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ECE 321

Electronic Circuits 1

3 Credits

Observe a man that failed in life, he must have failed in in his mind.

INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS

2 • Materials can be classified as conductor, semiconductors and insulators.

• The classification depends on the resistivity of the material.
Good conductor has resistivity in the order of 10-7 to 10 -8 Ωm.
Semiconductors have resistivity in the order of 10-3 to 103 Ωm.
The resistivity of insulators are in the order of 104 to 1014Ωm.

• Semiconductors have an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a very
narrow energy gap separating the two bands.

• When their temperature increases to a certain level; some electrons are liberated into the
conduction band from the valence band. The liberated electron leaves behind positive holes in
the valence band, hence, the total current is the sum of the electron and hole current.
To detect what is false, study the truth
.

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SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
3 There are numerous different mixtures of elements that work as semiconductors. The
common materials are silicon , germanium, gallium and arsenic, selenium, cadmium
compounds, indium compounds, and various metal oxides.

If education is expensive, try ignorance

4 • Silicon
Silicon (Si) is widely used in diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. Generally, other
substances, or impurities, must be added to silicon to give it the desired properties.

• Germanium
Pure germanium is a poor electrical conductor. It becomes a semiconductor when impurities
are added. Germanium is easily destroyed by heat. Extreme care must be used when
soldering the leads of a germanium component.

• Gallium arsenide (acronym – GaAs)

Gallium arsenide works better than silicon in several ways. It needs less voltage, and will
function at higher frequencies because the charge carriers move faster. It is relatively
immune to the effects of ionizing radiation such as X rays and gamma rays.

GaAs is used in light-emitting diodes, infrared-emitting diodes, laser diodes, visible-light

and infrared detectors, ultra-high-frequency amplifying devices. The primary
disadvantage is that it is more expensive to produce than silicon.

If education is expensive, try ignorance

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5
• Selenium
Selenium has resistance that varies depending on the intensity of light that falls on it. All
semiconductor materials exhibit this property known as photoconductivity to a greater or lesser
degree, but selenium is especially affected. For this reason, selenium is useful for making
photocells. The main advantage of selenium over silicon is that selenium can withstand brief
transients, or surges of abnormally high voltage.

• Metal oxides
Metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) and complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
devices have properties that make them useful in the manufacture of semiconductor devices.
One advantage of MOS and CMOS devices is that they need very little power to function.
Another advantage is high speed. This allows operation at high frequencies, and makes it
possible to perform many calculations per second. In integrated circuits, MOS and CMOS
allows for a large number of discrete diodes and transistors on a single chip (high component
density). The biggest problem with MOS and CMOS is that the devices are easily damaged by
static electricity.

No gut, no trophies

DOPING
6
Doping is the addition of impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor in a controlled
manner so as to improve its conductivity. Hence, for a semiconductor material to
have the properties needed to work in electronic components, impurities are usually
added. The impurities cause the material to conduct currents in certain ways. The
impurity is called a dopant.

A word from the wise is enough for the wise

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7 • Donor impurities

When an impurity contains an excess of electrons, the dopant is called a donor

impurity. Adding such a substance causes conduction mainly by means of electron
flow, as in a metal like copper. The excess electrons are passed from atom to atom
when a voltage exists across the material. Elements that serve as donor impurities
include antimony, arsenic, bismuth, and phosphorus. A material with a donor impurity
is called an N type semiconductor, because electrons have negative charge.

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8
• Acceptor impurities

If an impurity has a deficiency of electrons, the dopant is called an acceptor

impurity. When a substance such as aluminum, boron, gallium, or indium is
added to a semiconductor, the material conducts by means of hole flow (a
missing electron). A material with an acceptor impurity is called a P-type
semiconductor, because holes have positive charge.

A hero does not earn that name from birth

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9 MAJORITY AND MINORITY CHARGE CARRIERS

True and lasting success requires the combination of practice, patience and perseverance

ELECTRON FLOW AND HOLE FLOW

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(a) Electron flow

(b) Hole Flow

A word of courage during struggle is more than a song of praises during success

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11 • Some of The different types of solid state devices are :

1. Semiconductor Diode Zener diode, Tunnel diode, Light emitting diode;
Varactor Diode
2. SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier
3. Transistor ( BJT) : PNp, NPN
4. FET : Field Effect Transistors
5. MOSFET : Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors
5. UJT : Unijunction Transistor
6. Pltoto Transistors :
7. IMPATT : Impact Ionisation Avalanche Transit Time Device
8. TRAPATT: Trapped Plasma Avalanche Transit Time Device
9. BARRITT: Barrier Injected Avalanche Transit Time Device

The academic height which other attain were not reach on a platter of gold and silver but on much labour and countless sleepless night

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12
Advantages of Semiconductor Devices
1. Smaller in size.
2. Requires no cathode heating power (warm up time compared to Vacuum Tubes).
3. They operate on low DC power.
4. They have long life. (Tubes will pop up frequently).

Disadvantages
1. Frequency range of operation is low.
2. Smaller power output.
3. Low permissible ambient temperature.
4. Noise is more ( because of recombination between holes and electrons ).

Ambition in life requires effort and hard work

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13 THE pn JUNCTION (the semiconductor diode)

RECALL:
• Doping is a standard practice for a number of reasons. Among these are the ability to control
the concentration of charge carriers, and the increase in the conductivity of the material that
results from doping.

• Semiconductors doped with donor elements (penta-valent element) conduct current

predominantly by means of free electrons and are therefore called n-type semiconductors.
When an acceptor element (tri-valent element) is used as the dopant, holes constitute the most
common carrier, and the resulting semiconductor is said to be a p-type semiconductor.

• Majority carrier and minority carriers

Free electrons are the majority carriers in an n-type material, while holes are the
minority carriers.

In a p-type material, the majority career is the hole while the minority carrier is the
electron.
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• When a p type semiconductor is suitably joined to an n type semiconductor, the contact
surface is called pn junction. Most semiconductor devices contain one or e more pn
junction.

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-
+
+ - - + -- -
+ + + -
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- p
+ - + + -
+ - - +
+ - + - n
+-
+ - +
+ + +-
+ - -

- - - - + + + +
+ + + - - -
- - p - - + + + +
+ + + - n
- + - -
- - -
- + + +
+ + + + - -
Depletion
- region

- +

p - + n anode cathode

- +
- +
V0
Cd Life when you think it is over, that’s where it clicks

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• Once the pn junction is formed and the depletion layer is created, the diffusion stops

• The positive and negative side set up an electric field

• There exist a barrier potential V0

• V0 depends on factors like the type of the material, amount of doping and temperature

• For silicon, V0 = 0.7 V

• For germanium V0 = 0.3 V

• Notice that the depletion region resemble the dielectric of a capacitor. In fact the reverse
bias pn junction is really a capacitor. Hence the pn junction has junction capacitance.

Two things determine where you will be tomorrow, the books you read and your network of relationship

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I-V Characteristic of Semiconductor Diode

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Reverse Characteristics
Boltzmann’s Diode Equation

iD= Id − I0 = I0(eqVD/nkT − 1)

Where vD is the voltage across the pn junction,

q = 1.60219 X 10-19

k=1.381×10−23J/K is Boltzmann’s constant,

q = the charge of one electron,

Forward Characteristics
T = the temperature of the material in kelvins (K).

n = 1 for Gem and 2 for Si

At room temperature T = 300 oK

The quantity kT/q is constant at a given temperature and is

approximately equal to 25 mV at room temperature.

A person who does not enjoy his work cannot enjoy his life

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18 BREAK DOWN MECHANISM

There are three types of breakdown mechanisms in semiconductor devices.

1. Avalanche Breakdown 2. Zener Breakdown 3. Thermal Breakdown

• Avalanche breakdown

When there is no bias applied to the diode, there are certain number of thermally generated
carriers. When bias is applied, electrons and holes acquire sufficient energy from the applied
potential to produce new carriers by removing valence electrons from their bonds. These
thermally generated carriers acquire additional energy from the applied bias. They strike the
lattice and impart some energy to the valence electrons. So the valence electrons will break
away from their parent atom and become free carriers. These newly generated additional carriers
acquire more energy from the potential (since bias is applied). So they again strike the lattice
and create more number of free electrons and holes. This process goes on as long as bias is
increased and the number of free carriers gets multiplied. This is known as avalanche
multiplication, Since the number of carriers is large, the current flowing through the diode which
is proportional to free carriers also increases and when this current is large, avalanche
breakdown will occur.
When the going gets too easy, you may be going downhill

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• Zener breakdown

Now if the electric field is very strong to disrupt or break the covalent bonds, there will
be sudden increase in the number of free carriers and hence large current and
consequent breakdown. Even if thermally generated carriers do not have sufficient
energy to break the covalent bonds, the electric field is very high, then covalent
bonds are directly broken. This is Zener Breakdown. A junction having narrow
depletion layer and hence high field intensity will have zener breakdown effect. (==
106 V/m). If the doping concentration is high, the depletion region is narrow and will
have high field intensity, to cause Zener breakdown.

• Thermal breakdown

If a diode is biased and the bias voltage is well within the breakdown voltage at
room temperature, there will be certain amount of current which is less than the
breakdown current. Now keeping the bias voltage as it is, if the temperature is
increased, due to the thermal energy, more number of carriers will be produced
and finally breakdown will occur. This is Thermal Breakdown.

Luck frequently visit the prepared man

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• In zener breakdown, the covalent bonds are ruptured. But the covalent bonds of all the atoms
will not be ruptured. Only those atoms, which have weak covalent bonds such as an atom at
the surface which is not surrounded on all sides by atoms will be broken. But if the field
strength is not greater than the critical field, when the applied voltage is removed, normal
covalent bond structure will be more or less restored.

• This is Avalanche Breakdown. But if the field strength is very high, so that the covalent bonds
of all the atoms are broken, then normal structure will not be achieved, and there will be large
number of free electrons. This is Zener Breakdown.

Strength, when applied in excess becomes weakness

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I-V Characteristic of Semiconductor Diode

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22 Limitation of the operating conditions of pn junction

• Maximum forward current

• Peak inverse voltage

• Maximum power rating

I will rather lose in a cause that I know someday will triumph that to succeed in a cause that I know someday will fail

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MODULE 2

23 TRANSISTOR

• A transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that can perform two

functions that are fundamental to the design of electronic circuits: amplification
and switching.

• amplification consists of magnifying a signal by transferring energy to it from an

external source;

• whereas a transistor switch is a device for controlling a relatively large current

between or voltage across two terminals by means of a small control current or
voltage applied at a third terminal

• There are two types of transistor:

(a) bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
(b) field-effect transistors (FET)

There is always a triumph for those who refuse to falter

23

24 History

• Before transistors were invented, circuits used vacuum tubes:

Fragile, large in size, heavy, generate large quantities of heat, require a large amount of
power.

• The first transistors were created at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1947 William
Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain created the transistors in and effort to
develop a technology that would overcome the problems of tubes.

• The first patents for the principle of a field effect transistor were registered in 1928 by
Julius Lillenfield.

• Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain had referenced this material in their work.

• Today an advanced microprossesor can have as many as 1.7 billion transistors.

Where there is a will, there is a way

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25 • The device in which conduction takes place due to two types of carriers, electrons and holes
is called a Bipolar Device.

• As p-n junctions exist in the construction of the device, it is a junction device.

• When there is transfer of resistance from input side which is Forward Biased ( low
resistance) to output side which is Reverse Biased ( high resistance ), it is a Trans Resistor
or Transistor Device.

• A BJT is formed by joining three sections of semiconductor material, each with a different
doping concentration.

• The three sections can be either a thin n region sandwiched between p+ and players, or a p
region between n and n+ layers, where the superscript “plus” indicates more heavily doped
material. The resulting BJTs are called pnp and npn transistors, respectively.

• Thus, there are two types of BJT namely the the pnp and the npn.

It takes only a moment to be kind, but the result last for ever

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• Emitter: It is more heavily doped to supply majority charge carriers (either electron or hole)

• Base: It is lightly doped as compared to emitter and collector. It is always constructed to be

very thin, sandwiched between the emitter and the collector.

• Collector: Its function is to collect majority carrier passing through the emitter, through the
base to the collector.

• If the arrow mark is towards the base, it is PNP transistor. If it is away then it is NPN
transistor. The arrow mark on the emitter specifies the direction of current when the emitter
base junction is forward biased.
Dishonest money dwindles away buy he who gather money little by little make it grow

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27 Physical Diagram of Transistor

I will rather wear out that to rust out

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28 Operation of The npn BJT

The BE junction acts very much as an When the BC junction is reverse biased, the
ordinary diode when the collector is open. In electrons from the emitter region are swept
this case, IB= IE across the base into the collector
No matter how strong your physical strength is, if your inner man is discouraged, you are gone

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• Consider what happens when a positive voltage is applied to the base (with
respect to the emitter)

• this forward biases the base-emitter junction

• the base region is light doped and very thin

• because it is likely doped, the current produced is mainly electrons flowing

from the emitter to the base

• because the base region is thin, most of the electrons entering the base get
swept across the base-collector junction into the collector

• this produces a collector current that is much larger than the base current –
this gives current amplification

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30 Potential Distributions Through a Transistor

• Biasing is the application of correct voltage and current to the transistor for normal
operation.

• A transistor can be forward bias or reversed bias.

a. When a transistor is forward bias:

-EB junction is forward bias while -CB junction is reverse bias

A traveler whose exclusive aim is to arrive his destination in the shortest possible time is in a danger of missing the joy of his journey

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31

DC Emitter Current is represented as IE Base Current as IB and Collector Current

as IC These currents are assumed to be positive when the currents flow into the
transistor.
b. When a transistor is reversed bias, both junctions are reversed bias.
Procrastination is not only the thief of time, it is also the grave in which opportunities are buried

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32 Biasing Rule

• PNP : Base and collector are negative with respect to the emitter
• NPN: Base and collector ere positive with respect to the emitter

Note that the subscript is written based on the potential that is more positive;
PNP (VEB, VBC) and NPN (VBE, VCB)
I’m convinced that the only thing that kept me going was that I loved what I did. You got to find what you love.

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TRANSISTOR CURRENT
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a. PNP

Applying KCL

IE – IB –IC = 0

Hence

IE = IB + IC

b. NPN NPN
100% 98% Applying KCL

- IE + IB + IC = 0

2%
Hence

IE = IB + IC

Don’t be trapped by is living with the result of other people’s thinking

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Types of Transistor Configurations

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Transistors ( BJTs ) are operated in three configuration namely,

1. Common Base Configuration (CB)

2. Common Emitter Configuration (CE)
3. Common Collector Configuration (CC)

• The word common is used to denote the electrode that is common to the
input and the output. Usually the common electrode is grounded, so the
configuration can be called grounded base, grounded emitter and
grounded collector configuration.

Input Transistor Output

Common
Man’s happiness depends on the goodness and badness of his soul. Socrates

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35

1. Common Base Configuration (CB)

2. Common Emitter Configuration (CE)

3. Common Collector Configuration (CC) Man is born free and everywhere he is in chain. J. J. Rousseau

35

36 COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION (CB)

The base is at ground potential, so this is known as Common Base

Configuration or Grounded Base Configuration. Emitter and Collector
Voltages are measured with respect to the base. The convention is currents,
entering the transistor are taken as positive and those leaving the transistor as
negative.

i /p o/p i/p o/p

Everyone loves those who recognize them as an individual

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37
• The ratio of the o/p current to the i/p current is called the
Current Amplification Factor ∝. It is also defined as the
forward current transfer ratio hFB for a common base transistor
• For PNP transistor • For NPN transistor

− 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
∝𝑑𝑐 = ∝𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐸 −𝐼𝐸

𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
−∝𝑑𝑐 = −∝𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐸

𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
∝ ≡ ∝𝑑𝑐 = ℎ𝐹𝐵 = ∝ ≡ ∝𝑑𝑐 = ℎ𝐹𝐵 =
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐸

𝐼𝐶 = ∝ 𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐶 = ∝ 𝐼𝐸

Hope and courage are two diamonds in the crown of success

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38
Recall

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼 C

𝐼𝐶 >>
𝐼𝐵 and

IC ≈ IE

Hence

∝ ≈ 0.95 𝑡𝑜 0.99

Also

IE = IB + ∝IE

IB = (1- ∝ )IE

Stay hungry, stay foolish. Steve Jobs

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39 Common Emitter Configuration (CE)

In this circuit , emitter is common to both base and collector. So this is known as CE
configuration or grounded emitter configuration. The input voltage VBE and output current
IC are taken as the dependent variables. These depend upon the output voltage VCE and
input current lB.

o/p
o/p
I /p I /p

A child who feels insecure become frustrated and desperate, to make up, he may misbehave

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40
• The ratio of the o/p current to the i/p current is called the Current Amplification
Factor 𝛽𝑑𝑐 . It is also defined as the forward current transfer ratio hFE for common
emitter circuit

• For PNP transistor

• For NPN transistor
− 𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝐶
− 𝐼𝐵 𝛽𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐶
𝛽= 𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐵 𝛽=
𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐶
𝛽 = ℎ𝐹𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐵

𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵

∆ 𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝑎𝑐 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 = = 𝛽𝑑𝑐
∆ 𝐼𝐵
Beauty does not consist in physical outlook alone

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41
Recall

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶

𝐼𝐶 >>
𝐼𝐵

Hence

𝛽 can be as high as 500

Also

IE = IB + 𝛽IB

IE = (1+𝛽)IB

No pain, no gain

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42
Relationship between ∝ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜷

𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
𝛽= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∝ =
𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐸

𝛽 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐸
= ÷ = × =
𝛼 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐵

𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 ൗ𝐼 𝛼
𝛽= = = 𝐼𝐸 𝐼
𝐸
=
𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶 ൗ𝐼 − 𝐶ൗ𝐼 1−𝛼
𝐸 𝐸

Since
𝛼
𝛽=
1−𝛼

𝛽
𝛼=
1+𝛽

There is no mountain anywhere, every man’s ignorance is his mountain

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43 The Common Collector Configuration (CC)

Here the load (output) is connected in the emitter circuit and not in the collector circuit. Input is
given between base and ground. The drop across load itself acts as the bias for emitter base junction.
The operation of the circuit similar to that of Common Emitter Configuration..

o/p
o/p
I /p I /p

For what the mind can conceive and believe, the soul can achieve

43

44 • Forward current transfer ratio =

𝐼𝐸
=
𝐼𝐶
×
𝐼𝐸
𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐶

𝐼𝐶
= 𝛽 while
𝐼𝐵

𝐼𝐸 1
=
𝐼𝐶 ∝

𝐼𝐸 𝛽
therefore =
𝐼𝐵 ∝

𝐼𝐸 𝛽
= 𝛽 =1 + 𝛽
𝐼𝐵
1+𝛽

1
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸
1+𝛽

𝛽
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸
1+𝛽

Between the time of birth and death, God has given man chance of fulfilling some precious things under the heaven

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45 Comparison of Transistor Connection

Attitude towards fact are always more important than fact themselves

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46 Static Characteristics of an npn (common emitter ) Transistor

(a) Input Characteristics

IB versus VBE at Constant VCE

ri (input resistance) = VBE/IB

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47
(a) Output Characteristics

Ic versus VCE at Constant IB

ro (input resistance) = VCE/IC

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48 Selection of the Operating Point for a BJT

The output characteristics of a CE configuration is divided into three regions namely:

1. Active Region: BE Forward biased BC Reverse biased

2. Saturation Region : on)both BE and BC forward biased
3. Cut-Off Region: both BE and BC reverse biased

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49 • The point in the characteristics of the transistors indicated by VCE, IC is called Operating
Point or Quiescent Point Q. The operating point must be in the active region for transistor to
act as an amplifier.

• Quiescent Point: Q point is a point on the DC load line which represent the value of IC and
VCE that exist in a transistor circuit when no input signal is applied. The Q point of a device
is defined in terms of the quiescent(or idle)currents and Voltages that are present at the
terminals of the device when DC supplies are connected to it.

In everyone’s life, there are a number of eagles that can carry you to the next level and there are a number of turkeys that remind you that it has never been done that way before.

49

DC Biasing + AC signal
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• When an ac signal is applied to the base of the transistor,
IC and VCE will both vary around their Q-point values.

• When the Q-point is centered, IC and VCE can both make

the maximum possible transitions above and below their
initial dc values.

• When the Q-point is above the center on the load line, the
input signal may cause the transistor to saturate. When
this happens, a part of the output signal will be clipped
off.

• When the Q-point is below midpoint on the load line, the

input signal may cause the transistor to cutoff. This can
also cause a portion of the output signal to be clipped.

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BIAS STABILITY
51
Suppose the transistor in a circuit is BC 108, and we replace this transistor by another
BC 108 transistor.

The characteristics of these two transistors will not be exactly the same. There will be
slight difference.

It is because of the limitations in temperature and the fabrication technology; the

doping concentration, diffusion length etc.

Because of these reasons, transistors of the same type may not have exactly the same
characteristics. Hence if one AC 128 transistor is replaced by another transistor, the
operating point will change, since the characteristics of the transistor will be slightly
different.

Hence for the same circuit when one transistor is replaced by the other, operating point
changes. In some cases, because of the change in the operating point, the transistor may
be cut off or become saturated.
Being the richest man in the cemetery doesn’t matter to me, going to bed @ night saying we’ve done something wonderful is what matter most

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52
• If IB is fixed, operating point will shift with changes in the values of 𝛽 with
temperature.

• lCO gets doubled for every 10°C rise in temperature. IC also increases with
temperature.

• In order to keep operating point fixed, IC and VCE should be kept constant. There
are two methods to keep IC constant.

1. Stabilization Technique: Here resistive biasing circuits are used to allow IB to vary
to keep IC relatively constant, with variation in lCO 𝛽 and VBE i.e. IB decreases if
lCO increase, to keep IC constant.

2. Compensation Technique: In this method, temperature sensitive devices such as

diodes, transistor, thermistors etc., which provide compensating voltage and
currents to maintain the operating point constant are used.

Being the richest man in the cemetery doesn’t matter to me, going to bed @ night saying we’ve done something wonderful is what matter most

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53 Stability Factor

Stability Factor S is defined as the rate of change of IC with respect to lCO the reverse
saturation current, keeping 𝛽 and VBE constant.

The value of S should be small. If it is large, it indicates that the circuit is thermally unstable.

Then they’re mine because I thought of it first

53

54

S = 5 is a reasonable value for most practical circuit

Hard work beats talent when talent doesn’t work as hard - Tim Tebow

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Module 3

55 Transistor Biasing and Stabilization

• There are different methods of biasing a transistor, each of these methods has it‘s
own advantages and disadvantages. The different methods are listed below:
1. Fixed bias or fixed current bias
2. Fixed bias with emitter feedback
3. Fixed bias with collector feedback
4. Fixed bias with emitter and collector feedback
5. Universal bias

Activities can lead to evil, inactivity will never lead to any good

55

56 Fixed Bias or Fixed Current Bias

Advantages
• It has the advantage of high current gain
• The biasing circuit is very simple and can
easily be calculated, since there is no RE
• There is no loading of the source by biasing
circuit since no resistor is employed aacross
base emitter junction

Disadvantages
• The method provide very high stability
factor
• It can cause thermal runaway

Being the richest man in the cemetery doesn’t matter to me, going to bed @ night saying we’ve done something wonderful is what matter most

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57 Analysis of Fixed bias transistor

IB = ?

ICQ = ?

VCEQ = ?

ICSAT = ?

VC = ?

S=?

Comment:

One man practicing sportsmanship is far better than fifty preaching it - Knute Rockne

57

58 Question

A Si transistor is biased for constant base current. Neglect leakage current I CBO and
let VCC= 15 V, RB = 500 kΩ, and RC= 5k Ω. Find ICQ and VCEQ
(a)If β = 50, and (b)if β = 100.

Solution

Note that, in this example, the collector current ICQ doubled with the doubling of β, and the Q
point moved from near the middle of the dc load line to near the saturation region.
“Do you know what my favorite part of the game is? The opportunity to play.”

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59 Base Bias with Emitter Feedback

"Don't measure yourself by what you have accomplished, but by what you should have accomplished with your ability." - John Wooden

59

60 Analysis of a Fixed bias with emitter feedback Transistor

IB = ?

IE = ?

VE = ?

VB = ?

ICQ = ?

VCEQ = ?

ICSAT = ?

VC = ?

S=?

Comment:
“Setting a goal is not the main thing. It is deciding how you will go about achieving it and staying with that plan.” - Tom Landry

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61 Question

A base bias transistor with emitter feedback has the following parameters. VCC = 15 V,
RB = 2k, RC = 150 k, RE = 75K and ICBO = 0. The transistor is a Si device. Find ICQ and
VCEQ if (a) β = 50 and (b) β = 100.

Solution

“Our young people look up to us. Let us not let them down. Our young people need us. Saving them will make heroes of us all” - Gale Sayers

61

62 Example

For the circuit shown, determine the

biasing current and voltage if
RC = 15K, RE = 10K, RB = 10K,
VCC = -20V, VBE = 0.7 VEE = 20V
and β = 50.

“You should never be defined by what you do or by the things you have; you’ve got to define yourself by who you are and how you impact people” - Tony Dungy

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63 Fixed Bias with Collector Feedback

Advantages
• It is simple as it require only RB
• It provides better stability factor
than the fixed bias circuit

Disadvantages
• It provides a negative feedback
which reduces the gain of the
amplifier

“There are no traffic jams along the extra mile.” - Roger Staubach

63

64 Analysis of a Base bias with Collector feedback Transistor

IB = ? IE = ? VE = ? VB = ?

ICQ = ? VCEQ = ? ICSAT = ?

VC = ? S=?

Comment:

Example
Calculate the biasing voltage and current of a collector feedback amplifier made with
silicon, if RC = 10K, RB = 100K and β = 100.

“The man who complains about the way the ball bounces is likely the one who dropped it” - Lou Holtz

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65 Fixed Bias with Emitter and Collector Feedback

“If you train hard, you’ll not only be hard, you’ll be hard to beat” - Herschel Walker

65

66 Analysis Fixed Bias with Emitter and Collector Feedback

IB = ?

IE = ?

VE = ?

ICQ = ?

VCEQ = ?

ICSAT = ?

VC = ?

S=?

Comment:

“Opening one’s eyes may take a lifetime. Seeing is done in a flash. “

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67 Universal Bias (Voltage Divider Bias)

• The voltage divider bias is the most

widely used arrangement for linear
transistor circuits and it is the most
stable of all.

• A base bias voltage is developed by a

resistive voltage divider. There are two
points to ground; one is through RB1
and the other is through base emitter
junction of the transistor.

• If the base current is much smaller

than the current through RB2, the base
circuit can be viewed as a simplified
voltage divider consisting of RB1 and
RB2
“Each time you look at anything, see only what is there and nothing else.”

67

68 Analysis of a Universal Bias Circuit

• Transistors voltage and current analysis

Obtain VB as a function of VCC, RB1 and RB2. Hence calculate IE, IB, ICQ,
VCEQ, ICSAT,
Design of a universal bias circuit

(1+β)RE ≥ 10RB2
𝟏
VE = 𝟏𝟎 VCC

Manufacturer sheet will contain:

VCC
β
ICSAT

• Thevenin’s Theorem Analysis

Obtain Vth and Rth for the circuit

A person who never made a mistake never tried anything

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69 Voltage Divider Bias Using PNP Transistor

• Recall that pnp transistor requires bias polarities opposite to the npn.

• This can be accomplished with a negative collector voltage or a positive emitter supply
voltage

(a) (b) (c)

Learn from yesterday, live from tomorrow. The important thing is not to stop learning

69

Analysis Voltage Divider Bias Using PNP Transistor, Circuit ( C )

70
IB = ?

IE = ?

VE = ?

VB = ?

ICQ = ?

VCEQ = ?

ICSAT = ?

VC = ?

S=?

Comment:
You may not be perfect in many things but there exist many things that can’t be perfect without you

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71 Example

For the circuit shown, determine:

• VB

• IB

• ICQ

• IE

• VCEQ

• Quiescence power of the transistor

• If RE is double, what is the value of

VB

Everything in life has a beautiful ending, it is not beautiful, then believe me it’s not the end

71

72 Example

• Sketch a collector feedback circuit using an npn silicon transistor with VCC = 12V,
RC = 1.2KΩ, and RB = 47K Ω. Determine the collector voltage and the collector
current if β = 200.

• Sketch an emitter biased npn transistor circuit with the following value: VCC = 10V,
VEE = -10V, RC = 500 Ω RE= 1K and RB =47K Ω. For the circuit, find IE, IC, VB,
VE, VC and VCE. Given that the transistor is Ge with hfe of 100

• Give reasons for the clipping on the positive portion of the output waveform of an
inverting amplifier

You can win life by all means if you avoid comparing and expectation

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73

You may not be perfect in many things but there exist many things that can’t be perfect without you

73

74

Life itself cannot give you anything unless you work for it. Life jut give you time and space, it is up to you to fill it as much as possible

74

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AMPLIFIER
75
One of the primary uses of a transistor is to amplify an ac signals. Amplifiers that
operate in the linear region can be classified based on their behavior to a predetermine set
of value. The classification of an amplifier is therefor based on the following factor:

1. Input Signal
(a) Small signal amplifier and (b) Large Signal amplifier
2. Output Signal
(a) Voltage amplifier (b) Current amplifier
3. Frequency response
(a)Audio Frequency (AF) amplifier (b) Intermediate Frequency (IF) amplifier
(c )Radio frequency (RF) amplifier
4. Biasing Condition
(a) Class A amplifier (b) Class B amplifier (c ) Class AB amplifier (d) Class C
5. Transistor Configuration
(a) Common Base (CB) amplifier (b) Common Emitter (CE) amplifier
(c) Common Collector (CC) Amplifier

Everything that is happening at this moment is a result of the choices you made in the past

75

76 SMALL SIGNAL AMPLIFIER

Definition

• Ac input signal voltages and currents are in the order ±10% of Q-point
voltages and currents.
e. g
If dc current is 10mA, the ac current (peak to peak) is less than 0.1 mA.

Only ac condition are to be considered, dc voltage not important, considered

zero or ground. (VCC=0) the capacitors used to couple or bypass the ac signal.
(short circuit)

“Laboratories and libraries, halls and porch and arch and learned lectures — all shall be of no avail if the wise heart and the Seeing Eye are absent.”

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Applying AC to a DC biased transistor

77

•When a weak ac signal is given to the base, a small ac base current start flowing.
•Due to BJT, a much larger ac current flow through RC
•Therefore a large voltage appear across the collector circuit.
“Knock and the door will be opened to you.”

77

78 AC Equivalent circuit

• The coupling and bypass capacitors are replaced by short circuits.

• The DC voltage supplies are replaced with short circuits, which in this
case connect to ground.

How would you expect the door to be opened when it has never been shut?”

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79 The ac equivalent of a network is obtained by:

1. Setting all dc sources to zero and replacing them by a short-circuit equivalent

2. Replacing all capacitors by a short-circuit equivalent
3. Removing all elements bypassed by the short-circuit equivalents introduced by steps 1 and 2
4. Redrawing the network in a more convenient and logical form

The mantle of success is never for the faint hearted

79

80 BJT Transistor Modeling

• We now begin to examine the small-signal ac response of the BJT amplifier by reviewing
the models most frequently used to represent the transistor in the sinusoidal ac domain.
There are two models commonly used in the small-signal ac analysis of transistor
networks: the hybrid equivalent ( h-parameter) model and the re model. Other models
includes z-parameter and y-parameter equivalent circuits.

• A model is the combination of circuit elements, properly chosen, that best approximates
the actual behavior of a semiconductor device under specific operating conditions.

• For many years the industrial and educational institutions relied heavily on the hybrid
parameters.

• The h-parameter equivalent circuit continues to be very popular, although it must now
share the spotlight with an equivalent circuit derived directly from the operating conditions
of the transistor—the re model.

Observe a man that failed in life, he must have failed in in his mind.

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81
• Manufacturers continue to specify the hybrid parameters for a particular operating
region on their specification sheets.

• The parameters (or components) of the re model can be derived directly from the hybrid
parameters in this region.

• The procedure is simple to understand

• However, the hybrid equivalent circuit suffers from being limited to a particular set of
operating conditions if it is to be considered accurate.

• The parameters of the other equivalent circuit can be determined for any region of
operation within the active region and are not limited by the single set of parameters
provided by the specification sheet.

• The re model fails to account for the output impedance level of the device and the
feedback effect from output to input

Zero today, hero tomorrow

81

The Important Parameters: Zi, Zo, Av, Ai

82

• Before investigating the equivalent circuits for BJTs, it is better to study the parameters of a
two-port system that are of paramount importance from an analysis and design viewpoint.

• For a two-port (two pairs of terminals) system, the input side is to the left and the output
side is to the right. For both sets of terminals, the impedance between each pair of terminals
under normal operating conditions is quite important.

You do not have to look for very good where excellent is possible

82

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83 Input Impedance, Zi

For the input side, the input impedance Zi is defined by Ohm’s law as the following:
𝑉
𝑍𝑖 = 𝑖
𝐼𝑖
If the input signal Vi is changed, the current Ii can be computed using the same
level of input impedance. In other words: For small-signal analysis, once the input
impedance has been determined the same numerical value can be used for changing
levels of applied signal.

𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑖
𝐼i =
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑉𝑖
𝑍𝐼 =
𝐼𝑖

To detect what is false, study the truth

.

83

84 Output Impedance, Zo

The output impedance is naturally defined at the output set of terminals, but the manner in
which it is defined is quite different from that of the input impedance. That is: The output
impedance is determined at the output terminals looking back into the system with the
applied signal set to zero.

𝑉 − 𝑉𝑂
𝐼𝑂 =
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑉𝑂
𝑍𝑂 =
𝐼𝑂
If education is expensive, try ignorance

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Voltage Gain, Av
85
One of the most important characteristics of an amplifier is the small-
signal ac voltage gain as determined by

If education is expensive, try ignorance

85

86 Rs Solution :
+ Vo
+ 1.2 kΩ
Zi
+
BJT amplifier a) AvNL =
VS=40mV AvNL=320 Vo=7.68V Vi
Vi
- Vo 7.68
- - Vi = = = 24 mV
AvNL 320

Vs - Vi 40 m − 24 m
b) Ii = = = 13.33A
Rs 1.2k
Rs = Rsource

Vi 24m
c) Zi = = = 1.8k
Ii 13.33

Zi 1.8k
d) Avs = AvNL = (320 ) = 192
Zi + Rs 1.8k + 1.2k

No gut, no trophies

86

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87 Current Gain, Ai
Although typically the recipient of less attention than the voltage gain, it is, however, an
important quantity that can have significant impact on the overall effectiveness of a design.
In general: For BJT amplifiers, the current gain typically ranges from a level just less than 1
to a level that may exceed 100.

Io
Ii
+
+
Zi BJT
amplifier RL Vo
Vi
-
-

Determining the loaded current gain

A word from the wise is enough for the wise

87

88 re TRANSISTOR MODEL

• The re model employs a diode and controlled current source to duplicate the behavior of
a transistor in the region of interest. Recall that a current-controlled current source is
one where the parameters of the current source are controlled by a current elsewhere in
the network. In fact, in general: BJT transistor amplifiers are referred to as current-
controlled devices.

• Recall that one junction of an operating transistor is forward-biased while the other is
reverse-biased. The forward-biased junction (Emitter- Base junction )will behave much
like a diode while the reverse biased junction (Base-Collector junction) will behave
like a current source

• For the output side, recall that Ic = 𝛼 Ie ( for a common base transistor) hence the collector
base junction behave like a current source with the controlling current Ie appearing in the
input side of the equivalent circuit.

When the going gets too easy, you may be going downhill

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re’ Equivalent Circuit model for a Common Base Transistor

89

re’ Equivalent Circuit model for a Common Emitter Transistor

Luck frequently visit the prepared man

89

AC equivalent circuit
90
CB

The response of the modelled diode at the emitter base junction to an ac signal
is different to that of the DC signal. If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is
applied, the situation will change completely. The varying input will move the
instantaneous operating point up and down a region of the characteristics and
thus defines a specific change in current and voltage. The diode will therefor
offer resistance called the ac resistance rd.

rd can be calculated from the Boltzmann diode equation where it is shown that
rd depend on the input current to the transistor

Strength, when applied in excess becomes weakness

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Recall the Boltzmann’s Diode Equation

91
iD = Id − I0 = I0(eqVD/nkT − 1) = I0eqVD/nkT − I0
𝑞𝑉𝐷
𝑑𝑖𝐷 𝑞 𝑞
= 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑛𝑘𝑇 =
𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑛𝑘𝑇 𝑛𝑘𝑇𝐼𝑑

𝑑𝑉𝐷 𝑛𝑘𝑇 1 ×1.380662 × 10−23 ×(273 +21) 25𝑚𝑉

= = = = 𝑟𝑑
𝑑𝐼𝑑 𝑞𝐼𝑑 1.6021765 × 10−19 𝐼𝑑

rd is the ac resistance across a diode

q = 1.6021765 X 10-19

k=1.380662×10−23J/K is Boltzmann’s constant,

At room temperature T = 273 + 21K

With unlimited enthusiasm, one can succeed at almost everything

91

92
Hence rac for a CB transistor is expressed as:

25𝑚𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 = = 𝑟𝑒
𝐼𝐸

25𝑚𝑉
𝑟𝑒 =
𝐼𝐸
For a CE transistor

25𝑚𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 =
𝐼𝐵

25𝑚𝑉 25𝑚𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 = = 1+𝛽 = 1 + 𝛽 𝑟𝑒
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐸
ൗ(1 + 𝛽)

𝑟𝑎𝑐 = 1 + 𝛽 𝑟𝑒

Recall that a CC transistor is just a CE transistor with the output at the emitter

I will rather lose in a cause that I know someday will triumph that to succeed in a cause that I know someday will fail

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93 Hence the re equivalent Circuit of a CB and than of CE emitter amplifier is shown is shown

CB

CE

There is always a triumph for those who refuse to falter

93

Measures of Amplifier Goodness

94
Amplifiers are usually designed to emphasize one or more of the following interrelated
performance characteristics, whose quantitative measures of goodness are defined in terms of the
quantities below:

1. Input Impedance: Zin= RB // ( 1+ 𝛽 ) 𝑟𝑒

2. Output Impedance: Zo =
3. Current Gain:
𝑖𝑐
Measured by the current ratio: Ai = =β
𝑖𝑏
4. Voltage Gain:
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡
Measured by the voltage ratio: Av =
𝑣𝑖𝑛
5. Power Gain:
Measured by the power ratio: Ap = 𝐴𝑣 𝐴𝑖
Gp = 10log10 Ap

It takes only a moment to be kind, but the result last for ever

94

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Analysis of the re equivalent circuit of a fixed bias transistor

95

For the network above, determine:

(a) re
(b) Zi/ ri
(c) Zo/ rl
(d) Ai/Ais
(e) Av/Avs
(f) Ap/Aps
(g) Gvs/Gis/ Gps
I will rather wear out that to rust out

95

Analysis of the re Equivalent Circuit of a Universal Bias Transistor with A By-passed

96
Capacitor

For the network above, determine:

((a) re
(b) Zi/ ri
(c) Zo/ rl
(d) Ai/Ais
(e) Av/Avs
(f) Ap/Aps
(g) Gvs/Gis/ Gps

No matter how strong your physical strength is, if your inner man is discouraged, you are gone

96

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97 Example

For the network above, determine:

((a) re
(b) Zi/ ri
(c) Zo/ rl
(d) Ai/Ais
(e) Av/Avs
(f) Ap/Aps
(g) Gvs/Gis/ Gps
If u want to get along with people, pretend you never knew whatever they tell you

97

Analysis of the re Equivalent Circuit of an emitter Bias Transistor without a By-passed Capacitor

98

For the network above, determine:

(a) re
(b) Zi/ ri
(c) Zo/ rl
(d) Ai/Ais
(e) Av/Avs
(f) Ap/Aps
(g) Gvs/Gis/ Gps

A traveler whose exclusive aim is to arrive his destination in the shortest possible time is in a danger of missing the joy of his journey

98

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99 The Hybrid Equivalent Model

Our description of the hybrid equivalent model will begin with the general two port
system. The following set of equations is only one of a number of ways in which
the four hybrid variables of can be related

The parameters relating the four variables are called h-parameters from the word
“hybrid”. The term hybrid was chosen because the mixture of variables ( V and I) in
each equation results in a “hybrid” set of units of measurement for the h-
parameters.

A clearer understanding of what the various h-parameters represent and how we can
determine their magnitude can be developed by isolating each and examining the
resulting relationship.

A hero does not earn that name from birth

99

100

If we arbitrarily set Vo = 0 (short circuit the output terminals) and solve for h 11 , the following will
result:

The ratio indicates that the parameter h11is an impedance parameter with the units of ohms.
Since it is the ratio of the input voltage to the input current with the output terminals
shorted, it is called the short-circuit input-impedance parameter. The subscript 11 of h11
defines the fact that the parameter is determined by a ratio of quantities measured at the
input terminals
True and lasting success requires the combination of practice, patience and perseverance

100

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101 If Ii is set equal to zero by opening the input leads, the following will result for h12:

The parameter h12, therefore, is the ratio of the input voltage to the output voltage with the input
current equal to zero. It has no units since it is a ratio of voltage levels and is called the open-
circuit reverse transfer voltage ratio parameter. The subscript 12 of h12 reveals that the parameter
is a transfer quantity determined by a ratio of input to output measurements.

• If in the voltage and current relationship equation written above, Vo is equal to zero by again
shorting the output terminals, the following will result for h21:

A word of courage during struggle is more than a song of praises during success

101

102 • Note that we now have the ratio of an output quantity to an input quantity. The term forward
will now be used rather than reverse as indicated for h12. The parameter h21 is the ratio of
the output current to the input current with the output terminals shorted. This parameter, like
h12, has no units since it is the ratio of current levels. It is formally called the short-circuit
forward transfer current ratio parameter. The subscript 21 again indicates that it is a transfer
parameter with the output quantity in the numerator and the input quantity in the
denominator.

• The last parameter, h22, can be found by again opening the input leads to set I1 = 0 and
solving for h22

• Since it is the ratio of the output current to the output voltage, it is the output conductance
parameter and is measured in siemens (S). It is called the open-circuit output admittance
parameter. The subscript 22 reveals that it is determined by a ratio of output quantities.

The academic height which other attain were not reach on a platter of gold and silver but on much labour and countless sleepless night

102

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103

• Since each term of the first general equation has the unit volt, let us apply Kirchhoff’s
voltage law “in reverse” to find a circuit that “fits” the equation. Performing this operation
will result in the circuit below. Since the parameter h11has the unit ohm, it is represented by
a resistor. The quantity h12 is dimensionless and therefore simply appears as a multiplying
factor of the “feedback” term in the input circuit.

• Since each term of the second equation has the units of current, let us now apply
Kirchhoff’s current law “in reverse” to obtain the circuit for the equation. Since h22 has
the units of admittance, which for the transistor model is conductance, it is represented
by the resistor symbol. Keep in mind, however, that the resistance in ohms of this resistor
is equal to the reciprocal of conductance (1/h22)

Ambition in life requires effort and hard work

103

104 The complete “ac” equivalent circuit for the basic three-terminal linear device is indicated with a
new set of subscripts for the h-parameters. The notation is of a more practical nature since it
relates the h-parameters to the resulting ratio obtained in the last few paragraphs.

h11→input resistance →hi

h12→reverse transfer voltage ratio → hr
h21→forward transfer current ratio → hf
h22→output conductance → ho

h- parameters of a transistor
Sometimes life hit u in d head with a brick, don’t lose faith, just move on.

104

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105 The advantages of considering h-parameters for transistor are

1. They are easy to measure.

2. Can be obtained from Transistor characteristics.
3. They are real numbers at audio frequencies.
4. Convenient to use in circuit design and analysis.

Two things determine where you will be tomorrow, the books you read and your network of relationship

105

The hybrid equivalent network for the common-emitter configuration

106

Note that
Ii = Ib,
Io = Ic,
and through an application of Kirchhoff’s current law,
Ie = Ib + Ic
The input voltage is now Vbe, with the output voltage Vce.

Life when you think it is over, that’s where it clicks

106

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107 The magnitudes of the various parameters will be found from the transistor
characteristics in the region of operation resulting in the desired small-signal
equivalent network for the transistor.

Leaders are not made out of youth without problem

107

108 For the common-emitter and common-base configurations, the magnitude of hr is often such
that the results obtained for the important parameters such as Zi, Zo, Av, and Ai are only
slightly affected if hr not included in the model.

Since hr is normally a relatively small quantity, its removal is approximated by hr =0 and

hrVo = 0, resulting in a short-circuit equivalent for the feedback element.

A person who does not enjoy his work cannot enjoy his life

108

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109 h-parameters analysis of a fixed bias transistor

For the network, determine:

(a) Ai
(b) Zi/ ri/
(c) Ais
(d) Av
(e) Zo/ rl
(f) Avs
(g) Aps
(h) Gvs/Gis/ Gps

Though no one can go back and make a brand new start, anyone can start from now and make a brand new ending. (Carl Bard)

109

110 Example

For the network, determine:

(a) Ai
(b) Zi/ ri/
(c) Ais
(d) Av
(e) Zo/ rl
(f) Avs
(g) Aps
(h) Gvs/Gis/ Gps

Forgiveness does not change the past, but it does enlarge the future. --Paul Boese

110

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h-parameters Analysis of an Unbypassed Emitter-Bias Configuration

111

For the network, determine:

a) Ai
(b) Zi/ ri/
(c) Ais
(d) Av
(e) Zo/ rl
(f) Avs
(g) Aps
(h) Gvs/Gis/ Gps

The ability to delude yourself may be an important survival tool. - Jane Wagner

111

112 Example

For the network:

(a) Calculate Ai, ri and Ais
(b) Determine Avs and rl.
(c) Determine re and compare (1 + 𝛽) re to hie
(e) Repeat parts (a) and (b) with hre = 2x104 and compare results.
If you want to achieve excellence, you can get there today. As of this second, quit doing less-than-excellent work. Thomas John Watson, Sr, 1874 – 1956

112

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h-parameters Analysis of an Emitter-Bias Configuration with Source Resistance

113

For the network, determine:

(a) Ai, ri, Ais
(b) Av, rl , Avs
(c) Aps
(d) Gvs
Ninety-nine percent of the people in the world are fools and the rest of us are in great danger of contagion. - Thornton Niven Wilder, 1897 - 1975

113

114 SINGLE STAGE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

In slide 78, amplifier can be classified by input Signal, output Signal,

frequency response, biasing Condition and transistor Configuration. S single
stage transistor amplifier can be

(a) Common Base (CB) amplifier

(b) Common Emitter (CE) amplifier
(c) Common Collector (CC) Amplifier

Various forms of a single phase CE amplifier are explain with the aid of the
examples

Believe those who are seeking the truth; doubt those who find it. - André Gide, 1869 – 1951

114

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A Universal Bias Amplifier With a Bypassed Capacitor

115

For the network :

(a) Determine re.
(b) Calculate ri and rl
(c) Find Ais and Avs
Don't judge each day by the harvest you reap, but by the seeds you plant. - Robert Louis Stevenson, 1850 – 1894

115

116

For the network :

(a) Determine re.
(b) Calculate ri and rl
(c) Find Ais and Avs
Our progress as a nation can be no swifter than our progress in education. The human mind is our fundamental resource. - John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 1917 - 1963

116

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A Universal Bias Amplifier Without a Bypassed Capacitor

117

For the network :

(a) Determine re.
(b) Calculate ri and rl
(c) Find Ais and Avs

The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much it is whether we provide enough for those who have little. Franklin D. Roosevelt

117

A Universal Bias Amplifier With a Bypassed Capacitor and Source Resistance

118

For the network, derive and expression for the following :

(a) re.
(b) ri and rl
(c) Ais and Avs

Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause and reflect. Mark Twain

118

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An Emitter Bias Amplifier Without a Bypassed Capacitor but with Source Resistance
119

For the network :

(a) Determine re.
(b) Calculate ri and rl
(c) Find Ais and Avs

Only those who attempt the absurd will achieve the impossible. I think it's in my basement... let me go upstairs and check. M. C. Escher

119

Collector Feedback Configuration

120

The next major explosion is going to be when genetics and computers come together. I'm talking about an organic computer - about biological substances that can function like a semiconductor. Alvin Toffler

120

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Collector DC Feedback Configuration

121

Money is better than poverty, if only for financial reasons. Woody Allen

121

122 Example

(b)
(a)

For the networks :

(a) Determine re.
(b) Calculate ri and rl
(c) Find Ais and Avs

Reality is merely an illusion, albeit a very persistent one. Albert Einstein

122

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MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER
123
Sometimes, the amplification obtain by a single stage amplifier is not sufficient to meet the
requirements of a load device, hence two or more single stage amplification are used to achieve
voltage and current amplification. Such amplifier may be divided into two categories;

1. Cascaded Amplifier: Each stage and the couplings are identical

2. Cascoded (Compound Amplifier): Each stage may differs as well as the coupling

- Hence the total Gain of a two stage amplifier A = A1 x A2

Amplifier Coupling
In other to connect one stage of the amplifier to the other, some coupling techniques may be
needed. The type of coupling used determines the characteristics of the cascaded amplifier These
techniques includes:

1. Resistance-Capacitance (RC) Coupling. RC-coupled Amplifier

2. Impedance Coupling or Inductive Coupling. Impedance Coupled Amplifier
3. Transformer coupling
4. Direct coupling
The four building blocks of the universe are fire, water, gravel and vinyl. Dave Barry

123

Resistance-Capacitance Coupled Amplifier. (RC-coupled Amplifier)

124
ri = R 5 // R8 // ( 1 + β 2 )re 2
2

rl2 = R 6 // RL

−  2 rl 2
Av 2 =
(1 +  2)re 2
ri1 = R1 // R2 // ( 1 + β1 )re1
rl1 = R 4 // R5 // R8 // ( 1 + β 2 )re2 = R 4 // ri 2
−  1rl 1
Av1 =
(1 +  2)re1
AvT = Av1 Av 2
Vout
AvT =
For the circuit, determine: ri2, rl2, Av2, Vin
ri1, rl1, Av1, hence
AvT and the output voltage
Vout = AvTVs
Any intelligent fool can make things bigger, more complex, and more violent. It takes a touch of genius - and a lot of courage - to move in the opposite direction.
E.F. Schumacker

124

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ri = R 5 // R8 // ( 1 + β 2 )re 2
2

125 Exercise rl2 = R 6 // RL

−  2 rl 2
Av 2 =
(1 +  2)re 2
ri1 = Rs + ( R1 // R 2 // ( 1 + β1 )re1)
rl1 = R 4 // R5 // R8 // ( 1 + β 2 )re2 = R 4 // ri 2
−  1rl 1
Av1 =
(1 +  2)re1
( R1 // R 2 // ( 1 + β1 )re1)
Avs1 = Av1( )
ri 1
AvT = Avs1 Av 2
Vout
AvT =
For the circuit, determine: ri2, rl2, Vs
Av2, hence
ri1, rl1, Av1,
Vout = AvTVs
AT and the output voltage
"If I had thought about it, I wouldn't have done the experiment. The literature was full of examples that said you can't do this." (Spencer Silver on work that lead to the unique adhesives for Post-It Notes)

125

126
Advantages
• Small, light and inexpensive since there is no bulky or adjustable component within.
• Overall amplification is higher than that of other couplings.
• No signal interference since it does not consist of an inductive component.
• Bandwidth is wide i.e. the gain versus frequency curve is flat

Science investigates, religion interprets. Science gives man knowledge which is power, religion gives man wisdom which is control. Martin Luther King, Jr.

126

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ri = R 5 // R8 // ( 1 + β 2 )re 2
2
Impedance Coupled (or Inductive Coupled )Amplifier XL 2 = 2fL 2
127
Since XL2 far greater than RL at high frequency
The circuit consist of L, C and R
in-between two transistor rl = XL 2 // RL = RL
2

−  2 rl 2
Av 2 =
(1 +  2)re 2
ri1 = R1 // R2 // ( 1 + β1 )re1
rl1 = XL1 //( R5 // R8 // ( 1 + β 2 )re2)
= R 5 // R8 // ( 1 + β 2 )re 2 = ri 2
−  1rl 1
Av1 =
(1 +  2)re1
AvT = Av1 Av 2
Vout
For the circuit, determine: ri2, rl2, Av2, AvT = hence
ri1, rl1, Av1, Vin
AT, GvT and the output voltage Vout = AvTVs
Never measure the height of a mountain until you have reached the top. Then you will see how low it was. Dag Hammarskjold
GVT = 20 log AvT

127

128
Advantages
• There is hardly any dc drop across L so that low collector supply voltage can be used

Disadvantages
• Larger, heavier and costlier than RC coupling
• To prevent the magnet field, inductors are wound on a closed core and Shilded
• Frequency response is not as good as those of RC coupling as gain drops at high frequency.
Hence rarely used beyond the audio frequency range

I invent nothing, I rediscover. Auguste Rodin

128

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Transformer coupled Amplifier ri 2 = R 5 // R8 // ( 1 + β 2 )re 2

129
rl =  2 RL
2

−  2 rl 2
Av 2 =
(1 +  2)re 2
ri1 = R1 // R2 // ( 1 + β1 )re1
rl = 
1 ( R 5 // R8 // ( 1 + β 2 )re 2)
2

−  1rl 1
Av1 =
(1 +  2)re1
AvT = Av1 Av 2
Vout
AvT =
Vin
For the circuit, determine: ri2, rl2, Av2,
ri1, rl1, Av1, hence
AT, GvT and the output voltage Vout = AvTVs
"Be bold, and mighty forces will come to your aid." Basil King

129

130
Advantages:
• Operation is more efficient because of low dc resistance of the the primary
winding
• Provides a higher gain
• Improves impedance matching

Disadvantages
• Costly and bulky
• Poor frequency response
• Tends to introduce hum in the output

The only way of finding the limits of the possible is by going beyond them into the impossible. Sir Arthur C. Clarke's Second Law from Profiles of the Future

130

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Direct Coupled Amplifier

131
This is used where the frequency is so small such that the impedance of a coupling
capacitor becomes high. Meanwhile, direct coupling is only allow where the dc
component of the output does not disturb the normal operation of the load device
Hence the load is connected in series with the output terminal. Examples of such load
devices are headphone, loud speaker, dc meter, relays, input circuit of a transistor.
They are suitable for amplifying ac signals with frequencies as low as a fraction of
hertz or for amplifying change in dc voltage.

The are two major types

1. Direct coupled two stage amplifier

2. Darlington Pair Amplifier

"The concept is interesting and well-formed, but in order to earn better than a 'C', the ideas must be feasible."
(A Yale University management professor in response to Fred Smith's paper proposing reliable overnight delivery service. Smith went on to found Federal Express Corp.)

131

Ai = Ai1 Ai2
Direct Coupled Two Stage Amplifier
132
IC1 IC 2
Ai = X
IB1 IB 2
 IB1  IB 2
Ai = 1 X 2
IB1 IB 2
Ai = 1 2
If 1 =  2
Ai =  2

Applications

1. Used regulator circuits

For the direct coupled amplifier, determine the current gain, 2. Pulse amplifier
voltage gain of each stage, overall voltage gain, overall power 3. Differential amplifiers
gain 4. Computer circuitry
5. Electronic instrument
Everyone think of changing the world, but no one thinks of changing himself. ~ Leo Tolstoy

132

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Ai = Ai1 Ai2
Darlington Pair IE1 IE 2
133 Ai = X
IB1 IB 2
This combination provides large current gain, (1 + 1 ) IB1 (1 +  2 ) IB 2
typically a few thousand. It has a voltage gain of Ai = X
IB1 IB 2
near 1, a low output impedance and a high input
impedance. Ai = (1 + 1 )(1 +  2 )
If 1 =  2
Ai = (1 +  ) 2   2

Input Impedance
ri2 = ( 1 + β2 )(re 2 + Re )  β2 RE
ri1 = (1 + 1 )(re1 + ri 2) = 1 (re1 + ri 2)
= 1 (re1 +  2 RE )
= 1re1 + 1 2 RE
If β1 = β2 = β
= re1 +  2 RE
  2 RE
I will not say I failed 1000 times, I will say that I discovered there are 1000 ways that can cause failure.~ Thomas Edison

133

134 Tuned Circuit

At resonance, XC and XL will be
equal and opposite

X L = XC
1
2f o L =
2f oC
1
fo =
2

4 2 LC
1
f2=
2 LC

I will not say I failed 1000 times, I will say that I discovered there are 1000 ways that can cause failure. ~ Thomas Edison

134

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POWER AMPLIFIER
135
Introduction
• An amplifier receives a signal from some pickup transducer
or other input source and provides a larger version of the
signal to some output device or to another amplifier stage.

• An input transducer signal is generally small (a few

millivolts from a cassette or CD input, or a few microvolts
from an antenna) and needs to be amplified sufficiently to
operate an output device (speaker or other power-handling
device).

135

136
• Since signal voltage and current are small in a small-signal amplifier,
the amount of power-handling capacity and power efficiency are of
little concern. In small-signal amplifiers the main factors are:

• Amplification
• Linearity
• Gain

• Large-signal or power amplifiers, on the other hand, primarily provide

sufficient power to an output load to drive a speaker or other power
device, typically a few watts to tens of watts. Since large-signal, or
power, amplifiers handle relatively large voltage signals and current
levels, the main factors are:

• Efficiency
• Maximum power capability
• Impedance matching to the output device

136

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 2/6/2021

Amplifier Types
137 • One method used to categorize amplifiers is by class. Basically, amplifier classes represent the
amount the output signal varies over one cycle of operation for a full cycle of input signal.

Class A
The amplifier conducts through the full 360 of the input. The Q-point is set near the middle
of the load line.

vin Av vout Class-A

Class B
The amplifier conducts through 180 of the input. The Q-point is set at the cutoff point.

vin Av vout Class-B

137

138
Class AB
This is a compromise between the class A and B amplifiers. The amplifier
conducts somewhere between 180 and 360 . The Q-point is located
between the mid-point and cutoff.

Class C
The amplifier conducts less than 180 of the input. The Q-point is located
below the cutoff level.

vin Av vout Class-C

Class D
This is an amplifier that is biased especially for digital signals.

138

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The major classes of amplifier operation

139
IC IC

A B

t t
IC IC

ISAT
C D
t t
139

• Efficiency is most important in power amplifiers.

140

• Poor efficiency means that much of the input power is

converted to heat.

• A class A amplifier conducts for the entire signal cycle and

has the lowest efficiency.

• A class B amplifier conducts for only half of the signal cycle.

• A class C amplifier conducts for less than half of the signal

cycle.

• A class D amplifier switches between cutoff and saturation.

140

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 2/6/2021

141 • Class A amplifiers operate at the center of the load line and have a
large quiescent current flow.

• Class B amplifiers operate at cutoff and have no quiescent current

flow.

• Class B amplifiers are usually operated in push-pull configurations.

• Class B amplifiers have crossover distortion.

• Class AB reduces crossover distortion.

• Bridge amplifiers provide four times the output power and eliminate
the output coupling capacitor.

141

Class A Amplifier
142

• The output of a class A amplifier

conducts for the full 360 of the cycle.

• The Q-point is set at the middle of the

load line so that the AC signal can
swing a full cycle.

• Remember that the DC load line

indicates the maximum and minimum
limits set by the DC power supply.

142

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Amplifier Efficiency
143 • The power efficiency of an amplifier, defined as the ratio of power output to
power input, improves (gets higher) going from class A to class D.

• In general terms, we see that a class A amplifier, with dc bias at one-half the
supply voltage level, uses a good amount of power to maintain bias, even with no
input signal applied. This results in very poor efficiency, especially with small
input signals. In fact, the maximum efficiency of a class A circuit, occurring for
the largest output voltage and current swing, is only 25% with a direct or series
fed load connection and 50% with a transformer connection to the load.

• Class B operation, with no dc bias power for no input signal, can be shown to
provide a maximum efficiency that reaches 78.5%.

• Class D operation can achieve power efficiency over 90% and provides the most
efficient operation of all the operating classes. Since class AB falls between class
A and class B in bias, it also falls between their efficiency ratings—between 25%
(or 50%) and 78.5%.

143

144

144

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 2/6/2021

Class A Amplifier
145
• The simple fixed-bias circuit connection shown can be
used to discuss the main features of a class A series-
fed amplifier. The only differences between this circuit
and the small-signal version considered previously is
that the signals handled by the large-signal circuit are
in the range of volts and the transistor used is a power
transistor that is capable of operating in the range of a
few to tens of watts.

• As will be shown later, this circuit is not the best to

use as a large-signal amplifier because of its poor
power efficiency. The beta of a power transistor is
generally less than 100, the overall amplifier circuit
using power transistors that are capable of handling
large power or current while not providing much
voltage gain.
145

145

146 To appreciate the importance of the dc bias on the operation of the power
amplifier, consider the collector characteristic shown. An ac load line is drawn
using the values of VCC and RC. The intersection of the dc bias value of IB with
the dc load line then determines the operating point (Q-point) for the circuit. If the
dc bias collector current is set at one-half the possible signal swing (between 0 and
VCC/RC), the largest collector current swing will be possible. Additionally, if the
quiescent collector–emitter voltage is set at one-half the supply voltage, the largest
voltage swing will be possible.

146

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 2/6/2021

When an input ac signal is applied to the amplifier, the output will vary from its dc bias
operating voltage and current. A small input signal will cause the base current to vary
147
above and below the dc bias point, which will then cause the collector current (output) to
vary from the dc bias point set as well as the collector–emitter voltage to vary around its
dc bias value. As the input signal is made larger, the output will vary further around the
established dc bias point until either the current or the voltage reaches a limiting
condition. For the current, this limiting condition is either zero current at the low end or
VCC/RC at the high end of its swing. For the collector–emitter voltage, the limit is either
0 V or the supply voltage, VCC.

147

Power Considerations
148 The power into an amplifier is provided by the supply. With no input signal, the dc current
drawn is the collector bias current, ICQ . The power then drawn from the supply is Even with
an ac signal applied, the average current drawn from the supply remains the same.

Output power

148

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Maximum efficiency
149 For the class A series-fed amplifier, the maximum efficiency can be determined using the maximum voltage and
current swings.

The maximum efficiency of a class A series-fed amplifier is thus seen to be 25%. Since this maximum efficiency will
occur only for ideal conditions of both voltage swing and current swing, most series-fed circuits will provide
efficiencies of much less than 25%.

149

Transformer-Coupled Class A Amplifier

150

This circuit uses a transformer

to couple to the load. This
improves the efficiency of the
Class A to 50%.

150

150

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Class B Amplifier
151
• A class B circuit provides an output signal varying over one-half the
input signal cycle, or for 180° of signal. The dc bias point for class
B is therefore at 0 V, with the output then varying from this bias
point for a half cycle.

• Obviously, the output is not a faithful reproduction of the input if

only one half-cycle is present. Two class B operations—one to
provide output on the positive output half-cycle and another to
provide operation on the negative-output half-cycle are necessary.
The combined half-cycles then provide an output for a full 360° of
operation. This type of connection is referred to as push-pull
operation, which is discussed later.

• Note that class B operation by itself creates a very distorted output

signal since reproduction of the input takes place for only 180° of
the output signal swing.

151

152

In class B, the transistor

is biased just off. The
AC signal turns the
transistor on.

The transistor only

conducts when it is
turned on by one-half of
the AC cycle.

In order to get a full AC • An npn transistor that

cycle out of a class B provides the negative half of
amplifier, you need two the AC cycle
transistors: • A pnp transistor that provides
the positive half.
152

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 2/6/2021

This is a Class B amplifier.

153 Its quiescent power dissipation is zero.

1.4 25 mA
1.2 20 mA
1.0 15 mA
IC in A 0.8 Q
0.6 10 mA
0.4 5 mA
0.2
0 mA
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
PC = VCE x IC = 18 V x 0 A = 0 W

153

1.4 25 mA
154
1.2 20 mA
1.0 15 mA
0.8
0.6 10 mA
0.4 5 mA
0.2
0 mA
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

The collector signal

is too distorted for
linear applications.

154

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 2/6/2021

The complementary-symmetry Class B

155 push-pull amplifier has acceptable
linearity for some applications.

+VCC

C
NPN
B
E

E
B
PNP
C

155

156 Class B
NPN

PNP

156

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 2/6/2021

Since the base-emitter junction potential

157 is 0.7 V, there is some crossover distortion.

+VCC

C
NPN
B
E

E
B
PNP
C

157

Crossover distortion is eliminated by applying some

158 forward bias to the transistors (class AB).

+VCC

C
NPN
B
E
1.4 V
E
B
PNP
C

158

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 2/6/2021

The quiescent power dissipation is moderate for class AB.

159 The efficiency is much better than class A.

1.4
1.2
1.0
Q
IC in A 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts

159

Class A, B, and AB quiz

160
Class A amplifiers are biased to operate near center
the ________ of the load line.

Class B amplifiers have their Q-points at

____________. cutoff

The conduction angle for class B is

_________. 180o

To reduce distortion, two class B transistors

push-pull
are arranged in _____________.

Class AB is a solution for __________

distortion. crossover

160

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161 Concept Review

• Class A amplifiers operate at the center of the load line and have a
large quiescent current flow.

• Class B amplifiers operate at cutoff and have no quiescent current

flow.

• Class B amplifiers are usually operated in push-pull configurations.

• Class B amplifiers have crossover distortion.

• Class AB reduces crossover distortion.

• Bridge amplifiers provide four times the output power and eliminate
the output coupling capacitor.

161

Transformer-Coupled Push-Pull Class B Amplifier

162

The center-tapped transformer

on the input produces
opposite polarity signals to
the two transistor inputs.

The center-tapped transformer

on the output combines the
two halves of the AC
waveform together.

162

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 2/6/2021

Class B Amplifier Push-Pull Operation

163

• During the positive half-

cycle of the AC input,
transistor Q1 (npn) is
conducting and Q2 (pnp)
is off.

• During the negative half-

cycle of the AC input,
transistor Q2 (pnp) is
conducting and Q1 (npn)
is off.

Each transistor produces one-half of an AC cycle. The transformer combines the two
outputs to form a full AC cycle.

163

Quasi-Complementary Push-Pull Amplifier

164

A Darlington pair and a feedback

pair combination perform the push-
pull operation. This increases the
output power capability.

164

164

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Class C Amplifiers
165 Concept Preview
• Class C amplifiers are biased beyond cutoff for a small
conduction angle and high efficiency.

• Class C amplifiers used tuned tank circuits to reduce

distortion in RF applications.

• Class C amplifiers cannot be used in wideband

applications like audio.

• A class C amplifier conducts for less than 180. In order to

produce a full sine wave output, the class C uses a tuned
circuit (LC tank) to provide the full AC sine wave.

• Class C amplifiers are used extensively in radio

communications circuits.

165

A
1.4
166
1.2
1.0 AB
0.8 B
0.6
0.4
0.2 C
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
The class of an amplifier
is determined by the bias
which establishes the Q-point.

Class C is established by reverse

biasing the base-emitter junction.

166

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0.7 V
167
VBB VBE waveform

Class C amplifier
waveforms
(with tank circuit)

0A IC waveform

VCE waveform

Low VCE when IC is flowing

167

Class D Amplifier
168
Class D amplifiers switch between cutoff and
saturation for very high efficiency.

Class D amplifiers operate at a relatively high

switching frequency and often use PWM.

Class D can be used in audio applications.

A class D amplifier amplifies pulses, and

requires a pulsed input.

There are many circuits that can convert a

sinusoidal waveform to a pulse, as well as
circuits that convert a pulse to a sine wave.
This circuit has applications in digital
circuitry.

168

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Three transistor operating modes:

169

IB = 0 IB > 0 IB >> 0

Cutoff Linear Saturation

(PC > 0)

PC = 0 in both of these modes

169

A switch-mode amplifier uses a

170
rectangular input signal to drive the
transistor rapidly between cutoff and
saturation. The efficiency is very high.

They are also

called Class D
amplifiers.
C
B
E
RB

170

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 2/6/2021

171 If the switching frequency is a good deal higher

than the signal frequency, a Class D amplifier is
capable of linear amplification. Pulse-width
modulation and a low-pass filter are often used.

PWM Signal

Input Signal

171

Class C and D quiz

172
Class C amplifiers use _______ circuits to
restore sinusoidal signals. tank

The base-emitter junction in a class C

amplifier is ________ biased. reverse

The theoretical maximum efficiency for

class C is ___________. 100%

Class D amplifiers are also known as

__________ amplifiers. switch-mode

Class D amplifiers employ a varying duty-

cycle known as _________. PWM

172

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Concept Review
173
• Class C amplifiers are biased beyond cutoff for a small conduction angle and high
efficiency.

• Class C amplifiers used tuned tank circuits to reduce distortion in RF applications.

• Class C amplifiers cannot be used in wideband applications like audio.

• Class D amplifiers switch between cutoff and saturation for very high efficiency.

• Class D amplifiers operate at a relatively high switching frequency and often use
PWM.
• Class D can be used in audio applications.

173

174
THE SADDEST Testimony OF LIFE IS IN THREE
DESCRIPTION: I could HAVE, I should HAVE, I ought
TO HAVE. Will you look back in life and say;
thank God I did.

ORDINARY IS DIFFERENT FROM EXTRAORDINARY

BY THE WORD EXTRA. take your chances,
perspire a little bit more and always do
more than normal, you never know how
beautiful life can turn out to be.

174

87