Wuthering Heights

Wuthering
Heights
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
For other uses, see Wuthering
Heights (disambiguation).
Wuthering Heights is Emily
Brontë's only novel. Written
between October 1845 and June
1846,[1] Wuthering Heights was
published in 1847 under the
pseudonym "Ellis Bell"; Brontë
died the following year, aged
30. Wuthering Heights and Anne
Brontë's Agnes Grey were
accepted by publisher Thomas
Newby before the success of their
sister Charlotte's novel, Jane
Eyre. After Emily's death,
Charlotte edited the manuscript
of Wuthering Heights, and
arranged for the edited version to
Title page of the first edition be published as a posthumous
second edition in 1850.[2]
Author Emily Brontë Although Wuthering Heights is
now widely regarded as a classic
of English literature, contemporary
Country United Kingdom reviews for the novel were deeply
polarised; it was considered
controversial because its depiction
Language English of mental and physical cruelty was
unusually stark, and it challenged
strict Victorian ideals of the day,
Genre Gothic novel including religious hypocrisy,
morality, social classes and
gender inequality.[3][4] The English
Publisher Thomas Cautley Newby poet and painter Dante Gabriel
Rossetti referred to it as "A fiend
Publication date of a book – an incredible
December 1847
monster ... The action is laid in
hell, – only it seems places and
Published in English 1847 people have English names
there."[5]
In the second half of the 19th
ISBN 0-486-29256-8 century, Charlotte Brontë's Jane
Eyre was considered the best of
the Brontë sisters' works, but
OCLC 71126926 following later re-evaluation, critics
began to argue that Wuthering
Dewey Decimal Heights was superior.[6] The book
823.8
has inspired adaptations, including
film, radio and television
LC Class PR4172 .W7 2007

Text Wuthering Heightsonline

 dramatisations, a musical by Bernard J. Taylor, a ballet, operas (by Bernard
Herrmann, Carlisle Floyd, and Frédéric Chaslin), a role-playing game,[7] and a
1978 song by Kate Bush.

Contents
[hide]

 1Plot
o 1.1Opening (Chapters 1 to 3)
o 1.2Heathcliff's childhood (Chapters 4 to 17)
o 1.3Heathcliff's maturity (Chapters 18 to 31)
o 1.4Ending (Chapters 32 to 34)
 2Characters
o 2.1Relationships map
 3Timeline
 4Themes
o 4.1Passion
o 4.2Gothic
 5Publication
o 5.11847 edition
o 5.21850 edition
 6Inspiration for locations
 7Critical response
o 7.1Early reviews (1847–1848)
 8References in culture
 9Adaptations
 10Works inspired
 11Notes
 12References
 13Bibliography
o 13.1Editions
o 13.2Works of criticism
 14External links

Plot[edit]
Opening (Chapters 1 to 3)[edit]
In 1801, Lockwood, a wealthy man from the South of England who is seeking peace and
recuperation, rents Thrushcross Grange in Yorkshire. He visits his landlord, Heathcliff, who
lives in a remote moorland farmhouse, Wuthering Heights. There Lockwood finds an odd
assemblage: Heathcliff seems to be a gentleman, but his manners are uncouth; the reserved
mistress of the house is in her mid-teens; and a young man seems to be a member of the
family, yet dresses and speaks as if he is a servant.
Snowed in, Lockwood is grudgingly allowed to stay and is shown to a bedchamber where he
notices books and graffiti left by a former inhabitant named Catherine. He falls asleep and
has a nightmare in which he sees the ghostly Catherine trying to enter through the window.
He cries out in fear, rousing Heathcliff, who rushes into the room. Lockwood is convinced
that what he saw was real. Heathcliff, believing Lockwood to be right, examines the window
and opens it, hoping to allow Catherine's spirit to enter. When nothing happens, Heathcliff
shows Lockwood to his own bedroom and returns to keep watch at the window.
At sunrise Heathcliff escorts Lockwood back to Thrushcross Grange. Lockwood asks the
housekeeper, Nelly Dean, about the family at Wuthering Heights, and she tells him the tale.
Heathcliff's childhood (Chapters 4 to 17)[edit]
Thirty years earlier Wuthering Heights is occupied by Mr Earnshaw, his teenage
son Hindley and his daughter Catherine. On a trip to Liverpool Earnshaw encounters a
homeless boy, described as a "dark-skinned gypsy in aspect". He adopts the boy and names
him Heathcliff. Hindley feels that Heathcliff has supplanted him in his father's affections and
becomes bitterly jealous. Catherine and Heathcliff become friends, and spend hours each
day playing on the moors. They grow close.
Hindley is sent to college. Three years later Earnshaw dies and Hindley becomes the master
of Wuthering Heights. He returns to live there with his new wife, Frances. He allows
Heathcliff to stay but only as a servant.

The climb to Top Withens, thought to have inspired the Earnshaws' home inWuthering
Heights

A few months after Hindley's return Heathcliff and Catherine walk to Thrushcross Grange to
spy on the Lintons, who live there. After being discovered they try to run away but are
caught. Catherine is injured by the Lintons' dog and taken into the house to recuperate, while
Heathcliff is sent home. Catherine stays with the Lintons, and is influenced by their fine
appearance and genteel manners. When she returns to Wuthering Heights her appearance
and manners are more ladylike, and she laughs at Heathcliff's unkempt appearance. The
next day, knowing that the Lintons are to visit, Heathcliff tries to dress up, in an effort to
impress Catherine, but he andEdgar Linton get into an argument and Hindley humiliates
Heathcliff by locking him in the attic. Catherine tries to comfort Heathcliff, but he vows
revenge on Hindley.
The following year Frances Earnshaw gives birth to a son, named Hareton, but she dies a
few months later. Hindley descends into drunkenness. Two more years pass, and Catherine
and Edgar Linton become friends, while she becomes more distant from Heathcliff. Edgar
visits Catherine while Hindley is away and they declare themselves lovers soon afterwards.
Catherine confesses to Nelly that Edgar has proposed marriage and she has accepted,
although her love for Edgar is not comparable to her love for Heathcliff, whom she cannot
marry because of his low social status and lack of education. She hopes to use her position
as Edgar's wife to raise Heathcliff's standing. Heathcliff overhears her say that it would
"degrade" her to marry him (but not how much she loves him), and he runs away and
disappears without a trace. Distraught over Heathcliff's departure, Catherine makes herself
ill. Nelly and Edgar begin to pander to her every whim to prevent her from becoming ill again.
Three years pass. Edgar and Catherine marry, and go to live together at Thrushcross
Grange. Six months later Heathcliff returns, now a wealthy gentleman. Catherine is
delighted, but Edgar is not. Edgar's sister, Isabella, soon falls in love with Heathcliff, who
despises her, but encourages the infatuation as a means of revenge. One day he embraces
Isabella, leading to an argument with Edgar. Upset, Catherine locks herself in her room and
begins to make herself ill again.
Heathcliff takes up residence at Wuthering Heights, and spends his time gambling with
Hindley and teaching Hareton bad habits. Hindley dissipates his wealth and mortgages the
farmhouse to Heathcliff to pay his debts. Heathcliff elopes with Isabella Linton. Two months
later they return to Wuthering Heights. Heathcliff hears that Catherine is ill and, with Nelly's
help, visits her secretly. However, Catherine is pregnant. The following day she gives birth to
a daughter, Cathy, shortly before dying.
After Catherine's funeral Isabella leaves Heathcliff, takes refuge in the South of England and
gives birth to a son, Linton. Hindley dies six months after Catherine and Heathcliff thus finds
himself master of Wuthering Heights.
Heathcliff's maturity (Chapters 18 to 31)[edit]

Brontë Society plaque at Top Withens

Twelve years pass. Catherine's daughter Cathy has become a beautiful, high-spirited girl.
Edgar learns that his sister Isabella is dying, so he leaves to retrieve her son Linton in order
to adopt and educate him. Cathy, who has rarely left home, takes advantage of her father's
absence to venture further afield. She rides over the moors to Wuthering Heights and
discovers that she has not one but two cousins: Hareton in addition to Linton. She also lets it
be known that her father has gone to fetch Linton. When Edgar returns with Linton, a weak
and sickly boy, Heathcliff insists that he live at Wuthering Heights.
Three years pass. Walking on the moors, Nelly and Cathy encounter Heathcliff, who takes
them to Wuthering Heights to see Linton and Hareton. Heathcliff hopes that Linton and
Cathy will marry, so that Linton will become the heir to Thrushcross Grange. Linton and
Cathy begin a secret friendship, echoing the childhood friendship between their respective
parents, Heathcliff and Catherine.
The following year Edgar becomes very ill, taking a turn for the worse while Nelly and Cathy
are out on the moors, where Heathcliff and Linton trick them into entering Wuthering Heights.
Heathcliff keeps them captive to enable the marriage of Cathy and Linton to take place. After
five days Nelly is released and later, with Linton's help, Cathy escapes. She returns to the
Grange to see her father shortly before he dies.
Now master of both Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange, and Cathy's father-in-law,
Heathcliff insists on her returning to live at Wuthering Heights. Soon after she arrives Linton
dies. Hareton tries to be kind to Cathy, but she withdraws from the world.
At this point Nelly's tale catches up to the present day (1801). Time passes and, after being
ill for a period, Lockwood grows tired of the moors and informs Heathcliff that he will be
leaving Thrushcross Grange.
Ending (Chapters 32 to 34)[edit]
Eight months later Lockwood returns to the area by chance. Given that his tenancy at
Thrushcross Grange is still valid, he decides to stay there again. He finds Nelly living at
Wuthering Heights and enquires what has happened since he left. She explains that she
moved to Wuthering Heights to replace the housekeeper, Zillah, who had left. Hareton had
an accident and was confined to the farmhouse. During his convalescence, he and Cathy
overcame their mutual antipathy and became close. While their friendship developed
Heathcliff began to act strangely and had visions of Catherine. He stopped eating and after
four days was found dead in Catherine's old room. He was buried next to Catherine.
Lockwood learns that Hareton and Cathy plan to marry on New Year's Day. As he gets ready
to leave, he passes the graves of Catherine, Edgar and Heathcliff, and pauses to
contemplate the quiet of the moors.

Characters[edit]

Family tree

 Heathcliff: Found, presumably orphaned, on the streets of Liverpool and taken by Mr

Earnshaw to Wuthering Heights, where he is reluctantly cared for by the family. He and
Catherine grow close and their love is the central theme of the first volume. His revenge
against the man she chooses to marry and its consequences are the central theme of
the second volume. Heathcliff has been considered a Byronic hero, but critics have
pointed out that he reinvents himself at various points, making his character hard to fit
into any single type. Because of his ambiguous position in society and his lack of status,
underlined by the fact that "Heathcliff" is both his given name and his surname, his
character has been a favourite subject of Marxist criticism.[8]
 Catherine Earnshaw: First introduced to the reader after her death, through Lockwood's
discovery of her diary and carvings. The description of her life is confined almost entirely
to the first volume. She seems unsure whether she is, or wants to become, more like
Heathcliff, or aspires to be more like Edgar. Some critics have argued that her decision
to marry Edgar Linton is allegorically a rejection of nature and a surrender to culture, a
choice with fateful consequences for all the other characters. Literary critics have
examined her character through many different lenses, including those
of psychoanalytic theory and feminist theory.[9]
 Edgar Linton: Introduced as a child in the Linton family, he resides at Thrushcross
Grange. Edgar's style and manners are in sharp contrast to those of Heathcliff, who
instantly dislikes him, and of Catherine, who is drawn to him. Catherine marries him
instead of Heathcliff because of his higher social status, with disastrous results. From the
perspective of feminist theory, this exemplifies the problems inherent in a social structure
in which women can gain prestige and financial security only through marriage.
 Nelly Dean: The main narrator of the novel, Nelly is a servant to three generations of the
Earnshaws and two of the Linton family. Humbly born, she regards herself nevertheless
as Hindley's foster-sister (they are the same age and her mother is his nurse). She lives
and works among the rough inhabitants of Wuthering Heights, but is well-read, and she
also experiences the more genteel manners of Thrushcross Grange. She is referred to
as Ellen, her given name, to show respect, and as Nelly among those close to her.
Critics have discussed how far her actions as an apparent bystander affect the other
characters and how much her narrative can be relied on.[10]
 Isabella Linton: Isabella is seen only in relation to other characters. She views
Heathcliff romantically, despite Catherine's warnings, and becomes an unwitting
 participant in his plot for revenge against Edgar. Heathcliff marries her, but treats her
abusively. Pregnant, she escapes to London and gives birth to a son, Linton. Because
she suffers such abuse from her husband and ultimately escapes from it, some critics,
particularly feminists, consider Isabella the true (conventional) "tragic-romantic" heroine
of Wuthering Heights.
 Hindley Earnshaw: Catherine's elder brother, Hindley despises Heathcliff immediately
and bullies him throughout their childhood before his father sends him away to college.
Hindley returns with his wife, Frances, after Mr Earnshaw dies. He is more mature, but
his hatred of Heathcliff remains the same. After Frances's death Hindley is caught in a
downward spiral of destructive behaviour, and ruins the Earnshaw family by drinking and
gambling to excess. Heathcliff beats up Hindley at one point when he attempts to kill him
with a pistol.
 Hareton Earnshaw: The son of Hindley and Frances, raised at first by Nelly but soon by
Heathcliff. Nelly works to instill a sense of pride in the Earnshaw heritage (even though
Hareton will not inherit Earnshaw property, because Hindley has mortgaged it to
Heathcliff). Heathcliff, in contrast, teaches him vulgarities, as a way of avenging himself
on Hindley. Hareton speaks with an accent similar to Joseph's, and occupies a position
similar to a servant at Wuthering Heights, unaware how he has been done out of his
inheritance. In appearance he reminds Heathcliff of his aunt, Catherine.
 Cathy Linton: The daughter of Catherine Earnshaw and Edgar Linton, a spirited and
strong-willed girl unaware of her parents' history. Edgar is very protective of her and as a
result she is eager to discover what lies beyond the confines of the Grange. Although
one of the more sympathetic characters of the novel, she is also somewhat snobbish
against Hareton and his lacking education.
 Linton Heathcliff: The son of Heathcliff and Isabella. A weak child, his early years are
spent with his mother in the south of England. He learns of his father's identity and
existence only after his mother dies, when he is twelve. In his selfishness and capacity
for cruelty he resembles Heathcliff, but he appears to lack his father's only redeeming
feature: the capacity to love. He marries Cathy Linton because his father, who terrifies
him, directs him to do so, and soon after dies from a wasting illness associated with
tuberculosis and onanism.[11]
 Joseph: A servant at Wuthering Heights for 60 years who is a rigid, self-righteous
Christian but lacks any trace of genuine kindness or humanity. He speaks a broad
Yorkshire dialect and hates nearly everyone in the novel.
 Mr Lockwood: The first narrator, he rents Thrushcross Grange to escape society, but in
the end decides society is preferable. He narrates the book until Chapter 4, when the
main narrator, Nelly, picks up the tale.
 Frances: Hindley's ailing wife and mother of Hareton Earnshaw. She is described as
somewhat silly and is obviously from humble family backgrounds.
 Mr and Mrs Earnshaw: Catherine's and Hindley's father, Mr Earnshaw is the master of
Wuthering Heights at the beginning of Nelly's story and is described as an irascible but
loving and kind-hearted man. He has a strange obsession with his adopted son
Heathcliff, which causes trouble in the family. In contrast, his wife mistrusts the child
Heathcliff from their first encounter.
 Mr and Mrs Linton: Edgar's and Isabella's parents, they educate their children in a well-
behaved and sophisticated way. Mr Linton also serves as the magistrate of Gimmerton,
like his son in later years.
 Dr Kenneth: The longtime doctor of Gimmerton and a friend of Hindley's who is present
at the cases of illness during the novel. Although not much of his character is known, he
seems to be a rough but honest person.
 Zillah: A servant to Heathcliff at Wuthering Heights during the period following
Catherine's death. Although she is kind to Lockwood, she doesn't like or help Cathy at
Wuthering Heights because of Cathy's arrogance and Heathcliff's instructions.
 Mr Green: Edgar's corruptible lawyer who should change his will and prevent Heathcliff
from gaining Thrushcross Grange. But Green changes sides and helps Heathcliff to
inherit Grange as his property.

Emma (novel)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article may be expanded with text translated from

the corresponding article in French. (August 2015) Click [show] for important
translation instructions. [show]

Title page of first edition, volume 1 of 3

Author Jane Austen

Country United Kingdom

Language English
 Genre Novel of manners

Published 23 December 1815[1] (title page gives

1816) John Murray

Preceded by Mansfield Park

Followed by Northanger Abbey

Emma, by Jane Austen, is a novel about youthful hubris and the perils of misconstrued
romance. The novel was first published in December 1815. As in her other novels, Austen
explores the concerns and difficulties of genteel women living in Georgian-Regency England;
she also creates a lively comedy of manners among her characters.
Before she began the novel, Austen wrote, "I am going to take a heroine whom no one but
myself will much like."[2] In the first sentence she introduces the title character as "Emma
Woodhouse, handsome, clever, and rich." Emma is spoiled, headstrong, and self-satisfied;
she greatly overestimates her own matchmaking abilities; she is blind to the dangers of
meddling in other people's lives; and her imagination and perceptions often lead her astray.
This novel has been adapted for several films, many television programs, and a long list of
stage plays.

Contents
[hide]

 1Plot summary
 2Principal characters
 3Other characters
 4Development of the novel
 5Reception
 6Themes
 7Allusions to real places and vehicles
 8Adaptations
 9See also
 10References
 11External links

Plot summary[edit]
Emma Woodhouse has just attended the wedding of Miss Taylor, her friend and
former governess, to Mr Weston. Having introduced them, Emma takes credit for their
marriage, and decides that she likes matchmaking. After she returns home to Hartfield with
her father, Emma forges ahead with her new interest against the advice of Mr Knightley and
tries to match her new friend Harriet Smith to Mr Elton, the local vicar. First, Emma must
persuade Harriet to refuse the marriage proposal from Robert Martin, a respectable,
educated, and well-spoken young farmer, which Harriet does against her own wishes. But Mr
Elton, a social climber, thinks Emma is in love with him and proposes to her. When Emma
tells him that she had thought him attached to Harriet, he is outraged. After Emma rejects
him, Mr Elton leaves for a stay Bath and returns with a pretentious, nouveau-riche wife, as
Mr Knightley expected. Harriet is heartbroken and Emma feels ashamed about misleading
her.
Frank Churchill, Mr Weston's son, arrives for a two-weeks visit to his father and makes many
friends. Mr Knightley suggests to Emma that while Frank is clever and engaging, he is also a
shallow character. Jane Fairfax comes home to see her aunt, Miss Bates, and grandmother,
Mrs Bates, for a few months, before she must go out on her own as a governess. She is the
same age as Emma, but Emma has not been as friendly with her as she might. Emma
envies her talent and is annoyed to find all, including Mrs Weston and Mr Knightley, praising
Jane. The patronising Mrs Elton takes Jane under her wing and announces that she will find
her the ideal governess post before it is wanted. Emma begins to feel some sympathy for
Jane's predicament.
Emma decides that Jane and Mr Dixon are mutually attracted, and that is why she has come
home. She shares her suspicions with Frank, who met Jane and the Campbells at a vacation
spot a year earlier, and he apparently agrees with her. Suspicions are further fueled when a
piano, sent by an anonymous benefactor, arrives for Jane. Emma feels herself falling in love
with Frank, but it does not last to his second visit. The Eltons treat Harriet badly, culminating
with Mr Elton publicly snubbing Harriet at the ball given by the Westons in May. Mr Knightley,
who had long refrained from dancing, gallantly steps in to dance with Harriet. The day after
the ball, Frank brings Harriet to Hartfield, she having fainted after a rough encounter with
local gypsies. Harriet is grateful, and Emma thinks this is love, not gratitude. Meanwhile, Mrs
Weston wonders if Mr Knightley has taken a fancy to Jane but Emma dismisses that idea.
When Mr Knightley mentions the links he sees between Jane and Frank, Emma denies
them, while Frank appears to be courting her instead. He arrives late to the gathering at
Donwell in June, while Jane leaves early. Next day at a local beauty spot, Frank and Emma
continue to banter together and Emma insults Miss Bates.

1898 illustration of Mr Knightley and Emma Woodhouse, Volume III chapter XIII

When Mr Knightley scolds Emma for the insult to Miss Bates, she is ashamed and tries to
atone with a morning visit to Miss Bates, which impresses Mr Knightley. On the visit, Emma
learns that Jane had accepted the position of governess from one of Mrs Elton's friends after
the outing. Jane now becomes ill, and refuses to see Emma or accept her gifts. Meanwhile
Frank was visiting his aunt, who dies soon after he arrives. Now he and Jane reveal to the
Westons that they have been secretly engaged since the fall but Frank knew that his aunt
would disapprove. The strain of the secrecy on the conscientious Jane had caused the two
to quarrel and Jane ended the engagement. Frank's uncle readily gives his blessing to the
match and the engagement becomes public, leaving Emma chagrined to discover that she
had been so wrong.
Emma is certain that Frank's engagement will devastate Harriet, but instead Harriet tells her
that she loves Mr Knightley, although knowing the match is too unequal. Emma is startled,
and realizes that she is the one to marry Mr Knightley. Mr Knightley returns to learn Emma's
reaction to the engagement. When she admits her own foolishness, he proposes and she
accepts. Now Harriet accepts Robert Martin's second proposal and they are the first couple
to marry. Jane and Emma reconcile, and Frank and Jane visit the Westons. Once the period
of deep mourning ends, they will marry. Before the end of November, Emma and Mr
Knightley are married with the prospect of "perfect happiness".

Principal characters[edit]
Emma Woodhouse, the protagonist of the story, is a beautiful, high-spirited, intelligent, and
'slightly' spoiled young woman of twenty when the story opens. Her mother died when she
was young. She has been mistress of the house since her older sister got married. Although
intelligent, she lacks the discipline to practise or study anything in depth. She is portrayed as
very compassionate to the poor, but at the same time has a strong sense of class status. Her
affection for and patience towards her valetudinarian father are also noteworthy. While she is
in many ways mature, Emma makes some serious mistakes, mainly due to her conviction
that she is always right and her lack of experience. Although she has vowed she will never
marry, she delights in making matches for others. She falls in love briefly with Frank
Churchill, but that passes away easily. She realises at the end that she loves Mr Knightley.
George Knightley is a neighbor and close friend of Emma, age 37 years. He is her only
critic. Mr Knightley is the owner of the estate of Donwell Abbey, which includes extensive
grounds and farms. He is the elder brother of Mr John Knightley, the husband of Emma's
elder sister Isabella. He is a man of thoughtful manners, aware of how others react to words
and events. Mr Knightley is annoyed with Emma for persuading Harriet to turn down Mr
Martin, a farmer on the Donwell estate; he warns Emma against matchmaking Harriet with
Mr Elton, knowing that Mr Elton seeks a bride with money. He is suspicious of Frank
Churchill and his motives; he sees that Frank has something secret going on with Jane
Fairfax.
Mr Frank Churchill, Mr Weston's son by his first marriage, is an amiable young man. 23
years old, who manages to be liked by everyone. Mr Knightley sees him as immature,
because he fails to visit his father for so long. After his mother's death, he was raised by his
wealthy aunt and uncle at the family estate Enscombe and whose last name he took at his
majority. His uncle was his mother's brother. Frank enjoys dancing and music and living life
to the fullest, but he is not above a secret engagement when he fears his aunt will forbid it.
He manipulates and plays games with the other characters to ensure his engagement to
Jane remains concealed.
Jane Fairfax is an orphan whose only family consists of her aunt, Miss Bates, and her
grandmother, Mrs Bates. She is a beautiful, clever, and elegant woman, with the best of
manners. She is the same age as Emma. She is well-educated and talented at singing and
playing the piano; she is the sole person whom Emma envies. An army friend of her late
father, Colonel Campbell, feels responsibility for her, and sees to her education, sharing his
home and family with her when she turned nine years old. She has little fortune, however,
and the plan is that she become a governess – a prospect she dislikes. The secret
engagement goes against her principles and wears on her.
Harriet Smith, a young friend of Emma, just seventeen when the story opens, is a pretty but
unsophisticated girl. She has been educated at a nearby school, where she met the sisters
of Mr Martin. Emma takes Harriet under her wing early on, and she becomes the subject of
Emma's misguided matchmaking attempts. She is revealed in the last chapter to be
thenatural daughter of a decent tradesman, although not a "gentleman". Harriet and Mr
Martin are wed. The now wiser Emma approves of the match.
Philip Elton is a good-looking, initially well-mannered, and ambitious young vicar, 27 years
old and unmarried when the story opens. Emma wants him to marry Harriet; however he
aspires to secure Emma's hand in marriage to gain her dowry. Mr Elton displays his
mercenary nature by quickly marrying another woman of lesser means after Emma's
rejection.
Augusta Elton, formerly Miss Hawkins, is Mr Elton's wife. She has her 10,000 pounds, but
lacks good manners, at best, using people's names too intimately as one example (Jane, not
Miss Fairfax, Knightly, not Mr Knightley). She is a boasting, pretentious woman who expects
her due as a new bride in the village. Emma is polite to her but does not like her. She
patronises Jane, which earns Jane the sympathy of others. She displays many of the faults
for which Mr Knightley reprimands Emma, however on a much larger scale. Ironically much
of Emma's dislike of Mrs Elton arises from these faults.[3]
Mrs Weston was Emma's governess for sixteen years as Miss Anne Taylor and remains her
closest friend and confidante after she marries Mr Weston. She is a sensible woman who
loves Emma. Mrs Weston acts as a surrogate mother to her former charge and, occasionally,
as a voice of moderation and reason. The Westons and the Woodhouses visit almost daily.
Near the end of the story, the Westons' baby Anna is born.
Mr Weston is a widower and a business man living in Highbury who marries Miss Taylor in
his early 40s, after he bought the home called Randalls. By his first marriage, he is father to
Frank Weston Churchill, who was adopted and raised by his late wife's brother and his wife.
He sees his son in London each year. He married his first wife, Miss Churchill, when he was
a Captain in the militia, posted near her home. Mr Weston is a sanguine, optimistic man, who
enjoys socialising, making friends easily in business and among his neighbours.
Miss Bates is a friendly, garrulous spinster whose mother, Mrs Bates, is a friend of Mr
Woodhouse. Her niece is Jane Fairfax, daughter of her late sister. She was raised in better
circumstances in her younger days as the vicar's daughter; now she and her mother rent
rooms in the home of another in Highbury. One day, Emma humiliates her on a day out in
the country, when she alludes to her tiresome prolixity.
Mr Henry Woodhouse, Emma's father, is always concerned for his health, and to the extent
that it does not interfere with his own, the health and comfort of his friends. He is
a valetudinarian (i.e., similar to a hypochondriac but more likely to be genuinely ill). He
assumes a great many things are hazardous to his health. His daughter Emma gets along
with him well, and he loves both his daughters. He laments that "poor Isabella" and
especially "poor Miss Taylor" have married and live away from him. He is a fond father and
fond grandfather who did not remarry when his wife died; instead he brought in Miss Taylor
to educate his daughters and become part of the family. Because he is generous and well-
mannered, his neighbors accommodate him when they can.
Isabella Knightley (née Woodhouse) is the elder sister of Emma, by seven years, and
daughter of Henry. She is married to John Knightley. She lives in London with her husband
and their five children (Henry, 'little' John, Bella, 'little' Emma, and George). She is similar in
disposition to her father.
John Knightley is Isabella's husband and George's younger brother, 31 years old (10 years
older than Jane Fairfax and Emma). He is an attorney by profession. Like the others raised
in the area, he is a friend of Jane Fairfax. He greatly enjoys the company of his family,
including his brother and his Woodhouse in-laws, but is not the very sociable sort of man
who enjoys dining out frequently. He is forthright with Emma, his sister-in-law, and close to
his brother.

Other characters[edit]
 Mr Perry: Physician to Mr Woodhouse and his family in Highbury since Emma was a
young child. He is married and has several children of his own.

 Mr and Mrs Churchill: Mr Churchill was the brother to the first Mrs Weston. She married
Captain Weston of the militia, and had a son, Frank, with him. She died when the son
was a few years old. Mrs Churchill is of a domineering temperament and poor health,
and insisted on taking the nephew of her husband into their household, as they were
childless, and wealthier at their estate of Enscombe in Yorkshire, than the boy's father,
otherwise in good financial standing, in Highbury. She pressed the issue further, that
young Frank Weston had to take their last name as his upon his majority, so signing
himself Frank C Weston Churchill, but known socially as Frank Churchill. Her family
believe in the ups and downs of her health, but those in Highbury do not, until she dies
so suddenly.

 Colonel Campbell: Friend to Lieutenant Fairfax, father of Jane, during the wars. Mr
Fairfax did him a service so the Colonel feels a strong obligation to his friend, taking
charge of his orphan daughter Jane from her age nine, as her remaining relatives were
fallen in social status and could not provide the best education to her. Colonel Campbell
is married and has daughter close in age to Jane. He and his family saw to Jane's
education in their home in London, and took her when they travelled about England.

 Mr and Mrs Dixon: Miss Campbell, daughter of the Colonel and close friend to Jane
Fairfax, marries Mr Dixon at about the time the Westons married. They travel to Ireland
to Mr Dixon's country seat. A few months later, they asked the Campbells to visit them.
Jane Fairfax left to visit Highbury rather than Ireland. Some of Miss Fairfax's decisions
depend on when she can again see the Campbells.

 Mrs Goddard: Middle-aged woman of Highbury who runs a school for girls and is a friend
to Mr Woodhouse. Her students included the Martin sisters and Harriet Smith. She plays
cards on frequent social visits to the Woodhouse family, often in the company of Mrs
Bates and Miss Bates.

 Robert Martin: He is farmer of Abbey-Mill Farm rented from Donwell, living with his
sisters and his mother, age 24 years. Mr Knightley thinks highly of him, for being
practical, direct and hard-working, a reliable man. He falls in love with Harriet Smith after
she visits with his sisters for a couple of months before the opening of the story and
sends her a proposal of marriage in a well-written letter. She turns him down once.

 William Larkins : Manager of the Donwell estate, he works closely with Mr George
Knightley.

 Mrs Suckling: Née Selina Hawkins, sister of Augusta Hawkins Elton, who married a man
wealthier than did Augusta. Mr and Mrs Suckling live at Maple Grove in Yorkshire,
mentioned often in Mrs Elton's conversations at Highbury. They promise a visit to their
newly married sister, but in the time of the novel, it is a visit never made, always
expected. The Sucklings were expected to arrive in their barouche-landau carriage, a
prestigious vehicle.
 Mr and Mrs Cole: A family in the merchant class whose income had of late risen, they
enlarged their home and hired more servants, making them second only to the
Woodhouses in Highbury. They expanded their social circle. They invite Emma
Woodhouse to a dinner at their home, when Emma shares her suspicions with Frank
Churchill that Jane Fairfax has feelings for Mr Dixon, among all the speculation on who
sent the piano to Miss Fairfax. Mr Cole is involved in parish business, and talks with Mr
Knightley.

Development of the novel[edit]

Before she began the novel, Austen wrote, "I am going to take a heroine whom no one but
myself will much like."[2] In the very first sentence she introduces the title character as "Emma
Woodhouse, handsome, clever, and rich." Emma, however, is also rather spoiled,
headstrong, and self-satisfied; she greatly overestimates her own matchmaking abilities; she
is blind to the dangers of meddling in other people's lives; and her imagination and
perceptions often lead her astray.

Reception[edit]
Main article: Reception history of Jane Austen
Early reviews of Emma were generally favourable,[citation needed] but there were some criticisms
about the lack of story. John Murray remarked that it lacked "incident and Romance"; [4] Maria
Edgeworth, the author of Belinda, to whom Austen had sent a complimentary copy, wrote:[4]
there was no story in it, except that Miss Emma found that the man whom she designed for
Harriet's lover was an admirer of her own – & he was affronted at being refused by Emma &
Harriet wore the willow – and smooth, thin water-gruel is according to Emma's father's
opinion a very good thing & it is very difficult to make a cook understand what you mean
by smooth, thin water-gruel!!

Themes[edit]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please
help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016)
Emma Woodhouse is the first Austen heroine with no financial concerns, which, she declares
to the naïve Miss Smith, is the reason that she has no inducement to marry. This is a great
departure from Austen's other novels, in which the quest for marriage and financial security
are often important themes in the stories. Emma's ample financial resources put her in a
much more privileged position than the heroines of Austen's earlier works, such as Sense
and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice. Jane Fairfax's prospects, in contrast, are bleak.[citation
needed]

In contrast to other Austen heroines Emma seems immune to romantic attraction.

Unlike Marianne Dashwood, who is attracted to the wrong man before she settles on the
right one, Emma shows no romantic interest in the men she meets. She is genuinely
surprised (and somewhat disgusted) when Mr Elton declares his love for her—much in the
way Elizabeth Bennet reacts to the obsequious Mr Collins, also a parson. Her fancy for
Frank Churchill represents more of a longing for a little drama in her life than a longing for
romantic love. For example, at the beginning of Chapter XIII, Emma has "no doubt of her
being in love," but it quickly becomes clear that, even though she spends time "forming a
thousand amusing schemes for the progress and close of their attachment," we are told that
"the conclusion of every imaginary declaration on his side was that she refused him." [5]
Notably too, Emma utterly fails to understand the budding affection between Harriet Smith
and Robert Martin; she interprets the prospective match solely in terms of financial
settlements and social ambition. It is only after Harriet Smith reveals her interest in Mr
Knightley that Emma realises her own feelings for him.
While Emma differs strikingly from Austen's other heroines in these two respects, she
resembles Elizabeth Bennet and Anne Elliot, among others, in another way: she is an
intelligent young woman with too little to do and no ability to change her location or everyday
routine. Though her family is loving and her economic status secure, Emma's everyday life is
dull indeed; she has few companions her own age when the novel begins. Her determined
though inept matchmaking may represent a muted protest against the narrow scope of a
wealthy woman's life, especially that of a woman who is single and childless, but it may also
represent Austen's own interest in self-consciously toying with the fact that marriage plots
dominates the novel.[citation needed]
Frank Churchill may be viewed as a careless but less villainous version of characters from
other Austen novels, such as Mr Wickham from Pride and Prejudice or Willoughby
from Sense and Sensibility.[citation needed]

Allusions to real places and vehicles[edit]

Highbury is a fictional place, but it is placed by the author as being 16 miles from London, in
Surrey. Richmond, where Frank Churchill's aunt and uncle settle in the summer, is now part
of the greater London area, but then was a separate town in Surrey. Enscombe, the estate of
the Churchills is in Yorkshire, in the northern part of England. Frank and Jane met often in
the seaside resort town of Weymouth, Dorset, after first meeting in London, when their two
families travelled to each place. Emma's sister Isabella and her family live in Brunswick
Square, an area of London that had houses when the book was published, but no longer
does. Isabella and John's family visited the sea shore at South End, about 40 miles east of
central London, rather than journey 100 miles to the place favored by the Perry
family, Cromer in Norfolk. Box Hill, Surrey is a place of beauty in England, Bath is a well-
known spa city in the southwest of England, where Mr Elton went to meet his Augusta.
Mrs Elton frequently refers to the upcoming visit of her well-married sister, who will certainly
arrive in their barouche-landau carriage. This was an expensive carriage for summer use,
described and illustrated in a paper by Ratcliffe.[6][7]

Gulliver's Travels
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Gulliver's Travels (disambiguation).

Gulliver's Travels
 First edition of Gulliver's Travels

Author Jonathan Swift

Original title Travels into Several Remote Nations of the

World. In Four Parts. By Lemuel Gulliver,
First a Surgeon, and then a Captain of
several Ships

Country Ireland

Language English

Genre Satire, fantasy

Publisher Benjamin Motte

Publication 28 October 1726

date

Media type Print

Dewey 823.5
Decimal

Text Gulliver's Travels at Wikisource

Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World. In Four Parts. By Lemuel Gulliver,
First a Surgeon, and then a Captain of Several Ships, commonly known as Gulliver's
Travels (1726, amended 1735), is a prosesatire[1][2] by Irish writer and clergyman Jonathan
 Swift, that is both a satire onhuman nature and a parody of the "travellers' tales" literary
subgenre. It is Swift's best known full-length work, and a classic of English literature.
The book became popular as soon as it was published. John Gay wrote in a 1726 letter to
Swift that "It is universally read, from the cabinet council to the nursery."[3] Since then, it has
never been out of print.

Contents
[hide]

 1Plot summary
o 1.1Part I: A Voyage to Lilliput
o 1.2Part II: A Voyage to Brobdingnag
o 1.3Part III: A Voyage to Laputa, Balnibarbi, Luggnagg, Glubbdubdrib, and Japan
o 1.4Part IV: A Voyage to the Country of the Houyhnhnms
 2Composition and history
o 2.1Faulkner's 1735 edition
o 2.2Lindalino
 3Major themes
o 3.1Character analysis
 4Cultural influences
 5In other works
o 5.1Sequels and imitations
o 5.2Allusions
 6Adaptations
o 6.1Music
o 6.2Film, television and radio
 7See also
 8References
 9Bibliography
 10External links
o 10.1Online text

Plot summary[edit]
Part I: A Voyage to Lilliput[edit]
4 May 1699[4] – 13 April 1702[5]

Mural depicting Gulliver surrounded by citizens of Lilliput.

The book begins with a short preamble in which Lemuel Gulliver, in the literary style of the
time, gives a brief outline of his life and history before his voyages. He enjoys travelling,
although it is that love of travel that is his downfall. During his first voyage, Gulliver is washed
ashore after a shipwreck and finds himself a prisoner of a race of tiny people, less than 6
inches tall, who are inhabitants of the island country ofLilliput. After giving assurances of his
good behaviour, he is given a residence in Lilliput and becomes a favourite of the court.
From there, the book follows Gulliver's observations on the Court of Lilliput. He is also given
the permission to go around the city on a condition that he must not harm their subjects.
Gulliver assists the Lilliputians to subdue their neighbours, the Blefuscudians, by stealing
their fleet. However, he refuses to reduce the island nation of Blefuscu to a province of
Lilliput, displeasing the King and the court. Gulliver is charged with treason for, among other
crimes, "making water" (urination) in the capital, though he was putting out a fire and saving
countless lives. He is convicted and sentenced to be blinded, but with the assistance of a
kind friend, he escapes to Blefuscu. Here he spots and retrieves an abandoned boat and
sails out to be rescued by a passing ship, which safely takes him back home. This book of
the Travels is a typical political satire.
Part II: A Voyage to Brobdingnag[edit]
20 June 1702[6] – 3 June 1706[7]

Gulliver Exhibited to the Brobdingnag Farmer (painting by Richard Redgrave)

When the sailing ship Adventure is blown off course by storms and forced to sail for land in
search of fresh water, Gulliver is abandoned by his companions and found by a farmer who
is 72 feet (22 m) tall (the scale of Brobdingnag is about 12:1, compared to Lilliput's 1:12,
judging from Gulliver estimating a man's step being 10 yards (9.1 m)). He brings Gulliver
home and his daughter cares for Gulliver. The farmer treats him as a curiosity and exhibits
him for money. After a while the constant shows make Lemuel sick, and the farmer sells him
to the queen of the realm. The farmer's daughter (who accompanied her father while
exhibiting Gulliver) is taken into the queen's service to take care of the tiny man. Since
Gulliver is too small to use their huge chairs, beds, knives and forks, the queen commissions
a small house to be built for him so that he can be carried around in it; this is referred to as
his 'travelling box'. Between small adventures such as fighting giant wasps and being carried
to the roof by a monkey, he discusses the state of Europe with the King. The King is not
happy with Gulliver's accounts of Europe, especially upon learning of the use of guns and
cannons. On a trip to the seaside, his travelling box is seized by a giant eagle which drops
Gulliver and his box into the sea, where he is picked up by some sailors, who return him to
England. This book compares the truly moral man to the representative man; the latter is
clearly shown to be the lesser of the two. Swift, being in Anglican holy orders, was keen to
make such comparisons.
Part III: A Voyage to Laputa, Balnibarbi, Luggnagg, Glubbdubdrib, and
Japan[edit]
5 August 1706[8] – 16 April 1710[9]
Gulliver discovers Laputa, the flying island (illustration byJ.J. Grandville.)

After Gulliver's ship was attacked by pirates, he is marooned close to a desolate rocky island
near India. Fortunately, he is rescued by the flying island of Laputa, a kingdom devoted to
the arts of music and mathematics but unable to use them for practical ends. Laputa's
custom of throwing rocks down at rebellious cities on the ground prefigures air strikes as a
method of warfare. Gulliver tours Balnibarbi, the kingdom ruled from Laputa, as the guest of
a low-ranking courtier and sees the ruin brought about by the blind pursuit of science without
practical results, in a satire on bureaucracy and on the Royal Society and its experiments. At
the Grand Academy of Lagado, great resources and manpower are employed on
researching completely preposterous schemes such as extracting sunbeams from
cucumbers, softening marble for use in pillows, learning how to mix paint by smell, and
uncovering political conspiracies by examining the excrement of suspicious persons
(seemuckraking). Gulliver is then taken to Maldonada, the main port, to await a trader who
can take him on to Japan. While waiting for a passage, Gulliver takes a short side-trip to the
island of Glubbdubdrib, where he visits a magician's dwelling and discusses history with the
ghosts of historical figures, the most obvious restatement of the "ancients versus moderns"
theme in the book. In Luggnagg he encounters the struldbrugs, unfortunates who are
immortal. They do not have the gift of eternal youth, but suffer the infirmities of old age and
are considered legally dead at the age of eighty. After reaching Japan, Gulliver asks the
Emperor "to excuse my performing the ceremony imposed upon my countrymen of trampling
upon the crucifix," which the Emperor does. Gulliver returns home, determined to stay there
for the rest of his days.
Part IV: A Voyage to the Country of the Houyhnhnms[edit]
7 September 1710[10] – 5 December 1715[11]

Gulliver in discussion with Houyhnhnms (1856 lllustration by J.J. Grandville.)

Despite his earlier intention of remaining at home, Gulliver returns to the sea as the captain
of a merchantman as he is bored with his employment as a surgeon. On this voyage he is
forced to find new additions to his crew, whom he believes to have turned the rest of the
crew against him. His crew then mutiny, and after keeping him contained for some time
resolve to leave him on the first piece of land they come across and continue as pirates. He
is abandoned in a landing boat and comes upon a race of hideous, deformed and savage
humanoid creatures to which he conceives a violent antipathy. Shortly afterwards he meets
the Houyhnhnms, a race of talking horses. They are the rulers, while the deformed creatures
called Yahoos are human beings in their base form. Gulliver becomes a member of a horse's
household, and comes to both admire and emulate the Houyhnhnms and their lifestyle,
rejecting his fellow humans as merely Yahoos endowed with some semblance of reason
which they only use to exacerbate and add to the vices Nature gave them. However, an
Assembly of the Houyhnhnms rules that Gulliver, a Yahoo with some semblance of reason,
is a danger to their civilisation, and expels him. He is then rescued, against his will, by a
Portuguese ship, and is disgusted to see that Captain Pedro de Mendez, a Yahoo, is a wise,
courteous and generous person. He returns to his home in England, but he is unable to
reconcile himself to living among 'Yahoos' and becomes a recluse, remaining in his house,
largely avoiding his family and his wife, and spending several hours a day speaking with the
horses in his stables; in effect becoming insane. This book uses coarse metaphors to
describe human depravity, and the Houyhnhnms are symbolised as not only perfected
nature but also the emotional barrenness which Swift maintained that devotion to reason
brought....

Composition and history[edit]

It is uncertain exactly when Swift started writing Gulliver's Travels (much of the writing was
done at Loughry Manor inCookstown, Co. Tyrone whilst Swift stayed there), but some
sources[which?] suggest as early as 1713 when Swift, Gay, Pope, Arbuthnot and others formed
the Scriblerus Club with the aim of satirising popular literary genres. According to these
accounts, Swift was charged with writing the memoirs of the club's imaginary author,
Martinus Scriblerus, and also with satirising the "travellers' tales" literary subgenre. It is
known from Swift's correspondence that the composition proper began in 1720 with the
mirror-themed parts I and II written first, Part IV next in 1723 and Part III written in 1724; but
amendments were made even while Swift was writing Drapier's Letters. By August 1725 the
book was complete; and as Gulliver's Travels was a transparently anti-Whig satire, it is likely
that Swift had the manuscript copied so that his handwriting could not be used as evidence if
a prosecution should arise, as had happened in the case of some of his
Irish pamphlets (theDrapier's Letters). In March 1726 Swift travelled to London to have his
work published; the manuscript was secretly delivered to the publisher Benjamin Motte, who
used five printing houses to speed production and avoid piracy.[12] Motte, recognising a best-
seller but fearing prosecution, cut or altered the worst offending passages (such as the
descriptions of the court contests in Lilliput and the rebellion of Lindalino), added some
material in defence of Queen Anne to book II, and published it. The first edition was released
in two volumes on 28 October 1726, priced at 8s. 6d.[13] The book was an instant sensation
and sold out its first run in less than a week.
Motte published Gulliver's Travels anonymously, and as was often the way with fashionable
works, several follow-ups (Memoirs of the Court of Lilliput), parodies (Two Lilliputian Odes,
The first on the Famous Engine With Which Captain Gulliver extinguish'd the Palace Fire...)
and "keys" (Gulliver Decipher'd and Lemuel Gulliver's Travels into Several Remote Regions
of the World Compendiously Methodiz'd, the second by Edmund Curll who had similarly
written a "key" to Swift's Tale of a Tub in 1705) were swiftly produced. These were mostly
printed anonymously (or occasionally pseudonymously) and were quickly forgotten. Swift
had nothing to do with them and disavowed them in Faulkner's edition of 1735. Swift's
friend Alexander Pope wrote a set of five Verses on Gulliver's Travels, which Swift liked so
much that he added them to the second edition of the book, though they are rarely included.
Faulkner's 1735 edition[edit]
In 1735 an Irish publisher, George Faulkner, printed a set of Swift's works, Volume III of
which was Gulliver's Travels. As revealed in Faulkner's "Advertisement to the Reader",
Faulkner had access to an annotated copy of Motte's work by "a friend of the author"
(generally believed to be Swift's friend Charles Ford) which reproduced most of the
manuscript without Motte's amendments, the original manuscript having been destroyed. It is
also believed that Swift at least reviewed proofs of Faulkner's edition before printing, but this
cannot be proved. Generally, this is regarded as the Editio Princeps of Gulliver's Travels with
one small exception. This edition had an added piece by Swift, A letter from Capt. Gulliver to
his Cousin Sympson, which complained of Motte's alterations to the original text, saying he
had so much altered it that "I do hardly know mine own work" and repudiating all of Motte's
changes as well as all the keys, libels, parodies, second parts and continuations that had
appeared in the intervening years. This letter now forms part of many standard texts.
Lindalino[edit]
The five-paragraph episode in Part III, telling of the rebellion of the surface city of Lindalino
against the flying island of Laputa, was an obvious allegory to the affair of Drapier's
Letters of which Swift was proud. Lindalino represented Dublin and the impositions of Laputa
represented the British imposition of William Wood's poor-quality copper currency. Faulkner
had omitted this passage, either because of political sensitivities raised by an Irish publisher
printing an anti-British satire, or possibly because the text he worked from did not include the
passage. In 1899 the passage was included in a new edition of the Collected Works. Modern
editions derive from the Faulkner edition with the inclusion of this 1899 addendum.
Isaac Asimov notes in The Annotated Gulliver that Lindalino is composed of double lins;
hence, Dublin.

Major themes[edit]
The King of Brobdingnag and Gulliver (1803),Metropolitan Museum of Art

Gulliver's Travels has been the recipient of several designations: from Menippean satire to a
children's story, from proto-Science Fiction to a forerunner of the modern novel.
Published seven years after Daniel Defoe's wildly successful Robinson Crusoe, Gulliver's
Travels may be read as a systematic rebuttal of Defoe's optimistic account of human
capability. In The Unthinkable Swift: The Spontaneous Philosophy of a Church of England
Man, Warren Montag argues that Swift was concerned to refute the notion that the individual
precedes society, as Defoe's novel seems to suggest. Swift regarded such thought as a
dangerous endorsement of Thomas Hobbes' radical political philosophy and for this reason
Gulliver repeatedly encounters established societies rather than desolate islands. The
captain who invites Gulliver to serve as a surgeon aboard his ship on the disastrous third
voyage is named Robinson.
Scholar Allan Bloom points out that Swift's critique of science (the experiments of Laputa) is
the first such questioning by a modern liberal democrat of the effects and cost on a society
which embraces and celebrates policies pursuing scientific progress.[14]
A possible reason for the book's classic status is that it can be seen as many things to many
different people. Broadly, the book has three themes:

 A satirical view of the state of European government, and of petty differences between
religions
 An inquiry into whether men are inherently corrupt or whether they become corrupted
 A restatement of the older "ancients versus moderns" controversy previously addressed
by Swift in The Battle of the Books
In terms of storytelling and construction the parts follow a pattern:
 The causes of Gulliver's misadventures become more malignant as time goes on—he is
first shipwrecked, then abandoned, then attacked by strangers, then attacked by his own
crew.
 Gulliver's attitude hardens as the book progresses—he is genuinely surprised by the
viciousness and politicking of the Lilliputians but finds the behaviour of the Yahoos in the
fourth part reflective of the behaviour of people.
 Each part is the reverse of the preceding part—Gulliver is big/small/wise/ignorant, the
countries are complex/simple/scientific/natural, and the forms of government are
worse/better/worse/better than England's.
 Gulliver's viewpoint between parts is mirrored by that of his antagonists in the
contrasting part—Gulliver sees the tiny Lilliputians as being vicious and unscrupulous,
and then the king of Brobdingnag sees Europe in exactly the same light; Gulliver sees
the Laputians as unreasonable, and his Houyhnhnm master sees humanity as equally
so.
 No form of government is ideal—the simplistic Brobdingnagians enjoy public executions
and have streets infested with beggars, the honest and upright Houyhnhnms who have
no word for lying are happy to suppress the true nature of Gulliver as a Yahoo and are
equally unconcerned about his reaction to being expelled.
 Specific individuals may be good even where the race is bad—Gulliver finds a friend in
each of his travels and, despite Gulliver's rejection and horror toward all Yahoos, is
treated very well by the Portuguese captain, Don Pedro, who returns him to England at
the novel's end.
Of equal interest is the character of Gulliver himself—he progresses from a cheery optimist
at the start of the first part to the pompous misanthrope of the book's conclusion and we may
well have to filter our understanding of the work if we are to believe the final misanthrope
wrote the whole work. In this sense Gulliver's Travels is a very modern and complex novel.
There are subtle shifts throughout the book, such as when Gulliver begins to see all humans,
not just those in Houyhnhnm-land, as Yahoos.
Throughout, Gulliver is presented as being gullible; he believes what he is told, never
perceives deeper meanings, is an honest man, and expects others to be honest. This makes
for fun and irony; what Gulliver says can be trusted to be accurate, and he does not always
understand the meaning of what he perceives.
Also, although Gulliver is presented as a commonplace "everyman", lacking higher
education, he possesses a remarkable natural gift for language. He quickly becomes fluent
in the native tongue of any strange land in which he finds himself, a literary device that adds
much understanding and humour to Swift's work.
Despite the depth and subtlety of the book, it is often classified as a children's story because
of the popularity of the Lilliput section (frequently bowdlerised) as a book for children. One
can still buy books entitled Gulliver's Travels which contain only parts of the Lilliput voyage.
Character analysis[edit]
Pedro de Mendez is the name of the Portuguese captain who rescues Gulliver in Book IV.
When Gulliver is forced to leave the Island of the Houyhnhnms, his plan is "to discover some
small Island uninhabited" where he can live in solitude. Instead, he is picked up by Don
Pedro's crew. Despite Gulliver's appearance—he is dressed in skins and speaks like a horse
—Don Pedro treats him compassionately and returns him to Lisbon.
Though Don Pedro appears only briefly, he has become an important figure in the debate
between so-called soft school and hard school readers of Gulliver's Travels. Soft school
critics contend that Gulliver is a target of Swift's satire and that Don Pedro represents an
ideal of human kindness and generosity. For hard-school critics, Gulliver sees the bleak
fallenness at the center of human nature, and Don Pedro is merely a minor character who, in
Gulliver's words, is "an Animal which had some little Portion of Reason." [15]
Cultural influences[edit]

Gulliver and a giant, a painting by Tadeusz Pruszkowski (National Museumin Warsaw).

From 1738 to 1746, Edward Cave published in occasional issues of The Gentleman's
Magazine semi-fictionalized accounts of contemporary debates in the two Houses
ofParliament under the title of Debates in the Senate of Lilliput. The names of the speakers
in the debates, other individuals mentioned, politicians and monarchs present and past, and
most other countries and cities of Europe ("Degulia") and America ("Columbia") were thinly
disguised under a variety of Swiftian pseudonyms. The disguised names, and the pretence
that the accounts were really translations of speeches by Lilliputian politicians, were a
reaction to an Act of Parliament forbidding the publication of accounts of its debates. Cave
employed several writers on this series: William Guthrie (June 1738 – November
1740),Samuel Johnson (November 1740 – February 1743), and John
Hawkesworth (February 1743 – December 1746).
Voltaire was presumably influenced by Swift: his 1750 short story Micromégas, about an
alien visitor to Earth, also refers to two moons of Mars.
Swift crater, a crater on Mars's moon Deimos, is named after Jonathan Swift.
The term Lilliputian has entered many languages as an adjective meaning "small and
delicate". There is even a brand of small cigar called Lilliput. There is a series of collectable
model houses known as "Lilliput Lane". The smallest light bulb fitting (5mm diameter) in
the Edison screw series is called the "Lilliput Edison screw". In Dutch and Czech, the
wordsLilliputter and liliput(á)n respectively are used for adults shorter than 1.30 meters.
Conversely, Brobdingnagian appears in the Oxford English Dictionary as a synonym for very
large or gigantic.
In like vein, the term yahoo is often encountered as a synonym for ruffian or thug.
In the discipline of computer architecture, the terms big-endian and little-endian are used to
describe two possible ways of laying out bytes in memory. The terms derive from one of the
satirical conflicts in the book, in which two religious sects of Lilliputians are divided between
those who crack open their soft-boiled eggs from the little end, and those who use the big
end.
Dostoevsky references Gulliver's Travels in his novel Demons (1872): 'In an English satire of
the last century, Gulliver, returning from the land of the Lilliputians where the people were
only three or four inches high, had grown so accustomed to consider himself a giant among
them, that as he walked along the Streets of London he could not help crying out to
carriages and passers-by to be careful and get out of his way for fear he should crush them,
imagining that they were little and he was still a giant....'
In other works[edit]
Sequels and imitations[edit]

 Many sequels followed the initial publishing of the Travels. The earliest of these was the
anonymously authoredMemoirs of the Court of Lilliput,[16] published 1727, which expands
the account of Gulliver's stays in Lilliput and Blefuscu by adding several gossipy
anecdotes about scandalous episodes at the Lilliputian court.
 Abbé Pierre Desfontaines, the first French translator of Swift's story, wrote a sequel, Le
Nouveau Gulliver ou Voyages de Jean Gulliver, fils du capitaine Lemuel Gulliver (The
New Gulliver, or the travels of John Gulliver, son of Captain Lemuel Gulliver), published
in 1730.[17] Gulliver's son has various fantastic, satirical adventures.
 Donald Grant Mitchell retold part one of the novel in the form of a short story for children,
published in St. Nicholasmagazine in 1874.[18]
 Soviet Ukrainian science fiction writer Vladimir Savchenko published Gulliver's Fifth
Travel—The Travel of Lemuel Gulliver, First a Surgeon, and Then a Captain of Several
Ships to the Land of Tikitaks (Russian: Пятое путешествие Гулливера –
Путешествие Лемюэля Гулливера, сначала хирурга, а потом капитана
нескольких кораблей, в страну тикитаков), a sequel to the original series in which
Gulliver's role as a surgeon is more apparent. Tikitaks are people who inject the juice of
a unique fruit to make their skin transparent, as they consider people with regular
opaque skin secretive and ugly.
 Gulliver's Travels Beyond the Moon (ガリバーの宇宙旅行 Garibā no Uchū Ryokō?,
Gulliver's Space Travels) is a 1965 Japanese animated film, portraying an elder Gulliver
taking part in a space travel, joined by a boy, a crow, a talking toy soldier and a dog. The
film, although being a children's production generally fascinated by the idea of space
travelling, portrays an alien world where robots have taken power. Thus it continues in
Swift's vein of critical approach on themes in current society.
 Hanna-Barbera produced two adaptations of Gulliver's Travels, one was an animated TV
series called The Adventures of Gulliver from 1968 to 1969 and another was a 1979
animated television special titled Gulliver's Travels.
 American physician John Paul Brady published in 1987 A Voyage to Inishneefa: A First-
hand Account of the Fifth Voyage of Lemuel Gulliver (Santa Barbara: John Daniel), a
parody of Irish history in Swift's manner.
 In 1998 the Argentine writer Edgar Brau published El último Viaje del capitán Lemuel
Gulliver (The Last Voyage of Captain Lemuel Gulliver), a novel in which Swift's character
goes on an imaginary fifth journey, this time into the River Plate. It satirises ways and
customs of present-day society, including sports, television, politics, etc. To justify the
parody, the narrative is set immediately after the last voyage written by Swift (precisely,
1722), and the literary style of the original work is kept throughout the whole story.
 "L. Gulliver" appears in Alan Moore's comic The League of Extraordinary
Gentlemen Volume 1 as a member of a prior Society of Extraordinary Gentlemen from
1780s.[19]

Robinson Crusoe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Robinson Crusoe (disambiguation).

Robinson Crusoe
 Title page from the first edition

Author Daniel Defoe

Illustrator Single engraving by John Clark andJohn

Pine after design by unknown artist[1]

Country United Kingdom

Language English

Genre Historical fiction

Publisher W. Taylor

Publication date 25 April 1719 (296 years ago)

Followed by The Farther Adventures of Robinson

Crusoe

Robinson Crusoe /ˌrɒbɪnsən ˈkruːsoʊ/ is a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published on 25

April 1719. The first edition credited the work's protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author,
leading many readers to believe he was a real person and the book a travelogue of true
incidents.[2] It was published under the full title The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of
Robinson Crusoe, Of York, Mariner: Who lived Eight and Twenty Years, all alone in an un-
inhabited Island on the Coast of America, near the Mouth of the Great River of Oroonoque;
Having been cast on Shore by Shipwreck, wherein all the Men perished but himself. With An
Account how he was at last as strangely deliver'd by Pyrates.
Epistolary, confessional, and didactic in form, the book is presented as an autobiography of
the title character (whose birth name is Robinson Kreutznaer)—a castaway who spends
thirty years on a remote tropical island nearTrinidad, encountering cannibals, captives, and
mutineers, before ultimately being rescued.
 Statue of Robinson Crusoe at Alexander Selkirk's birthplace of Lower Largo by Thomas
Stuart Burnett

The story has since been perceived to be based on the life of Alexander Selkirk, a Scottish
castaway who lived for four years on the Pacific island called "Más a Tierra", now part
of Chile, which was renamedRobinson Crusoe Island in 1966,[3] but the time scale does not
match. Another likely source for the narrative was Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, a twelfth-
century philosophical novel also set on a desert island and translated into Latin and English
a number of times in the half-century preceding Defoe's novel.[4][5][6][7] Yet another source for
Defoe's novel may have been the Robert Knox account of his abduction by the King
of Ceylon in 1659 in "An Historical Account of the Island Ceylon".[8][9] In his 2003 book In
Search of Robinson Crusoe, Tim Severin contends that the account of Henry Pitman in a
short book chronicling his escape from a Caribbean penal colony and subsequent
shipwrecking and desert island misadventures is the inspiration for the story. Arthur
Wellesley Secord in his Studies in the narrative method of Defoe (1963: 21–111)
painstakingly analyses the composition of Robinson Crusoe and gives a list of possible
sources of the story, rejecting the common theory that the story of Selkirk is Defoe's only
source.
Despite its simple narrative style, Robinson Crusoe was well received in the literary world
and is often credited as marking the beginning of realistic fiction as a literary genre. Before
the end of 1719, the book had already run through four editions, and it has gone on to
become one of the most widely published books in history, spawning numerous sequels and
adaptations for stage, film, and television.

Contents
[hide]

 1Plot summary
 2Reception and sequels
 3Real-life castaways
 4Interpretations
 5Legacy
 6Editions
 7See also
 8Notes
 9References
 10Bibliography
 o 10.1Editions
o 10.2Works of criticism
 11External links

Plot summary[edit]

Pictorial map of Crusoe's island, a.k.a. "Island of Despair", showing incidents from the book

Crusoe (the family name corrupted from the German name "Kreutznaer") sets sail from
the Queen's Dock in Hull on a sea voyage in August 1651, against the wishes of his parents,
who want him to pursue a career, possibly in law. After a tumultuous journey where his ship
is wrecked in a storm, his lust for the sea remains so strong that he sets out to sea again.
This journey, too, ends in disaster, as the ship is taken over by Salépirates (the Salé Rovers)
and Crusoe is enslaved by a Moor. Two years later, he escapes in a boat with a boy named
Xury; a captain of a Portuguese ship off the west coast of Africa rescues him. The ship is en
route to Brazil. Crusoe sells Xury to the captain. With the captain's help, Crusoe procures
a plantation.
Years later, Crusoe joins an expedition to bring slaves from Africa, but he is shipwrecked in a
storm about forty miles out to sea on an island (which he calls the Island of Despair) near the
mouth of theOrinoco river on 30 September 1659. The details of Crusoe's island were
probably based on the Caribbean island ofTobago, since that island lies a short distance
north of the Venezuelan coast near the mouth of the Orinoco river, in sight ofTrinidad.[10] He
observes the latitude as 9 degrees and 22 minutes north. He sees penguins and seals on his
island. (However, seals and penguins live together in the Northern Hemisphere only around
the Galápagos Islands.) As for his arrival there, only he and three animals, the captain's dog
and two cats, survive the shipwreck. Overcoming his despair, he fetches arms, tools and
other supplies from the ship before it breaks apart and sinks. He builds a fenced-in habitat
near a cave which he excavates. By making marks in a wooden cross, he creates a
calendar. By using tools salvaged from the ship, and some he makes himself from
"ironwood", he hunts, grows barley and rice, dries grapes to make raisins, learns to make
pottery and raises goats. He also adopts a small parrot. He reads the Bible and becomes
religious, thanking God for his fate in which nothing is missing but human society.
More years pass and Crusoe discovers native cannibals, who occasionally visit the island to
kill and eat prisoners. At first he plans to kill them for committing an abomination but later
realizes he has no right to do so, as the cannibals do not knowingly commit a crime. He
dreams of obtaining one or two servants by freeing some prisoners; when a prisoner
escapes, Crusoe helps him, naming his new companion "Friday" after the day of the week he
appeared. Crusoe then teaches him English and converts him to Christianity.
After more natives arrive to partake in a cannibal feast, Crusoe and Friday kill most of the
natives and save two prisoners. One is Friday's father and the other is a Spaniard, who
informs Crusoe about other Spaniards shipwrecked on the mainland. A plan is devised
wherein the Spaniard would return to the mainland with Friday's father and bring back the
others, build a ship, and sail to a Spanish port.
Before the Spaniards return, an English ship appears; mutineers have commandeered the
vessel and intend to maroon their captain on the island. Crusoe and the ship's captain strike
a deal in which Crusoe helps the captain and the loyal sailors retake the ship and leave the
worst mutineers on the island. Before embarking for England, Crusoe shows the mutineers
how he survived on the island and states that there will be more men coming. Crusoe leaves
the island 19 December 1686 and arrives in England on 11 June 1687. He learns that his
family believed him dead; as a result, he was left nothing in his father's will. Crusoe departs
for Lisbon to reclaim the profits of his estate in Brazil, which has granted him much wealth. In
conclusion, he transports his wealth overland to England to avoid travelling by sea. Friday
accompanies him and, en route, they endure one last adventure together as they fight off
famished wolves while crossing the Pyrenees.

Reception and sequels[edit]

Plaque in Queen's Gardens, Hull—the former Queen's Dock from which Crusoe sailed—
showing him on his island

The book was published on 25 April 1719. Before the end of the year, this first volume had
run through four editions.
By the end of the 19th century, no book in the history of Western literature had more
editions, spin-offs and translations (even into languages such
as Inuktitut, Copticand Maltese) than Robinson Crusoe, with more than 700 such alternative
versions, including children's versions with mainly pictures and no text.[11][12]
The term "Robinsonade" was coined to describe the genre of stories similar toRobinson
Crusoe.
Defoe went on to write a lesser-known sequel, The Farther Adventures of Robinson
Crusoe (1719). It was intended to be the last part of his stories, according to the original title
page of its first edition, but a third part, Serious Reflections During the Life & Surprising
Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, With His Vision of the Angelic World (1720), was later
added.

Real-life castaways[edit]
See also: Castaway § Real occurrences
Book on Alexander Selkirk

There were many stories of real-life castaways in Defoe's time. Defoe's immediate inspiration
for Crusoe is usually thought to be a Scottish sailor named Alexander Selkirk, who was
rescued in 1709 by Woodes Rogers' expedition after four years on the uninhabited island
of Más a Tierra in the Juan Fernández Islands off the Chilean coast. Rogers' "Cruising
Voyage" was published in 1712, with an account of Alexander Selkirk's ordeal.
However, Robinson Crusoe is far from a copy of Rogers' account: Selkirk was marooned at
his own request, while Crusoe was shipwrecked; the islands are different; Selkirk lived alone
for the whole time, while Crusoe found companions; Selkirk stayed on his island for four
years, not twenty-eight. Furthermore, much of the appeal of Defoe's novel is the detailed and
captivating account of Crusoe's thoughts, occupations and activities which goes far beyond
that of Rogers' basic descriptions of Selkirk, which account for only a few pages. However,
one must not forget that Defoe presented himself as the editor of the story. He was adamant
to maintain his claim that the actual author was "Robinson Crusoe": a real person who was
still alive in 1719–20.
Tim Severin's book Seeking Robinson Crusoe (2002) unravels a much wider and more
plausible range of potential sources of inspiration, and concludes by identifying castaway
surgeon Henry Pitman as the most likely. An employee of the Duke of Monmouth, Pitman
played a part in the Monmouth Rebellion. His short book about his desperate escape from a
Caribbean penal colony, followed by his shipwrecking and subsequent desert island
misadventures, was published by J. Taylor of Paternoster Row, London, whose son William
Taylor later published Defoe's novel. Severin argues that since Pitman appears to have lived
in the lodgings above the father's publishing house and that Defoe himself was a mercer in
the area at the time, Defoe may have met Pitman in person and learned of his experiences
first-hand, or possibly through submission of a draft.[13]
Severin also discusses another publicised case of a marooned man named only as Will, of
the Miskito people of Central America, who may have led to the depiction of Man Friday.[14]

Interpretations[edit]
Crusoe standing over Friday after he frees him from the cannibals.

Novelist James Joyce noted that the true symbol of the British Empire is Robinson Crusoe,
to whom he ascribed stereotypical and somewhat hostile English racial characteristics: "He
is the true prototype of the British colonist. ... The whole Anglo-Saxon spirit in Crusoe: the
manly independence, the unconscious cruelty, the persistence, the slow yet efficient
intelligence, the sexual apathy, the calculating taciturnity."[15] In a sense Crusoe attempts to
replicate his society on the island. This is achieved through the use of European technology,
agriculture and even a rudimentary political hierarchy. Several times in the novel Crusoe
refers to himself as the 'king' of the island, whilst the captain describes him as the 'governor'
to the mutineers. At the very end of the novel the island is explicitly referred to as a 'colony'.
The idealised master-servant relationship Defoe depicts between Crusoe and Friday can
also be seen in terms of cultural imperialism. Crusoe represents the 'enlightened' European
whilst Friday is the 'savage' who can only be redeemed from his barbarous way of life
through assimilation into Crusoe's culture. Nonetheless Defoe also takes the opportunity to
criticise the historic Spanish conquest of South America.
According to J.P. Hunter, Robinson is not a hero but an everyman. He begins as a wanderer,
aimless on a sea he does not understand, and ends as a pilgrim, crossing a final mountain to
enter the promised land. The book tells the story of how Robinson becomes closer to God,
not through listening to sermons in a church but through spending time alone
amongst nature with only a Bible to read.
Conversely, cultural critic and literary scholar Michael Gurnow views the novel from
a Rousseauian perspective. In "'The Folly of Beginning a Work Before We Count the Cost':
Anarcho-Primitivism in Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe," the central character's movement
from a primitive state to a more civilized one is interpreted as Crusoe's denial of
humanity's state of nature.[16]
Robinson Crusoe is filled with religious aspects. Defoe was a Puritan moralist and normally
worked in the guide tradition, writing books on how to be a good Puritan Christian, such
as The New Family Instructor (1727) and Religious Courtship(1722). While Robinson
Crusoe is far more than a guide, it shares many of the themes and theological and moral
points of view. "Crusoe" may have been taken from Timothy Cruso, a classmate of Defoe's
who had written guide books, includingGod the Guide of Youth (1695), before dying at an
early age – just eight years before Defoe wrote Robinson Crusoe. Cruso would have been
remembered by contemporaries and the association with guide books is clear. It has even
been speculated that God the Guide of Youth inspired Robinson Crusoe because of a
number of passages in that work that are closely tied to the novel.[17] A leitmotif of the novel is
the Christian notion of Providence, penitence and redemption.[18]Crusoe comes to repent of
the follies of his youth. Defoe also foregrounds this theme by arranging highly significant
events in the novel to occur on Crusoe's birthday. The denouement culminates not only in
Crusoe's deliverance from the island, but his spiritual deliverance, his acceptance of
Christian doctrine, and in his intuition of his own salvation.
When confronted with the cannibals, Crusoe wrestles with the problem of cultural relativism.
Despite his disgust, he feels unjustified in holding the natives morally responsible for a
practice so deeply ingrained in their culture. Nevertheless, he retains his belief in an absolute
standard of morality; he regards cannibalism as a 'national crime' and forbids Friday from
practising it.
Main article: Robinson Crusoe economy

In classical, neoclassical and Austrian economics, Crusoe is regularly used to illustrate the
theory of production and choice in the absence of trade, money and prices.[19] Crusoe must
allocate effort between production and leisure and must choose between alternative
production possibilities to meet his needs. The arrival of Friday is then used to illustrate the
possibility of and gains from trade.
Tim Severin's book Seeking Robinson Crusoe (2002) unravels a much wider range of
potential sources of inspiration. Severin concludes his investigations by stating that the real
Robinson Crusoe figure was Henry Pitman, a castaway who had been surgeon to the Duke
of Monmouth. Pitman's short book about his desperate escape from a Caribbean penal
colony for his part in the Monmouth Rebellion, his shipwrecking and subsequent desert
island misadventures was published by J. Taylor of Paternoster Street, London, whose son
William Taylor later published Defoe's novel. Severin argues that since Pitman appears to
have lived in the lodgings above the father's publishing house and since Defoe was
a mercer in the area at the time, Defoe may have met Pitman and learned of his experiences
as a castaway. If he didn't meet Pitman, Severin points out that Defoe, upon submitting even
a draft of a novel about a castaway to his publisher, would undoubtedly have learned about
Pitman's book published by his father, especially since the interesting castaway had
previously lodged with them at their former premises.
Severin also provides evidence in his book that another publicised case[20] of a real-life
marooned Miskito Central American man named only as Will may have caught Defoe's
attention, inspiring the depiction of Man Friday in his novel.
"One day, about noon, going towards my boat, I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a
man's naked foot on the shore, which was very plain to be seen on the sand."
— Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, 1719 The novel has been variously read as an allegory for the
development of civilisation, as a manifesto of economic individualism and as an expression
of European colonial desires but it also shows the importance of repentance and illustrates
the strength of Defoe's religious convictions. It is also considered by many to be the first
novel written in English. Early critics, such as Robert Louis Stevenson, admired it, saying
that the footprint scene inCrusoe was one of the four greatest in English literature and most
unforgettable; more prosaically, Dr. Wesley Vernon has seen the origins of forensic
podiatry in this episode.[21] It has inspired a new genre, theRobinsonade, as works
like Johann David Wyss's The Swiss Family Robinson (1812) adapt its premise and has
provoked modernpostcolonial responses, including J. M. Coetzee's Foe (1986) and Michel
Tournier'sVendredi ou les Limbes du Pacifique (in English, Friday, or, The Other Island)
(1967). Two sequels followed, Defoe's The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1719)
and his Serious reflections during the life and surprising adventures of Robinson Crusoe:
with his Vision of the angelick world (1720).Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726) in part
parodies Defoe's adventure novel.

Legacy[edit]
This section needs additional citations
forverification. Please help improve this article by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (September 2010)

The book proved so popular that the names of the two main protagonists have entered the
language. During World War II, people who decided to stay and hide in the ruins of the
German-occupied city of Warsaw for a period of three winter months, from October to
January 1945, when they were rescued by the Red Army, were later called Robinson
Crusoes of Warsaw.[22] Robinson Crusoe usually referred to his servant as "my man Friday",
from which the term "Man Friday" (or "Girl Friday") originated.
Robinson Crusoe marked the beginning of realistic fiction as a literary genre.[23]Its success
led to many imitators, and castaway novels became quite popular in Europe in the 18th and
early 19th centuries. Most of these have fallen into obscurity, but some became established,
including The Swiss Family Robinson.
Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, published seven years after Robinson Crusoe, may be
read as a systematic rebuttal of Defoe's optimistic account of human capability. In The
Unthinkable Swift: The Spontaneous Philosophy of a Church of England Man, Warren
Montag argues that Swift was concerned about refuting the notion that the individual
precedes society, as Defoe's novel seems to suggest. In Treasure Island, author Robert
Louis Stevenson parodies Crusoe with the character of Ben Gunn, a friendly castaway who
was marooned for many years, has a wild appearance, dresses entirely in goat skin and
constantly talks about providence.
In Jean-Jacques Rousseau's treatise on education, Emile, or On Education, the one book
the protagonist is allowed to read before the age of twelve is Robinson Crusoe. Rousseau
wants Emile to identify himself as Crusoe so he can rely upon himself for all of his needs. In
Rousseau's view, Emile needs to imitate Crusoe's experience, allowing necessity to
determine what is to be learned and accomplished. This is one of the main themes of
Rousseau's educational model.

Robinson Crusoe Bookstore on İstiklal Avenue, Istanbul.

In The Tale of Little Pig Robinson, Beatrix Potter directs the reader to Robinson Crusoe for a
detailed description of the island (the land of the Bong tree) to which her eponymous hero
moves. In Wilkie Collins' most popular novel, The Moonstone, one of the chief characters
and narrators, Gabriel Betteredge, has faith in all that Robinson Crusoe says and uses the
book for a sort of divination. He considers The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe the finest
book ever written, reads it over and over again, and considers a man but poorly read if he
had happened not to read the book.
French novelist Michel Tournier published Friday (French Vendredi ou les Limbes du
Pacifique) in 1967. His novel explores themes including civilization versus nature, the
psychology of solitude, as well as death and sexuality in a retelling of Defoe's Robinson
Crusoe story. Tournier's Robinson chooses to remain on the island, rejecting civilization
when offered the chance to escape 28 years after being shipwrecked. Likewise, in 1963, J.
M. G. Le Clézio, winner of the 2008 Nobel Prize in literature, published the novel Le Proces-
Verbal. The book's epigraph is a quote from Robinson Crusoe, and like Crusoe, Adam Pollo
suffers long periods of loneliness.
"Crusoe in England", a 183-line poem by Elizabeth Bishop, imagines Crusoe near the end of
his life, recalling his time of exile with a mixture of bemusement and regret.
J. M. Coetzee's 1986 novel Foe recounts the tale of Robinson Crusoe from the perspective
of Susan Barton, the protagonist of another of Defoe's novels.
American novelist Thomas Berger created a modern version of the story in his 1994
novel Robert Crews, in which the protagonist is a middle-aged alcoholic who survives a
plane crash at a rural lake, and eventually encounters his "Friday", a young woman fleeing
an abusive marriage. In the fantasy novel World War Z, author Max Brooks refers to
survivalists who remain after the zombie plague in zombie-infested cities as "Robinson
Crusoes."

Classics Illustrated #10,Robinson Crusoe (c. 1957)

The story was also illustrated and published in comic book form by Classics Illustrated in
1943 and 1957. The much improved 1957 version was inked/penciled by Sam Citron, who is
most well known for his contributions to the earlier issues of Superman.[24]
A pantomime version of Robinson Crusoe was staged at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in
1796, with Joseph Grimaldi as Pierrot in the harlequinade. The piece was produced again in
1798, this time starring Grimaldi as Clown. In 1815, Grimaldi played Friday in another
version of Robinson Crusoe.[25]
Jacques Offenbach wrote an opéra comique called Robinson Crusoé, which was first
performed at the Opéra-Comique in Paris on 23 November 1867. This was based on the
British pantomime version rather than the novel itself. The libretto was by Eugène Cormon
and Hector-Jonathan Crémieux.
There is a 1927 silent film titled Robinson Crusoe. The Soviet 3D film Robinzon Kruzo was
produced in 1946. Luis Buñuel directed Adventures of Robinson Crusoe starring Dan
O'Herlihy, released in 1954. Walt Disney later modernized the novel with Lt. Robin Crusoe,
U.S.N., featuring Dick Van Dyke. Peter O'Toole and Richard Roundtree co-starred in a 1975
film Man Friday which satirically portrayed Crusoe as incapable of seeing his dark-skinned
companion as anything but an inferior creature, while Friday is more enlightened and
empathetic. In 1988, Aidan Quinn portrayed Robinson Crusoe in the film Crusoe. A 1997
movie entitled Robinson Crusoe starred Pierce Brosnan and received limited commercial
success. Variations on the theme include the 1954 Miss Robin Crusoe, with a female
castaway, played by Amanda Blake, and a female Friday, and the 1964 film Robinson
Crusoe on Mars, starring Paul Mantee, with an alien Friday portrayed by Victor Lundin. The
2000 film Cast Away, with Tom Hanks as a FedEx employee stranded on an Island for many
years, also borrows much from the Robinson Crusoe story.
In 1964 a French film production crew made a 13-part serial of The Adventures of Robinson
Crusoe. It starred Robert Hoffman. The black and white series was dubbed into English and
German. In the UK, the BBC broadcast it on numerous occasions between 1965 and 1977.
In 1981 Czechoslovakian director and animator Stanislav Látal made a version of the story
under the name Dobrodružství Robinsona Crusoe, námořníka z Yorku (The Adventures of
Robinson Crusoe, a sailor from York) combining traditional and stop-motion animation. The
movie was coproduced by regional West Germany broadcaster Sudwestfunk Baden-Baden.
In the mid-1990s there was a humorous French cartoon called Robinson Sucroe. In the
cartoon, Robinson was a failed journalist for the New York Herald. Seeking a life of
adventure, he desired to settle on an island and wished to write his weekly journal. After
getting approval from his boss, he sets sail and he is left on an uninhabited island (or so he
thought). Robinson discovers that the island is inhabited by French and British pirates as well
as the survivor of a shipwreck, who called themselves "Touléjours" (the Everydays).
Robinson befriend a fellow named Mercredi (Wednesday). Robinson tries to write a colourful
journal but he is incapable of doing so, instead Mercredi writes fictitious stories for him.
These stories achieve much success and few suspect their authenticity.[26][27]
In 2008, a television series titled Crusoe aired for 12 episodes. It was based loosely on the
novel and was not renewed for a second season.
The 1960s U.S. sitcom Gilligan's Island includes in its closing theme song the lyrics "Like
'Robinson Crusoe,' it's primitive as can be."[28]
Robinson Crusoe is referenced in the "Weird Al" Yankovic song "Amish Paradise" which is
a parody of the song "Gangsta's Paradise" by Coolio. The lyrics contain the line "like
Robinson Crusoe, it's as primitive as can be".

Tess of the d'Urbervilles

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Tess of the d'Urbervilles:

A Pure Woman Faithfully
Presented
 The front cover of an 1892 edition of Tess of the
d'Urbervilles: A Pure Woman Faithfully Presented, published
by Harper & Bros, NY.

Author Thomas Hardy

Country United Kingdom

Language English

Genre Novel

Published 1891

Publisher James R. Osgood, McIlvaine & Co.

Pages 592

Tess of the d'Urbervilles: A Pure Woman Faithfully Presented is a novel byThomas

Hardy. It initially appeared in a censored and serialised version, published by the British
illustrated newspaper The Graphic in 1891[1] and in book form in 1892. Though now
considered a major nineteenth-century English novel and possibly Hardy's masterpiece,
[2]
Tess of the d'Urbervilles received mixed reviews when it first appeared, in part because it
challenged the sexual morals of late Victorian England.

Contents
[hide]
 1Summary of the novel
o 1.1Phase the First: The Maiden (1–11)
o 1.2Phase the Second: Maiden No More (12–15)
o 1.3Phase the Third: The Rally (16–24)
o 1.4Phase the Fourth: The Consequence (25–34)
o 1.5Phase the Fifth: The Woman Pays (35–44)
o 1.6Phase the Sixth: The Convert (45–52)
o 1.7Phase the Seventh: Fulfilment (53–59)
 2Symbolism and themes
 3Adaptations
o 3.1Theatre
o 3.2Opera
o 3.3Film
o 3.4Music
 4Notes
 5Secondary sources
 6External links

Summary of the novel[edit]

Tess d'Urbervilles

Phase the First: The Maiden (1–11)[edit]

The novel is set in impoverished rural England, Thomas Hardy's fictional Wessex, during
the Long Depression of the 1870s. Tess is the oldest child of John and Joan Durbeyfield,
uneducated peasants; however, John is given the impression by Parson Tringham that he
may have noble blood, since "Durbeyfield" is a corruption of "D'Urberville", the surname of a
noble Norman family, then extinct. The news immediately goes to John's head.
That same day, Tess participates in the village May Dance, where she meets Angel Clare,
youngest son of Reverend James Clare, who is on a walking tour with his two brothers. He
stops to join the dance and partners several other girls. Angel notices Tess too late to dance
with her, as he is already late for a promised meeting with his brothers. Tess feels slighted.
Tess' father gets too drunk to drive to the market that night, so Tess undertakes the journey
herself. However, she falls asleep at the reins, and the family's only horse encounters a
speeding wagon and is fatally wounded. The blood spreads over her white dress,
a symbol of forthcoming events. Tess feels so guilty over the horse's death that she agrees,
against her better judgment, to visit Mrs d'Urberville, a rich widow who lives in the nearby
town of Trantridge, and "claim kin". She is unaware that, in reality, Mrs d'Urberville's husband
Simon Stoke adopted the surname even though he was unrelated to the real d'Urbervilles.
Tess does not succeed in meeting Mrs d'Urberville, but chances to meet her libertine son,
Alec, who takes a fancy to Tess and secures her a position as poultry keeper on the estate.
Tess dislikes Alec but endures his persistent unwanted attention to earn enough to replace
her family's horse. The threat that Alec presents to Tess's virtue is obscured for Tess by her
inexperience and almost daily commonplace interactions with him. He calls her "coz"
(cousin), indicating a male protector, but, late one night, walking home from town with some
other Trantridge villagers, Tess inadvertently antagonizes Car Darch, Alec's most recently
discarded favourite, and finds herself in physical danger. When Alec rides up and offers to
"rescue" her from the situation, she accepts. Instead of taking her home, he rides through the
fog until they reach an ancient grove in a forest called "The Chase", where he informs her
that he is lost and leaves on foot to get his bearings. Tess stays behind and falls asleep on a
coat he lent her. In Hardy's own words she becomes a "victim of seduction" but the author
has the violator, Alec, admit that this "seduction" was against Tess's will; it remains
deliberately ambiguous in the text whether or not Alec's ruthlessness amounts to rape.
[3]
Later in the work (chapter 46) Alec, unchallenged by Tess, acknowledges that he played a
"trick" on her. Mary Jacobus, a commentator on Hardy's works, speculates that the ambiguity
may have been forced on the author to meet the requirements of his publisher and the
"Grundyist" readership of his time.[4]

The Vale of Blackmore, the main setting for Tess. Hambledon Hilltowards Stourton Tower

Phase the Second: Maiden No More (12–15)[edit]

Tess goes home to her father's cottage, where she keeps almost entirely to her room. The
following summer, she gives birth to a sickly boy who lives only a few weeks. On his last
night alive, Tess baptises him herself, because her father would not allow the parson to visit.
Stating that he didn't want the parson to "pry into their affairs. With things being as they are."
The child is given the name 'Sorrow' and Tess arranges his burial in the "shabby corner" of
the churchyard reserved for unbaptised infants. Tess has a homemade cross, which she
adds to the grave with flowers in an empty marmalade jar.
Phase the Third: The Rally (16–24)[edit]
More than two years after the Trantridge debacle, Tess, now twenty, has found employment
outside the village, where her past is not known. She works for Mr. and Mrs. Crick as
a milkmaid at Talbothays Dairy. There, she befriends three of her fellow milkmaids, Izz,
Retty, and Marian, and meets again Angel Clare, now an apprentice farmer who has come to
Talbothays to learn dairy management. Although the other milkmaids are in love with him,
Angel singles out Tess, and the two fall in love.
Phase the Fourth: The Consequence (25–34)[edit]

"He jumped up from his seat... and went quickly toward the desire of his eyes." 1891
illustration by Joseph Syddall

Angel spends a few days away from the dairy, visiting his family at Emminster. His brothers
Felix and Cuthbert, both ordained Church of England ministers, note Angel's coarsened
manners, while Angel considers them staid and narrow-minded. The Clares have long hoped
that Angel would marry Mercy Chant, a piousschoolmistress, but Angel argues that a wife
who knows farm life would be a more practical choice. He tells his parents about Tess, and
they agree to meet her. His father, the Reverend James Clare, tells Angel about his efforts to
convert the local populace, mentioning his failure to tame a young miscreant named Alec
d'Urberville.
Angel returns to Talbothays Dairy and asks Tess to marry him. This puts Tess in a painful
dilemma: Angel obviously thinks her a virgin and she shrinks from confessing her past. Such
is her love for him that she finally agrees to the marriage, explaining that she hesitated
because she had heard he hated old families and thought he would not approve of her
d'Urberville ancestry. However, he is pleased by this news because he thinks it will make
their match more suitable in the eyes of his family.
As the marriage approaches, Tess grows increasingly troubled. She writes to her mother for
advice; Joan tells her to keep silent about her past. Her anxiety increases when a man from
Trantridge, named Groby, recognises her and crudely alludes to her history. Angel overhears
and flies into an uncharacteristic rage. Tess, deciding to tell Angel the truth, writes a letter
describing her dealings with d'Urberville and slips it under his door. When Angel greets her
with the usual affection the next morning, she thinks he has forgiven her; later she discovers
the letter under his carpet and realises that he has not seen it. She destroys it.
The wedding goes smoothly, apart from the bad omen of a cock crowing in the afternoon.
Tess and Angel spend their wedding night at an old d'Urberville family mansion, where Angel
presents his bride with diamonds that belonged to his godmother. When he confesses that
he once had a brief affair with an older woman in London, Tess is moved to tell Angel about
Alec, thinking he will understand and forgive.
Phase the Fifth: The Woman Pays (35–44)[edit]
Angel is appalled by the revelation, and makes it clear that Tess is reduced in his eyes. He
spends the wedding night on a sofa. After a few awkward days, a devastated Tess suggests
they separate, saying that she will return to her parents. Angel gives her some money and
promises to try to reconcile himself to her past, but warns her not to try to join him until he
sends for her. After a brief visit to his parents, Angel takes ship for Brazil to start a new life.
Before he leaves, he encounters Tess's milkmaid friend Izz and impulsively asks her to come
to Brazil with him as his mistress. She accepts, but when he asks her how much she loves
him, she admits "Nobody could love 'ee more than Tess did! She would have laid down her
life for 'ee. I could do no more!" Hearing this, he abandons the whim, and Izz goes home
weeping bitterly.
Tess returns home for a time but, finding this unbearable, decides to join Marian at a starve-
acre farm called Flintcomb-Ash; they are later joined by Izz. On the road, she is again
recognised and insulted by Groby, who proves to be her new employer. At the farm, the
three former milkmaids perform hard physical labour.
One day, Tess attempts to visit Angel's family at the parsonage in Emminster, hoping for
practical assistance. As she nears her destination, she encounters Angel's older brothers,
with Mercy Chant. They do not recognise her, but she overhears them discussing Angel's
unwise marriage, and dares not approach them. On the way, she overhears a wandering
preacher and is shocked to discover that it is Alec d'Urberville, who has been converted
to Methodism under the Reverend James Clare's influence.
Phase the Sixth: The Convert (45–52)[edit]
Alec and Tess are each shaken by their encounter, and Alec begs Tess never to tempt him
again as they stand beside an ill-omened stone monument called the Cross-in-Hand.
However, Alec soon comes to Flintcomb-Ash to ask Tess to marry him. She tells him she is
already married. He returns at Candlemas and again in early spring, when Tess is hard at
work feeding a threshing machine. He tells her he is no longer a preacher and wants her to
be with him. When he insults Angel, she slaps him, drawing blood. Tess then learns from her
sister, Liza-Lu, that her father, John, is ill and that her mother is dying. Tess rushes home to
look after them. Her mother soon recovers, but her father unexpectedly dies.
The family is evicted from their home, as Durbeyfield held only a life lease on their cottage.
Alec tells Tess that her husband is never coming back and offers to house the Durbeyfields
on his estate. Tess refuses his assistance. She had earlier written Angel a psalm-like letter,
full of love, self-abasement, and pleas for mercy; now, however, she finally admits to herself
that Angel has wronged her and scribbles a hasty note saying that she will do all she can to
forget him, since he has treated her so unjustly.
The Durbeyfields plan to rent some rooms in the town of Kingsbere, ancestral home of the
d'Urbervilles, but arrive to find that the rooms have already been rented to another family. All
but destitute, they are forced to take shelter in the churchyard, under the D'Urberville
window. Tess enters the church and in the d'Urberville Aisle, Alec reappears and importunes
Tess again. In despair, she looks at the entrance to the d'Urberville vault and wishes herself
dead.
In the meantime, Angel has been very ill in Brazil and, his farming venture having failed,
heads home to England. On the way, he confides his troubles to a stranger, who tells him
that he was wrong to leave his wife; what she was in the past should matter less than what
she might become. Angel begins to repent his treatment of Tess.
Phase the Seventh: Fulfilment (53–59)[edit]
Upon his return to his family home, Angel has two letters waiting for him: Tess's angry note
and a few cryptic lines from "two well-wishers" (Izz and Marian), warning him to protect his
wife from "an enemy in the shape of a friend". He sets out to find Tess and eventually locates
Joan, now well-dressed and living in a pleasant cottage. After responding evasively to his
enquiries, she tells him Tess has gone to live in Sandbourne, a fashionable seaside resort.
There, he finds Tess living in an expensive boarding house under the name "Mrs.
d'Urberville." When he asks for her, she appears in startlingly elegant attire and stands aloof.
He tenderly asks her forgiveness, but Tess, in anguish, tells him he has come too late;
thinking he would never return, she yielded at last to Alec d'Urberville's persuasion and has
become his mistress. She gently asks Angel to leave and never come back. He departs, and
Tess returns to her bedroom, where she falls to her knees and begins a lamentation. She
blames Alec for causing her to lose Angel's love a second time, accusing Alec of having lied
when he said that Angel would never return to her.
The landlady, Mrs. Brooks, tries to listen in at the keyhole, but withdraws hastily when the
argument becomes heated. She later sees Tess leave the house, then notices a spreading
red spot – a bloodstain – on the ceiling. She summons help, and Alec is found stabbed to
death in his bed.
Angel, totally disheartened, has left Sandbourne; Tess hurries after him and tells him that
she has killed Alec, saying that she hopes she has won his forgiveness by murdering the
man who ruined both their lives. Angel doesn't believe her at first, but grants his forgiveness
and tells her that he loves her. Rather than head for the coast, they walk inland, vaguely
planning to hide somewhere until the search for Tess is ended and they can escape abroad
from a port. They find an empty mansion and stay there for five days in blissful happiness,
until their presence is discovered one day by the cleaning woman.
They continue walking and, in the middle of the night, stumble upon Stonehenge, where
Tess lies down to rest on an ancient altar. Before she falls asleep, she asks Angel to look
after her younger sister, Liza-Lu, saying that she hopes Angel will marry her after she is
dead. At dawn, Angel sees that they are surrounded by police. He finally realises that Tess
really has committed murder and asks the men in a whisper to let her awaken naturally
before they arrest her. When she opens her eyes and sees the police, she tells Angel she is
"almost glad" because "now I shall not live for you to despise me". Her parting words are, "I
am ready."
Tess is escorted to Wintoncester (Winchester) prison. The novel closes with Angel and Liza-
Lu watching from a nearby hill as the black flag signalling Tess's execution is raised over the
prison. Angel and Liza-Lu then join hands and go on their way.

Symbolism and themes[edit]

Sunset at Stonehenge
Hardy's writing often explores what he called the "ache of modernism", and this theme is
notable in Tess, which, as one critic noted,[5] portrays "the energy of traditional ways and the
strength of the forces that are destroying them". In depicting this theme Hardy uses imagery
associated with hell when describing modern farm machinery, as well as suggesting the
effete nature of city life as the milk sent there must be watered down because townspeople
cannot stomach whole milk. Angel's middle-class fastidiousness makes him reject Tess, a
woman whom Hardy presents as a sort ofWessex Eve, in harmony with the natural world.
When he parts from her and goes to Brazil, the handsome young man gets so ill that he is
reduced to a "mere yellow skeleton". All these instances have been interpreted as indications
of the negative consequences of man's separation from nature, both in the creation of
destructive machinery and in the inability to rejoice in pure and unadulterated nature. [citation
needed]

On the other hand, Marxist critic Raymond Williams in The English Novel From Dickens to
Lawrence questions the identification of Tess with a peasantry destroyed by industrialisation.
Williams sees Tess not as a peasant, but an educated member of the rural working class,
who suffers a tragedy through being thwarted, in her aspirations to socially rise and her
desire for a good life (which includes love and sex), not by industrialism, but by the landed
bourgeoisie (Alec), liberal idealism (Angel) and Christian moralism in her family's village (see
Chapter LI).
Another important theme of the novel is the sexual double standard to which Tess falls
victim; despite being, in Hardy's view, a truly good woman, she is despised by society after
losing her virginity before marriage. Hardy plays the role of Tess's only true friend and
advocate, pointedly subtitling the book "a pure woman faithfully presented" and prefacing it
withShakespeare's words from The Two Gentlemen of Verona: "Poor wounded name! My
bosom as a bed/ Shall lodge thee." However, although Hardy clearly means to
criticise Victorian notions of female purity, the double standard also makes the heroine's
tragedy possible, and thus serves as a mechanism of Tess's broader fate. Hardy variously
hints that Tess must suffer either to atone for the misdeeds of her ancestors, or to provide
temporary amusement for the gods, or because she possesses some small but lethal
character flaw inherited from her ancestors.[citation needed]
Because of the numerous pagan and neo-Biblical references made about her, Tess has
been viewed variously as an Earth goddess or as a sacrificial victim.[6] For example, early in
the novel, she participates in a festival for Ceres, the goddess of the harvest, and when she
baptizes her dead child she chooses a passage from Genesis, the book of creation, rather
than the more traditional New Testament verses. Then at the end, when Tess and Angel
come to Stonehenge, which was commonly believed in Hardy's time to be a pagan temple,
she willingly lies down on a stone supposedly associated withhuman sacrifice.
Tess has also been seen as a personification of nature and her association with animals
throughout the novel emphasizes this idea. Tess's misfortunes begin when she falls asleep
while driving Prince to market, and causes the horse's death; at Trantridge, she becomes a
poultry-keeper; she and Angel fall in love amid cows in the fertile Froom valley; and on the
road to Flintcombe-Ashe, she kills some wounded pheasants to end their suffering.[citation needed]
However, Tess emerges as a powerful character not because of this symbolism but because
"Hardy's feelings for her were strong, perhaps stronger than for any of his other invented
personages".[7]

Adaptations[edit]
Theatre[edit]
The novel was adapted for the stage for the first time in 1897. This a production by Lorimer
Stoddard proved a great Broadway triumph for actress Minnie Maddern Fiske, was revived in
1902, and subsequently made into a motion picture byAdolph Zukor in 1913, starring Mrs.
Fiske, of which no copies remain.
In 1924 Hardy himself wrote the script for the first British theatrical adaptation and he chose
Gertrude Bugler, a Dorchestergirl from the original Hardy Players, to play Tess.[8] The Hardy
Players (now re-formed in 2005 by Bugler's sister Norrie) was an amateur group from
Dorchester who re-enacted Hardy’s novels. Bugler was highly acclaimed,[9] but she was
prevented from taking the London stage part by Hardy's wife, Florence, who was jealous of
her;[citation needed] Hardy had said that young Gertrude was the true incarnation of the Tess he
had imagined. Years before writing the novel, Hardy had been inspired by the beauty of her
mother Augusta Way, then an 18-year-old milkmaid, when he visited Augusta's father's farm
in Bockhampton. Hardy remembered her when writing the novel. When Hardy saw Bugler
(he rehearsed The Hardy Players at the hotel run by her parents), he immediately
recognised her as the young image of the now older Augusta.[8]
The novel was successfully adapted for the stage several other times:

 1946: An adaptation by playwright Ronald Gow became a triumph on the West End
starring Wendy Hiller.
 1999: Tess of the d'Urbervilles, a new West End musical with music by Stephen
Edwards and lyrics by Justin Fleming opens in London at the Savoy Theatre.
 2007: Tess, The New Musical (a rock opera) with lyrics, music and libretto by Annie
Pasqua and Jenna Pasqua premieres in NYC.
 2010: Tess, a new rock opera is an official Next Link Selection at the New York Musical
Theatre Festival with music, lyrics, and libretto by Annie Pasqua and Jenna Pasqua.
 2012: Tess of the d'Urbervilles is produced into a piece of musical theatre by the Youth
Music Theatre UK as part of their summer season.