OTC 19271

Produced Water Discharge Monitoring

T. Husain, B. Veitch, K. Hawboldt, H.Niu, S. Adams, and J. Shanaa, Memorial University of Newfoundland

Copyright 2008, Offshore Technology Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2008 Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 5–8 May 2008.

This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
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Abstract
This paper describes how Memorial University is using a new ocean going autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) to collect
ocean environmental monitoring data to take detailed environmental measurements in the water column and to validate ocean
environmental monitoring and modeling tools. The research team is developing models to anticipate, manage and mitigate
changes in environmental quality, habitat changes and pollutant effects of produced water discharges from offshore oil and
gas platforms. Hydrodynamic discharge models that have been developed and validated are described. In the process of
executing this research program, highly qualified personnel are being trained in the area of offshore environmental
monitoring, risk assessment, and risk management to ensure the sustainability of offshore oil and gas projects.

1. INTRODUCTION

Atlantic Canada is in the process of developing offshore oil and gas fields. Within the Province of Newfoundland and
Labrador, three offshore fields are already operational and other fields are good prospects. On the Grand Bank, the Hibernia
oilfield, 315 km east and south-east of St. John’s, has been producing oil since 1997. Average water depth in this area is 80 m
and the field is operated using a gravity-based platform. The Terra Nova oilfield is 35 km south-east of Hibernia. It has been
producing since 2001. It has a floating platform with average water depth at 95 m. The White Rose oilfield is also close to
Hibernia and it has been producing since 2005. The water depth in this area is about 125 m. The Hebron oilfield, which is
also close to Hibernia and Terra Nova, may be the next field to be developed. Recent studies estimate a combined
recoverable reserve on the Grand Banks of 2.751 billion barrels of oil, up 696 million barrels from previous estimates. In
order to predict, manage and mitigate the potential impacts of changes associated with offshore oil and gas development there
is a need to develop decision-making tools.

The research team in the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science at Memorial University has been involved in
developing environmental decision-making tools to manage waste discharges from offshore oil and gas projects since 1999.
The team has conducted several studies on environmental risk assessment and risk management tools for discharge of drilling
wastes and produced waters in the marine environment.

In the last eight years, the team has focused mainly on the following topics:

1. Development of a probabilistic hydrodynamic model and risk-based design procedure for produced water
discharges (Mukhtasor, 2001).
2. Risk-based decision model for drilling waste discharges in the marine environment (Sadiq, 2001).
3. Assessment of performance characteristics of sensors for environmental monitoring using underwater vehicles
(Pennell, 2003).
4. Laboratory investigation of the settling characteristics of drilling cuttings (Niu, 2003).
5. Evaluation of various offshore drilling waste treatment technologies using multi-criteria decision-making
(Thanyamanta, 2003).
6. Development of decision support software to manage produced water in offshore oilfields (Chowdhury, 2004).
7. Environmental effects monitoring of fish plant effluent in coastal Newfoundland (Adams, 2005)
8. The dispersion of offshore discharged produced waters in the marine environment: hydrodynamic modeling and
experimental study (Niu, 2008).
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Although the MUN research team has covered many research areas in offshore environmental engineering but his paper
highlights the research activities in offshore produced water management with emphasis on produced water discharge
monitoring.

2. OFFSHORE PRODUCED WATER MANAGEMENT

Produced water is the mixture of formation water, injected water, chemicals added during extraction of oil and gas and the
process chemicals used to treat the produced water. The contaminants in produced water can be categorized into metals,
BTEX (Benzene, Toluene, Ethyl Benzene and Xylenes), PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), NPD (Naphthalene,
Phenanthrene and Dibenzothiophene including their alkyl homologues) and NORM (naturally occurring radioactive
materials). PAHs represent a toxicity concern, however, quantifying and determining the fate of PAHs from produced water
is difficult. The NPD components are less volatile and thus are more persistent in the water column. The BTEX compounds
are volatile and will evaporate rapidly from water close to the sea surface. NORM components, especially 226Ra and 228Ra
have long half-lives and thus persist for many years in the marine environment.

At Memorial University, Mukhtasor et al. (2002) integrated a human health risk assessment concept into the near field and
transition zone models for outfalls and a probabilistic ecological risk assessment model with a case study based on produced
water discharge from an offshore platform (Mukhtasor et al., 2004). Chowdhury (2004) developed decision support software
(DSS) with an application to characterize risk of produced water released from offshore platforms during operation. The
software includes several modules, such as a chemical database for produced water contaminants, integration of the database
with initial dilution and subsequent dispersion models developed by Mukhtasor (2000), a probabilistic fish growth model and
human health risk assessment (Chowdhury et al., 2004). The DSS thus developed is schematically shown in Figure 1. The
database on chemicals was integrated into the initial dilution and dispersion models for predicting available concentration in
the marine environment.

Figure 1. Schematic of the decision support system

2.1 Hydrodynamic Modeling

Hydrodynamic modeling of produced water plumes was integrated with ecological risk assessment and risk management
methodology (US EPA, 1998). An initial dilution model and a far field model developed by Mukhtasor et al (1999, 2001a
and 2001b) are based on limited experimental dataand are applicable for a short distance from the discharge port where
buoyant spreading is more dominant than turbulent diffusion. Mukhtasor’s model (2001) is valid only for positive buoyant
produced water in an unstratified water column where the effect of tides and waves are negligible. Most of the models
developed so far have conceptual and reliability problems in the transitional zone due to numerical inaccuracy in simplifying
complex flow behavior and neglecting wave effects on near field mixing. Furthermore, the far field models rely on dispersion
coefficients that are not at all well defined in these models.
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Niu has recently developed a more realistic probabilistic based model, PROMISE (Produced water Mixing In Steady-state
Environment), which can be applied in a stratified water body which includes the effects of waves, tides and current (Niu,
2008). Furthermore, the far field models rely on dispersion coefficients that are not at all well defined in these models. Niu
has recently developed a more realistic probabilistic based model, PROMISE (Produced water Mixing In Steady-state
Environment), which can be applied in a stratified water body which includes the effects of waves, tides and current (Niu,
2008). The proposed model has four sub-components: 1) PROMISE1 - a near field model which simulates the initial mixing
behavior before boundary interaction occurs; 2) PROMISE2 - a wave effect model which accounts for the effects of both
internal and surface waves; 3) PROMISE3 - a boundary interaction model which may include an upstream intrusion and a
downstream control model depending on the impinging angle; and 4) PROMISE4 - a far field dispersion model which
models the buoyant spreading and turbulent diffusion process. Due to its steady-state nature, the application of PROMISE
alone is very limited. To study the mixing behaviors of produced water in non-steady state environment, the PROMISE
model must be coupled with a three dirensional advection-diffusion model. For example, Niu (2008) has coupled it with the
DHI MIKE 3 model in ahypothetical study. The coupling algorithm is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Schematic of the coupling algorithm.

Offshore Environmental Effects Monitoring

One of the outcomes of environmental risk assessment and risk management work is the uncertainty associated with the
predictive models. To reduce such uncertainties, the contaminant dispersion and dilution data is required to validate a
hydrodynamic model. In order to collect such data continuous plume monitoring is required to provide dilution and
dispersion of the plume. In situ online monitoring can provide answer to such changes. Chemical sensor technologies have
appeared as a dynamic approach for identifying and quantifying specific pollutants in the aqueous environment. Due to the
need for continuous and multi-component analysis, as well as fast sample preparation methods, novel sensing technologies
are emerging that make environmental monitoring much simpler and more accurate. For in situ monitoring, especially in a
difficult environment such as the ocean, sensors must be simple, robust and make appropriate measurement with the
minimum complexity.
Many chemical sensors technologies have evolved recently, including wet chemical analyzers for the in situ monitoring of
nitrate, sensing of nitrate concentration using UV absorption spectrometry, flow injection with chemiluminescence detection,
optical microsensors and microprobes, laser based fiber optic fluorometers for sea water measurements, electrochemical
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sensors for in situ measurement of organic molecules in seawater and electrochemical monitoring of dissolved trace metals
(Varney, 2000). One of the promising sensor technologies is the Fiber Optic Chemical Sensors (FOCs). They are simply
coating-based sensors on fiber optics that detect contaminants by monitoring the change in the refractive index on the coating
of the fiber optics . They can easily accommodate multi sensing elements and can be miniaturized.

Memorial University has recently acquired a 4.5m ocean-going AUV with a 3,000m depth capability built by International
Submarine Engineering Ltd. This AUV is a multi-use vehicle (Figure 4). The primary research aims are in the areas of
offshore environmental engineering, coastal water quality monitoring, and seabed survey.

In order to conduct such survey, sensors are deployed in the AUV. These sensors can be categoriezed in physical, chemicxal
or biological sensors. Table 1 summarizes some of the sensors that can be integrated with the AUV. Analytical systems
usually include pumps, injection valves, reaction chamber and a sensor. These devices when integrated with AUV can
provide spatial and temporal information about the aquatic environment.

Table 1 Sensor and Analytical systems commonly used for AUV monitoring

Parameter Category Sensor Type Advantage Limitations

Conductivity Physical CTD/ Thermistors - Response time 65 ms - Biofouling effect
(Zhaoying, 2004) -Ranges 0-70 ms/cm
Temperature Physical CTD/Thermistors - Ranges -5 to 35 oC - Biofouling effect
(Zhaoying, 2004) - Response time 65 m/s
Depth Physical CTD/Thermistors Ranges 0 to 6800 mpa - Biofouling effect
(Zhaoying, 2004)
- Interference with other ions
Dissolved Oxygen Physical Electrochemical - Fast response time Frequent calibration
(Tegberg et al., 2006), (Clark type ) - Accurate measurement - Biofouling during long term
(Johnson et., 2005) measurement
Chlorophyll a - Power consumption - Effect of stray light
(Wesson et al., 1998) Biological Fiber optic reasonable. Environmental stress on sensors
fluorometers - Detection limit of 0.1 and fibers, many cause fiber
mg/m3 degradation
- affected by turbidity
Turbidity - 0 to 1,000 NTU - Sensitivity to suspended particle
(Battisto,2002) Physical Optical - Rugged, relatively grain size
Backscattering unobtrusive and easy to - Biofouling problems may occur
install and operate for long term deployment and
affect the sensitivity of the sensor
Nutrients Chemical Ultra Violate - Performs real-time -
(Johnson et al., 2002) absorption measurements in a shorter Matrix interference of sea water
technique time
- Does not require chemical
reagents during analysis.
Hydrocarbons Chemical Underwater Mass - Can detect VOC’s and - Relatively expansive
(Short et al., 1999) Spectrometer other - Parameters at very - Sophisticated technique
low concentration

Applied Microsystems has developed a mass spectrometer (MS)for AUV application. The MS can detect and quantify
complex compounds, including Polyaromatic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in water (Figure 3). The first such experiment
was conducted using above mass spectrometer on the 5m ARCS vehicle (Pennell, 2002, Pennell et al. 2003). The practical
depth of deployment for this experiment was limited to 30 m. The trials were conducted over a three-day period from
February 4 through February 6, 2002 in Burrard Inlet, near Vancouver, BC. A picture showing the mass spectrometer
installed on the AUV is presented in Figure 3. Dimethyl sulphide (DMS) was used as a chemical tracer for this experiment.
OTC 19271 5

Figure 3 Mass Spectrometer in ARCS vehicle.

Figure 4 MUN Explorer AUV with Sensors

2.3 Holyrood Outfall Experiment

Previous studies using a REMUS AUV to monitor ocean outfalls (Ramos et al. 2000) and using an ARCS AUV to detect a
plume (Pennell 2003) have demonstrated the capability of using an AUV to map an outfall. However, these studies are
preliminary. The studies using REMUS only measured the dilution at one depth (1 m below water surface) and the study
using ARCS did not collect ambient data. A more comprehensive study using an AUV to map the whole profile of a
concentration field and compare the results with hydrodynamic models has not been made. In order to map the produced
water plume and to collect data to validate hydrodynamic models, another study was conducted to survey an ocean outfall
with our AUV.

To study the ability of plume mapping using the MUN Explorer AUV, field tests that tracked a Rhodamine WT dye
discharge were conducted on August 31, 2006 and again on September 7, 2006. The field tests were performed in the south
arm of Holyrood Bay at the head of Conception Bay. Holyrood Bay is located about 40 km southwest of St. John’s,
Newfoundland. The location and bathymetry of the study area are shown in Figure 5.
6 OTC 19271

Figure 5. Location and bathymetry of the study site.

The AUV was launched from the wharf on the west side of the Bay. The water depth at the wharf is about 6 m. Except the
locations close to coastal lines, the water depths for most of the study area are deeper than 6 m. The deepest water depth of
about 19 m is at the center of the Bay. The objective of this study was to use the MUN Explorer to map a plume similar to
those produced water outfalls. There is no existing outfall of this type in the study area, therefore a temporary artificial outfall
was built on the wharf. The configuration of the discharge system is illustrated in Figure 6. Freshwater was supplied at a rate
of about 1.72 L/s and mixed with the concentrated dye pumped from an 800 Liter storage tank to the flow mixer. Because of
the pump has a much higher flowrate than needed, an adjustment tank was used to return most of the dye to the storage tank
and only a small amount of dye was sent to the flow mixer by gravity. The flowrate of the dye was controlled to give a mixed
water dye concentration of about 11.5 ppm and 22.7 ppm for August 31 and September 7, respectively.

Figure 6 Schematic of the Discharge System

The mixed water was then sent to the mixed water storage tank and discharged into the sea through a 2 inch diameter pipe
submerged at about 3m below sea surface. The distance of the discharge pipe to the wharf is about 4 m. Two missions were
performed on August 31, 2007 and September 7, 2007 respectively and are briefly discussed in the following sections.

The first mission time on August 31, 2007 was about 2 hours. The vehicle surveyed an area of about 120 m × 240 m. The
area survey for this test was mainly east and northeast the wharf. The current data was also collected during the mission and
is plotted in Figure 7. It can be seen from the plot that the dominant direction was north east. The current speed ranged from
2.21 cm/s to 12.61 cm/s with the mean speed of 5.86 cm/s.
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Figure 7 Measured currents on August 31, 2006: Rose plot (top), time series plot (bottom).

The measured concentrations over the course of the test are plotted in Figure 8. It can be seen that the measured concentration
for the study area range from 0 to about 273 ppb. The highest concentration was observed at at about 0.47 m depth. This can
be confirmed by plotting the concentration versus depth of AUV. Because only limited data were collected for other layers,
only the data at the 0.5 m depth were used to construct the contour plots.

Figure 8 Rhodamine WT concentration versus AUV depth (August 31, 2006).

The mission time for the second test on September 7, 2007 was about 1 hour and 10 minutes. The area surveyed was about
170 m × 240 m. The area survey for this test covered both the northeast and southeast of the wharf. A current meter moored
about 10 m away from the discharge point measured the current information. The depths of the measurements ranged from
0.4 m to 1.45 m with the majority of measurements between 0.55 m to 0.6 m depth.

The measured concentrations over the course of the test are plotted in Figure 9. It can be seen that the measured concentration
for the study area range from 0 to about 190 ppb. In this second test, the plume spread toward the east. The highest
concentration was measured at the discharge point and decreased toward the plume edge. The plume mapped by the AUV for
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this case is relatively smooth but still showed patchiness. An interesting pattern showed by the contour is that the plume
separated into two centers downstream.

Figure 9 Contour plot of the Rhodamine WT distribution (detailed view)

2.4 Spaniyard Bay Experiment

Our group completed monitoring trials in Spaniards Bay near a sewage outfall (about 3300 to 4500 cubic meters of sewage
per day). This ourfall is located along the Conception Bay South of Newfoundland (CBS). The outfall consists of 0.2 m
diameter pipe discharging the waste horizontally through two 0.1 m diameter nozzles about 100 m offshore at 5 m depth. In
these trials, the AUV carried integrated CTD, Chlorophyll and turbidity sensors. After data analysis, 2-D maps were
generated. Figure 10 illustrates some of the maps generated during this mission. The chart demonstrates variations in
turbidity, salinity, and temperature at the surface mission around the outfall area.

3. Conclusions and Recommendations

In this paper, the MUN Explorer has been used to map the coastal plumes. The AUV has great potential to be deployed for
offshore environmental monitoring incliding produced water discharges in the deep oceal.. S plume mapping mission using
this type of AUV, only simple mission were performed. In order to map the plume more effectively and improve the quality
of experiments in the future, the following methods are suggested:
• The area survey should be large enough to capture the plume edge. If the farrest points have values greater than
zero, the contour beyond these points will be difficult to construct. This is the problem encounter in the present
study and an arbitrary edge far away from the plume was assumed.
• The sensors are suggested to be mounted on the bottom of the AUV instead of the side. The reason is that during
some surface missions especially the extreme weather conditions, the sensor may be out of water when the vehicle
trying to maintain positions. In these cases, zero values will be collected and this becomes a noise that affects the
data quality.
• For the same reason, the AUV depth must be at least 0.7 m if the sensor mounting remains unchanged.
• The present only mapped one horizontal layer and the advantages of the AUV were not fully used. A longer mission
that continually survey multi-layers are suggested in order to obtain the 3D plume information.
• Due to separated data logging system, the post-processing was extremely time consuming. The sensor must be
integrated to the vehicle and log the data in same file. This has already been completed after the experiments.
Acknowledgements
The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada and the Petroleum Research Atlantic Canada
(PRAC) provided financial support for this study.
OTC 19271 9

Figure 10 Two-dimensional mapping of outfall monitoring mission

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