PHYSICS

ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
IIT-JAM / M.Sc. ENTRANCE
 INDEX

Chapter Page no.

1. Electrostatics 01 – 112

2. Magnetism 113 – 224

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Chapter - 1
Electrostatics

INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetism is, almost unarguably, the most important basic technology in the world today.
Almost every modern device, from cars to kitchen appliances to computers, is dependent upon it.
Life, for most of us, would be almost unimaginable without electromagnetism. In fact,
electromagnetism cuts such a wide path through modern life that the teaching of electromagnetism
has developed into several different specialties.Initially electricity and magnetism were classified
as independent phenomena, but after some experiments (we will discuss later) it was found they
are interrelated so we use the name Electromagnetism . In electromagnetism we have to study

PHYSICS ACADEMY
basic properties of electromagnetic force and field (the term field will be introduced in later
section).The electromagnetic force between charged particles is one of the fundamental forces of
nature. We begin this chapter by describing some of the basic properties of one manifestation of
the electromagnetic force, the electrostatic force between charges (the force between two charges
when they are at rest) under the heading electrostatics.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
A number of simple experiments demonstrate the existence of electric forces and charges. For
example, after running a comb through your hair on a dry day, you will find that the comb attracts
bits of paper. The attractive force is often strong enough to suspend the paper. The same effect
occurs when certain materials are rubbed together, such as glass rubbed with silk or rubber with
fur. When materials behave in this way, they are said to be electrified, or to have become electrically
charged.A neutral body can get charged only by transfer of electrons, thus the lowest unit of free
charge that may appear on a body is charge of electron whose magnitude is e. When a body gets

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n electrons from other body charge on it becomes – ne while charge on body loosing n electrons
becomes + ne.
Unit of charge :
SI unit : coulomb (C). c.g.s. unit : e.s.u (electrostatic unit) or stat coulomb.
1C = 2.998 × 109 esu
Basic properties of electric charge
(i) There exist two types of charges in nature : positive and negative
Experimentally, it was found that there are two kinds of electric charges, which were given
the names positive and negative by Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790). We identify negative

Electromagnetic Theory 1
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charge as that type possessed by electrons and positive charge as that possessed by protons.
Secondly, it should also be noted that naming one charge as (+)ve and the other as
(–)ve is a matter of convention; there is no intrinsically compelling reason for this choice.
(ii) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
To verify this, suppose a hard rubber rod that has been rubbed with fur is suspended by a
sewing thread, as shown in Figure. When a glass rod that has been rubbed with silk is brought
near the rubber rod, the two attract each other (Fig. a). On the other hand, if two charged
rubber rods (or two charged glass rods) are brought near each other, as shown in Figure b, the
two repel each other. This observation shows that the rubber and glass have two different
types of charge on them. On the basis of these observations, we conclude that charges of the
same sign repel one another and charges with opposite signs attract one another.

(iii) Charges are additive i.e. the charges add algebraically despite the fact that the words (+)ve
and (–)ve don't have any algebraic meaning due to the property of the charges that equal
amount of two types of charges present at a point neutralize the effect of one another and
hence, the presence of none can be felt i.e., they behave like an uncharged state.
(iv)Charge is quantized : Charge exists in discrete units equal to the integral multiple of electronic
charge (Charge on one electron)
i.e., Q = ne
Where e(> 0) is the lowest possible magnitude of charge and n belongs to the set of integers:
n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, .......... and
e = magnitude of charge on one electron = 1.6 × 10–19 C
Our advanced nuclear research, however, suggests that the elementary particles of Hadron

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family, like, protons and Neutrons have internal structures. They are composed of basic units
1
called "Quarks" having charges – e (down quark 'd') and
3
2
3
e (up quark 'u'). Proton is made

up of three quarks, two up quarks and one down quark and its structure is 'uud'. Similarly the
structure of Neutrons is 'udd'.
Despite the overwhelming evidence of quarks having fractional electronic charges, we have
sufficient theoretical grounds to state that the liberation of a single quark is a physical
impossibility i.e. quarks don't have independent existence. They always exist in such groups
that the net charge of that group is equal to the integral multiple of electronic charge and we
still state the principle of quantization of charge as

2 Electromagnetic Theory
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Q = ne
Since loss or gain of electron is responsible for creating charge on a body and electron is a
particle with mass, every charged body will have mass also.
Illustration: A copper sphere contains about 2 × 1022 atoms. The charge on the nucleus of each atom
is 29e. what fraction of the electrons must be removed from the sphere to give it a charge
of +2 C ?
Solution: The total number of electrons is 29 (2 × 1022 ) = 5.8 × 1023.
Electrons removed = (2 × 10–6C) / (1.6 × 10–19C) = 1.25 × 1013,
So the fraction removed = electrons removed / total number electrons = 2.16 × 10–11.
(v) Charge is conserved : The total charge of universe remains constant. It may alternatively be
stated as follows : "The total charge of an Isolated system remains constant i.e. for a closed
system of particles.

ei – e i– Const.
i i

The above principle suggests that :

(a) Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed.
(b) Only (+)ve or only (–)ve charge can never be created.
(c) Simultaneous production of equal and opposite charges or simultaneous annihilation of equal

PHYSICS ACADEMY
and opposite charge don't violate the principle of conservation of charge.
Illustration: Three metallic spheres say X, Y and Z have charges 10C, –10C, 10C respectively. X, Y, Z
are brought in contact such that charge on each of A and B becomes 3C what is charge on
Z.
Solution: Net charge initially on X, Y and Z = (+10 –10 +10) = 10C
= Final net charge on X, Y and Z = qX + qY +qZ
= 3 + 3 + qc = 10 C qc = 4C.
Charging of body
Mainly there are following three methods of charging a body:
(i) Charging by rubbing
The simplest way to experience electric charges is to rub certain bodies against each other. When
a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth the glass rod acquires some positive charge and the silk

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cloth acquires negative charge by the same amount. The explanation of appearance of electric
charge on rubbing is simple. All material bodies contain large number of electrons and equal
number of protons in their normal state. When rubbed against each other, some electrons from
one body pass onto the other body. The body that donates the electrons becomes positively
charged while that which receives the electrons becomes negatively charged. For example when
glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth, glass rod becomes positively charged because it donates the
electrons while the silk cloth becomes negatively charged because it receives electrons. Electric-
ity so obtained by rubbing two objects is also known as frictional electricity. The other places
where the frictional electricity can be observed are when amber is rubbed with wool or a comb is
passed through a dry hair. Clouds also become charged by friction.

Electromagnetic Theory 3
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(ii) Charging by contact
When a negatively charged ebonite rod is rubbed on a metal object, such as a sphere, some of the
excess electrons from the rod are transferred to the sphere. Once the electrons are on the metal
sphere, where they can move readily, they repel one another and spread out over the sphere’s
surface. The insulated stand prevents them from flowing to the earth. When the rod is removed
the sphere is left with a negative charge distributed over its surface. In a similar manner the sphere
will be left with a positive charge after being rubbed with a positively charged rod. In this case,
electrons from the sphere would be transferred to the rod. The process of giving one object a net
electric charge by placing it in contact with another object that is already charged is known as
charging by contact.
(iii) Charging by induction
To understand how to charge a conductor by a process known as induction, consider a neutral
(uncharged) conducting sphere insulated from the ground, as shown in Fig. a. There are an equal
number of electrons and protons in the sphere if the charge on the sphere is exactly zero. When a
negatively charged rubber rod is brought near the sphere, electrons in the region nearest the rod
experience a repulsive force and migrate to the opposite side of the sphere. This leaves the side of
the sphere near the rod with an effective positive charge because of the diminished number of
electrons, as in Fig b. (The left side of the sphere in Fig b is positively charged as if positive
charges moved into this region, but remember that it is only electrons that are free to move.) This
occurs even if the rod never actually touches the sphere. If the same experiment is performed with
a conducting wire connected from the sphere to the Earth (Fig. c), some of the electrons in the
conductor are so strongly repelled by the presence of the negative charge in the rod that they

move out of the sphere through the wire and into the Earth. The symbol at the end of the
wire in Fig c indicates that the wire is connected to ground, which means a reservoir, such as the
Earth, that can accept or provide electrons freely with negligible effect on its electrical character-
istics. If the wire to ground is then removed (Fig.d), the conducting sphere contains an excess of
induced positive charge because it has fever electrons than it needs to cancel out the positive
charge of the protons. When the rubber rod is removed from the vicinity of the sphere (Fig.e), this
induced positive charge remains on the ungrounded sphere. Note that the rubber rod loses none
of its negative charge during this process. Charging an object by induction requires no contact
with the object inducing the charge. This is in contrast to charging an object by rubbing (that is, by
conduction), which does require contact between the two objects.

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4 Electromagnetic Theory
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Now similarly you can explain why a comb rubbed on hair attracts bits of paper.
A process similar to induction in conductors takes place in insulators. In most neutral molecules,
the center of positive charge coincides with the center of negative charge. However, in the pres-
ence of a charged object, these centers inside each molecule in an insulator may shift slightly,
resulting in more positive charge on one side of the molecule than on the other. This realignment
of charge within individual molecules produces a layer of charge on the surface of the insulator,
as shown in Figure 23.5a. Knowing about induction in insulators, you should be able to explain
why a comb that has been rubbed through hair attracts bits of electrically neutral paper and why
a balloon that has been rubbed against your clothing is able to stick to an electrically neutral wall.

PHYSICS ACADEMY

Note :
1. If the charge on one ball is large as compared to the similar charge on the other, the ball with

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large charge will induce a large charge of opposite kind on the other ball. As a result, attraction
will result inspite of repulsion.
2. Repulsion is the sure test for electrificaiton.
Coulomb's Law
On the basis of “Torsion balance” experiment “Charles Augustine Coulomb” put a quantitative
law for the force of attraction or repulsion on the charges which states that–
“The force of attraction or repulsion on one charge q2 placed at some separation from another
charge q1 (whose dimensions are small compared to their distance of separation) in infite
homogeneous medium, is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.”

Electromagnetic Theory 5
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F q1 q2
1
r2
q1 q2 q1q 2
F F=k
r 2
r2

Where k is a constant of proportionality. In C.G.S. Unit i.e. if F is measured in dyne, q1 and q2 in

coulomb and r in cm, then k = 1
q1q 2
In c.g.s. unit F
r2
But if the force is measured in newton, q1 and q2 in coulomb and r in metre then
1 1
Then k= 4 in air or vacuum and k = in an infinite homogeneous material medium
0 4
other than air.
So if the intervening medium between the charges is air or it is vacuum then in S.I. Units
1 q1q 2
F= 4
0 r2

0
is called permittivity of free space.
is called absolute permittivity of the given material medium.
The ratio of the absolute permittivity of a given medium and that of the permittivity of free space
is called relative permittivity of that medium or its dielectric constant ( represented by symbol r
or K)

r
or K = So, = 0 r
or K 0
0
1 q1q2 1 q1q2 F
Hence, Fmedium
4 2 4 2
r 0K r K
Note (i) K, the dielectric constant of the medium (also called relative permittivity) being ratio of two like
quantities, is a dimensionless constant.
(ii) Air or vacuum has minimum relative permittivity (K = 0/ 0 = 1). The relative permittivity of
all other media is greater than 1 usually and K = infinite for a conducting medium.

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(iii) When the charges are placed in infinite dielectric medium then dielectric medium is getting
polarized and force on q1 or q2 is not simply due to q1 or q2 but due to polarized charges also
1
and net force on q1 or q2 becomes times. (See next Illustration)
r

Illustration : Two equal point charges (10–3C)are placed 1 cm apart in medium of dielectric constant K
=5
(a) Find the interaction force between the point charges.
(b) Net force on any of the charge.

6 Electromagnetic Theory
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Solution: (a) Interaction force between point charges

3 2
1 q 1q 2 9 10
F= 4 9 10
0 r2 10 2 2

= 9 × 107 N
(b) Net force

3 2
1 q 1q 2 9 10 9 10
F
4 0 k r2 5 10 2 2

= 18 × 106 N
Illustration: Two small balls each of mass m and charge q on each of them are suspended through two
light insulating string of length l from a point. Find the expression for angle made by any
of the string with vertical when under static equilibrium.

q q
m

PHYSICS ACADEMY
m

Solution: Let angle of any string with vertical be as shown

T T
Fe Fe

mg mg

1 q2
Fe 2
T sin ... (i) for horizontal direction
4 0 2 sin

T cos = mg ... (ii) for vertical direction

Dividing (i) by (ii)

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tan =
Fe
mg
Vector form of coulomb’s law :
By stating coulomb's law in vector form more information can be packed in it.

q1 r q2 r

Let the position vector of charge q2 relative to charge q1 be r and r is a unit vector in the
direction of r

Electromagnetic Theory 7
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r
so, r | r | r̂ r r̂ hence, r̂
r
Coulomb's law, in vector form, may be written as

1 q 1q2 1 q 1q2
F r̂ = r
4 r2 4 r3
From the above form of the coulomb's law, It may be justified that,
(i) The force of electrostatic interaction between two charges is operating along the line joining the
charges.
(ii) The force obeys inverse square law
(iii) If q1q2 > 0 (it means the product of the two charges is positive) this implies that charges are
similar, i.e., either both positive or both negative. Hence, repulsion will result.
(iv) If q1q2 < 0, it means the product of the magnitude of the charges is negative. In other words, these
are unlike charges, i.e., one charge is positive and the other charge is negative. Hence, the
electrostatic force between them is attractive.
Like charges repel each other unlike charges attract
(vi) The force on q1 due to q2 is equal and opposite to the force on q2 due to q1

F12 – F21
i.e. The force of electrostatic interaction between two charges obey Newton's 3rd law. It should,

however, be noted that the equality F 12 F 21 breaks down when one charge is accelerated
towards the other i.e., Newton's 3rd law doesn't hold . This is why Newton's 3rd law is supposed
to be a weak law of physics.
Force Between Two Charges in Terms of Their Position Vectors :
Consider two like charges q1 and q2 located in vacuum at positions A and B respectively. Let the
positions of A and B with reference to the orign O of the coordinate frame be given by position
vectors

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r1 and r2 respectively, i.e., OA r1 and OB r2

Now, OA AB OB (triangle law of vectors)

8 Electromagnetic Theory
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EXERCISE - III
One or More than One Correct Type
1. Mid way between the two equal and similar charges, we placed the third equal and similar charge.
Which of the following statements is correct, concerned to the equilibrium along the line joining
the charges ?
(a) The third charge experienced a net force inclined to the line joining the charges
(b) The third charge is in stable equilibrium
(c) The third charge is in unstable equilibrium
(d) The third charge experiences a net force perpendicular to the line joining the charges
2. Two fixed charges 4Q (positive) and Q (negative) are located at A and B, the distance AB being
3 m.

(a) The point P where the resultant field due to both is zero is on AB outside AB.
(b) The point P where the resultant field due to both is zero is on AB inside AB.
(c) If a positive charge is placed at P and displaced slightly along AB it will execute oscillations.
(d) If a negative charge is placed at P and displaced slightly along AB it will execute oscillations.
3.
PHYSICS ACADEMY
Two point charges Q and – Q/4 are separated by a distance x. Then

(a) potential is zero at a point on the axis which is x/3 on the right side of the charge – Q/4
(b) potential is zero at a point on the axis which is x/5 on the left side of the charge – Q/4
(c) electric field is zero at a point on the axis which is at a distance x on the right side of the charge
– Q/4
(d) there exist two points on the axis where electric field is zero.
4. An electric charge 10–8 C is placed at the point (4m, 7m, 2m). At the point (1m, 3m, 2m), the
electric
(a) potential will be 18 V (b) field has no Y-component
(c) field will be along Z-axis (d) potential will be 1.8 V
5. Three point charges Q, 4Q and 16Q are placed on a straight line 9 cm long. Charges are placed in

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such a way that the system has minimum potential energy. Then
(a) 4Q and 16Q must be at the ends and Q at a distance of 3 cm from the 16Q.
(b) 4Q and 16Q must be at the ends and Q at a distance of 6 cm from the 16Q.
(c) Electric field at the position of Q is zero.
Q
(d) Electric field at the position of Q is 4 .
0

Electromagnetic Theory 103