INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

MODERN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM SCHEME

• Communication engineering deals with the techniques of transmitting information.

• Communication engineering means electrical communication, in which information is

transmitted through electrical signals.
• Electrical communication is a process by which the information message is transmitted from
one point to another, from one person to another, or from one place to another in the form of
electrical signals, through some communication link.
• Basic communication system provides a link between the information source and its
destination. Theprocess of electrical communication involves sending, receiving, and
processing information in electrical form.
• The information to be transmitted passes through a number of stages of the communication
system prior it reaches its destination.
• Figure shows a block schematic diagram of the most general form of basic communication
system.

Fig Schematic diagram of the most general form of basic communication system.

The main constituents of basic communication system are:

(i) Information source and input transducer

(ii) Transmitter

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(iii) Channel or medium

(iv) Noise

(v) Receiver

(vi) Output transducer and final destination.

(i) Information source:

• A communication system transmits information from an information source to a destination

andhence the first stage of a communication system is the information source.

Ex: A sentence or paragraph spoken by a person is a message that contains some information.
The person, in this case, acts as information source. Few other familiar examples of messages
are voice,live scenes, music, written text, and e-mail.
• A communication system transmits information in the form of electrical signal or signals.

(i) Input transducer:

• A transducer is a device that converts a non-electrical energy into its corresponding electrical
energy called signal and vice versa, e.g., during a telephone conversation, the words spoken
by a person are in the form of sound energy.
• An example of a transducer is a microphone. Microphone converts sound signals into the
corresponding electrical signals.
• Similarly, a television (TV) picture tube converts electrical signals into its corresponding
pictures. Some other examples of transducers are movie cameras, Video Cassette, Recorder
(VCR) heads,tape recorder heads, and loudspeakers.
• The information produced by the information source is applied to the next stage, termed the
information or input /transducer. This in turn, produces an electrical signal corresponding to
the information as output. This electrical signal is called the baseband signal. It is also called
a message signal s(t).
• There are two types of signals. (a) analog signal, and (b) digital signal.

(a) Analog Signal

• An analog signal is a function of time, and has a continuous range of values. However, there

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is a definite function value of the analog signal at each point of time.

• A familiar example of analog signal or analog wave form is a pure sine wave form. A practical
example of an analog signal is a voice signal. When a voice signal is converted to electrical
for bya microphone, one gets a corresponding electrical analog signal.

Fig: Analog Signal (i) Pure Sine Signal (ii) Speech Signal

(b) Digital signal

• A digital signal does not have continuous function values on a time scale. It is discrete in nature,
i.e.,it has some values at discrete timings.
• A familiar example of a digital signal is the sound signal produced by drumbeats.

Fig: Digital signal

• Digital signals in their true sense correspond to a binary digital signal, where the discrete

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amplitude of the signal is coded into binary digits represented by ‘0’ and ‘1’.
• The analog signal, which is continuous in time, is converted to discrete time, using a
procedure calling sampling. The continuous amplitude of the analog signal is converted to
discrete amplitude using a process called quantization. Sampling and quantization are
together termed as analog-to- digital conversion (ADC) and the circuitry that performs this
operation is called an analog to- digital converter.
(ii) Transmitter:

The transmitter section processes the signal prior transmission. There are two following
options for processing signals prior transmission:
(i) The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is translated to a higher
frequencyspectrum.
(ii) The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher frequency spectrum.

• The baseband signal is converted into a corresponding series of sine waves of two different
frequencies prior to transmission. Figure 4.4 illustrates this processing.
• The carrier communication system is based on the principle of translating a low frequency
baseband signal to higher frequency spectrum. This process is termed as modulation.
• If the baseband signal is a digital signal, the carrier communication system is called a digital
communication system. The digital modulation methods are employed for this.
• If the baseband signal is an analog signal, the carrier communication system is called as an

analog communication system and for processing the analog modulation techniques are used.

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Fig. Block diagram representing schematic of an analog transmitter section

• Figure shows the baseband signal, s(t) applied to the modulated stage. This stagetranslates
the baseband signal from its low frequency spectrum to high frequency spectrum. This
stage also receives another input called the carrier signal, c(t), which is generated by a high
frequency carrieroscillator.
• Modulation takes place at this stage with the baseband and the carrier signals as two inputs
after modulation, the baseband signal is translated to a high frequency spectrum and the
carrier signal is said to be modulated by the baseband signal.
• The output of the modulated stage is called the modulated signal, and is designated as
x(t). The voltage of the modulated signal is then amplified to drive the last stage of the
transmitter, called the power amplifier stage.

• This stage amplifies the power of the modulated signal and thus it carries enough power
to reach the receiver stage of the communication system. Finally, the signal is passed to
the transmission medium or channel.
• Radio signals are transmitted through electromagnetic (em) waves, also referred asradio
waves, in a radio communication system.
• The radio waves have a wide frequency range starting from a few ten kilo Hertz (Hz) to
several thousand Mega Hertz (MHz). This wide range of frequencies is referred as the
radio frequency (RF) spectrum.
(iii) Channel or Medium:

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• After the required processing, the transmitter section passes the signal to the transmission
medium.The signal propagates through the transmission medium and is received at the
other side by the receiver section. The transmission medium between the transmitter and
the receiver is called a channel.
• Channel is a very important part of a communication system as its characteristics add
many constraints to the design of the communication system, e.g., most of the noise is
added to the signalduring its transmission through the channel.
• Depending on the physical implementations, one can classify the channels in the
following two groups:
Hardware Channels:
These channels are manmade structure which can be used as transmission medium. There are
following three possible implementations of the hardware channels.

1. Transmission lines

2. Waveguides

3. Optical Fiber Cables (OFC)

• The examples of transmission lines are Twisted-pair cables used in landline telephony
and coaxial cables used for cable TV transmission. However, transmission lines are not
suitable for ultra-high frequency (UHF) transmission.
• To transmit signals at UHF range, Waveguides are employed as medium. Waveguides
are hollow, circular, or rectangular metallic structures. The signals enter the waveguide,
are reflected at the metallic walls, and propagate towards the other end of the waveguide.
• Optical fiber cables are highly sophisticated transmission media, in the form of
extremely thin circular pipes. e.g., landline telephony and cable TV network.
Software Channels:

There are certain natural resources which can be used as the transmission medium for signals.

Such transmission media are called software channels.

• The possible natural resources that can be used as software channels are: air or open space

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and sea water.

• The most widely used software channel is air or open space. The signals are transmitted
in the form of electromagnetic (em) waves, also called radio waves.
• Systems that use radio waves to transmit signals through open space are called radio
communication systems, e.g., radio broad cast, television transmission, satellite
communication,and cellular mobile communication.
(iv) Noise:

• In electronics and communication engineering, noise is defined as unwanted electrical

energy of random and unpredictable nature present in the system due to any cause.
• Obviously, noise is an electrical disturbance, which does not contain any useful
information. Thus, noise is a highly undesirable part of a communication system, and have
to be minimized.
SNR and Noise Figure (F):

• One can define the SNR as the ratio of the signal power to the noise power at a point in
the circuit. Now, if Ps, is signal power and Pn, is noise power, then SNR expressed as
S/N, is given as

𝑆 𝑃S
=
𝑁 𝑃N

If Ps = V 2R and Pn = Vn2R, then

𝑆 𝑃S 𝑉S2𝑅
= =
𝑁 𝑃N 𝑉N2𝑅

where Vs, is signal voltage and Vn, is noise voltage.

• In addition, it is assumed that both the signal and noise powers are dissipated in the same
resistor

R. Therefore, SNR can be expressed in terms of decibels (dB) as

𝑆 𝑉S2
𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑉2 )
(
𝑁 N

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𝑆 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10( )
𝑁 𝑉𝑁

• The Noise figure (F) is the measure of the noise introduced by the circuit. It is defined as
the ratio of the signal-to-noise power at the input of the circuit and the signal-to-noise power
at the output of thecircuit. Noise figure (r) can be expressed as
𝑆
∗ Power at the input terminals ofthe circuit
𝐹=𝑁 𝑆
∗ Power at the output terminals ofthe circuit
𝑁

Reciver:

• The task of the receiver is to provide the original information to the user. This information
is altereddue to the processing at the transmitter side.
• The signal received by the receiver, thus does not contain information in its original form.
The receiver system receives the transmitted signal and performs some processing on it to
the original baseband signal.
• The function of the receiver section is to separate the noise from the received signal, and
then recoverthe original baseband signal by performing some processing on it.
• The receiver performs an operation known as demodulation, which brings the baseband
signal from the higher frequency spectrum to its original low-frequency spectrum. The
demodulation process removes the high frequency carrier from the received signal and
retrieves the original baseband.

Fig: Detailed block diagram of a typical receive section

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• From Fig. it is evident that the received signal, r(t), is first amplified by the front-end
voltage amplifier. This is done to strengthen the received signal, which is weak and to
facilitate easy processing. Next, this signal is given to the demodulator, which in turn,
demodulates the received signal to recover the original baseband signal. After recovering
the original baseband signal, its voltage and power is amplified prior it to final destination
block.

MULTIPLEXING

• This is a technique that is most widely used in nearly all types of communication
systems, radio andline communication systems.
• Basically, multiplexing is a process which allows more than one signal to transmit
through a singlechannel.
• The use of multiplexing also makes the communication system economical because
more than onesignal can be transmitted through a single channel.
• Multiplexing is possible in communication system only through modulation.

• To consider multiplexing, let us consider the following example. If many people speak
loudly and simultaneously, then it becomes nearly impossible to understand their
conversion because the overallresult is noise. This noise is the result of mixing of all the
speeches. The human ear is not capable of separating these intermingled speeches and
therefore no intelligent words are communicated to brain. The same situation is now
applied to the transmission of audio signals. These audio signals may comefrom, say ten
different persons. While the speech frequency of different persons will be different, all
the ten signals will lie in the same audio range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

One may categorize communication systems based on:

• The physical infrastructure pertains to the type of the channel used and the hardware design
of the transmitting and receiving equipment.
• The signal specifications signify the nature and type of the transmitted signal

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MODULATION

Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with
theinstantaneous values of the modulating signal.
TYPES OF MODULATION:

➢ Continuous-wave Modulation

• Amplitude Modulation

• Frequency Modulation

• Phase Modulation

➢ Pulse modulation

• PAM

• PWM

• PPM

• PCM

1. Amplitude modulation (AM)

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• AM is defined as the modulation technique in which the instantaneous amplitude of the

carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the analog
modulating signal to be transmitted while the frequency and the phase of the carrier signal
remain unchanged.
• Figure shows the high frequency carrier signal, modulating signal and the modulated signal.

• It can be clearly seen from the figure that the modulating signal seems to be superimposed
on the carrier signal. The amplitude variations in the peak values of the carrier signal
exactly replicate the modulating signal at different points in time which is known as an
envelope.
2. Frequency Modulation:

• A modulating signal may vary the frequency of the carrier keeping the amplitude and
phase constant. This type of modulation is called Frequency modulation. Broadly
speaking, the frequency modulation is the process of changing the frequency of the carrier
voltage in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating voltage.
• The original frequency of the carrier signal is called Centre or resting frequency and

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denoted by fc. The amount by which the frequency of the carrier wave changes or shifts
above or belowthe resting frequency is termed as frequency deviation (Δf). This means Δf
𝖺 m(t).
• The total variation is frequency of F.M. wave from the lowest to the highest is termed as
carriersaving (CS), i.e., US = 2 x frequency deviation in Centre frequency or CS=2 Δf.
• Modulation index in F.M. is the ratio of frequency deviation to the modulating frequency,
∆ƒ
𝜇𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
ƒm

Fig: Waveforms of Frequency modulation

1. Phase modulation:

• PM is another form of angle modulation. Phase modulation is the process in

which theinstantaneous phase of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the
instantaneousamplitude of the modulating signal.

• In this type of modulation, the amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains
unalteredafter pulse modulation.

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Pulse modulation:

• It may be used to transmit analog information, such as continuous speech or data. It is

system in which continuous waveforms are sampled at regular intervals. Pulse modulation may
be subdivided into two categories, analog and digital.
• Pulse-amplitude and pulse-time modulation are both analog, while the pulse code and
delta modulation system are both digital.
Phase-amplitude modulation (PAM):

• PAM is the simplest form of pulse modulation. PAM is a pulse modulation system in whichthe
signal is sampled at regular intervals, and each sample is made proportional to the amplitude
of the signal at the instant of sampling. The pulses are then sent by either wire orcable, or else
are used to modulate a carrier.
• The ability to use constant-amplitude pulses is a major advantage of pulse modulation, and since
PAM does not use constant- amplitude pulses, it is infrequently used. When it is used,thepulses
frequency- modulate the carrier.
Pulse width or pulse-duration modulation (PWM or PDM):

In this system, the starting time and amplitude of each pulse are constant but the width or

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duration of each pulse is made proportional to the instantaneous value of analog signal.

• PDM has the disadvantage, when compared with pulse-position modulation (PPM), that
itspulses are of varying width and therefore of varying power content. This means that
the transmitter must be powerful enough to handle the maximum- width pulses, although
the average power transmitted is perhaps only half of the peak power. PWM still works
if synchronization between transmitter and receiver fails, whereas PPM does not.
Pulse position-modulation (PPM):

In this system, the amplitude and width of the pulses is kept constant, while the position
of each pulse, in relation to the position of a recurrent reference pulse is varied by
instantaneous sampled value of the modulating wave. As compared to PWM, PPM has
the advantage of requiring constant transmitter power output, but the disadvantage of
dependingon transmitter receiver synchronization.
Pulse-code modulation (PCM):
PCM is a digital process in which the message signal is sampled is rounded off to the nearest
value of a finite set of allowable values and rounded values are coded. PCM generator produces
a series of numbers or digits. Each one of these digits, almost always in binary code, represents
the approximate amplitude of the signal sample at

Fig: Waveforms of PAM, PWM & PPM

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Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky):

• In space communication electromagnetic waves of different frequencies are used to carry

information through the physical space acting as the transmission medium. Electromagnetic
waves with frequencies extending from about 10 kHz to 300 GHz are classed as radio
waves.

• Depending primarily on the frequency a radio wave travels from the transmitting to the
receivingantenna in several ways. On the basis of the mode of propagation, radio waves
can be broadly classified as:
(a)ground or surface wave. (b) space or tropospheric wave. (c) sky way.

(a). Ground wave propagation:

• In ground wave propagation, radio waves are guided by the earth and move along its curved
surface from the transmitter to the receiver.
• As the waves moves over the ground, they are strongly influenced by the electrical
properties of the ground. As high frequency waves are strongly absorbed by ground;
ground wave propagation is useful only at low frequencies.
• Below 500 kHz, ground waves can be used for communication within distances of about
1500km from the transmitter.
• AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local areas and take place
primarily by the ground wave. Ground wave transmission is very reliable whatever the
atmospheric conditions be.
(b). Space or tropospheric wave propagation:

• When a radio wave transmitted from an antenna, travelling in a straight line directly
reachesthe receiving antenna, it is termed as space or tropospheric wave.
• In space wave or line of sight propagation, radio waves move in the earth's troposphere
withinabout 15 km over the surface of the earth.
• The space wave is made up of two components:

(a) a direct or line-of- sight MGVE form the transmitting to the receiving antenna.

(b) the ground-reflected urine traversing forms the transmitting antenna to ground and

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reflectedto the receiving antenna.

• Television frequencies in the range 100-220 MHz are transmitted through this mode.

(c). Sky wave propagation:

• In this mode of propagation, radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach
the receiving antenna after reflection form the ionosphere, i.e., the ionized layers lying in
the earth'supper atmosphere.
• Short wave transmission around the globe is possible through sky wave via successive
reflections at the ionosphere and the earth's surface.

Fig: Mode of Propagation

Digital Modulation Schemes:

• In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data. When it is

required to transmit digital signals on a bandpass channel, the amplitude, frequency or

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phase of the sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance with the incoming digital data.
• Since, the digital data is in discrete steps, the modulation of the bandpass sinusoidal carrier
is also done in discrete steps. Due to this reason, this type of modulation is known as digital
modulation.
• Digital modulation schemes as classified as under:

• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

• Because of constant amplitude of FSK or PSK, the effect of non-linearities, noise

interference is minimum on signal detection. However, these effects are morepronounced
on ASK. Therefore, FSK and PSK are preferred over ASK.
• Coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques which employ coherent
detection. In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked
with the carrier at thetransmitter. Thus, the detection is done by correlating the received
noisy signal and locally generated carrier. The coherent detection is also called
synchronous detection.
• ASK signal may be generated by simply applying the incoming binary data and the
sinusoidal carrier to the two inputs of a product modulator.
• The demodulation of binary ASK waveform can be achieved with the help of coherentdetector.

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Advantage of Digital communication over Analog Communication:

1. In digital signals, the impact of noise interference, distortion is less.
2. It facilitates video conferencing that saves time, money, and effort. We can perform video
conferencing with someone or a group of people without any traveling. In video conferencing,
we can see the facial expressions, which are helpful in reading the reaction of people.
3. It is easy to implement, less expensive.
4. The correction and detection of errors are easy in digital communication, as there is a use of
channel coding.
5. As compared to analog signals, it is easy to save and retrieve digital signals.
6. In digital signals, the configuring process is easy as compared to analog signals.
7. There is a common encoding technique in most digital circuits, so for a number of processes,
similar devices can be used.
8. The probability of cross-talk is very less in digital communication.
9. The implementation of hardware is more flexible in digital communication.
10. In digital communication, to avoid signal jamming, the spread spectrum technique is used.
11. It also facilitates us with audio conferencing by which we can talk to someone or a group of
people in another location without traveling. Thus, it saves time, effort, and money.
12. To maintain the secrecy of information, the signal processing functions like compression and
encryption are employed in digital circuits.
13. Digital communication is cheaper and simpler compared to analog signals because of the
advancement of IC technologies.

PREETHI G,ASST PROFESSOR,DEPT OF ECE,MYCEM