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OFEEE

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

AND SCIENCES (AUTONOMOUS)
TIRUPATHI

CONTROLSYSTEMS
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UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION

A control system manages commands, directs or regulates the behavior of other devices
orsystemsusing controlloops.Itcan
rangefromasinglehomeheatingcontrollerusingathermostatcontrollingadomesticboilertolarg
eIndustrialcontrolsystemswhichareusedfor controlling processes or machines. A control
system is a system, which provides thedesired response by controlling the output. The
following figure shows the simple blockdiagramofacontrolsystem.

Examples−Trafficlightscontrolsystem,washingmachine

Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of

inputsignal is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that
will be on for some duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off.
Based on the traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be
determined. Accordingly,the input signal controls the output. So,the traffic lights control
system operates on time basis.

ClassificationofControlSystems
Basedonsomeparameters,wecan classifythecontrolsystemsintothefollowingways.

ContinuoustimeandDiscrete-timeControl Systems
 ControlSystemscanbeclassifiedascontinuoustimecontrolsystemsanddiscretetimecont
rolsystemsbasedonthetypeofthesignalused.

 Incontinuoustimecontrolsystems,allthesignalsarecontinuousintime.But,indiscrete
timecontrolsystems,thereexistsoneormorediscretetimesignals.

SISOandMIMOControlSystems
 ControlSystemscanbeclassifiedasSISOcontrolsystemsandMIMOcontrolsystemsbased
onthenumberofinputsandoutputspresent.

 SISO
(SingleInputandSingleOutput)controlsystemshaveoneinputandoneoutput.Whereas,
MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems have
morethanoneinputandmorethanoneoutput.
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OpenLoopandClosedLoopControlSystems
ControlSystemscanbeclassifiedasopenloopcontrolsystemsandclosedloopcontrolsystems
basedonthefeedbackpath.

Inopenloopcontrolsystems,outputisnotfed-
backtotheinput.So,thecontrolactionisindependentofthedesiredoutput.

Thefollowingfigureshowstheblockdiagram oftheopenloopcontrolsystem.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or

controllingsignal. This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be
controlled. So, theplant produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control
system which wediscussedearlierisanexampleofanopenloop control system.

In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action
isdependentonthedesiredoutput.

The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop
controlsystem.

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input
andthe feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback
elements) byconsidering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead
of the directinput,theerrorsignal isappliedasaninputtoacontroller.
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So,thecontrollerproducesanactuatingsignalwhichcontrolstheplant.Inthiscombination,the
output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired
response.Hence,theclosedloopcontrolsystemsarealsocalledtheautomaticcontrolsystems.Tr
afficlightscontrolsystemhavingsensorattheinputisanexampleofaclosedloopcontrolsystem.

The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are
mentionedinthefollowing table.

If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized
aspart of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role
inorder to improve the performance of the control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss
thetypes offeedback&effects offeedback.
TypesofFeedback
Therearetwotypes offeedback−

 Positivefeedback
 Negativefeedback
PositiveFeedback
Thepositivefeedbackaddsthereferenceinput,R(s)R(s)andfeedbackoutput.Thefollowingfigures
howstheblockdiagramofpositivefeedbackcontrolsystem
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he concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time
being,considerthetransfer functionof positivefeedbackcontrolsystemis,

Where,

 Tisthetransferfunctionoroverallgainofpositivefeedbackcontrolsystem.
 Gistheopenloopgain,whichisfunctionoffrequency. 
 Histhegainoffeedbackpath,whichisfunctionoffrequency. 

NegativeFeedback
Negative feedback reducesthe errorbetweenthe reference input, R(s)R(s)
andsystemoutput. The following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback
controlsystem.

Transferfunctionofnegativefeedbackcontrolsystemis,
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Where,


Tisthetransferfunctionoroverallgainofnegativefeedbackcontrolsystem.
 Gistheopenloopgain,whichisfunctionoffrequency. 
 Histhegainoffeedbackpath,whichisfunctionoffrequency. 
Thederivation ofthe abovetransferfunctionispresentinlaterchapters.
EffectsofFeedback
Letusnowunderstandtheeffectsoffeedback.

EffectofFeedbackonOverallGain
 From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed
loopcontrol system is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase
ordecreasedepending onthevalueof(1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case,
'GH'valueisnegativebecausethegain ofthefeedbackpathisnegative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this
case,'GH'valueispositivebecausethegain ofthefeedbackpathis positive. 

Ingeneral,'G'and'H'arefunctionsoffrequency.So,thefeedbackwillincreasetheoverallgainofthe
systeminonefrequencyrangeanddecreaseintheother frequencyrange.

EffectofFeedbackonSensitivity
Sensitivity oftheoverallgainofnegativefeedbackclosedloopcontrolsystem(T)tothevariation
inopenloopgain(G)is definedas
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So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the
reciprocalof(1+GH).So,Sensitivitymayincreaseordecreasedependingonthevalueof(1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, 'GH'
valueisnegativebecausethegainoffeedbackpathisnegative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case,
'GH'valueis positivebecausethegainoffeedbackpathis positive. 

Ingeneral,'G'and'H'arefunctionsoffrequency.So,feedbackwillincreasethesensitivityofthesyst
emgaininonefrequencyrangeanddecreaseintheotherfrequencyrange.Therefore, we have to
choose the values of 'GH' in such a way that the system is insensitiveor less
sensitivetoparametervariations.

EffectofFeedbackonStability
 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to
beunstable.
 In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of
thecontrolsystemwillbeinfinite.So,thecontrolsystembecomes unstable. 
Therefore,wehavetoproperlychoosethefeedbackinordertomakethecontrolsystemstable.
EffectofFeedbackonNoise
Toknowtheeffectoffeedbackonnoise,letuscomparethetransferfunctionrelationswithandwith
outfeedbackdueto noisesignalalone.

Consideranopenloopcontrolsystemwithnoisesignalasshownbelow.
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Thecontrolsystemscanberepresentedwithasetofmathematicalequationsknownas
mathematicalmodel.Thesemodelsareusefulforanalysisanddesignofcontrolsystems.Analysis
ofcontrolsystemmeansfindingtheoutputwhenweknowtheinputand
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mathematicalmodel.Designofcontrolsystemmeansfindingthemathematicalmodelwhenwekn
owtheinputandtheoutput.

Thefollowingmathematicalmodelsaremostlyused.

 Differentialequationmodel
 Transferfunctionmodel
 Statespacemodel
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TRANSFERFUNCTIONREPRESENTATION

BlockDiagrams

Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used
torepresentthecontrolsystemsinpictorial form.

BasicElementsofBlockDiagram
Thebasicelementsofablockdiagramareablock,thesummingpointandthetake-offpoint.Let us
consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the
followingfiguretoidentify theseelements.

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It
isalso having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of
theflowofsignals.Letusnowdiscusstheseelementsonebyone.

Block
Thetransferfunctionofacomponentisrepresentedbyablock.Blockhassingleinputandsingleout
put.

ThefollowingfigureshowsablockhavinginputX(s),outputY(s)andthetransferfunctionG(s).
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SummingPoint
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or
moreinputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs
thesummationorsubtractionorcombinationofsummationandsubtractionoftheinputsbasedon
thepolarityof theinputs.Letusseethesethreeoperationsonebyone.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output
(Y).Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the
output, Yas sumofAandB i.e.=A+B.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output
(Y).Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B
ishaving negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as the difference of
AandBi.e

Y=A+(-B)=A-B.
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Thefollowingfigureshowsthesummingpointwiththreeinputs(A,B,C)andoneoutput(Y).Here,
the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So,
thesummingpointproducestheoutputYas

Y=A+B+(−C)=A+B−C.

Take-offPoint
The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through
morethan one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same
inputto one or more blocks, summing points.In the following figure, the take-off point is
used toconnectthesameinput, R(s)totwomoreblocks.
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Inthefollowingfigure,thetake-
offpointisusedtoconnecttheoutputC(s),asoneoftheinputstothesumming point.

Blockdiagramalgebraisnothingbutthealgebrainvolvedwiththebasicelementsoftheblock
diagram.Thisalgebra dealswiththe pictorialrepresentationofalgebraicequations.

BasicConnectionsforBlocks
Therearethreebasictypesofconnectionsbetweentwoblocks.

SeriesConnection
Seriesconnectionisalsocalledcascadeconnection.Inthefollowingfigure,twoblockshavingtrans
ferfunctionsG1(s)G1(s)andG2(s)G2(s)areconnectedinseries.
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That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block.
Thetransfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those
twoblocks.Theequivalentblockdiagramisshownbelow.

Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transferfunctionofthissingleblockistheproductofthetransferfunctionsofallthose‘n’blocks.

ParallelConnection
Theblockswhichareconnectedinparallelwillhavethesameinput.Inthefollowingfigure,two
blocks having transfer functions G1(s)G1(s) and G2(s)G2(s) are connected in
parallel.Theoutputsofthesetwoblocksareconnectedto thesumming point.

That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block.
Thetransferfunctionofthissingleblockisthesumofthetransferfunctionsofthosetwoblocks.The
equivalent blockdiagramis shown below.
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Similarly,youcanrepresentparallelconnectionof‘n’blockswithasingleblock.Thetransferfuncti
on of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’blocks.

FeedbackConnection
As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive
feedbackand negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control
system. Here,twoblockshavingtransferfunctionsG(s)G(s)and H(s)H(s)formaclosedloop.

Therefore,thenegativefeedbackclosedlooptransferfunctionis:

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a
singleblock. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of
thenegativefeedback. Theequivalentblockdiagramis shownbelow.
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Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a
singleblock. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of
thepositivefeedback, i.e.,

BlockDiagramAlgebraforSummingPoints

Thereare twopossibilitiesofshiftingsummingpointswithrespecttoblocks−

 Shiftingsummingpointaftertheblock 
 Shiftingsummingpointbeforetheblock 
Letusnowseewhatkindofarrangementsneedtobedoneintheabovetwocasesonebyone.

ShiftingtheSummingPointbeforeaBlocktoafteraBlock
Considertheblockdiagramshowninthefollowingfigure.Here,thesummingpointispresentbefore
theblock.

TheoutputofSummingpointis
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CompareEquation1andEquation 2.

Thefirstterm‘G(s)R(s)′‘G(s)R(s)′issameinboththeequations.But,thereisdifferenceinthesecond
term.Inordertogetthesecondtermalsosame,werequireonemoreblockG(s)G(s).It is having the
input X(s)X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing
pointinsteadofX(s)X(s). Thisblockdiagramisshown in thefollowingfigure.
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CompareEquation3andEquation 4,

Thefirstterm
‘G(s)R(s)′issameinbothequations.But,thereisdifferenceinthesecondterm.Inordertogetthesec
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ondtermalsosame,werequireonemoreblock1/G(s).Itishavingthe
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inputX(s)andtheoutputofthisblockisgivenasinputtosummingpointinsteadof
X(s).Thisblockdiagramis showninthefollowingfigure.

BlockDiagramAlgebraforTake-offPoints
Thereare twopossibilitiesofshiftingthetake-offpointswithrespecttoblocks−

 Shiftingtake-offpointaftertheblock 
 Shiftingtake-offpointbeforetheblock
Letusnowseewhatkindofarrangementsistobedoneintheabovetwocases,onebyone.

Shifting a Take-off Point form a Position before a Block to a position after the
BlockConsidertheblockdiagramshowninthefollowingfigure.Inthiscase,thetake-
offpointispresentbeforetheblock.

Whenyoushiftthetake-offpointaftertheblock,theoutputY(s)
willbesame.But,thereisdifferencein
X(s)value.So,inordertogetthesameX(s)value,werequireonemore
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block1/G(s).ItishavingtheinputY(s)andtheoutputisX(s)thisblockdiagramisshowninthefollowin
g figure.

ShiftingTake-offPointfromaPositionafteraBlock
toapositionbeforetheBlockConsidertheblockdiagramshowninthefollowingfigure.Here,
thetake-offpointispresentaftertheblock.

When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But,
thereisdifferenceinX(s)value.So,inordertogetsameX(s)value,werequireonemoreblockG(s)Itis
havingtheinputR(s)andtheoutputisX(s).Thisblockdiagram isshowninthefollowingfigure.
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Theconceptsdiscussedinthepreviouschapterarehelpfulforreducing(simplifying)theblockdiagr
ams.

BlockDiagramReductionRules
Followtheserulesforsimplifying(reducing)theblockdiagram,whichishavingmanyblocks,summi
ngpoints andtake-offpoints.

 Rule1−Checkfortheblocksconnected inseriesandsimplify. 
 Rule2−Checkfortheblocksconnectedinparallelandsimplify. 
 Rule3−Checkfortheblocksconnected infeedbackloopand simplify. 
 Rule4−Ifthereisdifficultywithtake-offpointwhilesimplifying,shiftittowardsright. 
 Rule5−Ifthereisdifficultywithsummingpointwhilesimplifying,shiftittowardsleft.

Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single
block.Note−Thetransferfunctionpresentinthissingleblockisthetransferfunctionoftheoverallbl
ockdiagram.

Note−Followthesestepsinordertocalculatethetransfer
functionoftheblockdiagramhavingmultipleinputs.

 Step1−Findthe transferfunctionofblockdiagrambyconsideringone
inputatatimeandmaketheremaining inputs as zero. 
 Step2−Repeatstep1 forremaininginputs.
 Step3−Gettheoveralltransferfunctionbyaddingallthosetransferfunctions.

Theblockdiagramreductionprocesstakesmoretimeforcomplicatedsystemsbecause;wehave
to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to overcome
thisdrawback,usesignal flowgraphs (representation).

BlockDiagramReduction-Summary
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Examples:

1. Considertheblockdiagramshowninthefollowingfigure.
Letussimplify(reduce)thisblockdiagramusingtheblockdiagramreductionrules.
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2. DeterminethetransferfunctionY(s)/R(s).
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3. DeterminethetransferfunctionY2(s)/R1(s).
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SignalFlowGraph

Signalflowgraphisagraphicalrepresentationofalgebraicequations.Inthischapter,letusdiscuss
the basic concepts related signal flow graph and also learn how to draw signal flowgraphs.

BasicElementsofSignalFlowGraph
Nodesandbranchesarethebasicelementsofsignalflowgraph.

Node
Nodeisapointwhichrepresentseitheravariableorasignal.Therearethreetypesofnodes
— inputnode,outputnodeandmixednode.

 InputNode−Itisanode,whichhasonlyoutgoingbranches.
 OutputNode−Itisanode,whichhasonlyincomingbranches. 
 MixedNode−Itisanode,which hasbothincomingandoutgoingbranches. 

Example
Letusconsiderthefollowingsignalflowgraphtoidentifythesenodes.
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Branch
Branchisalinesegmentwhichjoinstwonodes.Ithasboth gainand
direction.Forexample,therearefourbranchesintheabovesignalflowgraph.Thesebrancheshav
egainsofa,b,cand-d.

ConstructionofSignalFlowGraph
Letusconstructasignalflowgraphbyconsideringthefollowingalgebraicequations−
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ConversionofBlockDiagramsintoSignalFlowGraphs
Followthesestepsforconvertingablockdiagramintoitsequivalentsignalflowgraph.

 Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of
blockdiagramasnodesinsignalflowgraph.

 Representtheblocksofblockdiagramasbranchesinsignalflowgraph. 

 Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of
thebranchesinsignal flowgraph. 

 Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between
twonodes (but there is no block in between), then represent the gain of the branch
asone. For example, between summing points, between summing point and
takeoffpoint,betweeninputandsummingpoint,betweentake-offpointand output.

Example
Letusconvertthefollowingblock diagram intoitsequivalentsignal flowgraph.
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Representtheinputsignal R(s) and output signal C(s) of block diagram as

inputnodeR(s)andoutputnodeC(s)ofsignal flowgraph.
Justforreference,theremainingnodes(y1toy9)arelabeledintheblockdiagram.Therearenine
nodes other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four summing
points,fournodesforfourtake-offpointsandonenodeforthevariablebetweenblocksG 1andG2.

Thefollowingfigureshowstheequivalentsignalflowgraph.

LetusnowdiscusstheMason’sGainFormula.Supposethereare‘N’forwardpathsinasignalflowgra
ph.Thegainbetweentheinputandtheoutputnodesofasignalflowgraphis
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nothingbutthetransferfunctionofthesystem.ItcanbecalculatedbyusingMason’sgainformula.

Mason’sgainformulais

Where,

 C(s)istheoutputnode

 R(s)istheinputnode

 TisthetransferfunctionorgainbetweenR(s)andC(s)

 Piistheithforwardpathgain

Δ=1−(sumofallindividualloopgains)+(sumofgainproductsofallpossibletwonontouchingloops)−(su
mofgainproductsofallpossiblethreenontouchingloops)
+….
ΔiisobtainedfromΔ byremovingtheloopswhicharetouchingtheithforwardpath.

Considerthefollowingsignalflowgraphinordertounderstandthebasicterminologyinvolve
dhere.
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Loop
Thepaththatstartsfromonenodeandendsatthesamenodeisknownasaloop.Hence,itisaclosedp
ath.

CalculationofTransferFunctionusingMason’sGainFormula
Letusconsiderthesamesignalflowgraphforfindingtransferfunction.
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 Numberofforwardpaths,N=2.

 Firstforwardpathis-y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6.
 Firstforwardpathgain,
p1=abcde
 Secondforwardpathis-y1→y2→y3→y5→y6
 Secondforwardpathgain,p2=abge
 Numberofindividualloops,L =5.

 Numberoftwo non-touchingloops=2.

 Firstnon-touchingloopspairis- y2→y3→y2,y4→y5→y4.
 Gainproductoffirstnon-touchingloopspair l1l4=bjdi
 Secondnon-touchingloopspairis-y2→y3→y2,y5→y5.
 Gainproductofsecondnon-touchingloopspairisl1l5=bjf
Highernumberof(morethantwo)non-
touchingloopsarenotpresentinthissignalflowgraph.Weknow,
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Example-1:DeterminethetransferfunctionC(s)/R(s).
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Example-2:DeterminethetransferfunctionC(s)/R(s).
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Example-3:DeterminethetransferfunctionC(s)/R(s).
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UNIT-II

TIMERESPONSEANALYSIS

We can analyze the response of the control systems in both the time domain and
thefrequency domain. We will discuss frequency response analysis of control systems in
laterchapters.Letusnowdiscussaboutthetimeresponseanalysisofcontrolsystems.

WhatisTimeResponse?
If the output ofcontrol system for aninputvarieswith respect to time, thenit is
calledthetimeresponseof thecontrolsystem.Thetimeresponseconsistsoftwoparts.

 Transientresponse
 Steadystateresponse
Theresponseofcontrolsystemintimedomainisshowninthefollowingfigure.

Where,

 ctr(t)isthetransientresponse
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 css(t)isthesteadystateresponse
TransientResponse
After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady
state.So,theoutputwillbeintransientstatetillitgoestoasteadystate.Therefore,the
responseofthecontrolsystemduringthetransientstateisknownastransientresponse.

The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is
infinityandpractically, itis fivetimes constant.

Mathematically,wecanwrite itas

SteadystateResponse
Thepartofthetimeresponsethatremainsevenafterthetransientresponsehaszerovalueforlarge
valuesof‘t’isknownassteadystateresponse.Thismeans,thetransientresponsewillbezeroeven
during thesteadystate.

Example

Letusfindthetransientandsteadystatetermsofthetimeresponseofthecontrolsystem

Here,thesecondterm
willbezeroastdenotesinfinity.So,thisisthetransientterm.Andth
efirstterm10remainsevenastapproachesinfinity.So,thisisthesteadystateterm.StandardTestSi
gnals
The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic. These signals are used
toknowtheperformanceofthecontrolsystems usingtimeresponseoftheoutput.

UnitImpulseSignal
Aunitimpulsesignal,δ(t)isdefinedas
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So,theunitimpulsesignalexistsonlyat‘t’isequaltozero.Theareaofthissignalundersmallinterval
of time around‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse signal is zero
forallothervaluesof‘t’.

UnitStepSignal
Aunitstepsignal,u(t) isdefined as

Followingfigureshowsunitstepsignal.

So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of‘t’ including zero. And its value is
oneduringthisinterval.Thevalueoftheunitstepsignaliszeroforallnegativevaluesof‘t’.
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UnitRampSignal
Aunitrampsignal,r(t) isdefinedas

So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive valuesof‘t’ including zero. And its
valueincreases linearly with respect to‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp signal
is zeroforall negativevaluesof‘t’.

UnitParabolicSignal
Aunitparabolicsignal,p(t) isdefinedas,
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So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of‘t’ including zero. And its
valueincreases non-linearly with respect to‘t’ during this interval. The value of the unit
parabolicsignalis zeroforallthenegativevaluesof‘t’.

In this chapter, let us discuss the time response of the first order system. Consider
thefollowing block diagram of the closed loop control system. Here, an open loop
transferfunction,1/sTisconnectedwithaunity negativefeedback.
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ImpulseResponseofFirstOrderSystem
Considertheunitimpulsesignalasaninputtothefirstordersystem.

So,r(t)=δ(t)
ApplyLaplacetransformonboththesides.R(s)=1

RearrangetheaboveequationinoneofthestandardformsofLaplacetransforms.
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ApplyingInverseLaplaceTransformonboththesides,

Theunitimpulseresponseisshowninthefollowingfigure.

The unitimpulseresponse,c(t)isanexponentialdecayingsignalforpositivevaluesof‘t’anditis
zerofornegativevalues of‘t’.

StepResponseofFirstOrderSystem
Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order

system.So,r(t)=u(t)
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Onboththesides,thedenominatortermisthesame.So,theywillgetcancelledbyeachother.Hence,
equatethenumeratorterms.

1=A(sT+1)+Bs

By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get A =

1.Substitute,A=1andequatethecoefficientofthestermsonboththesides.
0=T+B
⇒B=−T

Substitute,A=1 and B=−T inpartialfractionexpansion ofC(s)

ApplyinverseLaplacetransform onboththesides.

Theunitstepresponse,c(t)hasboth thetransientandthesteadystateterms.
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Thetransienttermintheunitstepresponse is-

The steady state term in the unit step response is –

Thefollowingfigureshowstheunitstepresponse

The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at t = 0 and for all negative values of t. It
isgraduallyincreasingfromzerovalueandfinallyreachestooneinsteadystate.So,thesteadystate
valuedepends onthemagnitudeoftheinput.

RampResponseofFirstOrderSystem
Considertheunitrampsignalasaninputtothefirstordersystem.

So,r(t)=tu(t)
ApplyLaplacetransformonboththesides.
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Onboththesides,thedenominatortermisthesame.So,theywillgetcancelledbyeachother.Hence
,equatethenumeratorterms.

By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get A =

1.Substitute,A=1andequatethecoefficientofthestermsonboththesides.
0=T+B⇒B=−T

Similarly, substitute B = −T and equate the coefficient of s2 terms on both the sides. You
willget C=T2
Substitute A= 1,B= −TandC=T2inthepartialfractionexpansionofC(s).

ApplyinverseLaplacetransform onboththesides.

The unit ramp response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state

terms.Thetransienttermintheunitrampresponseis

Thesteadystatetermintheunitramp responseis–
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Thefigurebelowistheunit rampresponse:

Theunitrampresponse,c(t) followstheunitrampinputsignalforallpositivevaluesoft.But,thereis
adeviationofTunits fromtheinputsignal.

ParabolicResponseofFirstOrderSystem
Considertheunitparabolicsignal asaninputtothefirstordersystem.

\
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

ApplyinverseLaplacetransformonboththe sides.

The unit parabolic response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state

terms.Thetransienttermintheunitparabolicresponseis

Thesteadystate termintheunitparabolicresponseis

From these responses, we can conclude that the first order control systems are not
stablewiththerampandparabolicinputsbecausetheseresponsesgoonincreasingevenatinfinitea
mount of time. The first order control systems are stable with impulse and step
inputsbecause these responses have bounded output. But, the impulse response doesn’t
havesteady state term. So, the step signal is widely used in the time domain for analyzing
thecontrolsystemsfromtheirresponses.

In this chapter, let us discuss the time response of second order system. Consider
thefollowingblockdiagramofclosedloopcontrolsystem.Here,anopenlooptransferfunction,ωn2
/s(s+2δωn)isconnectedwith aunitynegativefeedback.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Thepowerof‘s’istwointhedenominatorterm.Hence,theabovetransferfunctionisofthesecondo
rderandthesystemis saidtobethesecondordersystem.

Thecharacteristicequationis-

 Thetworootsareimaginarywhen δ=0.
 Thetworootsarerealandequalwhenδ=1.
 Thetworootsarerealbutnotequalwhenδ >1. 
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

 Thetworootsarecomplexconjugatewhen0
<δ<1.Wecanwrite C(s)equationas,

Where,

 C(s) istheLaplacetransformoftheoutputsignal,c(t)

 R(s)istheLaplacetransformoftheinputsignal,r(t)

 ωnisthenaturalfrequency

 δisthedampingratio.

Followthesestepstogettheresponse(output)ofthesecondordersysteminthetimedomain.

StepResponseofSecondOrderSystem
Considertheunitstepsignalasaninputtothesecondordersystem.Laplacetransformoftheunitste
psignal is,
AITS DEPT.OFEEE
AITS DEPT.OFEEE
AITS DEPT.OFEEE
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

So,theunitstepresponseofthesecondordersystemishavingdampedoscillations(decreasingam
plitude)when‘δ’ liesbetweenzeroandone.

Case4:δ> 1
Wecanmodifythedenominatortermofthetransferfunctionasfollows−
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Sinceitisoverdamped,theunitstepresponseofthesecondordersystemwhenδ>1willneverreach
stepinputinthesteadystate.

ImpulseResponseofSecondOrderSystem
The
impulseresponseofthesecondordersystemcanbeobtainedbyusinganyoneofthesetwomethod
s.

 Follow the procedure involved while deriving step response by considering the
valueofR(s)as 1insteadof1/s.
 Dothedifferentiationofthestepresponse.

Thefollowingtableshowstheimpulseresponseofthesecondordersystemfor4casesofthedampi
ngratio.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Inthischapter,letusdiscussthetimedomainspecificationsofthesecondordersystem.Thestep
response of the second order system forthe underdamped case is shown in
thefollowingfigure.

All the time domain specifications are represented in this figure. The response up to
thesettlingtimeisknownastransientresponseandtheresponseafterthesettlingtimeisknownass
teady stateresponse.

DelayTime
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero
instant.Itis denotedbytdtd.
Consider the step response of the second order system for t ≥ 0, when ‘δ’ lies between
zeroandone.

RiseTime
It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value. This
isapplicablefor the under-damped systems. For the over-dampedsystems, consider
thedurationfrom10%to90%ofthefinalvalue.Risetimeisdenotedbytr.

Att=t1=0, c(t)=0.

Weknowthatthefinalvalueofthestepresponseisone.Therefore,at
t=t2,thevalueofstepresponseisone.Substitute,thesevalues inthefollowingequation.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Fromaboveequation,wecanconcludethattherisetimet randthedampedfrequencyωdarei
nverselyproportional toeach other.
PeakTime
It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first time. It
isdenotedby tp.At t=tpthefirstderivateoftheresponseis zero.
Weknowthestepresponseofsecondordersystemforunder-dampedcaseis
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Fromtheaboveequation,wecanconcludethatthepeaktimetpandthedampedfrequencyω
dareinverselyproportional toeach other.
PeakOvershoot
PeakovershootMpisdefinedasthedeviationoftheresponseatpeaktimefromthefinalvalueofres
ponse. Itis alsocalledthemaximumovershoot.

Mathematically,wecanwrite itas
Mp=c(tp)−c(∞)

Where,c(tp)isthepeakvalueoftheresponse,c(∞)isthefinal(steadystate)valueofthe response.

Att=tp,theresponsec(t) is-
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Fromtheaboveequation,wecanconcludethatthepercentageofpeakovershoot%Mpwilldecrea
seifthedamping ratioδincreases.
Settlingtime
Itisthetimerequiredfortheresponsetoreachthesteadystateandstaywithinthespecifiedtoleran
ce bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are 2% and 5%.
Thesettlingtimeis denotedbyts.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Thesettlingtimefor5%tolerancebandis–

Thesettlingtimefor2%tolerancebandis–

Where,τisthetimeconstantandisequalto1/δωn.
 Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are inversely proportional to
thedampingratioδ.
 Boththesettlingtimetsandthetimeconstantτareindependentofthesystemgain.Thatme
anseventhesystemgainchanges,thesettlingtime ts andtimeconstantτwill
neverchange.
Example
Letusnowfindthetimedomainspecificationsofacontrolsystemhavingtheclosedlooptransferfu
nctionwhentheunitstepsignalis appliedas aninputtothiscontrolsystem.
Weknowthatthestandardformofthetransferfunctionofthesecondorderclosedloopcontrolsyst
emas

Byequatingthesetwotransferfunctions,wewillgettheun-
dampednaturalfrequencyωnas2rad/secandthedamping ratioδas 0.5.
Weknowtheformulafordamped frequency ω das
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Substitutetheabovenecessaryvaluesintheformulaofeachtimedomainspecificationandsimplif
yinordertogetthevaluesoftimedomainspecificationsforgiventransferfunction.

Thefollowingtableshowstheformulaeoftimedomainspecifications,substitutionofnecessaryval
uesandthefinalvalues
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

The deviation of the output of control system from desired response during steady state
isknown as steady state error. It is represented as ess. We can find steady state error
usingthefinalvaluetheoremas follows.

Where,

E(s)istheLaplacetransformoftheerrorsignal,e(t)
Letusdiscusshowtofindsteadystateerrorsforunityfeedbackandnon-
unityfeedbackcontrolsystemsoneby one.

SteadyStateErrorsforUnityFeedbackSystems
Considerthefollowingblockdiagramofclosedloopcontrolsystem,whichishavingunitynegativef
eedback.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Thefollowingtableshowsthesteadystateerrorsandtheerrorconstantsforstandardinputsignalsl
ikeunitstep,unitramp&unitparabolicsignals.

Where,
Kp,KvandKaarepositionerrorconstant,velocityerrorconstantandaccelerationerrorconstantres
pectively.
Note−Ifanyoftheaboveinputsignalshastheamplitudeotherthanunity,thenmultiplycorrespondingsteady
stateerrorwiththatamplitude.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Note −We can’t define the steady state error for the unit impulse signal because, it
existsonlyatorigin.So,wecan’tcomparetheimpulseresponsewiththeunitimpulseinputas
tdenotesinfinity

Wewillgettheoverallsteadystateerror,byaddingtheabovethreesteadystateerrors.
ess=ess1+ess2+ess3

⇒ess=0+0+1=1⇒ess=0+0+1=1Therefore

,wegotthesteadystateerroressas1 forthisexample.
SteadyStateErrorsforNon-UnityFeedbackSystems
Considerthefollowingblockdiagramofclosedloopcontrolsystem,whichishavingnonunitynegati
vefeedback.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

We can find the steady state errors only for the unity feedback systems. So, we have
toconvert the non-unity feedback system into unity feedback system. For this, include
oneunity positive feedback path and one unity negative feedback path in the above
blockdiagram.Thenewblockdiagramlooks likeas shownbelow.

Simplify the above block diagram by keeping theunity negative feedback asit is.
Thefollowingis thesimplifiedblockdiagram
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

This block diagram resembles the block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed
loopcontrolsystem.Here,thesingleblockishavingthetransferfunctionG(s)/[1+G(s)H(s)−G(s)]
instead of G(s).You can now calculate the steady state errors by usingsteadystateerror
formulagivenfor theunitynegativefeedbacksystems.
Note−Itismeaninglesstofindthesteadystateerrorsforunstableclosedloopsystems.So,we have
to calculate the steady state errors only for closed loop stable systems. This
meansweneedtocheckwhetherthecontrolsystemisstableornotbeforefindingthesteadystatee
rrors.Inthenextchapter, wewilldiscuss theconcepts-relatedstability.

The various types of controllers are used to improve the performance of control systems.
Inthischapter,wewilldiscussthebasiccontrollerssuchastheproportional,thederivativeandthei
ntegralcontrollers.

ProportionalController
Theproportionalcontrollerproducesanoutput, whichisproportionaltoerrorsignal.

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional controller is

KPKP.Where,

U(s)istheLaplacetransformoftheactuatingsignalu(t)E(s)isth

eLaplacetransformoftheerrorsignale(t)

KPistheproportionalityconstant

Theblockdiagramoftheunitynegativefeedbackclosedloopcontrolsystemalongwiththeproportionalcontr
ollerisshowninthefollowingfigure.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

DerivativeController
Thederivativecontrollerproducesanoutput,whichisderivativeoftheerrorsignal.

Therefore, the transfer function of the derivative controller is

KDs.Where,KDisthederivativeconstant.
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with
thederivativecontrollerisshowninthefollowingfigure.

Thederivativecontrollerisusedtomaketheunstablecontrolsystemintoastableone.

IntegralController
Theintegralcontrollerproducesanoutput,whichisintegraloftheerrorsignal.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Where,KIKIistheintegralconstant.
Theblockdiagramoftheunitynegativefeedbackclosedloopcontrolsystemalongwiththeintegral
controlleris shown inthefollowing figure.

Theintegralcontrollerisusedtodecreasethesteadystateerror.Letusn

owdiscussaboutthecombinationofbasic controllers.

ProportionalDerivative(PD)Controller
Theproportionalderivativecontrollerproducesanoutput,whichisthecombinationoftheoutputs
ofproportionalandderivativecontrollers.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Therefore,thetransferfunctionoftheproportionalderivativecontrollerisK P+KDs.
Theblockdiagramoftheunitynegativefeedbackclosedloopcontrolsystemalongwiththeproportionalderiva
tivecontrollerisshowninthefollowing figure.

Theproportionalderivativecontrollerisusedtoimprovethestabilityofcontrolsystemwithoutaff
ecting thesteady stateerror.

ProportionalIntegral(PI)Controller
Theproportionalintegralcontrollerproducesanoutput,whichisthecombinationof
outputsoftheproportional and integral controllers.

Theblockdiagramoftheunitynegativefeedbackclosedloopcontrolsystemalongwiththeproportionalintegr
alcontroller is shown inthefollowing figure.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Theproportionalintegralcontrollerisusedtodecreasethesteadystateerrorwithoutaffectingthe
stability ofthecontrol system.

ProportionalIntegralDerivative(PID)Controller
Theproportionalintegralderivativecontrollerproducesanoutput,whichisthecombinationofthe
outputsofproportional,integraland derivativecontrollers.

Theblockdiagramoftheunitynegativefeedbackclosedloopcontrolsystemalongwiththeproportionalintegr
alderivativecontroller isshownin thefollowingfigure.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

UNIT-III
STABILITYANALYSISINS-DOMAIN

Stabilityisanimportantconcept.Inthischapter,letusdiscussthestabilityofsystemandtypes
ofsystems basedonstability.

WhatisStability?
Asystemissaidtobestable,ifitsoutputisundercontrol.Otherwise,itissaidtobeunstable.Astables
ystem producesaboundedoutputfor agivenboundedinput.

Thefollowingfigureshowsthe responseofastablesystem.

This is the response of first order control system for unit step input. This response has
thevaluesbetween0and1.So,itisboundedoutput.Weknowthattheunitstepsignalhasthevalue
ofoneforallpositivevaluesoftincludingzero.So,itisboundedinput.Therefore,thefirstordercont
rolsystemisstablesinceboththeinputandtheoutputarebounded.

TypesofSystemsbasedonStability
Wecanclassifythesystems basedonstabilityasfollows.

 Absolutelystablesystem
 Conditionallystablesystem
 Marginallystablesystem
AbsolutelyStableSystem
If the system is stable for all therange ofsystemcomponent values, thenit isknownasthe
absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is absolutely stable if all
thepolesoftheopen looptransferfunctionpresentinlefthalfof
‘s’plane.Similarly,theclosedloop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the
closed loop transfer functionpresentinthelefthalf ofthe‘s’ plane.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

ConditionallyStableSystem
Ifthesystemisstableforacertainrangeofsystemcomponentvalues,thenitisknownas
conditionallystablesystem.

MarginallyStableSystem
If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant amplitude and
constantfrequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is known as marginally stable
system.The open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the open loop
transferfunctionispresentontheimaginaryaxis.Similarly,
theclosedloopcontrolsystemismarginally stable if any two poles of the closed loop transfer
function is present on
theimaginaryaxis.Inthischapter,letusdiscussthestabilityanalysisinthe‘s’domainusingtheRout
h-Hurwitz stability criterion. In this criterion, we require the characteristic equation tofind
thestability oftheclosedloopcontrolsystems.

Routh-HurwitzStabilityCriterion
Routh-
Hurwitzstabilitycriterionishavingonenecessaryconditionandonesufficientconditionforstabilit
y.Ifanycontrolsystemdoesn’tsatisfythenecessarycondition,thenwecansaythatthecontrolsyst
emisunstable.But,ifthecontrolsystemsatisfiesthenecessarycondition,thenitmayormaynotbes
table.So,thesufficientconditionishelpfulforknowingwhetherthecontrol systemis stableornot.

NecessaryConditionforRouth-HurwitzStability
The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial should
bepositive. This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation should have
negativerealparts.

Considerthe characteristicequationofthe order‘n’is-

Notethat,thereshouldnotbeanytermmissinginthenthordercharacteristicequation.Thismeans
that the nthorder characteristic equation should not have any coefficient that is
ofzerovalue.

SufficientConditionforRouth-HurwitzStability
ThesufficientconditionisthatalltheelementsofthefirstcolumnoftheRoutharrayshouldhave
the same sign. This means that all the elements of the first column of the Routh
arrayshould beeitherpositiveornegative.

RouthArrayMethod
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

If all the roots of the characteristic equation exist to the left half of the ‘s’ plane, then
thecontrol system is stable. If at least one root of the characteristic equation exists to the
righthalfofthe
‘s’plane,thenthecontrolsystemisunstable.So,wehavetofindtherootsofthecharacteristic
equation to know whether the control system is stable or unstable. But, it isdifficulttofind
therootsofthecharacteristicequationas order increases.

So,toovercomethisproblemtherewehavetheRoutharraymethod.Inthismethod,thereis no
need to calculate the roots of the characteristic equation. First formulate the Routhtable
and find the number of the sign changes in the first column of the Routh table. Thenumber
of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table gives the number of roots
ofcharacteristic equation that exist in the right half of the ‘s’ plane and the control system
isunstable.

FollowthisprocedureforformingtheRouthtable.

 Fill the first two rows of the Routh array with the coefficients of the
characteristicpolynomial as mentioned in the table below. Start with the coefficient
of sn andcontinueuptothecoefficientofs0.

FilltheremainingrowsoftheRoutharraywiththeelementsasmentionedinthetablebelow.
Continue this process till you get the first column element of row s0s0 is
an.Here,anis thecoefficientofs0 inthecharacteristicpolynomial. 
Note − If any row elements of the Routh table have some common factor, then you
candividetherowelementswiththatfactorforthesimplificationwillbeeasy.

ThefollowingtableshowstheRoutharrayofthenthordercharacteristicpolynomial.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Example:

Letusfindthestabilityofthecontrolsystemhavingcharacteristicequation,

Step1−Verifythe necessaryconditionforthe Routh-

Hurwitzstability.Allthecoefficients ofthecharacteristicpolynomial,

arepositive.So,thecontrolsystemsatisfiesthenecessary
condition.
Step2−FormtheRoutharrayforthe givencharacteristicpolynomial.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Step3−VerifythesufficientconditionfortheRouth-Hurwitzstability.

AlltheelementsofthefirstcolumnoftheRoutharrayarepositive.Thereisnosignchangeinthefirstc
olumnoftheRoutharray.So,thecontrol systemis stable.

SpecialCasesofRouthArray
We may come across two types of situations, while forming the Routh table. It is difficult
tocompletetheRouthtablefromthesetwosituations.

Thetwospecialcases are−

 Thefirstelementofanyrowof theRouth’sarrayiszero. 
 AlltheelementsofanyrowoftheRouth’sarray arezero. 
Letusnowdiscusshowtoovercomethedifficultyinthesetwocases,onebyone.

FirstElement ofanyrowoftheRouth’sarrayiszero
IfanyrowoftheRouth’sarraycontains
onlythefirstelementaszeroandatleastoneoftheremainingelementshavenon-
zerovalue,thenreplacethefirstelementwithasmallpositiveinteger, ϵ. And then continue the
process of completing the Routh’s table. Now, find thenumber of sign changes in the first
column of the Routh’s table by substituting ϵϵtends tozero.

Example
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Letusfindthestabilityofthecontrolsystemhavingcharacteristicequation,

Step1−Verifythe necessaryconditionforthe Routh-

Hurwitzstability.Allthecoefficients ofthecharacteristicpolynomial,

arepositive.So,thecontrolsystemsatisfiedthe
necessarycondition.
Step2−FormtheRoutharrayforthe givencharacteristicpolynomial.

The row s3 elements have 2 as the common factor. So, all these elements are divided by
2.Specialcase(i)
−Onlythefirstelementofrows2iszero.So,replaceitbyϵandcontinuetheprocessofcompleting
theRouthtable.

Step3−Verifythe sufficientconditionforthe Routh-Hurwitzstability.

AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Asϵtendstozero,theRouthtablebecomeslikethis.

TherearetwosignchangesinthefirstcolumnofRouthtable.Hence,thecontrolsystemisunstable.

AlltheElementsofanyrowoftheRouth’sarrayarezero
Inthiscase,followthesetwosteps−

 Writetheauxilaryequation,A(s)of therow,whichisjustabovetherowofzeros.

 Differentiatetheauxiliaryequation,A(s)withrespecttos.Filltherowofzeroswiththesecoe
fficients.

Example

Letusfindthestabilityofthecontrolsystemhavingcharacteristicequation,

Step1−Verifythe necessaryconditionfortheRouth-Hurwitzstability.

Allthecoefficientsofthegivencharacteristicpolynomialarepositive.So,thecontrolsystemsatisfi
edthenecessary condition.

Step2−FormtheRoutharrayforthe givencharacteristicpolynomial.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Step3−Verifythesufficientconditionforthe Routh-Hurwitzstability.

There are two sign changes in the first column of Routh table. Hence, the control system
isunstable.

In the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, we can know whether the closed loop poles are
inonlefthalfofthe‘s’planeorontherighthalfofthe‘s’planeoronanimaginaryaxis.So,wecan’tfind
thenatureofthecontrolsystem.Toovercomethislimitation,thereisatechniqueknownas
therootlocus.

RootlocusTechnique

In the root locus diagram, we can observe the path of the closed loop poles. Hence, we
canidentifythenatureofthecontrolsystem.Inthistechnique,wewilluseanopenlooptransferfun
ctiontoknowthestability oftheclosedloopcontrolsystem.

BasicsofRootLocus
TheRootlocusisthelocusoftherootsofthecharacteristicequationbyvaryingsystemgainKfromze
rotoinfinity.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Weknowthat,thecharacteristicequationoftheclosedloopcontrolsystemis
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Fromabovetwocases,wecanconcludethattherootlocusbranchesstartatopenlooppolesanden
datopenloopzeros.

AngleConditionandMagnitudeCondition
The points on the root locus branches satisfy the angle condition. So, the angle condition
isused to know whether the point exist on root locus branch or not. We can find the value
ofKforthepointsontherootlocusbranchesbyusingmagnitudecondition.So,wecanusethemagni
tudecondition for thepoints,andthissatisfies theanglecondition.

Characteristicequationofclosedloopcontrolsystemis

The angle condition is the point at which the angle of the open loop transfer function is
anoddmultipleof1800.

MagnitudeofG(s)H(s)G(s)H(s)is–

The magnitude condition is that the point (which satisfied the angle condition) at which
themagnitudeoftheopenlooptransfersfunctionisone.

Therootlocusisagraphicalrepresentationins-
domainanditissymmetricalabouttherealaxis.Becausetheopenlooppolesandzerosexistinthes-
domainhavingthevalueseitherasrealorascomplexconjugatepairs.Inthischapter,letusdiscussh
owtoconstruct(draw)therootlocus.

RulesforConstructionofRootLocus
Followtheserulesforconstructingaroot locus.

Rule1−Locatetheopenlooppoles andzerosinthe‘s’plane.

Rule2− Findthenumberofrootlocusbranches.

We know that the root locus branches start at the open loop poles and end at open
loopzeros. So, the number of root locus branches N is equal to the number of finite open
looppoles Porthenumber of finiteopenloop zerosZ,whicheverisgreater.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Mathematically,wecanwritethe numberofrootlocusbranchesNas

N=PifP≥Z
N=ZifP<Z
Rule3−Identifyand drawtherealaxisrootlocusbranches.

Iftheangleoftheopenlooptransferfunctionatapointisanoddmultipleof1800,thenthatpoint is
on the root locus. If odd number of the open loop poles and zeros exist to the leftside of a
point on the real axis, then that point is on the root locus branch. Therefore,
thebranchofpointswhichsatisfiesthisconditionistherealaxisoftherootlocusbranch.

Rule4−Findthecentroidand theangleofasymptotes.

 IfP=Z,thenalltherootlocusbranchesstartatfiniteopenlooppolesandendatfiniteopenloo
pzeros.
 If P>Z, then Z number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and
endat finite open loop zeros and P−Z number of root locus branches start at finite
openloop polesandendatinfiniteopenloopzeros.
 If P<Z , then P number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and
endatfiniteopenloopzerosandZ−Pnumberofrootlocusbranchesstartatinfiniteopenloo
p polesandendatfiniteopenloopzeros. 
So, some of the root locus branches approach infinity, when P≠Z. Asymptotes give
thedirectionoftheseroot
locusbranches.Theintersectionpointofasymptotesontherealaxisisknownascentroid.

Wecancalculatethecentroidα byusingthisformula,

Rule5− Findtheintersectionpointsofrootlocusbrancheswithanimaginaryaxis.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

We cancalculatethe
pointatwhichtherootlocusbranchintersectstheimaginaryaxisandthevalueofKatthatpointbyus
ingtheRoutharray methodandspecialcase(ii).

 IfallelementsofanyrowoftheRoutharrayarezero,thentherootlocusbranchintersectsth
eimaginary axisandvice-versa.

 Identifytherowinsuchawaythatifwemakethefirstelementaszero,thentheelementsoft
heentirerowarezero.FindthevalueofK forthis combination.

 SubstitutethisKvalueintheauxiliaryequation.Youwillgettheintersectionpointoftheroot
locusbranchwithanimaginary axis.

Rule6−FindBreak-awayand Break-inpoints.

 Ifthereexistsarealaxisrootlocusbranchbetweentwoopenlooppoles,thentherewillbeab
reak-awaypointinbetweenthesetwo openlooppoles.

 Ifthereexistsarealaxisrootlocusbranchbetweentwoopen loopzeros,then
therewillbeabreak-inpointinbetweenthesetwoopenloopzeros.

Note−Break-awayandbreak-

inpointsexistonlyontherealaxisrootlocusbranches.Followthesestepstofindbreak-

awayandbreak-inpoints.

 WriteK intermsofsfromthecharacteristicequation1+G(s)H(s)=0.
 DifferentiateKwithrespecttosandmakeitequaltozero.Substitutethesevaluesofss
intheaboveequation.
 Thevaluesof ssforwhichtheKvalueispositivearethebreakpoints.

Rule7−Findtheangleofdepartureandtheangleofarrival.

TheAngleofdepartureandtheangleofarrivalcanbecalculatedatcomplexconjugateopenloop
polesand complex conjugateopenloop zeros respectively.

Theformulafortheangleof departureϕd is
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Example
Letusnowdrawtherootlocusofthecontrolsystemhavingopenlooptransfer

function,
Step1−Thegivenopenloop transferfunctionhasthreepoles ats=0,
s=-1,s=-
5.Itdoesn’thaveanyzero.Therefore,thenumberofrootlocusbranchesisequaltothenumberofpo
les oftheopenloop transferfunction.
N=P=3

The three poles are located are shown in the above figure. The line segment between
s=−1,and s=0 is one branch of root locus on real axis. And the other branch of the root
locus ontherealaxisis thelinesegmenttotheleftof s=−5.
Step 2 −We will get the values of the centroid and the angle of asymptotes by using
thegivenformulae.

Centroid
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Theangleofasymptotesare
Thecentroidandthreeasymptotesareshowninthefollowingfigure.

Step3−Sincetwoasymptoteshavetheanglesof
600600and30003000,tworootlocusbranchesintersecttheimaginaryaxis. By usingthe
Routharray methodandspecialcase(ii),
therootlocusbranchesintersectstheimaginaryaxisat and
Therewillbeonebreak-awaypointontherealaxisrootlocusbranchbetweenthepoless
=−1ands=0.Byfollowingtheproceduregivenforthecalculationofbreak-awaypoint,wewillget
itass =−0.473.
Therootlocusdiagramforthegiven controlsystemisshowninthe followingfigure.

Inthisway,youcandrawtherootlocusdiagramofanycontrolsystemandobservethemovementof
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

polesof theclosedlooptransferfunction.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Fromtherootlocusdiagrams,wecanknowtherangeofKvaluesfordifferenttypesofdamping.

EffectsofAddingOpenLoopPolesandZerosonRootLocus
Therootlocuscanbeshiftedin‘s’planebyaddingtheopenlooppolesandtheopenloopzeros.

 If we include a pole in the open loop transfer function, then some of root
locusbranches will move towards right half of ‘s’ plane. Because of this,
thedampingratio δ decreases.Whichimplies,dampedfrequency ωd
increasesandthetimedomain specifications like delay time td, rise time tr and peak
time tp decrease. But,iteffects thesystemstability. 
 If we include a zero in the open loop transfer function, then some of root
locusbrancheswillmovetowardslefthalfof‘s’plane.So,itwillincreasethecontrolsystems
tability.Inthiscase,thedampingratio δincreases.Whichimplies,dampedfrequency ωd
decreases and the time domain specifications like delay time td,
risetimetrandpeaktimetpincrease.
So, based on the requirement, we can include (add) the open loop poles or zeros to
thetransferfunction.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE
AITS DEPT.OFEEE
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Effectsofaddingapoleora zerototherootlocusofa second-ordersystem

We discussed how we could change the value of gain K to change the position of
theclosed-looppoles.Thiscorrespondstoplacingaproportionalgain,
K,incascadewiththesystem G(s) and finding the closed-loop poles for different values of
gain, K. However,proportional control is a simple form of control; it does not provide us
with zero steadyexample, in some control design problems, to produce the
performance required in
thedesignspecificationsweneedtomovethepolestosomepositionsonthe s-
plane,whichmaynotlieonarootlocusdefinedbythesimpleproportionalgainK.Tobeabletom
ovethe poles to any position on the s-plane, we need to use a more complicated
controller.For example, we may need to add a zero or a pole to the controller and see
how this willaffect the root locus andhence the position of the closed-loop
poles.Examplesofcontrollerswithpolesorzeros are:

Thus, we need to know how the root locus will change if we add a pole or a
zero.Toinvestigatethis,we willusea simple example.

Effects ofaddingazeroontherootlocus forasecond-ordersystem

Considerthesecond-ordersystemgivenby

The poles are given by s = –p1 and s = –p2 and the simple root locus plot for
thissystem is shown in Figure 13.13(a). When we add a zero at s = –z1 to the
controller,theopen-looptransferfunctionwillchangeto:
AITS DEPT.OFEEE
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UNIT-IV

FREQUENCYRESPONSEANALYSIS

WhatisFrequencyResponse?
Theresponseofasystemcanbepartitionedintoboththetransientresponseandthesteadystate
response. We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals. The
steadystateresponseofasystemforaninputsinusoidalsignalisknownasthefrequencyresponse.I
nthis chapter,wewillfocusonlyonthesteadystateresponse.

If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then

itproduces the steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input and
outputsinusoidal signals have the same frequency, but different amplitudes and phase
angles. Lettheinputsignalbe

Where,

 Aistheamplitude oftheinputsinusoidalsignal. 

 ω0is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal

signal.Wecanwrite,angularfrequency ω0asshownbelow.
ω0=2πf0
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Here,f0isthefrequencyoftheinputsinusoidalsignal.Similarly,youcanfollowthesame proceduref
orclosedloopcontrolsystem.
FrequencyDomainSpecifications
Thefrequencydomainspecificationsare

 Resonantpeak
 Resonantfrequency
 Bandwidth.

Considerthetransferfunctionofthesecondorderclosedcontrolsystemas
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

ResonantPeak
It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of T(jω). It is denoted by
Mr.Atu=ur,theMagnitudeofT(jω)is -
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Resonantpeakinfrequencyresponsecorrespondstothepeakovershootinthetimedomaintransi
ent response for certain values of damping ratio δδ. So, the resonant peak and
peakovershootarecorrelatedtoeach other.
Bandwidth
Itistherangeoffrequenciesoverwhich,themagnitudeof
T(jω)dropsto70.7%fromitszerofrequencyvalue.
Atω=0,thevalueofuwillbezero.Sub
stitute,u=0inM.

Therefore,themagnitude ofT(jω) isoneatω=0

At3-dB frequency,themagnitudeofT(jω) willbe70.7%ofmagnitudeofT(jω))atω=0
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Bandwidth ωb in the frequency response is inversely proportional to the rise time tr in

thetimedomaintransientresponse.
Bodeplots

TheBodeplotortheBodediagramconsistsoftwoplots−

 Magnitudeplot
 Phaseplot
In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale). Whereas,
yaxisrepresentsthemagnitude(linearscale)ofopenlooptransferfunctioninthemagnitudeplota
ndthephaseangle(linearscale)oftheopenlooptransferfunction inthephaseplot.

Themagnitudeoftheopen looptransferfunctionindB is-

Thephaseangleoftheopen looptransferfunctionindegreesis-

BasicofBodePlots
The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the
termspresentinthe open looptransferfunction.Thisdataisusefulwhile drawingtheBode plots.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE
AITS DEPT.OFEEE
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The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency. The 0 dB

lineitself is the magnitude plot when the value of K is one. For the positive values of K,
thehorizontal line will shift 20logK dB above the 0 dB line. For the negative values of K,
thehorizontal line will shift 20logK dB below the 0 dB line. The Zero degrees line itself is
thephaseplotforallthepositivevaluesofK.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Consider the open loop transfer function

G(s)H(s)=sMagnitudeM=20logωdB
Phaseangleϕ=900
Atω=0.1rad/sec,themagnitude is-
20dB.Atω=1rad/sec,themagnitudeis0dB.
Atω=10rad/sec,themagnitudeis20dB.
ThefollowingfigureshowsthecorrespondingBodeplot.

Themagnitudeplotisaline, whichishavingaslopeof20dB/dec.Thislinestartedat ω=0.1rad/sec

having a magnitude of -20 dB and it continues on the same slope. It
istouching0dBlineatω=1rad/sec.Inthis case,thephaseplotis900line.
Consider the open loop transfer function
G(s)H(s)=1+sτ.Magnitude

Phaseangle

For ,themagnitudeis0dBand phaseangleis0degrees.

AITS DEPT.OFEEE

For , the magnitude is 20logωτ dB and phase angle is

900.Thefollowing figureshowsthecorrespondingBodeplot

Themagnitudeplotishavingmagnitudeof0dBuptoω=1τω=1τrad/sec.Fromω=1τrad/sec,itishavi
ngaslopeof20dB/dec.Inthiscase,thephaseplotishavingphaseangleof0degreesup to ω=1τ
rad/sec and from here, it is having phase angle of 900. This Bode plot is
calledtheasymptoticBodeplot.
As the magnitude and the phase plots are represented with straight lines, the Exact
Bodeplots resemble the asymptotic Bode plots. The only difference is that the Exact Bode
plotswillhavesimplecurves insteadofstraightlines.

Similarly, you can draw the Bode plots for other terms of the open loop transfer
functionwhicharegiveninthetable.

RulesforConstructionofBodePlots
FollowtheseruleswhileconstructingaBodeplot.

 Representtheopenlooptransferfunctioninthestandardtimeconstantform. 
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

 Substitute,s=jωs=jωintheaboveequation.
 Findthe cornerfrequenciesandarrangetheminascendingorder. 

 Consider the starting frequency of the Bode plot as 1/10th of the minimum
cornerfrequency or 0.1 rad/sec whichever is smaller value and draw the Bode plot
upto 10times maximumcornerfrequency.

 Drawthemagnitudeplotsforeachtermandcombinetheseplotsproperly.

 Drawthephaseplotsforeachtermandcombinetheseplotsproperly. 

Note−Thecornerfrequencyisthe frequencyatwhichthereisa changeintheslope

ofthemagnitudeplot.

Example
Considertheopenlooptransferfunctionofaclosedloopcontrolsyste

StabilityAnalysisusingBodePlots
FromtheBodeplots,wecansaywhetherthecontrolsystemisstable,marginallystableorunstableb
asedonthevaluesoftheseparameters.

 Gaincrossoverfrequencyandphasecrossoverfrequency
 Gainmarginandphasemargin
PhaseCrossover Frequency
The frequencyatwhichthe phaseplotishavingthe phaseof-1800isknownasphase
crossoverfrequency.Itisdenotedbyωpc.Theunitofphasecrossoverfrequencyisrad/sec.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

GainCrossoverFrequency
The frequency at which the magnitudeplot ishaving the magnitudeof zero dB is
knownasgaincrossoverfrequency.Itisdenotedbyωgc.Theunitofgaincrossoverfrequencyisrad
/sec.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the phase cross
overfrequencyandthegaincross overfrequency islistedbelow.

 Ifthephasecrossoverfrequency ωpc isgreaterthanthegaincrossoverfrequencyωgc,

thenthecontrolsystemisstable.
 Ifthephasecrossoverfrequencyωpcisequaltothegaincrossoverfrequencyωgc,thenthec
ontrol systemismarginallystable.
 Ifthephasecrossoverfrequencyωpcislessthanthegaincrossesoverfrequency
ωgc,thenthecontrol systemisunstable.
GainMargin
GainmarginGMGMisequaltonegativeofthemagnitudeindBatphasecrossoverfrequency
.
GM=20log(1Mpc)=20logMpc

Where, MpcMpcisthemagnitudeatphasecrossoverfrequency.Theunitofgainmargin(GM)isdB.
PhaseMargin
TheformulaforphasemarginPMPMis
PM=1800+ϕgc

Where, ϕgcisthephaseangleatgaincrossoverfrequency.Theunitofphasemarginisdegrees.

NOTE:

Thestabilityofthecontrolsystembasedontherelationbetweengainmarginandphasemarginislis
tedbelow.

 IfboththegainmarginGMandthephasemarginPMarepositive,thenthecontrolsystemiss
table.
 Ifboththegainmargin
GMandthephasemarginPMareequaltozero,thenthecontrolsystemismarginallystable
.
IfthegainmarginGMand/orthephasemarginPMare/isnegative,thenthecontrolsystemi
sunstable.
Polarplots
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Polarplotisaplotwhichcanbedrawnbetweenmagnitudeandphase.Here,themagnitudes
arerepresentedby normalvaluesonly.

This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines. The concentric circles
andthe radial lines represent the magnitudes and phase angles respectively. These angles
arerepresentedbypositivevaluesinanti-
clockwisedirection.Similarly,wecanrepresentangleswith negative values in clockwise
direction. For example, the angle 2700 in anti-clock wisedirection is
equaltotheangle−900inclockwisedirection.

RulesforDrawingPolarPlots
Followtheserulesforplottingthepolarplots.

 Substitute,s=jωinthe open looptransferfunction. 

 Writetheexpressionsformagnitude andthephaseofG(jω)H(jω)
 Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=0. So,
thepolar plotstartswiththismagnitudeandthephaseangle.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

 Findtheendingmagnitudeand thephaseofG(jω)H(jω)bysubstitutingω=∞So,thepolar
plotends withthis magnitudeandthephaseangle. 
 Checkwhetherthepolarplotintersectstherealaxis,bymakingtheimaginarytermofG(jω)
H(jω)equaltozeroandfindthevalue(s)ofω.
 Checkwhetherthepolarplotintersectstheimaginaryaxis,bymakingrealtermofG(jω)H(j
ω)equaltozeroandfindthevalue(s)ofω.
 Fordrawingpolarplotmoreclearly,findthemagnitudeandphaseofG(jω)H(jω)byconsider
ingtheothervalue(s)of ω.
Example
Considertheopen looptransferfunctionofaclosedloopcontrolsystem.

So, the polar plot starts at (∞,−900) and ends at (0,−2700). The first and the second
termswithinthebrackets indicatethemagnitudeand phaseanglerespectively.

Step3−Basedonthestartingandtheendingpolarco-ordinates,thispolarplotwillintersectthe
negative real axis. The phase angle corresponding to the negative real axis is −180 0 or1800.
So, by equating the phase angle of the open loop transfer function to either −180 0
or1800,wewillget theωvalueas√2.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Bysubstituting ω=√2 inthemagnitude oftheopen looptransferfunction,wewillget M=0.83.

Therefore, the polar plot intersects the negative real axis when ω=√2 and thepolar
coordinateis (0.83,−1800).
So,wecan drawthepolarplotwiththeaboveinformationon thepolargraphsheet.

NyquistPlots

Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed
loopcontrolsystemsbyvaryingωfrom−∞to∞.Thatmeans,Nyquistplotsareusedtodrawthecom
pletefrequencyresponseof theopenloop transferfunction.

NyquistStabilityCriterion
The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there
arePpolesandZzerosareenclosedbythe‘s’planeclosedpath,thenthecorresponding
G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) planemustencircletheorigin P−ZP−Z
times.So,wecanwritethenumberofencirclements Nas,
N=P−ZN=P−Z

 If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of
theencirclement in the G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of
theenclosedclosedpathinthe‘s’plane.
 If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of
theencirclementintheG(s)H(s)G(s)H(s)planewillbeinthesamedirectionasthatoftheenc
losedclosedpathinthe‘s’plane. 
Letusnowapplytheprincipleofargumenttotheentirerighthalfofthe‘s’planebyselectingitas
aclosedpath.This selectedpathis calledtheNyquistcontour.

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed
looptransfer function are in the left half of the‘s’ plane. So, the poles of the closed loop
transferfunction are nothing but theroots of the characteristic equation. As the order of
thecharacteristic equation increases, it is difficult to find the roots. So, let us correlate
theserootsofthecharacteristicequationas follows.

 ThePolesofthecharacteristicequationaresameasthatofthepolesoftheopenlooptransfe
rfunction. 

 The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the
closedloop transferfunction.

Weknowthattheopen loopcontrolsystemisstableifthere isnoopenlooppole

inthetherighthalfofthe‘s’plane.

i.e.,P=0⇒N=−ZP=0⇒N=−Z
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in
therighthalfofthe‘s’plane.

i.e.,Z=0⇒N=PZ=0⇒N=P
Nyquiststabilitycriterionstatesthenumberofencirclementsaboutthecriticalpoint(1+j0)must
be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which is nothing but the poles of
theopenlooptransferfunctionintherighthalfofthe
‘s’plane.Theshiftinoriginto(1+j0)givesthecharacteristicequationplane.

RulesforDrawingNyquistPlots
FollowtheserulesforplottingtheNyquistplots.

 Locatethepolesandzerosofopen looptransferfunctionG(s)H(s)in‘s’plane.
 Drawthepolarplotbyvaryingωfromzerotoinfinity.Ifpoleorzeropresentats=0,thenvaryi
ngωfrom0+toinfinityfordrawing polarplot.
 Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to
zero(0− ifany poleorzero presentats=0).
 Thenumberofinfiniteradiushalfcircleswillbeequaltothenumberofpolesorzerosat
origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror imageof
the polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at the point
wherethepolarplotstarts.

After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control
systemusing the Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the
encirclement,thentheclosedloop controlsystemis absolutelystable.

StabilityAnalysisusingNyquistPlots
From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable,
marginallystableorunstablebasedonthevaluesoftheseparameters.

 Gaincrossoverfrequencyandphasecrossoverfrequency
 Gainmarginandphasemargin
PhaseCrossoverFrequency
ThefrequencyatwhichtheNyquistplotintersectsthenegativerealaxis(phaseangleis1800)isknow
nas the phasecrossoverfrequency. Itisdenotedby ωpc.
GainCrossoverFrequency
ThefrequencyatwhichtheNyquistplotishavingthemagnitudeofoneisknownasthegaincrossove
rfrequency. Itis denotedbyωgc.
Thestabilityofthecontrolsystembasedontherelationbetweenphasecrossoverfrequencyandgai
ncross overfrequency is listedbelow.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

 Ifthephasecrossoverfrequencyωpcisgreaterthanthegaincrossoverfrequencyωgc,
thenthecontrolsystemisstable.
 Ifthephasecrossoverfrequencyωpcisequaltothegaincrossoverfrequencyωgc,thenthec
ontrol systemismarginallystable.
 Ifphasecrossoverfrequencyωpcislessthangaincrossoverfrequencyωgc,thenthecontrol
systemisunstable.
GainMargin
ThegainmarginGMisequaltothereciprocalofthemagnitudeoftheNyquistplotatthephasecross
overfrequency.

Where,Mpc isthemagnitudeinnormalscaleatthephasecrossoverfrequency.
PhaseMargin
ThephasemarginPMisequaltothesumof1800andthephaseangleatthegaincrossoverfrequency.
PM=1800+ϕgc

Where, ϕgcisthephaseangleatthegaincrossoverfrequency.

Thestabilityofthecontrolsystembasedontherelationbetweenthegainmarginandthephasemar
ginis listedbelow.

 If thegain marginGMisgreater
thanoneandthephasemarginPMispositive,thenthecontrolsystemisstable.
 IfthegainmarginGMsequaltooneandthephasemarginPMiszerodegrees,thenthecontro
lsystemismarginallystable.
 IfthegainmarginGM islessthanoneand/orthephasemargin
PMisnegative,thenthecontrolsystemisunstable.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

UNIT-V
STATESPACEANALYSISOFCONTINUOUSSYSTEMS

ThestatespacemodelofLinear Time-Invariant(LTI)systemcanberepresentedas,
X˙=AX+BU

Y=CX+DU

Thefirstandthesecondequationsareknownasstateequationandoutputequationrespectively.
Where,
 XandX˙arethestatevectorand thedifferentialstatevectorrespectively.
 UandYareinputvectorandoutputvector respectively.
 Aisthesystemmatrix.
 BandCaretheinputandtheoutputmatrices.
 Disthefeed-forwardmatrix.
BasicConceptsofStateSpaceModel
Thefollowingbasicterminologyinvolvedinthischapter.
State
Itisagroupofvariables,whichsummarizes
thehistoryofthesysteminordertopredictthefuturevalues(outputs).
StateVariable
Thenumberofthestatevariablesrequiredisequaltothenumberof
thestorageelementspresentinthesystem.
Examples−currentflowingthroughinductor,voltageacrosscapacitor
StateVector
Itisavector,whichcontainsthestatevariablesaselements.
Intheearlierchapters,wehavediscussedtwomathematicalmodelsofthecontrolsystems.Those
are the differential equation model and the transfer function model. The state
spacemodelcanbeobtainedfromanyoneofthesetwomathematicalmodels.Letusnowdiscussth
esetwomethods oneby one.
StateSpaceModelfromDifferentialEquation
Consider the following series of the RLC circuit. It is having an input voltage, vi(t) and
thecurrentflowing throughthecircuitisi(t).
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

There are two storage elements (inductor and capacitor) in this circuit. So, the number
ofthe state variables is equal to two and these state variables are the current flowing
throughtheinductor,i(t)andthevoltageacross capacitor,vc(t).
Fromthecircuit,theoutputvoltage,v0(t)isequaltothevoltageacrosscapacitor,vc(t).
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

StateSpaceModelfromTransferFunction
Considerthetwotypesoftransferfunctionsbasedonthetypeoftermspresentinthenumerator.

 TransferfunctionhavingconstantterminNumerator.
 Transferfunctionhavingpolynomialfunction
of‘s’inNumerator.Transfer function having constantterminNumerator
Considerthefollowingtransferfunctionofasystem
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Andu(t)=u
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Then,

Here,D=[0].
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Example:
Findthestatespacemodelforthesystemhavingtransferfunction.

Transfer function having polynomial function of ‘s’ in

NumeratorConsiderthefollowingtransfer function ofasystem
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Rearrange,theaboveequationas

andu(t)=u
Then,thestateequationis
AITS DEPT.OFEEE
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

TransferFunctionfromStateSpaceModel
Weknowthestatespacemodel ofaLinear Time-Invariant(LTI)systemis -
X˙=AX+BU

Y=CX+DU

ApplyLaplaceTransformonbothsidesofthestateequation.
sX(s)=AX(s)+BU(s)

⇒(sI−A)X(s)=BU(s)

⇒X(s)=(sI−A)−1BU(s)

ApplyLaplaceTransformonbothsidesoftheoutputequation.
Y(s)=CX(s)+DU(s)

Substitute,X(s)value intheaboveequation.
⇒Y(s)=C(sI−A)−1BU(s)+DU(s)

⇒Y(s)=[C(sI−A)−1B+D]U(s)

⇒Y(s)U(s) =C(sI−A)−1B+D

Theaboveequationrepresentsthetransferfunctionofthesystem.So,wecancalculatethetransfe
rfunctionofthesystembyusingthisformulaforthesystemrepresentedinthestatespacemodel.

Note−WhenD=[0],thetransferfunctionwillbe
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Example:

Letuscalculatethetransferfunction ofthesystemrepresentedinthestatespacemodelas,

Therefore,thetransferfunctionofthesystemforthegivenstatespacemodelis

StateTransitionMatrixanditsProperties
If the system is having initial conditions, then it will produce an output. Since, this output
ispresentevenintheabsenceofinput,itiscalledzeroinputresponsexZIR(t).Mathematically,weca
nwriteitas,
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Fromtheaboverelation,wecanwritethestatetransitionmatrixϕ(t) as

So,thezeroinputresponsecanbeobtainedbymultiplyingthestatetransitionmatrixϕ(t)withthei
nitialconditions matrix.
Propertiesofthestatetransitionmatrix
 Ift=0,thenstatetransitionmatrixwillbeequalto anIdentitymatrix.

ϕ(0)=I
 Inverseofstatetransitionmatrixwillbesameasthatofstatetransitionmatrixjustbyreplaci
ng‘t’by ‘-t’.

 Ift=t1+t2,thenthecorrespondingstatetransitionmatrixisequaltothemultiplication
ofthetwo statetransitionmatricesatt=t1t=t1andt=t2t=t2.

ϕ(t1+t2)=ϕ(t1)ϕ(t2)
ControllabilityandObservability
Letusnowdiscusscontrollabilityandobservabilityofcontrol systemonebyone.

Controllability
A control system is said to be controllable if the initial states of the control system
aretransferred(changed)tosomeotherdesiredstatesbyacontrolledinputinfinitedurationoftim
e.

Wecancheckthecontrollabilityofa controlsystembyusingKalman’stest.

 WritethematrixQc inthe followingform.

 FindthedeterminantofmatrixQcQcandifitisnotequaltozero,thenthecontrolsystemis
controllable.
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Observability
Acontrolsystemissaidtobeobservableifitisabletodeterminetheinitialstatesofthecontrolsyste
mby observingtheoutputsinfiniteduration oftime.

WecanchecktheobservabilityofacontrolsystembyusingKalman’stest.

 WritethematrixQoinfollowingform.

 Findthedeterminantofmatrix QoQoandifitisnotequaltozero,thenthecontrolsystemis
observable.
Example:

Letusverifythecontrollabilityandobservabilityofacontrolsystemwhichisrepresentedinthestat
espacemodelas,

Sincethedeterminantofmatrix
Qcisnotequaltozero,thegivencontrolsystemiscontrollable.
Forn=2,thematrixQowillbe–
AITS DEPT.OFEEE

Since,thedeterminantofmatrixQo
isnotequaltozero,thegivencontrolsystemisobservable.Therefore,thegivencontrolsyste
misbothcontrollableandobservable.