water Compliance Sample, along with an measured after seven days reacting with chlo- Impact on Foods: A Review”. Journal of Food
indication of compliance (i.e., yes/no). rine, were 0.0045 and 0.0067 mg/L respec- Preparation, Vol. 62, No. 9, 1999. p. 1059-
SMCLs represent reasonable goals for tively, below Stage 1 D/DBP limits. 1070.

FLORIDA WATER RESOURCES JOURNAL • NOVEMBER 2002 • 41