COMPUTATIONAL AND ALGORITHMIC

THINKING 2011—2015

BOOK 2 DAVID I CLARK

 Published by

Australian Mathematics Trust

University of Canberra Locked Bag 1
Canberra GPO ACT 2601
AUSTRALIA

Copyright ©2016 AMT Publishing

Telephone: +61 2 6201 5136

www.amt.edu.au
AMTT Limited ACN 083 950 341
National Library of Australia Card Number and ISSN
Australian Mathematics Trust Informatics Series ISSN 1838-8086
Computational and Algorithmic Thinking 2011-2015 Book2
ISBN 978-1-876420-76-5
 Contents

Introduction v
Computational and Algorithmic Thinking v
Algorithmic Thinking and the Australian Curriculum vi
Acknowledgments vi

Questions 1
Applying Rules 3

Logic 9

Analysis 19
Searching 19
Sorting 19
Patterns 21
Number of Routes 23
How Many Ways? 26
Analyse the Problem 31

Algorithms 35
Breadth-first Search 35
Shortest Path 48
Maximum Flow 51
Single Pass Algorithms 51
Dynamic Programming 54
Two Person Games 57
Greedy Algorithm 62
Lists 64
Working Backwards 66
Chains 67
Ad Hoc Algorithms 68

iii
Solutions 81
Applying Rules 83

Logic 87

Analysis 93
Searching 93
Sorting 94
Patterns 96
Number of Routes 98
How Many Ways? 101
Analyse the Problem 105

Algorithms 109
Breadth-first Search 109
Shortest Path 121
Maximum Flow 125
Single Pass Algorithms 126
Dynamic Programming 128
Two Person Games 132
Greedy Algorithm 139
Lists 144
Working Backwards 146
Chains 148
Ad Hoc Algorithms 150

Development of Algorithms 161

Statistics 173

High Distinction Students 175

2011 Competition 175
2012 Competition 176
2013 Competition 177
2014 Competition 179
2015 Competition 181

iv
 Introduction

Computational and Algorithmic Thinking

The Computational and Algorithmic Thinking (CAT) competition, formerly known as the
Australian Informatics Competition (AIC), is a pre-programming competition taken annually
by more than 7000 school students from Australia, New Zealand and a number of other Asia-
Pacific countries. It is run by the Australian Informatics Olympiad Committee (AIOC) and
is intended to serve a number of purposes. Firstly, it introduces students and their teachers
to algorithmic thinking, now a required component of the Australian Curriculum, through
engaging problems without the need for programming skills. Secondly, it identifies students
with the capacity to program and points them towards resources through which they can
pursue this, and to further competitions which they can enter with a view to developing their
programming skills. Finally, it is the first in a series of events that identify students who will
represent Australia at the annual International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI). (The term
informatics is used in Europe as a synonym for computer science.)
The CAT has traditionally been a pen and paper competition, but in 2014 a decision was
made to introduce an online version of the competition from 2015. In addition, a further
division of the competition was introduced for Upper Primary students (Years 5 and 6). The
questions in the CAT are designed to be quick to solve and highly approachable, and range
in difficulty from very easy to challenging. The contest employs a mixture of multiple-choice
and integer answers, and incorporates unique ‘three-stage tasks’ that encourage students to
develop informal algorithms and apply them to test data of increasing size.
The multiple-choice questions can be classified into four broad categories:
applying the rules questions, that ask students to apply a well-defined set of rules to
given data
logic questions, that use non-algorithmic puzzles to encourage rigorous reasoning and
case analysis
analysis questions, where students are asked to understand the behaviour of an algo-
rithm that solves a given problem
algorithm questions, that encourage students to develop an informal algorithm to solve
a given puzzle.
Explanations of these categories and their relevance are given in the ‘Solutions’ section of
this book.

v
The integer answer questions are typically algorithmic. Students must devise and follow some
repeated systematic procedure. For each question the students are given three sets of data
of increasing size. These questions are explicitly designed to entice students into formulating
algorithms. The first data set is often small enough to be solved by ad hoc techniques. By the
second, students should have a feel for the problem and be developing systematic procedures
for solving the problem. These procedures can then be applied to the third data set.
Algorithmic and analysis questions are often variations on well-known classes of problems
such as shortest path problems (algorithm questions) and searching algorithms (analysis
questions), and some students may have already encountered them. Other questions are not
standard and students have to devise algorithms from the context of the problem.
The ‘Questions’ section of the book presents the questions, organised by category and prob-
lem type. The ‘Solutions’ section gives the solutions and answers. Each category is given a
general introduction, describing its relevance to information technology in general and pro-
gramming in particular. Each problem type also has an introduction, including the practical
applications of the problem type and an outline of the method of solution.

Algorithmic Thinking and the Australian Curriculum

The Australian Curriculum has been developed over the last few years and is being adopted by
all states and territories with implementation F – 10 scheduled to be complete by 2018. In the
Technologies learning area of the Curriculum, there are two distinct but related subjects, one
of which is Digital Technologies. For many teachers, the content of this subject will present
quite a challenge, as it requires them to teach algorithmic thinking from the Foundation year
and to introduce coding from as early as Year 3. Previously, this has been the preserve of a
small number of courses in the senior years of the curriculum, but there is a worldwide demand
for greater coding skills as a part of core education; Australia is not alone in promoting this
type of thinking as a part of the compulsory curriculum. Victoria has taken a further initiative
and included algorithmic thinking as a part of the mathematics curriculum. Other states are
also looking at how this implementation will work in practice and who can best deliver the
algorithmic content.
There is a rapidly growing variety of resources to teach various different programming lan-
guages, but there is little point in learning a programming language without a good under-
standing of the algorithmic thinking which sits behind any purposeful computer program. In
addition to providing many questions which promote this type of thinking, this book contains
a background chapter on what an algorithm is and explores how questions can be analysed
from an algorithmic perspective. We would prefer that teachers did not think of algorithmic
thinking as yet another thing which they have to teach, but rather as a pedagogical approach
to problem solving in general, a skill which will be transferable across many disciplines.

Acknowledgments
The AIOC is a department of the Australian Mathematics Trust (AMT), which provides
both financial and administrative support to the informatics program. Indeed, the formation
of the AIOC in 1999 was an initiative of Professor Peter Taylor, then Executive Director of
the AMT. Without the support of the AMT, the AIOC could not survive.
The Chair of the CAT problems committee since 2007 has been David Clark, who is also
the author of this book. For David, this has been a labour of love. His relentless and

vi
continuing enthusiasm is amazing. The problems in the CAT have been devised by past
and present members of the CAT problems committee: Ben Burton, Bernard Blackham,
David Clark, David Kennedy, Andrew Gray, Katherine Kavanagh, David Ananian-Cooper,
Dmitry Kamenetsky, Robert Newey, Christopher Chen, Judith Heglers and Mike Clapper.
Their ability to construct new and interesting problems continues to astonish me. Thanks
are also due to Margot Phillipps, Terry McClelland, Jan Honnens and Katherine Kavanagh:
teachers who have provided second round moderation of the competition. Their comments
and suggestions have helped to ensure that the problems are understandable by the students
and accessible to them.
Special thanks are due to Bernadette Webster for careful proofreading of this book, and of
all of the CAT problems before they go to print, and to Heather Sommariva for the cover
design.
This book was typeset in TEX, the mathematical typesetting system designed by Donald
Knuth. Many contributors have given freely of their time and expertise to extend the ca-
pabilities of TEX. The TikZ/PGF package written by Till Tantau was used in all of the
diagrams in this book. Finally, special thanks are due to the late Ian Lisle for expert advice
on all things TEX.

Mike Clapper
Executive Director
Australian Mathematics Trust
September 2016

vii
Questions

1
 Applying Rules

1. Zabs 2011 J.1

On a distant planet, the dominant carnivore, the zab, is nearing extinction. The number of
zabs born in any year is one more than the (positive) difference between the number born in
the previous year and the number born in the year before that.
Examples: If 7 zabs were born last year and 5 the year before, 3 would be born this year.
If 7 zabs were born last year and 10 the year before, 4 would be born this year.
2 zabs were born in the year 2000 and 9 zabs were born in 2001. What is the first year after
2000 when just 1 zab will be born?

(A) 2009 (B) 2011 (C) 2013 (D) 2015 (E) 2017

2. Word Search 2012 I.1

A word search uses the following special symbols:

? represents a single letter
* represents any number of letters, including no letters.
In order for a search term to match a word, it must represent the entire word from start to
finish. For example, b * t matches bat but not bath.
How many of the following words does b??st*ing match?
blasting
blustering
boasting
boosting
bootstrapping
bowstrings
bristling
busting

(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 6 (E) 7