Urban Transportation & Planning 17CV751/18CV745

Module -1
Scope of Urban Transport Planning: Transport planning is a science that seeks to study the problems
that arise in proving transportation facilities in an urban, regional or national setting and to prepare a
systematic basis for planning.
 Since the developed countries where this science has evolved are mainly urban-oriented the
emphasis is more on urban transport planning.
 The principles of urban transport planning can be applied to regional or national transport planning
as well with due changes.
 Town and country planning is a science that deals with the study of the urban or country “system”
covering the interacting activities using adopted spaces linked by communications through channels.
 Transport planning is an important part of overall town and country planning, since it deals with the
transport network which is an important channel of a communications.

Through motor vehicles have revolutionised our life and brought comfort, pleasure and convenience,
they have created problems of congestion, lack of safety and degeneration of the environment.

Urbanization
Urbanization is a process whereby populations move from rural to urban area, enabling cities and towns
to grow. It can also be termed as the progressive increase of the number of people living in towns and
cities. It is highly influenced by the notion that cities and towns have achieved better economic, political,
and social mileages compared to the rural areas.

Majority of people move to cities and towns because they view rural areas as places with hardship and
backward/primitive lifestyle. Therefore, as populations move to more developed areas (towns and cities)
the immediate outcome is urbanization. This normally contributes to the development of land for use in
commercial properties, social and economic support institutions, transportation, and residential buildings.
Eventually, these activities raise several urbanization issues.

Causes of Urbanization
Industrialization, Social factors, modernization and economic opportunity cause urbanization, or an
increase in the number of people moving from rural to urban areas. Reasons of urbanization are given
below:
 Industrialization: There is a trend representing a shift from the old agricultural practices to non-
agricultural jobs creating a modernized society. In recent past, an increasing number of people
have been attracted to move from rural to urban areas for better employment opportunities

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riding on industrial revolution. People have got the chance to work in various industrial sectors to
stir the economic development.
 Commercialization: All types of trades contribute immensely to urbanization. In the modern era,
the distribution of goods, services and commercial transactions have developed many modern
marketing institutions and exchange methods resulting in the rapid growth of towns and cities. It
is a general perception in people’s mind that commercialization and trade in towns and cities
offer better opportunities as well as returns as compared to rural areas.
 Social benefits: There are numerous social benefits attributed to life in cities and towns. People
get better facilities in urban area like educational, sanitation, housing, health care, recreation and
living standards to lead a good social life in general. Due to these reasons, more and more people
are prompted to migrate into cities and towns to obtain a wide variety of social benefits and
services which are not presently available in rural areas.
 Employment opportunities: Ample job opportunities are there in urban areas that certainly attract
people living in rural areas to seek better livelihood. Because of this reason people frequently
migrate into urban areas in search of well-paying jobs in developmental sectors such as public
health, education, transport, sports, recreation and business enterprises. Higher value- added jobs
are being generated by such services as well as industries leading to more employment
opportunities in urban areas.
 Modernization and changed lifestyle: Modernization and drastic change in today’s lifestyle of
people plays a very important role in the process of urbanization. Now-a-days urban areas are
becoming more technology savvy with a highly sophisticated communication, infrastructure,
medical facilities, dressing code, enlightenment, liberalization and social amenities availability.
Most of the people have the view in their minds that they can lead a better and happy life in
cities. As a result people are migrating towards the cities and the cities are growing rapidly by
absorbing more and more people day after day.
 Rural-urban transformation: Many localities have become more fruitful and prosperous due to
the discovery of minerals, resource exploitation or certain agricultural activities hence cities start
emerging. It is a well-known fact that the increase in productivity leads to economic growth and
higher value-added employment opportunities. This trend normally contributes to the
development of land for use in commercial properties, socio-economic support institutions,
transportation and residential buildings.

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Effects of Urbanization

i) Positive effects of urbanization

Urbanization yields several positive effects if it happens within the appropriate limits. Some of the
positive implications of urbanization therefore include creation of employment opportunities,
technological and infrastructural advancements, improved transportation and communication, quality
educational and medical facilities, and improved standards of living. However, extensive urbanization
mostly results in adverse effects. Below listed points are few of them.

i) Negative Effects of Urbanization

1. Housing problems
Urbanization attracts people to cities and towns which lead to high population increase. With the increase
in the number of people living in urban centers, there is continued scarcity of houses. This is due to
insufficient expansion space for housing and public utilities, poverty, unemployment, and costly building
materials which can only be afforded by few individuals.

2. Overcrowding
Overcrowding is a situation whereby a huge number of people live in a small space. This form of
congestion in urban areas is consistent because of overpopulation and it is an aspect that increases day by
day as more people and immigrants move into cities and towns in search of better life. Most people from
rural or undeveloped areas always have the urge of migrating into the city that normally leads to
congestion of people within a small area.

3. Unemployment
The problem of joblessness is highest in urban areas and it is even higher among the educated people. It is
estimated that more than half of unemployed youths around the globe live in metropolitan cities.
And, as much as income in urban areas is high, the costs of living make the incomes to seem horribly
low. The increasing relocation of people from rural or developing areas to urban areas is the leading cause
of urban unemployment.

4. Development of slums

The cost of living in urban areas is very high. When this is combined with random and unexpected
growth as well as unemployment, there is the spread of unlawful resident settlements represented by
slums and squatters. The growth of slums and squatters in urban areas is even further exacerbated by fast-
paced industrialization, lack of developed land for housing, large influx of rural immigrants to the cities

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in search of better life, and the elevated prices of land beyond the reach of the urban poor.

5. Water and sanitation problems

Because of overpopulation and rapid population increase in most urban centers, it is common to find there
are inadequate sewage facilities. Municipalities and local governments are faced with serious resource
crisis in the management of sewage facilities. As a result, sanitation becomes poor and sewages flow
chaotically, and they are drained into neighboring streams, rivers, lakes, or seas. Eventually,
communicable diseases such as typhoid, dysentery, plague, and diarrhea spread very fast leading to
suffering and even deaths. Overcrowding also highly contributes to water scarcity as supply falls short of
demand.

6. Poor health and spread of diseases

The social, economic and living conditions in congested urban areas affects access and utilization of public
health care services. Slum areas in particular experience poor sanitation and insufficient water supply which
generally make slum populations susceptible to communicable diseases. The environmental problems such
as urban pollution also cause many health problems namely allergies, asthma, infertility, food poisoning,
cancer and even premature deaths.

7. Traffic congestion
When more people move to towns and cities, one of the major challenges posed is in the transport system.
More people means increased number of vehicles which leads to traffic congestion and vehicular
pollution. Many people in urban areas drive to work and this creates a severe traffic problem, especially
during the rush hours. Also as the cities grow in dimension, people will move to shop and access other
social needs/wants which often cause traffic congestion and blockage.

8. Urban crime
Issues of lack of resources, overcrowding, unemployment, poverty, and lack of social services and
education habitually leads to many social problems including violence, drug abuse, and crime. Most of
the crimes such as murder, rape, kidnapping, riots, assault, theft, robbery, and hijacking are reported to be
more prominent in the urban vicinities. Besides, poverty related crimes are the highest in fast- growing
urban regions. These acts of urban crime normally upset the peace and tranquility of cities/towns.

Urban Class Group

For Census purpose, the geographical area is broadly classified into Rural and Urban.
Urban: For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows. It constitutes Statutory
towns, Census towns and Outgrowths.
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1. Statutory Towns (ST): All places with a municipality, corporation, Cantonment board or notified
town area committee, etc. so declared by state law. Examples: Vadodara (M Corp.),Shimla(MCorp.)
etc.
a. Census Towns (CT): Places satisfy the following criteria are called as CTs.
i. A minimum population of 5,000;
ii. At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural
pursuits; and
iii. A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.
b. Out Growths (OG): An Out Growth (OG) is a viable unit such as a village or a hamlet or an
enumeration block made up of such village or hamlet and clearly identifiable in terms of its boundaries
and location. Some of the examples are railway colony, university campus, port area, military camps,
etc., which have come up near a statutory town outside its statutory limits but within the revenue limits
of a village or villages contiguous to the town.While determining the outgrowth of a town, it has been
ensured that it possesses the urban features in terms of infrastructure and amenities such as pucca roads,
electricity, taps, drainage system for disposal of waste water etc. educational institutions, post offices,
medical facilities, banks etc. and physically contiguous with the core town of the UA.
Examples: Central Railway Colony (OG), Triveni Nagar (N.E.C.S.W.) (OG), etc. Each such town
together with its outgrowth(s) is treated as an integrated urban area and is designated as an ‘urban
agglomeration’.
c. Urban Agglomeration:- An urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting a town
and its adjoining outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically contiguous towns together with or
without outgrowths of such towns. Examples: Greater Mumbai UA, Delhi UA, etc.

An urban centre with less than one lakh population is called a town while that with more than one lakh is
called a city. Cities having population varying from one to five million are called metropolitan cities
while those with more than five million are known as mega cities. Majority of metropolitan and mega

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cities are urban agglomerations.

Urban Transport Problems and Identification

Urbanization has led to rapid motorization. For example, The total number of registered motor vehicles in
India increased from about 0.3 million in 1951 to nearly 142 million in 2011 (MoRTH, GoI, 2013) an
increase of 7.7% p.a. as against a population increase of 3.8% p.a. during the same period. During 2001-
2011 the growth was even faster at 10% per annum.

Cities are locations having a high level of accumulation and concentration of economic activities and are
complex spatial structures that are supported by transport systems. The larger the city, the greater its
complexity and the potential for disruptions, particularly when this complexity is not effectively
managed.

Among the most notable urban transport problems are:

1. Traffic congestion and parking difficulties
One of the most prevalent transport problems in large urban agglomerations. It is particularly linked with
motorization and the diffusion of the automobile, which has increased the demand for transport
infrastructures. However, the supply of infrastructures has often not been able to keep up with the growth of
mobility. Since vehicles spend the majority of the time parked, motorization has expanded the demand for
parking space, which has created space consumption problems particularly in central areas; the spatial
imprint of parked vehicles is significant.

Congestion and parking are also interrelated since street parking consumes transport capacity, removing
one or two lanes for circulation. Further, looking for a parking space creates additional delays and impairs
local circulation. In central areas of large cities cruising may account for more than 10% of the local
circulation as drivers can spend 20 minutes looking for a parking spot. This practice is often judged more
economically effective than using a paying off-street parking facility as the time spent looking for a free
(or low cost) parking space is compensated by the monetary savings. Also, many delivery vehicles will
simply double-park at the closest possible spot to unload their cargo.

2. Longer commuting.
On par with congestion people are spending an increasing amount of time commuting between their
residence and workplace. An important factor behind this trend is related to residential affordability as
housing located further away from central areas (where most of the employment remains) is more
affordable.

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3. Public transport inadequacy

Many public transit systems, or parts of them, are either over or under used. During peak hours,
crowdedness creates discomfort for users as the system copes with a temporary surge in demand. In India,
the share of two-wheelers stood at 72.4 % during 2011 as compared to 8.8% during 1951. On the other
hand the share of buses declined from 11.1% in 1951 to 1.0% in 2011. The challenges for the Indian
public transport sector are:

 Institutional gaps

 Inadequate supply

 Poor customer experience

 Lack of the use of technology

4. Environmental Impacts and Energy Consumption

Pollution, air and noise, generated by circulation has become a serious impediment to the quality of life
and even the health of urban populations.
For example, with about 4.5 million registered vehicles, Delhi has acquired the dubious distinction of
being the fourth most polluted city in the world. The data on air quality shows that although SO2 and
NO2 levels are below the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) in most cities, the
Suspended Particulate Matter is disturbingly high in most cities.

5. Accidents and safety.

Growing traffic in urban areas is linked with a growing number of accidents and fatalities, especially in
developing countries. Accidents account for a significant share of recurring delays. As traffic increases,
people feel less safe to use the streets.

In India, number of road accidents increased by 22% during 2002 – 2011 whereas the number of fatalities
increased by 45% during the same period. When compared globally, the per capita incidence of road
accidents in India is lower than in China, Vietnam and Brazil but much higher than in the US and UK.

6. Freight distribution
Globalization and the materialization of the economy have resulted in growing quantities of freight (Cargo
or goods) moving within cities. As freight traffic commonly shares infrastructures with the circulation of
passengers, the mobility of freight in urban areas has become increasingly problematic.

7. Automobile Dependency
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Rising automobile mobility can be perceived as a positive consequence of economic development. The acute
growth in the total number of vehicles also gives rise to congestion at peak traffic hours on major
thoroughfares, in business districts and often throughout the metropolitan area.

Impact of Transportation
Transportation occupies a high place in modern life. Advancement in all spheres of life has been to a
large extent influenced by transportation. Transportation is a non-separable part of any society. It exhibits
a very close relation to the style of life, the range and location of activities and the goods and services
which will be available for consumption. Advances in transportation has made possible changes in the
way of living and the way in which societies are organized and therefore have a great influence in the
development of civilizations. This chapter conveys an understanding of the importance of transportation
in the modern society by presenting selected characteristics of existing transportation systems, their use
and relationships to other human activities.

Economic role of transportation

Economics involves production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. People depend upon
the natural resources to satisfy the needs of life but due to non uniform surface of earth and due to
difference in local resources, there is a lot of difference in standard of living in different societies. So
there is an immense requirement of transport of resources from one particular society to other. These
resources can range from material things to knowledge and skills like movement of doctors and
technicians to the places where there is need of them.

The place, time, quality and utility of goods

An example is given to evaluate the relationship between place, time and cost of a particular commodity.
If a commodity is produced at point A and wanted by people of another community at any point B distant
x from A, then the price of the commodity is dependent on the distance between two centers and the
system of transportation between two points. With improved system the commodity will be made less
costly at B.

Changes in location of activities

The reduction of cost of transport does not have same effect on all locations. Let at any point B the
commodity is to be consumed. This product is supplied by two stations A and K which are at two
different distances from B. Let at present the commodity is supplied by A since it is at a lesser distance
but after wards due to improvement in road network between B and K,the point K becomes the supply
point of product.

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Social role of transportation

Transportation has always played an important role in influencing the formation of urban societies.
Although other facilities like availability of food and water, played a major role, the contribution of
transportation can be seen clearly from the formation, size and pattern, and the development of societies,
especially urban centers.

Formation of settlements
From the beginning of civilization, the man is living in settlements which existed near banks of
major river junctions, a port, or an intersection of trade routes. Cities like New York, Mumbai and
Moscow are good examples.

Size and pattern of settlements

The initial settlements were relatively small developments but with due course of time, they grew in
population and developed into big cities and major trade centers. The size of settlements is not only
limited by the size of the area by which the settlement can obtain food and other necessities, but also by
considerations of personal travels especially the journey to and from work. The increased speed of
transport and reduction in the cost of transport have resulted in variety of spatial patterns.

Growth of urban centers

When the cities grow beyond normal walking distance, then transportation technology plays a
role in the formation of the city. For example, many cities in the plains developed as a circular city
with radial routes, whereas the cities beside a river developed linearly. The development of
automobiles and other factors like increase in personal income, and construction of paved road
network, the settlements were transformed into urban centers of intense travel activity.

Political role of transportation

The world is divided into numerous political units which are formed for mutual protection, economic
advantages and development of common culture. Transportation plays an important role in the
functioning of such political units.

Administration of an area
The government of an area must be able to send/get information to/about its people. It may include
laws to be followed, security and other needful information needed to generate awareness. An
efficient administration of a country largely depends on how effectively government could
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communicate these information to all the country. However, with the advent of communications, its
importance is slightly reduced.

Political choices in transport

These choices may be classified as communication, military movement, travel of persons and movement
of freight. The primary function of transportation is the transfer of messages and information. It is also
needed for rapid movement of troops in case of emergency and finally movement of persons and goods.
The political decision of construction and maintenance of roads has resulted in the development of
transportation system.

Environmental role of transportation

The negative effects of transportation is more dominating than its useful aspects as far as transportation is
concerned. There are numerous categories into which the environmental effects have been categorized.
They are explained in the following sections.
Safety
Growth of transportation has a very unfortunate impact on the society in terms of accidents. Worldwide
death and injuries from road accidents have reached epidemic proportions. -killed and about 15 million
injured on the road accidents annually. Increased variation in the speeds and vehicle density resulted in a
high exposure to accidents. Accidents result in loss of life and permanent disability, injury, and damage to
property. Accidents also causes numerous non-quantifiable impacts like loss of time, grief to the near
ones of the victim, and inconvenience to the public. The loss of life and damage from natural disasters,
industrial accidents, or epidemic often receive significant attention from both government and public.
This is because their occurrence is concentrated but sparse. On the other hand, accidents from transport
sector are widespread and occurs with high frequency.

For instance, a study has predicted that death and disabilities resulting from road accidents in comparison
with other diseases will rise from ninth to third rank between 1990 and 2020. Road accidents as cause to
death and disability could rank below heart disease and clinical depression, and ahead of stroke and all
infectious diseases. Significant reduction to accident rate is achieved in the developing countries by
improved road designed maintenance, improved vehicle design, driver education, and law enforcements.
However in the developing nations, the rapid growth of personalized vehicles and poor infrastructure,
road design, and law enforcement has resulted in growing accident rate.

Air Pollution
All transport modes consume energy and the most common source of energy is from the burning of fossil

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fuels like coal, petrol, diesel, etc. The relation between air pollution and respiratory disease have been
demonstrated by various studies and the detrimental effects on the planet earth is widely recognized
recently. The combustion of the fuels releases several contaminants into the atmosphere, including carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and other particulate matter. Hydrocarbons are the result of
incomplete combustion of fuels. Particulate matters are minute solid or liquid particles that are suspended
in the atmosphere. They include aerosols, smoke, and dust particles. These air pollutants once emitted
into the atmosphere , undergo mixing and disperse into the surroundings.

Noise pollution
Sound is acoustical energy released into atmosphere by vibrating or moving bodies where as noise is
unwanted sound produced. Transportation is a major contributor of noise pollution, especially in urban
areas. Noise is generated during both construction and operation. During construction, operation of large
equipments causes considerable noise to the neighborhood. During the operation, noise is generated by
the engine and exhaust systems of vehicle, aerodynamic friction, and the interaction between the vehicle
and the support system (road-tire, rail-wheel). Extended exposure to excessive sound has been shown to
produce physical and psychological damage. Further, because of its annoyance and disturbance, noise
adds to mental stress and fatigue.

Energy consumption
The spectacular growths in industrial and economic growth during the past century have been closely
related to an abundant supply of inexpensive energy from fossil fuels. Transportation sector is unbelieved
to consume more than half of the petroleum products. The compact of the shortage of fuel was
experienced during major wars when strict rationing was imposed in many countries. The impact of this
had cascading effects on many factors of society, especially in the price escalation of essential
commodities. However, this has few positive impacts; a shift to public transport system, a search for
energy efficient engines, and alternate fuels. During the time of fuel shortage, people shifted to cheaper
public transport system. Policy makers and planners, thereafter gave much emphasis to the public
transit which consume less energy per person. The second impact was in the development of fuel-
efficient engines and devices and operational and maintenance practices. A fast depleting fossil fuel has
accelerated the search for energy efficient and environment friendly alternate energy source. The research
is active in the development of bio-fuels, hydrogen fuels and solar energy.

Urban Transport System planning process

Transport planning is a science that seeks to study the problems that arise in providing transportation
facilities in an urban, regional or national setting and to prepare a systematic basis for planning such

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facilities.
Motor vehicles have revolutionised life and brought comfort, pleasure and convenience but on the other
hand created problems of congestion, lack of safety and degeneration of the environment. The primary
aim of transport planning is to identify the nature of these problems and to formulate proposals for future
transport needs. The fundamental objective of transportation is to provide efficient and safe levels of
mobility required to support a wide spectrum of human needs for a heterogeneous variety of societal
groups. Because these needs, goals, and objectives are continuously changing, transportation planning is
also an ever-evolving process.

Interdependence of Land Use and Traffic

The early approach of transportation planning was limited to short term solution generation. The practice
was to measure the traffic in streets, identifying those sections were the present traffic had exceeded the
capacity and undertaking improvement measures to relieve congestion and bottlenecks. This simplistic
approach supplied only with short term solutions and failed to deal with the crux of the transportation
problem in long run.
In 1954, Mitchell and Rapkin observed that various kinds of activities based on land (Land Use)
generates different amounts and kinds of traffic. They concluded that though measures such as -
Regulation and control of traffic, Provision and improvement of physical channels of movement were
effective in dealing with urban traffic, the most basic level of action for a long run solution of traffic
problems is the planning, guidance and control in the pattern of land use.

More recently Buchanan has also emphasised the inter relationship between traffic and buildings in a
town. He states that in town, traffic takes place because of buildings, and infact all movements in a town
have an origin and destination in a building. The pattern traced by traffic is thus closely related to the
manner in which the building are arranged. Commuter flows are closely dependent upon the location and
size of the work-places and of home areas. School traffic is governed by location of the school and home
areas.

Just as transport is a function of land-use, the reciprocal statement that land use is a function of
transportation is also true. As new systems of transport are built, the land- use pattern that follows has a
close relation to the accessibility that has been made possible. The above interdependence is the key- note
of modern transport planning.

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System Approach in Transport planning

In the recent past, a new activity known as operations research has taken shape and is finding interesting
applications in diverse fields. Transport planning is one field where this approach has already been tried
and found extremely useful. Operations research is mainly concerned with optimising the performance of
a system.

A system is defined as a set of components that is organized in such a manner as to direct the action of
the system under inputs toward specific goals and objectives.

The transport planning process starts with the decision to adopt planning as a tool for achieving certain
desired goals and objectives. After the goals and objectives are defined, solutions are generated, taking due
consideration of problems, constraints, potentials and forecasting. These solutions are evaluated after
thorough analysis. The best amongst them is chosen for implementation. After implementation, the system
is studied in operation and its performance assessed. Based on this assessment it may be necessary to go
back to certain stages of planning and repeat the sequence.

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Stages in Transport Planning

The transportation planning process can be broken down to the following five stages:
1. Survey and analysis of existing conditions

2. Forecast and analysis of future conditions and planning synthesis

3. Evaluation

4. Programme adoption and implementation

5. Continuing studies

Survey and analysis of existing conditions

The survey and inventory starts with the definition of the survey area to study the pattern of movement.
The goals that provide direction to the planning efforts are also set in this stage itself. Some of the goals
that are commonly sought hold the following:
 Minimum disruption of the general environment
 Minimum demolition of housing
 Revitalisation of the public transport
 The removal of through traffic from urban centres and residential areas
 A high benefit/cost ratio
 Operational feasibility
 Qualitative compatibility with general urban structure

The inventory of the existing travel pattern includes:

 Collection of data on origin and destination of journey
 Collection of data on movement of goods vehicles
 Collection of data on movement of public transport buses
 Collection of data on movement by rail transit

The inventory of the existing transport facilities consists of:

 Studies on travel time by different modes
 Inventory of public transport facilities (bus/rail)
 Parking inventory
 Accident data

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The inventory of land use and economic activities consists of:

 Information on land type

 Zoning laws

 Population statistics

 Household structure

 Employment pattern

 School attendance

The above data are analysed to determine any quantifiable relationship between the measurements.
Mathematical models are then built to relate the present travel pattern to the land use and other socio-
economic characteristics of the household.

Trip generation, trip distribution, modal split and trip assignment are considered at this stage itself. The
models so formulated are calibrated and checked for their adequacy before they are further used for
determining the future travel pattern.

Forecast and analysis of future conditions and planning synthesis

Transport plans are long-range in scope and involve planning or 20 to 25 years ahead. It therefore
becomes necessary to do predictions of travel pattern and needs for the future year. Future transportation
demand is tied up with future economic activity and future land use.

 Economic activity can be predicted in number of ways. A simple method is to extend the past
trends in the various parameters representing the economic activity.
 Population forecast can be done by studies of the past trend. More detailed studies of the birth,
death and migration data help in formulating population prediction models.
 Estimate of future employment pattern follows from prediction and economic activity. Future
level of car ownerships is an important parameter that influences future travel and mode choice.
 The predicted growth in land use pattern such as residential, industrial, commercial, recreational
and open spaces can be determined by formulating suitable land use allocation models.

Future land use activity arrangement and information concerning future income levels, family size, car
ownership rates, employment and population and other economic activity are then fed as inputs to the
previously formulated trip generation model. The output will be the future trip generation rates. The other
stages such as trip distribution, assignment and modal split are gone through by using the predicted
parameters governing the travel pattern and the respective models formulated for the base year. The data

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are then fitted into a tentative network planned for the horizon year. The output from the above stages
yields flow on each link of the network and speed and level of service afforded by the planned facility.

Evaluation
A number of alternative transport plans are feasible for a given set of goals and policies. Inorder to select
the best from these, it is necessary to evaluate each of the alternatives as how it fulfils the desired
objectives. Cost/benefit techniques are often used to evaluate the alternatives in economic terms. At this
stage, it may be necessary to revise the plans and go back to the initial stage of design to evolve further
alternatives.

Programme adoption and implementation

The best alternative emerging from the evaluation study is selected for adoption and implementation. The
stages in which the project is to be implemented are decided with the consideration for the financial
resources. The necessary organization for handling the project is built up and the work executed.

Continuing studies
Transport planning is a dynamic and complex process and hence there is no finality about the plan. The
urban system and the people living are not deterministic and are governed by random behaviour.
Considerable uncertainty is always associated with such systems. Technology and people preference may
change. Plans and policies framed today may not remain so in the future context. This underlines the need
for a continuous review and updating the plan.

Urban mass transportation systems & urban transit problems

Rapid urbanization has posed several problems on developing countries, especially in the transportation
sector, which include traffic congestion, inconvenient mobility, deteriorated traffic safety, serious air
pollution and social injustice/inequity. In order to tackle such problems, a comprehensive urban transport
strategy is essential.

Urban Mass Transportation Systems play an important role not only in providing mobility but also, they
are vital to the economic development of cities. Absence of well-developed mass urban transport systems
will make the cities depend upon the private transport. Over indulgence on private transport not only
results in severe congestion and traffic jams on the roads but also lead to sever environment degradation
due to excessive emissions and noise from the traffic. Good urban mass transportation systems make
people less indulgent on private transport and it renders the cities not coming into the clutches of traffic,
pollution, accidents and the loss of fuel.

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 The road based urban mass transportation systems are of two types: (i) bus transport provided by
stage-carrier bus services and (ii) bus rapid transit systems.
 The rail based urban mass transportation systems are of two types: (i) Above the ground sub-
urban rail systems (ii) Underground metro rail systems. Sometimes, a combination of over
ground and underground rail systems are developed in an interconnected manner and called as
Mass Rapid Transit Systems (MRTS).

These options provide fast movement and they can handle greater loads of population as well as freight.

Types of transit systems

Public, Private and Para-transit transport

Transit could be defined as a public transportation system intended for the mass movement of passengers.
Urban transportation is generally classified into private, for-hire and public transportation or mass transit.
The transit modes are defined by their right-of-way (ROW) category, technology and types of operations.

Classification based on the type operation and use:

(a) Private transportation system

(b) Paratransit system or for-hire transportation

(c) Urban transit system, mass transit system or public transportation

Private transportation system: consists of privately owned vehicles operated by owners for their
personal use, usually on public streets. Most common modes: pedestrian, bicycle & private cars.

Paratransit system: The term paratransit is used to cover certain types of operations which are midway
between conventional transit and the private automobiles. It also includes transportation provided by
operators and available to parties which hire them for individual or multiple trips. Taxi, dial-a-car and
jitney are the most common modes. Modes that are demand responsive and provide shared rides are
within the scope of the Committee on Paratransit. Compared to the fixed routes and at fixed schedules in
other mass transit systems, paratransit have a variable route and time schedule. They are similar to transit
in that their services are available to the public; they are similar to the private car in that they operate on
demand - not following a fixed route or fixed time schedule.

In general, paratransit appears to be more economical and efficient in low density and suburban
settings where the level of demand may not accommodate conventional transit. These modes are therefore

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sometimes referred to as demand-responsive transit. The demand-responsiveness occurs in two ways:

 Routing - vehicles go exactly where the passenger wants them to; they have no predefined
routes, though they operate within designated areas or zones.

 Scheduling - the vehicles arrive when desired by the passenger.

Their types of operation- routing and scheduling and methods of obtaining service by users makes
different modes rather than strictly defined types of vehicles by technology. Car sharing, Taxis, dial-a-
ride, jitney are some of the modes available in this transit system.

Urban transit, mass transit or public transportation: includes systems which are available for use by all
persons who pay the established fare. These modes, which operate on fixed routes and with fixed
schedules, include bus, light rail transit, metro, regional rail and several other systems. Urban public
transportation, strictly defined, includes both transit and paratransit categories, since both are available for
public use. However, since public transportation tends to be identified with transit only, inclusion of
paratransit is usually specifically identified.

Classification of transit system

Right-of-way (ROW) Category

Right-of-way (ROW) Category, is the travel way or strip of land on which transit vehicles operate, is the
most important characteristic of transit modes. There are three ROW categories:

 ROW Category C

 ROW Category B

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 ROW Category A

ROW Category C: are public streets with general traffic.

ROW Category B: represents transit ways that are partially separated from other traffic. Typically they
are street medians with rail tracks which are longitudinally separated, but cross street intersections at
grade. Bus lanes physically separated from other traffic also represent in ROW category B. This ROW
requires a separate strip of land and certain investment for construction.

ROW Category A: is fully separated, physically protected ROW on which only transit vehicles operate.
This category includes tunnels, aerial (elevated) structures or fully protected at-grade tracks or roadways.
Thus, vertical position of the ROW is not as important as its separation from other traffic, because
total independence of transit units allows many physical and operational features that are not possible to
use on ROW categories B and C. Therefore, the modes with ROW category A are guided (rail,
exceptionally rubber-tired) systems with trains, electric traction and signal control which offer very high
capacity, speed, reliability and safety.

ROW C ROW B ROW A

The comparisons between different ROW classes are listed below.

Advantages of ROW B compared to ROW C Advantages of ROW A compared to ROW B
 Higher performance – speed, reliability,  Highest performance
capacity, comfort, safety  Electric guided technology
 Use of longer vehicles  High safety
 Stronger identity / image  Short dwell time
 Lower per passenger operating cost
 Can be electrified

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Mass and rapid transit systems

The best-known classification of transit modes is into three generic classes based mostly, but not
entirely on right-of-way (R/W) type (Gray et.al., 1979). They are

1. Street transit or surface transit,

2. Semi rapid transit and

3. Rapid transit or mass rapid transit systems.

The diagram illustrates this:

Figure: ROW categories and generic classes of transit modes

It shows performance of transit modes on the abscissa, and their required investment cost on the ordinate.
Performance is represented by the product of line capacity and operating speed; investment cost is in
$/line-km. On this diagram it can be seen that street transit modes, which have ROW category C, require
very low investment. They offer relatively low performance, however. Modes with ROW category B,
semirapid transit, have a significantly higher performance, but they also require higher investment. By far
the highest performance, as well as the highest investment characterizes modes with ROW category A:
rapid transit or metro systems.

Street Transit
It designates modes operated on streets with mixed traffic (ROW Category C). The quality of street transit
services, particularly speed and reliability, depends on traffic conditions. The speed is generally lower
than that of the traffic flow owing to the time lost at passenger stops. Being slower than general traffic,
transit cannot compete effectively with private cars, unless other conditions discourage car use. The most

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common transit modes in this class are

 Minibus

 Regular bus

 Double-decker bus

 Articulated bus

 Express bus

 Trolley bus

 Streetcars or trams

 Guided bus

 Battery operated bus

a. Minibus
These are the smaller diesel or petrol driven buses and have their present use largely in private operation.
They are useful for narrow, crowded streets, where large buses have a problem in maneuvering and also
for low demand routes where the provision of large buses may prove to be uneconomical.

b. Regular bus
It consists of single-decker buses operating along fixed routes on fixed schedules. Buses comprise by far the
most widely used transit mode. The more the travel demand is concentrated along corridors, the more
advantageous the regular bus becomes. The most typical bus services are street transit routes, which may
represent the entire transit network or supplementary or feeder services to rail networks.

c. Double-decker bus
This is a higher capacity bus, with a design capacity of about 114 and crush capacity of 130. The bus is of
similar size to a regular bus, though of course higher, with a more powerful engine. It is however slower
for two reasons: power-to-weight ratio and longer stop times. It is not as economical as regular buses
mainly because of its high capital cost. It has a disadvantage that all flyovers, elevated rights-of-way,
bridges etc. need clearance of 5.5m instead of 4-4.5m.

d. Articulated bus
These buses are usually 55 feet or more in length with two connected passenger compartments that bend
at the connecting point when the bus turns a corner. Though it has a higher capacity, it is not
recommended because its extra length creates its own problems under Indian traffic conditions. The

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driver can’t be aware of the rear of the bus, and cornering is more difficult. In addition the bus stop length
would need to be altered.

e. Express bus
Service is provided by fast, comfortable buses on long routes with widely spaced stops. Its reliability of
service is dependent on traffic conditions along the route. Its reliability of service depends on traffic
conditions along the route.

f. Trolley bus
Trolley buses are the same vehicles as buses except that they are propelled by an electric motor and
obtain power from two overhead wires along their route. The advantages the trolley bus offers include
higher riding quality and excellent environmental features. But is always more expensive than the
standard bus because at low demand levels its infrastructure cost makes it more expensive and at high
demand levels, it can’t meet the demand being limited to 2 lanes. However, since these factors are not
reflected in the operators revenues, financial problems of transit agencies have often led to substitution of
buses for trolley buses.

g. Streetcars or Tramways

These are electrically powered rail transit vehicles operating mostly on streets. Their tracks and distinct
vehicles give transit service a strong identification. When compared with buses, the streetcars have more
comfortable ride, quieter and pollution free operation, better vehicle performance, higher labor
productivity, higher line capacity, but higher investment cost, less reliable street operation unless transit
enjoys priority treatment, less flexible operation, higher maintenance and greater impedance of other
traffic. Tram is by far the most expensive street transit mode as well as with very low capacity.

h. Guided bus

This makes the driver free from the task of steering the bus while operating in a section of route
equipped with guided-bus infrastructure. The guidance could be lateral, central or electronic.

i. Battery operated buses

They have low range and speed capability, and cannot be used on a large scale in a city. They should be
considered seriously for short routes and low demand routes in city areas.

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Semi rapid Transit (Medium capacity modes)

It consists of modes utilizing mostly ROW category B (i.e. ROW types which are longitudinally
physically separated [by curbs, barriers, grade separation etc.] from other traffic, but with grade crossings
for vehicles and pedestrians, including regular street intersections). Compared to street transit, the
semirapid transit are characterized by

 Higher performance capacity

 Reliability

 Speed

 Passenger attraction

With partially separated ROW category B, the most common transit modes in this class are

1) Bus Semirapid Transit – BST

2) Light Rail Transit - LRT

1. Bus Semirapid Transit – BST or BRT

The BST has recently been named Bus Rapid Transit - BRT. This is an inaccurate designation because
“Rapid Transit” represents by definition transit modes which have ROW category A on their entire
routes, which is never the case with buses. This includes bus system which offers better performance,
reliability, and comfort to passengers compared to the regular bus system.

One can give proper definition as “Bus rapid transit (BRT) is a flexible, high performance rapid transit
mode that combines facilities, equipment, service and intelligent transportation system (ITS) elements
into a permanently integrated system with a quality image and unique identity”. For a bus line to be
considered as BRT, it should follow minimal features, such as:

 Most of the lines are of ROW category B, and in limited lines it can go for ROW C

 Well designated bus stops with passenger amenities and the spacing should be of 300-500 m
apart.

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 Physical size, aisle width, number of doors and their width and position, and seating numbers and
configuration are important determinants of BRT system capacity.

 Bus priority is a key feature of BRT. One cannot choose a minibus for BRT system. Vehicles
should have high passenger appeal, be environmentally friendly, easy and convenient to use,
and comfortable. Desirable features include air conditioning, bright lighting, panoramic windows,
and real-time passenger information. Vehicles should be easy and rapid to board and alight. Low
floor heights (i.e., less than 15 inches [38 cm]) above pavement level) are desirable unless
technologies permitting safe and reliable level boarding and alighting (e.g., rapidly deployed
ramps/bridges, some type of precision docking mechanism) can be used. A sufficient number of
doors having sufficient width should be provided, especially where off-board fare collection is
provided.

 Frequency of the service should be frequent so that it makes BRT system as a regular transit

 With the help of ITS, one can organize and control various operations such as movement of
bus along a line, Automated vehicle location, Transit signal priority, Safety and security system,
Communications and Vehicle guidance and control.

2. Light Rail Transit – LRT

LRT mode mainly utilizes ROW B, sometimes ROW A and very rarely ROW C. Its electrically propelled
rail vehicles operate singly or as two to four cars trains. It provides a wide range of LOS and performance
characteristics. The main elements that a rail system must have to be defined as LRT are the following:

 Securing of ROW B or ROW A as compared to the street cars in mixed traffic

 Stronger image and identify of lines (rail technology). Track crossings of streets are regulated by
the signals, usually with priority in signal control. LRT tracks are usually in curbed medians or in
reserved lanes, in park areas, sometimes on short flyovers or underpasses at major intersections,
or in tunnels through high density areas.

 The stops are separated from the street road way and have passenger protection, amenities and
information. The average spacing between the stops is 300 to 600 m.

 The vehicles are articulated with high capacity units. Maximum speeds are 70 kmph or higher,
with protected grade crossing in the latter case.

LRT takes advantage as a unique feature in rail technology as guided vehicle technology. Though it run
on streets and mix up with highway, and make use of all types of ROW on the same route compared to

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street transit modes, guided vehicle technology formulated LRT as a better performing one.

Rapid Transit
These modes operate exclusively on right-of-way category A (i.e. a fully controlled right of way without
grade crossings or any legal access by other vehicles or persons) and have a high speed, capacity,
reliability and safety. All existing rapid transit systems utilize guided technologies (rail or rubber tire)
that permit operation of trains (high capacity) and automatic signal control (high safety). This class
includes the following modes.

Monorail
These are guided transit mode with vehicles riding on or suspended from a single rail, beam,
or tube.
 Vehicles may employ steel wheel or rubber tire support. Supported or suspended
 Won’t run on a single rail, runs on the surface of a rather large beam, or inside
an enclosed box structure.
 Grade separated guide ways to accommodate rubber-tire mono-beams
 Trains are articulated, 4-car units about 42 m long by 2.6 m wide, with about 60
seats. Seat & standing capacity of 215 passengers
 Ultimate capacity of 20,000 PHPD passengers

COMPARISON BETWEEN TRANSIT SYSTEMS

 BRT, LRT and Monorail can go around sharp road bends and hence reduce the
need for property acquisition.
 Additionally, Monorail can negotiate steep gradients, thus reducing the need for

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long ramps.
 Between these 3 modes, Monorail is elevated while BRT and LRT can be at
grade or elevated modes.

BRT vs. LRT vs. Monorail

 LRT reportedly needs 2 to 3 lanes of road space compared to 3 to 4 lanes
needed for BRT( WB) and gives better capacity.
 LRT is mostly proposed when service is possible at-grade for a substantial
length of the corridor.
 Monorail can be considered when the road is narrow and congested. It permits
more daylight and air underneath that is relevant when building lines that lie
close to the edge of the road ROW.

Metro Rail vs. Light Rail

 Metro rail requires flat curves (necessitating property acquisition) and long
ramps taking up a lot of road space.
 Light rail transit, on the other hand, can go round road bends and does not
require property acquisition.
 It provides savings in running cost due to low axle load (11t)
compared to Metro rail (17 t).

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Comparison between Transit System

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