MODULE – 1

Chapter – 1: Introduction
Conventional and non-conventional energy resources:
Preference for Electricity

Following are the main reasons for its popularity.

1. Cleaner environments for user
2. Higher efficiency
3. Better controllability
4. Easier bulk-power, long-distance transportation of power using overhead transmission or
underground cables
5. Most versatile devices of energy conversions from Electrical to other forms are available for
different purposes, such as thermal, illumination, mechanical, sound, chemical, etc.

Sources for Generation of Electricity

Following types of resources are available for generating electrical energy (this list can be extended to
include some more up-coming resources. The following list, however, gives the popular and potential
resources).

1. Conventional methods:

(a) Thermal: Thermal energy (from fossil fuels) or Nuclear Energy used for producing steam for turbines
which drive the alternators (rotating a.c. generators).

(b) Hydro-electric: Potential of water stored at higher altitudes is utilized as it is passed through water-
turbines which drive the alternators.

2. Non-conventional methods:

(a) Wind power: High velocities of wind are utilized in driving wind turbines coupled to alternators. Wind
power has a main advantage of having zero production cost. The cost of the equipment and the limit of
generating-unit-rating are suitable for particular constraints. This method has exclusive advantages of
being pollution free and renewable. It is available in plentiful quantity, at certain places. It suffers from the
disadvantages of its availability being uncertain (since dependent on nature) and the control being complex
(since wind-velocity has wide range of variation, as an input, and the output required is at constant voltage
and constant frequency). Single large-power units cannot be planned due to techno-economic
considerations.

(b) Fuel cells: These are devices which enable direct conversion of energy, chemically, into electrical form.
This is an up-coming technology and has a special merit of being pollution-free and noise-free. It is yet to
become popular for bulk-power generation.

(c) Photo voltaic cells: These directly convert solar energy into electrical energy through a chemical action
taking place in solar cells. These operate based on the photo-voltaic effect, which develops an emf on
absorption of ionizing radiation from Sun.

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General structure of electrical power systems
The conductor system by means of which electric power is carried from a generating station to the
consumer’s premises may, in general, be divided into two distinct parts i.e. transmission system and
distribution system. Each part can again be sub-divided into two—primary transmission and secondary
transmission and similarly, primary distribution and secondary distribution and then finally the system of
supply to individual consumers.
A typical layout of a generating, transmission and distribution network of a large system would be
made up of elements as shown by a single-line diagram of Fig.

Now-a-days, generation and transmission is almost exclusively three-phase. The secondary

transmission is also 3-phase whereas the distribution to the ultimate customer may be 3-phase or single-
phase depending upon the requirements of the customers.
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 In Fig, C.S. represents the central station where power is generated by 3-phase alternators at 11kV.
The voltage is then stepped up by suitable 3-phase transformers for transmission purposes. Taking the
generated voltage as 11 kV, the 3-phase transformers step it up to 132 kV as shown. Primary or high-
voltage transmission is carried out at 132 kV.
The 3-phase, 3-wire overhead high-voltage transmission line next terminates in step-down
transformers in a sub-station known as Receiving Station (R.S.) which usually lies at the outskirts of a city
because it is not safe to bring high-voltage overhead transmission lines into populated areas. Here, the
voltage is stepped down to 33 kV.
From the Receiving Station, power is next transmitted at 33 kV by overhead lines or Underground
cables to various sub-stations (SS) located at various points in the city. This is known as secondary or low-
voltage transmission. From now onwards starts the primary and secondary distribution.
At the sub-station (SS) voltage is reduced from 33kV to 11kV 3-wire for primary distribution.
Consumers whose demand exceeds 100 kVA are usually supplied from SS by special 11kV feeders.
The secondary distribution is done at 400/230 V for which purpose voltage is reduced from 11kV to
400 V at the distribution sub-stations. Feeders coming out from distribution sub-station supply power to
distribution networks in their respective areas. If the distribution network happens to be at a great
distance from sub-station, then they are supplied from the secondary of distribution transformers which
are either pole-mounted or else housed in cubicles at suitable points of the distribution networks. The
most common system for secondary distribution is 400/230-V, 3-phase 4-wire system. The single-phase
residential lighting load is connected between any one line and the neutral whereas 3-phase, 400-V motor
load is connected across 3-phase lines directly.
Low-voltage distribution system is sub-divided into feeders, distributors and service mains. No
consumer is given direct connection from the feeders; instead consumers are connected to distribution
network through their service mains.
Summarizing the above, we have
1. Generating voltage: 6.6, 11, 13.2 or 33 kV.
2. High voltage transmission: 220 kV, 132 kV, 66kV.
3. High voltage or primary distribution: 3.3, 6.6, 11kV.
4. Low-voltage or secondary distribution: A.C. 400/230V, 3-phase-4-wire/1-phase-2-wire
The standard frequency for a.c. is 50 Hz.

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 Chapter – 2: Power Generation
1. Hydroelectric Power Plant
Generation of electricity by hydropower (potential energy in stored water) is one of the cleanest methods of
producing electric power. It is a flexible source of electricity and also the cost of electricity generation is relatively
low.

Layout and Working of Hydroelectric Power Plant

The above image shows the typical layout of a hydroelectric power plant and its basic components.

Dam and Reservoir: The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly areas to ensure sufficient water storage at height.
The dam forms a large reservoir behind it. The height of water level (called as water head) in the reservoir
determines how much of potential energy is stored in it.

Control Gate: Water from the reservoir is allowed to flow through the penstock to the turbine. The amount of water
which is to be released in the penstock can be controlled by a control gate. When the control gate is fully opened,
maximum amount of water is released through the penstock.

Penstock: A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries water from the reservoir to the turbine. Potential energy of
the water is converted into kinetic energy as it flows down through the penstock due to gravity.

Water Turbine: Water from the penstock is taken into the water turbine. The turbine is mechanically coupled to an
electric generator. Kinetic energy of the water drives the turbine and consequently the generator gets driven. There
are two main types of water turbine; (i) Impulse turbine and (ii) Reaction turbine. Impulse turbines are used for large
heads and reaction turbines are used for low and medium heads.

Generator: A generator is mounted in the power house and it is mechanically coupled to the turbine shaft. When the
turbine blades are rotated, it drives the generator and electricity is generated which is then stepped up with the help
of a transformer for the transmission purpose.

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Surge Tank:
Surge tanks are usually provided in high or medium head power plants when considerably long penstock is required.
A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is open at the top. It is fitted between the reservoir and the power
house. The water level in the surge tank rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings in the penstock. When there is
sudden reduction in load on the turbine, the governor closes the gates of the turbine to reduce the water flow. This
causes pressure to increase abnormally in the penstock. This is prevented by using a surge tank, in which the water
level rises to reduce the pressure. On the other hand, the surge tank provides excess water needed when the gates
are suddenly opened to meet the increased load demand.

Types of Hydro-Power Plants

Conventional Plants:
Conventional plants use potential energy from dammed water. The energy extracted depends on the volume and
head of the water. The difference between height of water level in the reservoir and the water outflow level is called
as water head.

Pumped Storage Plant:

In pumped storage plant, a second reservoir is constructed near the water outflow from the turbine. When the
demand of electricity is low, the water from lower reservoir is pumped into the upper (main) reservoir. This is to
ensure sufficient amount of water available in the main reservoir to fulfil the peak loads.

Run-Of-River Plant:
In this type of facility, no dam is constructed and, hence, reservoir is absent. A portion of river is diverted through a
penstock or canal to the turbine. Thus, only the water flowing from the river is available for the generation. And due
to absence of reservoir, any oversupply of water is passed unused.

Advantages of a Hydroelectric Power Plant

 No fuel is required as potential energy is stored water is used for electricity generation
 Neat and clean source of energy
 Very small running charges - as water is available free of cost
 Comparatively less maintenance is required and has longer life
 Serves other purposes too, such as irrigation

Disadvantages
 Very high capital cost due to construction of dam
 High cost of transmission – as hydro plants are located in hilly areas which are quite away from the
consumers

2. Nuclear Power Plant

In a nuclear power plant, heat energy is generated by a nuclear reaction called as nuclear fission. Nuclear fission of
heavy elements such as Uranium or Thorium is carried out in a special apparatus called as a nuclear reactor. A large
amount of heat energy is generated due to nuclear fission. It is found that fission of only 1 Kg of Uranium produces
as much heat energy as that can be produced by 4,500 tons of high grade coal. This considerably reduces the
transportation cost of fuel, which is a major advantage of nuclear power plants. Also, there are large deposits of
nuclear fuels available all over the world and, hence, nuclear power plants can ensure continued supply of electrical
energy for thousands of years.

Working of Nuclear Power Plant

Heavy elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are subjected to nuclear fission reaction in a nuclear
reactor. Due to fission, a large amount of heat energy is produced which is transferred to the reactor coolant. The
coolant may be water, gas or a liquid metal. The heated coolant is made to flow through a heat exchanger where
water is converted into high-temperature steam. The generated steam is then allowed to drive a steam turbine. The
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steam, after doing its work, is converted back into the water and recycled to the heat exchanger. The steam turbine
is coupled to an alternator which generates electricity. The generated electrical voltage is then stepped up using a
transformer for the purpose of long distance transmission.

The image below shows basic components and layout of a nuclear power station (Refer any one).

Basic Components of a Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear Reactor

A nuclear reactor is a special apparatus used to perform nuclear fission. Since the nuclear fission is radioactive, the
reactor is covered by a protective shield. Splitting up of nuclei of heavy atoms is called as nuclear fission, during
which huge amount of energy is released. Nuclear fission is done by bombarding slow moving neutrons on the nuclei
of heavy element. As the nuclei break up, it releases energy as well as more neutrons which further cause fission of
neighbouring atoms. Hence, it is a chain reaction and it must be controlled, otherwise it may result in explosion. A
nuclear reactor consists of fuel rods, control rods and moderator. A fuel rod contains small round fuel pallets
(uranium pallets). Control rods are of cadmium which absorbs neutrons. They are inserted into reactor and can be

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moved in or out to control the reaction. The moderator can be graphite rods or the coolant itself. Moderator slows
down the neutrons before they bombard on the fuel rods.

Two types of nuclear reactors that are widely used -

1. Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)
2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Heat Exchanger
In the heat exchanger, the primary coolant transfers heat to the secondary coolant (water). Thus water from the
secondary loop is converted into steam. The primary system and secondary system are closed loop, and they are
never allowed to mix up with each other. Thus, heat exchanger helps in keeping secondary system free from
radioactive stuff. Heat exchanger is absent in boiling water reactors.

Steam Turbine
Generated steam is passed through a steam turbine, which runs due to pressure of the steam. As the steam is
passed through the turbine blades, the pressure of steam gradually decreases and it expands in volume. The steam
turbine is coupled to an alternator through a rotating shaft.

Alternator
The steam turbine rotates the shaft of an alternator thus generating electrical energy. Electrical output of the
alternator is the delivered to a step up transformer to transfer it over distances.

Condenser
The steam coming out of the turbine, after it has done its work, is then converted back into water in a condenser.
The steam is cooled by passing it through a third cold water loop.

3. Wind Power plant

Wind is one of the important renewable resources we could make use of. Human civilizations have been using wind
energy from thousands of years. Earlier windmills were used to pump up the water from a well or to crush grains,
but the scenario has changed a lot and we are using windmills to generate electricity.

Wind possesses kinetic energy which can be converted into electrical energy. For converting the kinetic energy of
wind into electricity, wind turbines are employed. The wind rotates the turbine blades, the shaft of which is
mechanically coupled to an electric generator.

They are categorized between two main types as - Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) and Vertical Axis Wind
Turbine (VAWT).

A wind farm (or wind power plant) consists of many individual wind turbines grouped together. There are many
examples of large wind farm installations of about a couple of thousand MW capacities over the world. A wind farm
can also be located off-shore. The location is selected on the basis of availability and average speed of the wind at
that location. Thus, many times these are located at higher altitudes.

HAWT (Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine)

Horizontal axis wind turbines are most commonly employed in a wind farm. The figure below shows various basic
components of a horizontal axis wind turbine.

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Tower: The tower is usually cylindrical with the heights ranging from 25 meters up to 90 meters. An arrangement is
made inside the tower to climb up at the top for maintenance purposes.

Rotor blades: Usually three-bladed wind turbines are used in wind farms. The length of rotor blades ranges from 20
to 40 meters. They are made from a light-weight material such as fiberglass reinforced polyester or wood epoxy.
When wind is blown, the rotor blades rotate at a speed between 10 to 60 RPM.

Nacelle: It is mounted at the top of the tower and it houses the gearbox and generator assembly. It also has wind
speed and direction monitoring mechanism attached.

Gearbox: It takes lower RPM from the rotor blades and provides higher RPM to the generator through the gears
arrangement. There is direct drive wind turbines too in which gearbox is absent.

Generator: Rotor assembly is coupled to the generator through the gearbox. Thus, when the rotor rotates it drives
the generator and, hence, electricity is generated.

Yaw mechanism: For an increased efficiency, rotor blades must face the wind direction. But, as the wind direction
changes time to time it makes sense to turn the rotor assembly to face the changed wind direction. Yaw mechanism
does this action.

Solar Power System

Sun is the biggest source of renewable energy for the Earth. The fact is that even though the earth receives only a
part of the energy generated by the Sun (i.e. Solar energy), that part of solar energy is also tremendously huge. The
Earth receives solar energy in the form of light and heat. But in today's world, the words 'power' and 'energy' are
leaned more towards 'electricity'. Electrical energy can be harvested from solar power by means of either
photovoltaic or concentrated solar power systems.

Photovoltaic (PV)

Photovoltaic directly convert solar energy into electricity. They work on the principle of the photovoltaic effect.
When certain materials are exposed to light, they absorb photons and release free electrons. This phenomenon is
called as the photoelectric effect. Photovoltaic effect is a method of producing direct current electricity based on the
principle of the photoelectric effect.

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Based on the principle of photovoltaic effect, solar cells or photovoltaic cells are made. They convert sunlight into
direct current (DC) electricity. But, a single photovoltaic cell does not produce enough amount of electricity.
Therefore, a number of photovoltaic cells are mounted on a supporting frame and are electrically connected to each
other to form a photovoltaic module or solar panel. Commonly available solar panels range from several hundred
watts (say 100 watts) up to few kilowatts. They are available in different sizes and different price ranges. Solar panels
or modules are designed to supply electric power at a certain voltage, but the current they produce is directly
dependent on the incident light. As of now it is clear that photovoltaic modules produce DC electricity. But, for most
of the times we require AC power and, hence, solar power system consists of an inverter which converts DC to AC.

Photovoltaic Solar Power System

According to the requirement of power, multiple photovoltaic modules are electrically connected together to form a
PV array and to achieve more power. There are different types of PV systems according to their implementation.

 PV direct systems: These systems supply the load only when the Sun is shining. There is no storage of power
generated and, hence, batteries are absent. An inverter may or may not be used depending on the type of
load.
 Off-grid systems: This type of system is commonly used at locations where power from the grid is not
available or not reliable. An off-grid solar power system is not connected to any electric grid. It consists solar
panel arrays, storage batteries and inverter circuits.
 Grid connected systems: These solar power systems are tied with grids so that the excess required power
can be accessed from the grid. They may or may not be backed by batteries.

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 Chapter – 3: DC Circuits
Ohm’s Law and its limitations:

Ohm’s Law:

This law applies to electric to electric conduction through good conductors and may be stated as follows:

The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor to the current (I) flowing
between them, is constant, provided the temperature of the conductor does not change.

In other words,

Where, R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered.

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is measured in
ohms (Ω).

In another way, when R is kept constant, current is directly proportional to the potential difference across
the ends of a conductor. However, this linear relationship between V and I does not apply to all non-
metallic conductors.

Limitations of Ohm’s law:

1. Ohm’s law only holds good only for metallic conductors at moderate temperatures.
2. At very low and very high temperatures metallic conductors does not obey Ohm’s law
3. Ohm’s law does not applicable for vacuum tubes, Discharge tubes, semiconductors and
electrolytes.
4. Thermistors, transistor and diodes do not obey Ohm’s law.

Series, Parallel and Series-Parallel Circuits:

Resistance in Series:
When some conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 etc. are joined end-on-end as in Fig, they are said
to be connected in series.

It can be proved that the equivalent resistance or total resistance between points A and D is equal to the
sum of the three individual resistances. Being a series circuit, it should be remembered that

(i) Current is the same through all the three conductors.

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 (ii) Voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistance and is given by Ohm’s
Law.
(iii) Sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across the three conductors.

V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 ---------from Ohm’s Law

But V = IR

Where, R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination.

∴ IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Req = R1 + R2 + R3

As seen from above, the main characteristics of a series circuit are:

1. Same current flows through all parts of the circuit.

2. Different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
3. Voltage drops are additive.
4. Applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops.
5. Resistances are additive.
6. Powers are additive.

Voltage Division:
The source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their resistances; the larger the
resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division, and the circuit in Fig.
is called a voltage divider.

To determine the voltage across each resistor R1 and R2, below formula will be used.

Resistance in Parallel:
Three resistances, as connected in Fig. are said to be connected in parallel.

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In this case
(i) Voltage of potential difference across all resistances is same.
(ii) Current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm’s Law
(iii) The total current is the sum of the three separate currents.

---------from Ohm’s Law

But

Equivalent resistance of Parallel circuit is

As seen from the above the main characteristics of a parallel circuit are:
1. Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit
2. Different resistors have their individual current.
3. Branch currents are additive.
4. Powers are additive.

Current Division:
The total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their resistances. This is known as the
principle of current division, and the circuit in Fig. is known as a current divider.

To determine the current in each resistor R1 and R2, below formula will be used.

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Comparison of Series and Parallel circuit

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Kirchhoff’s Laws:

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