NAUI

Advanced
Scuba
Diver
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction

Equipment
40
41
Procedures and Precautions 44
Overview of a Typical Introductory Dive 46

Learning Goals 4
Becoming a Better Diver 4
How to Have More Fun 4
The NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver Course 6 Learning goals 50
Continuing Your Diving Education 7 Introduction 50
Possible hazards 50
How to Use This Text 8
Equipment 51
Preparation 53
Procedures and Precautions 55
Overview of a Typical Introductory Dive 58
Learning Goals 12
Getting Your Act Together 12
Dive Planning 12
Advance Planning 12
Getting Ready 14 Learning goals 62
Planning for the Dive 15 Aquatic Life Studies 62
Buddymanship 18 Activities 62
Buoyancy Control 20 Equipment 62
Closing the Dive 22 Procedures 64
Recognizing and Handling Stress in Diving 23 Overview of a Typical Introductory Dive 68
Preparedness and Training 24

Learning goals 70
Learning Goals 28 Introduction 70
Introduction 28 General procedures 70
Basic Procedures of Search and Recovery 72
Equipment 28
Equipment 72
Measuring Distances Underwater 30
Techniques and Precautions 73
Natural Navigation 32
Overview of a Typical Search and
Compass Navigation 33
Recovery Introductory Dive 77
Surface Positioning 36
Overview of a Typical Introductory Dive 37

Learning Goals 80
Introduction 80
Learning Goals 40 Possible hazards 81
 Table of Contents

Equipment
Procedures
82
83
Getting the most out of this book
Throughout this study book there will be sections
Legal and Ethical Issues of Wreck Diving 84
that require your special attention. The following icons
Overview of a Typical Introductory Dive 85
are used to mark these sections.

Indicates a warning or safety

Learning Goals 88 information.
Introduction 88
Getting Started 88
Some Fundamentals 89
Equipment 90 Indicates responsible diving practice.
Basic Principles 91
Picture Taking Techniques 93
Overview of a Typical Introductory Dive 93

Learning Goals 98
Something for Everyone 98
Underwater Hunting 99
Collecting 101
Choices, Choices 103

Index 104
 CHAPTER

Introduction
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

LEARNING GOALS
In this chapter you will:
1. Learn what to expect in your Advanced Scuba
Diver Course.
2. Learn what your advanced training will prepare
you to do.
3. Understand the value of continuing your
education.
4. Discover how to best utilize this textbook.

BECOMING A BETTER DIVER

Welcome to the NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver Course.
In your entry-level course you gained access to the
underwater world. You acquired a basic knowledge of
this other world and how it affects you. You learned
about the equipment that you use, and you mastered the
skills necessary to manage diving's risks and be a com- FIGURE 1-1. YOUR NAUI DIVER CERTIFICATIONS ARE MORE
petent, comfortable diver. There was a lot to learn just THAN EVIDENCE OF ACHIEVEMENT, THEY ARE
to get started, and you have every right to be proud of "LICENSES TO LEARN."
being a certified diver.
As you finished the course, your instructor probably
congratulated you and also admonished you with words
HOW TO HAVE MORE FUN
You may have discovered by now that diving is not
of caution such as: "You are now certified to continue
really an end in itself after the initial learning experience.
learning how to dive." A newly certified diver is considered
Diving is really just a means to allow you to pursue
competent to dive without supervision provided the activi-
endeavors in the world beneath the water. You know of
ties, the diving area, and the diving conditions approxi- many of them: photography, studying aquatic life and the
mate those in which the diver was trained. Your instructor environment, exploring, wreck diving, etc (figure 1-2).
also told you that there were courses available to help you Some of these may be appealing to you, and others may
learn much more about underwater activities and to seem far beyond anything you think you'll ever attempt.
become a safer, more experienced diver (figure 1-1). The important point, however, is that diving is most
You have chosen the correct route by seeking train- enjoyable when you have a dive objective. You may just
want to explore a new area, learn how fish and other
ing to increase your qualifications and, thereby, your
creatures live, search for a wreck, or seek some trophy;
opportunities. You will be able to do more, to dive in
but you have a motivating reason to dive and can expe-
areas other than those associated with entry-level train-
rience exhilaration when you succeed. This can make
ing, and you will have fun as you are accomplishing diving even more fun. What you want to do is to discover
these objectives. This is what the NAUI Advanced Scuba an underwater pursuit and become proficient enough in
Diver Course is all about. it to ensure a reasonable degree of success.
 Chapter 1- Introduction

FIGURE 1-2. OBSERVING AQUATIC LIFE OR EXPLORING WRECKS IS

A FASCINATING ACTIVITY MADE MORE ENJOYABLE BY
ADVANCED TRAINING.

The first step in selecting an underwater activity

is to determine if any above-water hobbies, such as
photography or bottle collecting, can be adapted to
sub-surface activities. If this is the case, a NAUI specialty
course on the subject can quickly provide the education
to help you successfully adapt your hobby to the diving
environment.
If you are not sure which activities might provide
enjoyment and satisfaction for you, you are in for the
excitement provided by the NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver
and Master Scuba Diver courses. Your instructor will
give you opportunities to experience several of the popu-
lar activities. You can then decide which of them you
would like to further develop by completing the respec- sterile one. During your Advanced Scuba Diver Course
tive NAUI Specialty courses. The Advanced Scuba Diver you may be introduced to a variety of good diving loca-
course will also introduce you to more advanced "tools" tions in your region. These sites will add to your enjoy-
of diving such as deeper water diving and underwater ment for years to come... (figure 1-3).
navigation skills. So, read on and find out more about the Advanced
Another way to have fun is to dive at sites that offer Scuba Diver course. You will be introduced to night div-
a variety of things to see and do. You will have more fun ing, deep diving, underwater navigation, or other local
in a diverse, interesting area than you will in a boring, interests. These introductions plus discovering new dive
 NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 11 DIVING A VARIETY OF SITES AND TRYING NEW DIVING ACTIVITIES WILL EXPAND YOUR OPPORTUNITIES FOR FUN AS AN
ADVANCED DIVER.

sites are fine ways to have fun, to learn to enjoy diving You will review basic skills, learn much more about the
even more, and to become a better diver... all at the environment, navigation, dive planning, and dive safety.
same time (figure 1-4). The course is likely to include an orientation to some of
the following subjects:
1. Navigation

THE NAUI ADVANCED SCUBA DIVER COURSE

2. Night or Low Visibility Diving
3. Deeper Diving
If you are a new diver wanting to gain experience 4. Search and Recovery
while increasing your diving abilities, getting oriented to 5. Boat Diving
new dive sites, and having fun, this is the course for you. 6. Light Salvage
If you have recently moved into a new diving area or are 7. Hunting and Collecting
certified through another agency and would like to 8. Exploration and Underwater Mapping
obtain a NAUI certification, the NAUI Advanced Scuba 9. Non-Penetration Wreck Diving
Diver Course is also perfect for you. It is an all-open 10. Research Diving
water mid-level, continuing education certification 11. Fresh Water or Ocean Diving Orientation
course for divers who have successfully completed a Upon successful completion of the course, you will
NAUI Scuba Diver course or have equivalent training be certified as a NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver and will be
or experience. considered competent to plan dives and to accomplish
The course consists of at least six open water dives. underwater tasks similar to those contained in the
 Chapter 1- Introduction

FIGURE 1 3 . NAUI ADVANCED SCUBA DIVER TRAINING WILL

INTRODUCE YOU TO A VARIETY OF FUN DIVING
ACTIVITIES.

course. You will also be qualified to enroll in the NAUI

Master Scuba Diver course and in all NAUI Specialty
Diver courses...
While you will receive an introduction to some of
the specialty areas of diving, you will not receive enough
training to be considered proficient in them. But you
will have a good idea of the interests you would like to
pursue and be qualified to participate in NAUI Specialty
Diver courses (figure 1-5).

CONTINUING YOUR DIVING EDUCATION

After your NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver Course, you
may wish to take a NAUI Master Scuba Diver Course to
further expand your capabilities and to develop more
detailed general diving knowledge and further experi-
ence diving specialties. After your Advanced Diver Course
or Master Scuba Diver training, you should have a good
idea of one or more underwater activities in which you
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 1 5 . AN ADVANCED SCUBA DIVER CERTIFICATION CARD NOT ONLY SHOWS YOUR ADDITIONAL EXPERTISE BUT MEETS PREREQUISITES FOR
MASTER SCUBA DIVER AND OTHER COURSES.

would like to engage. There are only two ways to become

proficient in a specialty area: you can learn through
HOW TO USE THIS TEXT
trial and error-the experience method-or you can be This book is designed to serve as resource informa-
taught by someone who has the expertise to help you tion for the NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver Course. Each of
avoid errors and get desired results right away. While the chapters provides information on popular diving
experience is said to be a good teacher, it usually gives topics that may be introduced in your course. Your NAUI
the test before the lesson. That is why we recommend Instructor may assign various chapters for you to study,
learning from a NAUI instructor. Pick out the specialty according to the schedule arranged for your course. The
you want, then enroll in a NAUI course for that particu- Table of Contents and the index can help you locate
lar interest. You'll quickly learn the correct procedures information on a specific topic. Whether or not all of the
and will soon be achieving your desired goals. topics in the book are included in your course, you may
want to read about and familiarize yourself with them.
The aim of NAUI is to educate people to have fun
This text will also serve as a fine diving reference book
while diving as safely as possible. After you learn the
for your library.
basics, you gain experience under supervision. Later you
increase your knowledge and skills while being intro-
duced to special interest areas. You will develop profi-
ciency in the specialty, and finally pursue your interest
or interests confidently and enjoyably.
 CHAPTER

Continual
Improvement
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

LEARNING GOALS cise, advance preparatory planning and planning for the
dive itself.
In this chapter you will:
1. Learn the benefit of continual improvement of
your diving skills. Advance planning
2. Review the processes of advance and immediate Advance or long-term dive planning begins
pre-dive planning. when you decide to make the dive. It may be as simple
3. Be introduced to a who, what, when, where, and as you and your buddy deciding what you want to do
how method of planning a dive. on a weekend day, or it may be booking a week-long
4. Review S.E.A.B.A.G. and its use as a memory device diving vacation to an exotic remote destination.
for pre-dive equipment checks. Preparing for your diving should start immediately.
5. Review the buddy system and its benefits to div- Begin by listing the who, what, when, where, and how
ing enjoyment and safety. of your dive.
6. Review buoyancy control techniques and meth- Who will be your buddy? The decision may be a
ods for fine tuning buoyancy and ballast. matter of course, but with whom you will dive is an
7. Learn about stress and stress management and important decision. A good buddy can make the differ-
the role that fitness, training and preparation ence between having fun and not having fun. The prop-
have on diving safety. er buddy can mean achieving your dive objective. A
buddy does not have to have the same skill level as you,
but it should be adequate to the planned dives. Your

GETTING YOUR ACT TOGETHER buddy should be someone compatible and trustworthy.
Your objectives should be similar.
You may be entering the Advanced Scuba Diver What will you need? Check your diving equipment.
course directly from your entry-level training, or you Can you locate everything? Don't wait until the last
may have had some additional diving experience. minute. Make a checklist. Do you need to acquire some
Perhaps you are here to refresh your skills after a long additional or special equipment? Is your equipment in
period of not diving. In the course you will be expanding good condition? Does it need repairs or annual preven-
your horizons with a series of at least six dives that tive maintenance? Repairs will take time, so you must
introduce you to a variety of diving activities. plan ahead.
Just as importantly, with each dive you will be improv- When are you diving? What water conditions should
ing your general diving skills, increasing your ability to you prepare for? Water temperatures and dive-conditions
plan and execute safe and enjoyable dives, and further vary with the season. A location that requires only a
acquainting yourself not only with specialized equipment shorty wetsuit in the summer may need a full 6.5-mm
but also with your general diving gear. As you advance your suit in the early spring. Are rough seas a possibility? You
diving skills, you will be taking more and more responsibil- are more likely to encounter adverse conditions in the
ity for your own dives. So, before we begin specific diving winter. If you are susceptible to seasickness, be prepared.
activities of this course, let's look at the more general skills Be prepared to not dive if conditions are bad.
of scuba diving - planning, techniques, and safe diving. Commercial dive boats will not operate if the seas are
too high or conditions are adverse. Shore divers must be
especially wary of winter conditions when waves and surf
are more likely to prevent diving (figure 2-1).
DIVE PLANNING The time of day can make a difference as well.
Planning for safe, enjoyable dives demands care Easier diving in calmer water is more likely in the
and attention to detail. There are two parts to this exer- morning before winds increase and cause chop. If you
 Chapter 2- Continual Improvement

FIGURE 2-1. CHECK CONDITIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE MAKING THE DECISION TO DIVE. IT MAY BE WISER TO WAIT FOR ANOTHER DAY.

are ocean diving, your choice of dive time may be affect- game, such as lobsters, permitted and are licenses neces-
ed by the tide. A beach that is an easy entry point at high sary? You need to know and comply with relevant laws
tide may be dangerously rocky or slippery at low tide. and ordinances.
Tidal currents are influenced by the state of the tide. Another general consideration is departure time. If
Visibility will be better at high tide when clean water is you are traveling to your destination by air or if you are
coming towards shore. Low tide usually means lower diving from a commercial dive boat, knowing the depar-
visibility especially near the mouth of a harbor or other ture time is important. Be sure that you allow enough
geographic restriction that produces tidal flow. The times time to arrive well ahead of scheduled departure. This
of high and low tide change from day to day with the will also provide some contingency time in case you are
phases of the moon. Consult local tide tables to help delayed by traffic or a minor mishap on the way. Your
find optimal conditions. flight will not wait for you (unless it is your private air-
Where are you diving? If you will be traveling plane), and the captain of a dive boat has commitments
abroad, do you have a valid passport? Without one, your to the other divers on board and is not likely to delay
dive will end at the airport check-in because you won't sailing because you are late.
be allowed to board the plane. Do you need some special How are you diving? Will your diving platform be
clothing? Should you take an extra supply of any the shore or a boat (figure 2-2)? Organize your plan for
required medications? Thinking ahead avoids problems getting there. Can you car-pool? Where will you park? If
later. Wherever you are diving, you need to be aware of you are boat diving, remember that everything you need
local regulations. For example, in many places shore has to go on board with you. Some of the other things
access for diving is permitted only at certain times of the you must consider about where you dive have already
day, especially in the summer when the beaches are been discussed. If you are diving with a group, some
crowded with swimmers and parking is scarce. Is taking decisions, such as choice of dive site and appropriate
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 2-2. HOW YOU GET TO YOUR DIVING LOCATION MAKES A DIFFERENCE IN THE PLANNING PROCESS.

conditions, may be group decisions or will be made by into a hard case. If you are packing for an airplane trip,
the boat captain, divemaster, or group leader. But protect any instruments that are sensitive to pressure
remember that their decision to dive does not remove changes. If they are liable to be placed in an unpressur-
from you the responsibility to not dive if you do not feel ized luggage compartment, either carry them with you
comfortable with the diving choices and the skills and or place them in an airtight container. If you have a
ability required of you. dive computer, read the manufacturer's instructions
about safe transport. Most dive computers will be turned

Getting Ready off and unaffected by pressure changes.

Don't forget to take those extra important items,
Final preparations will go more smoothly if you
such as food, drinks, dry clothes, windproof jackets, hats,
allow enough time to accomplish them easily. Don't
sunscreen, and basic first aid supplies. Even if your dive
wait until the last minute to pack. If you have to rush,
bag has a dry section, it is a good idea to pack the items
you are more likely to forget some essential item. Make
that must stay dry in a separate bag or daypack. These
your personal checklist. It often helps to pack the night
will not be on your dive equipment checklist, and they
before your departure and "sleep on it." You may wake
therefore tend to be forgotten. You may want to develop
up remembering something you left out.
an accessories checklist to help you remember every-
If you are packing for the dive itself, pack your gear thing.
in the dive bag in the reverse order that you will use or
Check the weather (figure 2-3). In the United States,
assemble it. This will make your dive preparation at the
the National Weather Service maintains a web site and
site more organized, and you will not have to spread
broadcasts 24 hours a day on dedicated radio frequen-
your gear all over the boat. Protect any equipment that
cies. Many other agencies and companies offer global
is liable to breakage by padding around it or putting it
weather information on the Internet. In many areas,
 Chapter 2- Continual Improvement

FIGURE 2-3. ANY DIVE SITE CAN CHANGE RADICALLY FROM DAY TO DAY AND SOMETIMES FROM HOUR TO HOUR.

surf conditions will also be posted. You can telephone the dive site, ask yourself whether the dive is within the
harbors, dive boats and fishing boats, lifeguard services, skill level of yourself and your buddy. If the dive requires
even waterfront business establishments for current con- greater strength or stamina than either of you possess, or
ditions. If you are diving with a charter dive boat com- if either of you is apprehensive about the dive, find an
pany, call them if the conditions are at all questionable. alternate location or cancel the dive.
The call can save you a lot of frustration if they have If you are diving from the shore, choose a good
canceled the trip. vantage point from which you can observe entries and
Make certain that you and your dive buddy are exits as well as water conditions. Determine the size and
physically and mentally prepared for the dive. If either of duration of wave sets. Look for currents. You can watch
you is not feeling well, consider not diving. There is for drift of swimmers or floating objects to determine
always another day to dive. Know how you would con- longshore currents. Rip currents often show as foam,
tact emergency services in the event of an accident. areas of dirty water, or disturbances in wave patterns.
Choose your entry and exit points. Have at least one

Planning for the Dive additional exit site in case some situation, such as a
change in wind, current, or tide height eliminates your
When you arrive at the destination, there are still first choice.
many tasks to perform before you actually dive. If you are on a chartered dive boat, the captain will
Evaluate the conditions when you arrive at the dive make the decisions about the dive location based on
site. Ask yourself whether it is safe and prudent to dive. If your safety and his or her knowledge of the dive location
you have any doubts, seek an alternate site-one that is and the conditions. You will be briefed about what to
out of the wind, has negligible current, offers easy entry expect - the depth, the terrain, any current or hazards
and exit, has low waves and surf, or whatever will and what you can expect to see. Remember, the decision
improve the conditions that make you hesitant about to dive is still your responsibility. The captain can make
diving at your first selected site. If you cannot find you aware of many factors, but you must be the judge of
acceptable conditions, do not dive. Now that you can see your own abilities and your preparedness. As with shore
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

diving, take note of currents, visibility, waves and swell, The three parts of depth, time, and air are the foun-
and chop and plan your dive accordingly. dation of any dive plan. There are other factors, too, that
If you are diving from an anchored boat, you will have already been discussed, such as method of entry,
normally descend on the anchor line. Pause with your planning for the safest utilization of currents, and con-
buddy at the bottom of the anchor line to organize your- tingency exit points. Compass bearings and the general
selves before proceeding with the dive. Begin your dive pattern of the dive should also be decided together.
into any current so that you can return to the boat with When you have agreed on your dive plan, assemble
the current in your favor. The boat will deploy a trail and don your equipment and conduct a thorough buddy
line off the stern in case you surface down current. If check (figure 2-4). Pace yourselves as you assemble your
you are drift diving or live-boat diving, you will dive equipment and don your thermal protection so that you
with the current, and the boat will follow. In drift diving, do it in tandem. If you rush to get ready, you may be
it is important that the group stay together and surface standing in your wetsuit in the hot sun for an extended
together, not scatter all over the bottom. period, waiting for your buddy to finish getting ready.
The Dive Plan is an essential part of every dive. The buddy check is an essential part of every dive.
Once you have decided to make the dive, you and your Whether you are diving with a new dive partner or an
dive partner need to plan the details together. You should old friend, a thorough pre-dive check is fundamental to
establish the depth for the dive and its duration. You a safe dive. The buddy check has several purposes. It
should also agree on your air management plan. The familiarizes each of you with the other's equipment and
maximum depth of the site may determine the depth of its configuration. Either of you should be able to assist
your dive. Your dive objective, your training, or your the other with equipment problems if needed. It is an
comfort level may be the determining factors if you are opportunity to double-check that your own, as well as
diving on a wall or a drop-off. The planned duration of your buddy's equipment, is operational before entering
the dive will be limited by the time allowed by your dive the water. It lets you discuss contingencies such as han-
tables. It could also be determined by the cylinder size dling an out-of-air situation while you are looking at
and your knowledge of your air consumption rate. your equipment.
You must also take your available air into account. You may have learned a mnemonic, such as
With good air planning, you will be able to return to your SEABAG, in your entry level course to help you remem-
exit point underwater without a long surface swim. The ber the steps of dive planning and equipment checks.
turnaround point should be based on the diver with the SEA refers to dive planning and stands for site survey,
higher air consumption. Remember that most dives are emergency plans, and activity. BAG refers to the points of
round trips, and you will exit at or near where you entered a buddy check and refers to buoyancy system, air, and
the water. There are no air fill stations underwater for the gear. Another way to perform a buddy check is to begin
recreational diver. Turn the dive while you still have at your heads and together match each piece of equip-
enough air remaining for your swim back. For simple ment as you work your way towards your feet. Whatever
dives, many divers will begin their return when half of you use to remember the process, you will check several
their available air remains (allowing an appropriate specific points in order to be sure everything is present
amount for reserve air). A safer procedure is one which is and operational.
used in advanced dive situations. Called the "rule of Buoyancy Compensator:
thirds," the divers turn the dive after one-third of the avail- 1. Compare the operation of your BC inflation sys-
able air is used. This allows one-third for return and one- tems. Determine how would you add air, both
third for contingencies. Technical divers engage in elabo- orally and using the low-pressure inflator. Push
rate gas management plans in which their gas consump- the inflator button on your buddy's BC to make
tion at every stage of the dive is factored into the dive plan. sure you know how to operate it.
 Chapter 2- Continual Improvement

FIGURE 2-4. IT REQUIRES A CERTAIN DISCIPLINE TO ALWAYS DO A PRE-DIVE EQUIPMENT CHECK.

2. Familiarize yourself with the closures and releas- 3. Locate your buddy's alternate air source or con-
es of the BC. Look for a cummerbund, waist belt, tingency scuba. How does it operate? Discuss how
chest clip, and shoulder releases. Some divers you would use it in an out-of-air situation. If you
attach their gauge consoles to the opposite side of needed air, would you breathe from your buddy's
the front of their BC. Look for this. It will be one secondary scuba or would you use the primary
more release you must make if you have to help second stage? Is your buddy planning to hand
with equipment removal. over a contingency scuba unit in the event you
Air Supply: need an air supply?
1. Check the existing pressure in your cylinders. Weighting System:
Make sure the air is turned on. Discuss your Familiarize yourself with your buddy's ballast sys-
turnaround pressure and your back-at-surface tem. Is it integrated into the BC, and if so how does the
pressure while considering your actual cylinder release operate? Is it a weight belt? Examine the release.
contents. Many types of weight belt release systems are available.
2. You and your buddy should breathe from your You should not assume that you will always find a
regulators to verify that they are properly func- "standard" lever buckle.
tioning. Watch your S.P.G. as you take breaths Final Check:
and see if the indicator needle is stable. If it 1. Look for any twisted, trapped, or entangled hoses
rotates or indicates lower cylinder pressure with and free them. Make sure all releases are accessi-
each breath you take it may mean that your tank ble.
valve has been closed or is only partially open 2. Check the operation of all lights if you are night
and is interfering with the flow of air. Open it diving. Make sure that any other special gear is
fully and check it again. functional.
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

Each member of the team should be a self-reliant

buddy. He or she should be capable of diving safely and
conducting the planned dive. As a team member, you
should feel confident in your own ability to engage in
the dive activity, and so should your buddy. In buddy
diving, you are accepting the responsibility of trying to
assure a safe and comfortable dive for you both. Your
buddy is doing the same. You are not giving up respon-
sibility for your own actions and safety.
A large part of being a good buddy is a matter of
courtesy. You should behave towards your buddy as you
would want them to behave towards you. For the buddy
system to work, both divers must be committed to its
principles. There are several techniques that will help
you perform as a team.
As we have already discussed, you should plan the
dive together, agree on its parameters and objectives,
and conduct a thorough pre-dive buddy check. During
the dive, follow your plan. The optimal buddy team
position is shoulder-to-shoulder, and you should main-
tain the same position relative to one another. You
should consistently be able to glance to one side and see
your buddy. If you fall behind or drift above your buddy,
FIGURE 2-5. EVERY BUDDY NEEDS SOMEBODY THEY CAN LEAN ON.
it can cause an anxious moment when you turn up
"missing." If you want to change position, signal your
3. Step back and ascertain that everything looks
buddy of your intentions.
right. This may be the point at which you discov-
Decide who will be the nominal leader for the dive.
er a loose tank strap.
If you will want to change leader, decide on a predeter-
Once the buddy check has been completed, you can
mined signal during your dive planning. The leader has
proceed to the water. Inform the divemaster or other
the responsibility to not out-swim the other team mem-
responsible person that you are entering the water and,
ber and to allow time for any activities, such as photog-
if appropriate, inform him or her of your dive plans.
raphy or fish watching. The other team member should

Buddymanship
remember to keep up and get the leader's attention and
signal before stopping. Communicate with one another
The buddy system increases the fun of diving. The frequently and especially prior to changing direction or
buddy is an extra set of eyes and hands that can provide halting progress.
assistance, if needed (figure 2-5). A thorough pre-dive Threesome teams should be avoided if at all possi-
buddy check as well as a conscientious and observant ble. It requires an exceptional team member to keep
buddy during the dive can help prevent a mishap or an track of two divers. It is also common to become com-
accident. Nevertheless, a buddy team is no place for a placent about one's responsibility to the others and inat-
dependent relationship. In that event, only one of the tentive to the whole team. One diver is likely to be for-
team members has someone who can provide assistance. gotten. Too often a threesome finishes the dive as a two-
The other might as well be diving alone. some and a missing, solo diver. Maintaining position
 Chapter 2- Continual Improvement

FIGURE 2-6. LOOK IN ALL DIRECTIONS TO LOCATE A LOST BUDDY.

relative to your buddies is even more important and that debriefing. If the dive is called early, return to your exit
much more difficult in a three-member team. point and make a normal exit if possible, including your
Follow your dive plan. It is unwise to significantly safety stop.
alter the plan in the midst of the dive. Changing the dive What you do in the event of separation from your
changes all of the parameters you and your buddy had buddy, should have been discussed as part of your pre-
so carefully agreed to. Communicating the change dive planning. In relatively clear water, the usual lost
underwater is difficult and usually incomplete or impos- buddy procedure is to look around from side-to-side
sible. and in a complete circle, remembering to look above
As you dive think ahead. Your dive planning will as well as on the bottom (figure 2-6). Ascend several feet
have covered many contingencies, but remain observant and look in a circle again, watching for your buddy's
during the dive. Potential problems can be avoided if bubbles. If you do not locate your buddy within one
you and your buddy stay aware and look ahead. Avoid minute at the most, begin a normal ascent to the sur-
areas that could cause problems. Examine channels and face, continuing to turn in a circle as you look around,
swim-throughs before entering. Remain aware for signs below, and above. Your buddy should be using the same
of current change. Keep your fins high as you enter silt- procedure, and you should surface within a short dis-
ed areas. Pay attention to your navigation. tance of one another. If your buddy is not at the surface,
Any diver should feel free to end the dive at any inflate your BC fully to raise yourself higher in the water
time and for any reason. It could be because you are low and look for his or her bubbles breaking the surface.
on air, or it could be because something just does not Swim over to the bubbles and wait a minute or so for
feel right. The signal to end a dive should never be ques- your buddy to surface. If necessary, follow the bubbles
tioned. You can discuss the situation in your post-dive downward to rejoin your buddy.
 NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

Buoyancy Control
Finely tuned buoyancy control is the mark of a
skilled diver (figure 2-7). Comfortable, enjoyable diving
is directly related to the ability to achieve neutral, posi-
tive, or negative buoyancy easily. If you are over-weight-
ed, it is hard to keep your head above water at the surface
or to control your descents and ascents. To counterbal-
ance the excess weight, you will have to add greater
amounts of air to your BC underwater. You will not be
able to streamline your movement through the water
because your weighted waist and buoyant BC will posi-
tion your body at an angle. You will expend much more
energy than necessary just moving through the water. On
the other hand, if you do not have enough weight, it is a
constant struggle to get beneath the surface and stay at
depth.
Individual buoyancy is affected by many factors,
both personal and equipment related. Muscle and bone
mass, wetsuit or dry suit buoyancy, cylinder material
and size, neoprene padding on weight belts, backpacks
and cummerbunds, all affect your buoyancy. Moreover,
the air cells in neoprene wetsuits compress due to
increasing pressure as you descend, and you must com-
pensate for this loss of volume by adding air to your BC.
During ascent, as your wetsuit and the air in your BC re-
expand, you will have to vent this air from your BC.
If you are properly weighted, you will be able to
achieve neutral buoyancy at depth with a minimal
amount of air in your BC, and you will be able to easily
maintain a horizontal position as you swim. You will
expend less energy, have greater control, and be able to
avoid stirring up silt (figure 2-8).
If your buoyancy is adjusted properly, you can use FIGURE 2-7. FINE TUNED BUOYANCY CONTROL IS THE MARK OF A
the amount of air in your lungs to fine-tune your buoy- SKILLED DIVER.
ancy. Whether you breathe with your lungs fuller or
emptier can make a difference of as much as 3 kg (7 and allow you to descend without effort.
pounds) in buoyancy, depending on lung volume. With Remember to perform a buoyancy check whenever
practice, very slight adjustments of your kick, will con- you change your equipment or exposure suit configura-
trol your trim as you breathe and swim underwater. You tion. A surface buoyancy check is an approximation.
will be able to control your vertical motion in the water After setting your weighting with a buoyancy check, you
with breathing control. Deeper breaths will slow your may still need to make minor adjustments to your
descent or actually allow you to rise in the water col- weighting to dive comfortably.
umn. Longer exhalations will reduce your lung volume The guiding principle in weight adjustment is to
 Chapter 2- Continual Improvement

FIGURE 2-3. MAINTAINING NEUTRAL BUOYANCY AND TRIM IMPROVES DIVING EFFICIENCY.

use the minimum amount of weight that will enable being used. Here's how.
you to be neutrally buoyant with an empty BC during Ocean water is two-and-a-half percent heavier than
your safety stop at 5 meters (15 feet). As you end the fresh water, so it provides two-and-a-half percent more
dive, the air in your cylinder is depleted, and the cylinder buoyancy than fresh water. When moving from fresh
will be significantly more buoyant. The criteria for a water diving to the ocean or vice versa, you must add or
surface buoyancy check is that you should float at eye subtract enough ballast weight to change your density
level with all of your equipment in place, your BC empty, by two-and-a-half percent. In other words, you should
and your lungs full. This is reasonably accurate for a add or subtract about one-half kilogram for every 20
fully wet-suited diver (wetsuit compression at 5 meters kilograms that you and your equipment weigh (about
offsets the increased cylinder buoyancy at the end of the one pound of weight for every 40 pounds).
dive). But if you are dressed only in a diveskin, a stan- Since most of us have not weighed ourselves with
dard surface buoyancy check may leave you a few all of our dive gear, a good place to begin is to add or
pounds buoyant at the end of the dive. Take time on subtract one-half kg (one pound) for every 20 kg (40
your next dive to check your buoyancy during your safe- pounds) of body weight, plus one-half kg (one pound)
ty stop and make adjustments. Enter your proper for the weight of your equipment. Round to the closest
weighting for your equipment configuration in your log half kg (pound).
book. Using this rule of thumb, if you weigh 52 kg (115
You know that the removal of weight is required pounds), you would add 2 kg (4 pounds) to your ballast
when an ocean diver wants to dive in fresh water, and weight when you move from fresh water diving to ocean
that a fresh water diver needs more weight for ocean div- diving. If you weigh 93 kg (205 pounds), you would
ing. You can use a rule of thumb estimate how much remove 3 kg (6 pounds) when transferring from the
weight to add or to remove when the same equipment is ocean to a lake.
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

Closing the dive

You have completed the dive successfully and had a
great time. When you exit the water, it is time to disas-
semble your equipment, relax, debrief one another, and
enter the dive in your logbooks.
Depending on circumstances you may put your
equipment away, or you may set it up for the next dive.
Keep it out of the way of other divers if you are boat diving
and out of the sand and dirt if you are beach diving.
Rinsing your equipment may have to wait, but you should
keep your equipment as clean as possible. If you are disas-
sembling your equipment, don't forget to drain the extra
water from your BC and to dry and replace the protective
cap on your regulator first stage. On a boat, keep your area
clear and stow your equipment (figure 2-9).
Avoid heavy exercise immediately after the dive. If
you are cold, change into dry clothes and warm yourself.
Drink plenty of nonalcoholic, no-caffeine drinks to
hydrate yourself.
Debrief with your buddy. Talk about the dive.
Discuss what went well and what you could do better
next time. Talk about your objective. Did you accom-
plish it? If so, what helped you do this; and if not, what
can you do differently next time. Exchange your obser-
vations on how well you functioned as a buddy team,
and decide how you want to change your buddymanship
next dive. How was your buoyancy? What did each of
you see in the others who were also diving that could be
made better. Debriefing with your buddy after your dive
is a required activity to become a better diver.
After you have discussed the dive, record it in your
logbook. The debriefing will help you focus on impor-
tant aspects of the dive that you may want to enter,
either to recall memories later or for future reference.
Your logbook provides the place where you can record
any diving information you may need in the future. Use
it to enter information on dive sites and their location,
your air consumption using different cylinder sizes, the
amount of weight you wear with different exposure suits,
the success of various equipment configurations and so
FIGURE 2-9. AFTER YOU RINSE YOUR REGULATOR AND DRAIN
on. Entering water temperature may be useful to decide
YOUR BC IN BETWEEN DIVES, STOW IT OUT OF THE
how much thermal protection you will want on a future
WAY WHEN YOU'RE ON A BOAT. EVEN ON LARGE
dive. Your logbook also provides a reference when a
VESSELS DECK SPACE IS LIMITED.
 Chapter 2- Continual Improvement

future trip takes you to a location with a dive operator

who wants to know your diving experience.

RECOGNIZING AND HANDLING

STRESS IN DIVING
As you expand your diving horizons, you are more
likely to encounter dives or environments that can cause
excess stress in you or your buddy. Advance planning for
your dive can do much to prevent or control stress so
that it doesn't become excessive and harmful. Deciding
to be aware and observant as you dive can help you
avoid getting into a stressful, uncomfortable situation.
Canceling a dive that you believe may be too demanding
should always be an option.
Life is stressful. As we say in the NAUI Scuba
Rescue Diver textbook, "A ship underway in under stress.
A ship run aground is in distress." Excessive stress occurs
anytime there is an imbalance between the demands
placed on you and your ability to respond. It is not nec-
essarily always bad. It should evoke an effort on your FIGURE 2-10. THOROUGH PLANNING AND REHEARSAL CAN
part to maintain or restore your sense of control and SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCE STRESS.
equilibrium. If handled positively, a person will respond
to a stressful situation by concentrating on the cause, Denying feelings of stress is an invitation to a steadily
looking for a solution, and acting to remove the cause of worsening situation.
the stress or solve the problem. A positive outcome can Recognizing excessive stress in your buddy requires
give a feeling of pleasure, exhilaration and achievement. observation. Just as you may be reluctant to admit to
On the other hand, ignoring stress or denying its your own stress, others may try to deny and hide it. To
presence can have just the opposite effect. The stressor develop your ability to avoid the negatives of excessive
can lead to anxiety-fear or apprehension experienced in stress, you must practice being observant of your buddy's
the face of a real or imagined danger. The anxiety can behavior as well as your own.
be followed by distraction as more and more concentra- When getting ready for the dive, stay aware for such
tion is placed on the anxiety rather than finding a solu- behaviors as stalling, nervousness, repeated errors,
tion. The anxious person is impaired in their ability to apparent inability to assemble equipment, withdrawal,
function, and very little extra is required to push them or excess talking and humor. As you enter the water,
over into a state of distress and panic-a total loss of reluctance to descend, ear-squeeze problems, or difficulty
control. controlling descent may be signs of excessive stress.
As a diver you should know how to recognize signs During the dive, one of the surest signs of excessive stress
of excessive stress in yourself and in your buddy and be is a change in breathing pattern from smooth, even
prepared to act to avoid, reduce, or alleviate it. Most of breathing to rapid, over-breathing. Watch for inability to
us recognize stress in ourselves. In diving, you must control buoyancy, jerky movements, or fixation on
learn not only to recognize stress, but also to admit to it. equipment, especially gauges. A person experiencing
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

excessive stress begins to exclude normal awareness as

they turn inward on their own anxiety.
PREPAREDNESS AND TRAINING
Any activity requires preparation. Engaging in a
If you feel stress or see signs of it in your buddy, act
new activity may mean that instruction or training is
immediately to allay the problem. Think in terms of
advisable. This is especially the case in scuba diving. It
solutions, formulate a plan of action, and act upon it to
may be possible to learn some advanced diving skills by
minimize or eliminate the problem.
reading and private practice or by trial-and-error, but
Before the dive, you have the option of not diving. this is not the safe way to proceed. While it is true that
You can also talk about the dive, try to determine the rea- experience is a good teacher, it frequently gives you the
son for the stress and change the dive plan. Sometimes test before the lesson. One of the reasons you are in this
rehearsing the dive in greater detail will open possible course is because it offers opportunity to advance your
solutions to the perceived stress. People are more likely to skills under supervision. As a responsible diver, you
panic when they run out of options (figure 2-10). should take the time to prepare yourself for safety.
During the dive, it is especially important to act When you acquire new diving skills or techniques,
promptly, but not hastily, to face the problem and find a build on your new abilities carefully. In diving we speak
solution. Stop, breathe, think, then act is what you of staying within one's "comfort envelope." If you find
learned in your entry-level class. Apply it now. Stop your you are outside of your comfort envelope, you are proba-
bly well outside your skill level also. Stop your activity
activity and breathe deeply. If you see signs of stress in
and take stock. Decide what you should do to restore
your buddy, get them to do the same. When you get your
your sense of assurance. Ascend to a shallower depth?
breathing under control, go to the next step, think about
Stop the particular activity until a later dive? End the
the problem and solve it. Try to get control of yourself
dive? When you find you are not having fun, the first
underwater; don't head immediately to the surface. thing you should do is ask yourself what you must do to
Underwater you have plenty of air. At the surface, you make it fun again. Un-fun is usually unsafe.
will be subjecting yourself to additional problems of Do not dive beyond your fitness level. Being respon-
flotation, waves, breathing, etc. If you can solve the sible for your own safety also means that you must
problem, you may decide to continue the dive. If the assess your own physical ability to conduct any dive.
problem persists, such as you are cold or you simply What is the distance to the dive site? Will it require a
can't feel comfortable, it is time to end the dive. If you long surface or underwater swim? Is there a current? If
and your buddy have things under control, you can end so, will you be able to drift dive with the current, or will
the dive safely. If you react hastily, you may only cause you be required to move against the current? Are you
further complications. recovering from a recent illness or injury that will affect
your stamina? The wise diver does not willingly place
Most of your diving will be enjoyable and not stress-
him or herself in a situation where the environment will
ful, especially if responsibly planned. Still, it is possible
place excessive demands on his or her capabilities.
to venture deeper than you feel comfortable or to get
The activities of your Advanced Scuba Diver course
into a task-loading situation, and realize it only after
will introduce you to many tools that you will use in
you are there. As a responsible and safe diver you should
your future diving career. You may decide to explore
dive aware, be watchful for stress and take steps to con-
some in greater depth with specialty course training.
trol it. If the stress is a result of your being inadequate to Whatever the activity for your dive, remember that
the demands of the dive, then return to dives that are good preparation and planning are necessary elements
within your ability and comfort level. Seek out addition- in diving safety.
al training to prepare you for more complex and
demanding dives.
 CHAPTER

Navigation
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

LEARNING GOALS Several navigational techniques will be introduced

in this chapter. You will have an opportunity to practice
In this chapter you will:
these in one or more navigational dives. Also, you will
1. Review basic underwater navigation, including
apply your navigational skills in the other dives of your
the techniques for "natural" and compass
Advanced Scuba Diver course.
navigation.
2. Learn about the equipment used for underwater
navigation.
3. Be introduced to more complex navigational pat- EQUIPMENT
terns and advanced techniques.
For most applications, you will use a depth gauge, a
4. Learn various methods to accurately measure
timing device, and a diving compass for navigation
distance underwater.
underwater. The other piece of required equipment is a
5. Learn how to "fix" your position on the surface.
clear, aware mind. Learning to navigate underwater is
6. Explore a typical Advanced Scuba Diver course
similar to learning to find your way in the woods. At
navigation dive.
first, all trees and hills look the same. For the most part,
there are no street signs or distinctive architectural
structures underwater, and even if there were the dis-
INTRODUCTION tance you can see is limited to 60 meters (200 feet) or
less, even in the best of conditions. But you have aids.
One way to perform like an excellent diver is to
Your depth gauge can tell you where you are on the bot-
navigate effectively. When you can end a dive at a prede-
tom contour; your compass can tell you in which direc-
termined location, you not only feel good, but you con-
tion you are going.
serve a lot of time and energy. You also benefit from
increasing your navigational abilities because they are In your entry-level course you practiced a basic use
part of other diving activities such as finding an offshore of a compass. With a compass as your guide, you swam
reef, limited visibility diving, night diving, and search- a reciprocal course, returning to your starting point. As
ing. Let's expand on the navigational principles you an Advanced Scuba Diver, you will learn to take bearings
learned as a beginning diver and add some new ones. with a compass and use bearings and distance swum to
To get to an unfamiliar place on land, you probably navigate more complex patterns. In order to do this, you
consult a map, determine where you are and where you need to know more about compasses and their features
want to be, and then follow a course to reach your desti- than "point, set, swim."
nation. Along the way you become acquainted with vari- A compass is a magnetized needle that rotates on a
ous landmarks. After a couple of trips, you can travel to pivot point. When it can swing freely, the ends of the
the same location without a map. needle will point towards the earth's magnetic poles.
Similar principles can be used for underwater navi- Many compasses have a disc mounted on the needle or
gation. Charts, which are nautical maps, can provide on a magnetic ring, and the entire "compass card"
information. It is best to follow a predetermined course rotates. An arrow printed on the card indicates magnetic
on your dives and use underwater landmarks to help north. The earth's magnetic poles are not in the same
you maintain your bearings. Although there are no location as its geographic poles, so some variation
streets for you to follow, you can use a compass as a between north, as shown by the compass, and true north
directional reference. In diving, you can also use depth is normal. Normally, this variation is not critical for div-
to help determine where you are. After making a couple ing since you are navigating within a limited area. You
of dives in an area, you should get a feeling for where will learn more about magnetic variation in your Master
you are. Scuba Diver course (figure 3-1).
 Chapter 3- Navigation

bearing from the compass. A bezel or rotating collar on

the compass will have a set of index marks that can be
aligned with the pointing end of the needle or card. By
aligning the lubber line with your body and your direc-
tion of travel and then rotating the bezel marks to align
with the needle, you are able to read your bearing as
well as mark the reference position of the needle.
Conversely, if you set the bearing, rotate the compass to
line up the compass needle and the bezel index, and the
lubber line will show the desired direction. For reference,
north (that is, magnetic north) is 0°, east is 90°, south
is 180°, and west is 270°.
The single essential feature that allows a compass
to be used in diving is that its case is liquid-filled. If the
compass had an air-filled case, increasing pressure on
FIGURE 3-1. PARTS OF A COMPASS
descent would compress the case and prevent the needle
from rotating freely.
Compasses have other common features that you
There are three basic compass design models: direct
may remember. The lubber line is a reference line that is
reading, indirect reading, and side reading. The way you
etched or marked somewhere on the compass. When the
take or set a bearing is different for each (figure 3-2).
lubber line is aligned with the axis of the boat or the
A direct reading compass is marked 0° to 359°
user, it indicates the course or bearing the user will fol-
around the edge in a clockwise direction. On a needle
low. If the bearing to the objective is known, the bearing
compass, the degrees will be marked on a rotating bezel.
can be set on the compass and the lubber line followed.
On a card compass, they will be marked directly on the
If you want to obtain a bearing to a destination, point
card with the card's north arrow marked 0°. To deter-
the lubber line towards the target point and read out the
mine a bearing with a direct reading card compass,

FIGURE 3-2. YOU WILL PROBABLY HAVE AN OPPORTUNITY TO USE DIFFERENT COMPASS DESIGNS DURING YOUR DIVING CAREER.
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

point the lubber line in the direction you want to travel,

150°
let the needle point to magnetic north, and your bearing
is read directly under the lubber line. A needle compass
is similar, except that you rotate the bezel to align 0°
with the north end of the needle. Your bearing is read at
the lubber line.
An indirect reading compass has fixed markings of
0° to 359° in a counterclockwise direction around the
edge of the compass body. The degree markings do not
rotate, and 0° is permanently aligned with the lubber
line. When you take a bearing, the compass needle or
the compass card points to the bearing in degrees. The
Indirect Compass reading is "indirect" because 0° is always in the direc-
tion of travel, and the compass needle points to the bear-
ing. With an indirect reading compass, the bezel index
marks are used to register the relative position of the
needle so that you can easily realign the compass later
in the dive (figure 3-3).
A side reading compass is preferred by many divers
for its ease of use (figure 3-4). In a side reading com-
pass, the compass card has a skirt around its edge that is
marked 0° to 359° in a counterclockwise direction. A
window in the side of the compass body is in line with
the lubber line and displays the degree readings on the
skirt to the user. To obtain a bearing you look across the
compass and through the window. Your bearing is
shown in the window, and you need only remember the
Needle-Direct Compass
bearing or note it on your slate for later reference.
Each of the three types of compass has its devotees,
and you will probably encounter all three in your diving
150°
career. If you find one type easier to use, you should look
for it when you acquire your own compass.

MEASURING DISTANCES UNDERWATER

To navigate effectively, you need to be able to esti-
mate the distance you have traveled. If your dive site is a
hundred yards or a hundred meters offshore, you should
know when you have traveled that distance. When fol-
lowing a general course, maintaining correct headings
Card-Direct Compass is one requirement, and estimating the distance for each
FIGURE 3-3. DIRECT AND INDIRECT READING COMPASSES leg of the course is another. One of the sinking feelings
 Chapter 3- Navigation

FIGURE 3-4. A SIDE READING COMPASS HAS THE ADDITIONAL BENEFIT OF LETTING YOU CHECK Y O UR HEADING AT A GLANCE, WITHOUT TAKING
YOUR EYES OFF OF YOUR TARGET.

in diving, is swimming a course and wondering as you measured distance as you count kicks. (A measured dis-
approach the end, "My heading must be wrong. I 'know' tance is easy to establish in a swimming pool. If you are
I must have passed it." For some situations such as in an open water setting you could use a measured
searching, distances must be measured accurately. For length of line, say 30 meters (100 feet), and anchor it to
general diving, approximations of distance will usually the bottom.) One kick cycle is counted each time the
suffice. Several methods may be used to estimate dis- same leg comes down as you swim. When measuring
tance. Let's look at some. your kick cycle, do not try to rush or use an exaggerated
Most of us do not carry a long tape measure in our kick; use a kick that you can easily repeat just as you do
BC pocket. Even if we did, deploying and retrieving it when measuring by paces on land. Divide the distance
would take a lot of time away from the enjoyment of our swum by the number of kicks to find your distance per
dive. What other, easier measuring methods do we have kick cycle. Since measuring by kick cycles is an esti-
available? mate, you might want to round this number to some-
Probably the most accurate way to estimate distance thing that you can easily remember and use in your
is arm spans. For most people the distance between the head. If your calculation is 94 cm per kick, 1 meter per
fingertips of their outstretched arms is about equal to kick is probably close enough. Establishing the length of
their height. If you are 180 cm (5' 11") tall, then this is your kick cycles is likely to be an exercise you will per-
about the distance you can reach. A quick, but good form in your Advanced Scuba Diver Course.
estimate of short distances can be made by stretching Another way to estimate distance is the time it takes
your arms out alternately from touch-down point to to swim the distance. This works if you are swimming
touch-down point as you swim. directly to your goal. But most of us like to take time out
The most common way to estimate distance is by to examine interesting sites, aquatic life, and objects; so
counting kick cycles. This is similar to counting your timed swimming tends to lose accuracy.
paces on land. To use this method, you have to establish The same can be said about using air consumed
the length of your personal kick cycle by swimming a (psi or bar used) to measure distance. To use the air
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

consumption method to measure distance, you must

resolutely proceed toward your destination and not dilly-
NATURAL NAVIGATION
dally along the way. Also, remember that your air con- Natural navigation is the use of "landmarks,"
sumption rate increases both with depth and with exer- depth, and other visual aids to establish your position.
cise level. You should not only use a "standard" kick You are familiar with the use of environmental aids for
and speed but also adjust your measurements as your references. Examples include the direction of light, for-
air consumption rate changes with depth. mations of reefs and sand ripples, depth and bottom
With experience, many divers are able to use just contour, currents and surge, and self-made references
a "feel" for distance covered. Whatever method you such as silt trails and rock piles. Keen observation of
choose, the most important concept is to pay attention such aids can help you recognize areas you have visited
to distance in order to find your dive site or to navigate a previously and can serve to help in determining where
pattern, such as a square, effectively. you are.
There is more to natural navigation underwater,
however, than merely taking note of a few environmen-
tal aids. To be most effective, also apply the following
procedures:
1. Use starting references. If you are diving from a
moored or anchored boat, carefully note your
point of origin after you descend and before you
swim off to begin your activity. In clear water,
you can even take advantage of a bird's-eye view
as you approach the bottom. It helps to study
charts of the area where you will be diving so you
can form a mental picture of the overall area. If
your dive site is on a slope, note the depth of the
anchor point at which you begin. If you return to
that depth as you navigate back to the boat, you
will be along the same contour as the anchor. If
you start at a known point, such as a rock out-
cropping, it will be easier to return to an area by
starting at the known reference on subsequent
dives. Concentrate on being able to recognize
your starting point underwater without having to
surface to reference the boat (figure 3-5).
2. Follow a pre-planned general course. Natural
navigation is much more effective when a pat-
tern is followed than when you dive randomly.
Your course may be a square, a rectangle, a tri-
angle, or simply out-and-back; or you may plan
to follow a depth contour. Following a planned
course will better enable you to return to a start-
FIGURE 3-5. OBSERVING YOUR STARTING POINT CAREFULLY AT ing point or to relocate a specific area during
THE BEGINNING OF YOUR DIVE CAN MAKE IT EASIER subsequent dives. It is not necessary to follow
TO RECOGNIZE LATER. the general course precisely. Some deviation is
 Chapter 3- Navigation

FIGURE 3-8. DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF A REEF FORMATION CAN LOOK ENTIRELY DIFFERENT ON YOUR RETURN - LOOK BACK THE WAY YOU
CAME, FROM TIME TO TIME.

permissible to investigate items of interest. When with an area than just merely noting underwater
you depart from your planned course, be careful landmarks from time to time.
to note landmarks and the distance you have 4. Develop a desire to remember. If you want to
deviated from your course. You should try to remember natural aids, starting points, and little
maintain direction in a general heading for a details to help you navigate more accurately, you
roughly estimated distance, then you and your can. You should want the ability to navigate well.
buddy should agree on a new general heading to If the desire is there, your awareness, perception,
maintain your pattern. and memory will be much greater than if your
3. Move forward by moving from aid to aid, and interest is lackadaisical. By wanting to navigate
look back frequently (figure 3-6). By moving well, you will be able to develop the ability quick-
from known point to known point, your progress ly with practice and concentration.
will be more easily repeated. Pick out a distinc-
tive object along your general heading and as far

COMPASS NAVIGATION
away as visibility will permit. Work your way to
that object, and then repeat the process. As you
reach each point, glance back along the way you Good compass use is essential to most underwater
have come to see what the previous aid looks like navigation. You will usually use a combination of com-
when approached from the opposite direction. pass navigation with natural navigation techniques in
This will be its appearance on your return. These diving. Only seldom does a diver use one to the exclusion
procedures help you become much more familiar of the other. You are familiar with how a compass works,
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 3-7. WHETHER WRIST OR CONSOLE MOUNTED, ALIGNING THE COMPASS PROPERLY IS CRITICAL TO ACCURATE NAVIGATION UNDERWATER.

and you know how to set a course on a compass and fol- will become obvious with experience (figure 3-8).
low it (figure 3-7). The following procedures will be 2. Navigate from point to point. During natural
helpful to learn the practical application of the compass navigation you were instructed to move from
for diving: one environmental aid to the next. Except in
1. Have a starting heading and follow a general extremely limited visibility, the same principle
course. Most of the time you will not use a com- applies to compass navigation. The difference
pass as a constant reference to follow an exact between compass navigation and natural naviga-
heading. Instead, the instrument will serve as a tion is that compass navigation is more accurate.
general reference. The compass is especially use- When using the compass, look over it and along
ful in areas devoid of natural aids, such as sandy the bearing and select the most distant object you
bottoms. At the outset of every dive, you should set can see for your heading. Move to that object and
an initial bearing as a point of reference. This repeat the process. By using this "leap frog" tech-
bearing may be the direction of shore, the direc- nique, it will not be necessary to look constantly
tion opposite to any current, or simply arbitrary. at your compass, and you can spend more time
The direction isn't as important as having a enjoying your dive.
direction of reference. Just as in natural naviga- 3. Be aware of the effects of deviation. The compass
tion, you and your buddy can remain together is a magnet, and it is attracted to ferrous metal
more easily and you will be better able to navigate objects, other magnets, and electrical fields. Be
if you follow a pre-determined general course. aware that the compass will not provide an accu-
Again, the course need not be exact, but the rate reading when in close proximity (usually less
advantages of adhering to even a rough pattern than a meter) to large attracting objects, including
 Chapter 3- Navigation

FIGURE 3-8. STAYING TOGETHER WITH YOUR BUDDY IS EASIER IF YOU HAVE PREDETERMINED A GENERAL COURSE FOR YOUR DIVE.

not only shipwrecks but also steel scuba cylinders,

other magnets, or dive lights. You can test the
effects of your own equipment on your compass
by placing the compass on the floor, noting its
bearing, and seeing if deviation occurs as you
bring other pieces of your gear in proximity to the
instrument. You will then know how far away you
will need to keep various items in order to prevent
deviation and incorrect readings.
4. Remember to compensate for currents. When
moving with a current, you will cover more dis-
tance than when moving against it. If you are
swimming across a current, the current will push Uncompensated Compensated
you sideways, and your actual direction of travel
(your heading) will not be the same as your indi-
cated compass course (your bearing). You must FIGURE 3-9. REMEMBER TO COMPENSATE FOR CURRENT BY
swim slightly into the current to compensate for S W I M M I N G SLIGHTLY UPSTREAM.
its downstream push (figure 3-9).
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

SURFACE POSITIONING tures, sunbathers on the beach will not do. The greater
the distance between the objects used for a range, the
Another navigational technique is surface position-
more accurate the range will be. Any combination of
ing. This procedure allows you to "fix" a position at the
ranges and bearings can be used to establish a fix, but
surface so you can relocate an underwater site precisely.
try to have the intersecting lines as close to a right angle
For example, if you came across a wreck near the end of
as possible. Your ranges and bearings taken to "fix" a
a dive and wanted to return to it, you could surface over
surface position should be written on a slate and trans-
the wreck and take some bearings to "fix" the position.
ferred to a permanent record after the dive. Memory
You could then return to the same position at the sur-
should not be relied upon for dive site relocation.
face by using your bearings and descend directly onto
Now let's see how all of the navigational skills can
the wreck.
be combined to make you a more effective diver.
There are several means to take a "fix," but the
Imagine that you are looking for a wreck that is shown
most common ones are with bearings and ranges.
on a chart and that the wreck is located a few hundred
Bearings are simply course directions taken with a com-
feet from a reef that is directly offshore from a rocky
pass. Ranges are sets of in-line objects, which, when
point. You can use both a compass heading and natural
aligned, indicate a precise direction (figure 3-10).
aids to navigation to guide you from the rocky point to
From your position determine two visual lines to
the reef. You can then follow a compass heading that
permanent objects. The intersection of the lines exactly
you obtained from the chart as a guide to lead you to
"fixes" your location. The angle between them should
the wreck. At the end of the dive you can surface directly
be as close to 90° as possible when taking a fix. A range
over the wreck and take a "fix" so you can swim directly
is established when you are able to line up two perma-
to the wreck for your next dive. Or, you may wish to visit
nent objects from you position. A range is more accurate
the wreck and return to your starting point without hav-
than a bearing, and should be used whenever possible.
ing to make a surface swim. To do this, you simply fol-
The objects used for a range must be permanent struc-
low a reciprocal compass course from the wreck to the

FIGURE 3-10. AN ACCURATE "FIX" OF YOUR POSITION CAN BE OBTAINED BY USING TWO RANGES (OBJECTS IN LINE).
 Chapter 3- Navigation

reef, then another reciprocal course from the reef to the

point where you entered. Natural aids also help keep you
on course.

OVERVIEW OF A TYPICAL
INTRODUCTORY DIVE
Your instructor may have more than one naviga-
tion dive planned for you. The first could be a natural
navigation dive in which you learn to measure dis-
tances, use natural navigation skills to locate yourself
throughout the dive, and fix a location using two
ranges. The second could be a compass navigation dive
in which you swim set patterns, such as squares and tri-
angles using your compass. A fun way to practice your
navigation skills is an orienteering treasure hunt in
which you find your next bearings and distances at each
point over a predetermined course. There are many
options for navigation dive challenges.
You and your buddy should plan the dive together
rso that you both are familiar with its objectives. It is
also a good idea to walk though your compass naviga-
tion on land in order to fix it in your mind and work out
any problems while you can easily discuss them. Decide
who will fill which role during the dive. It is usually
more successful for one member of the buddy team to
concentrate on being compass navigator while the other
keeps an eye out for landmarks, reference points, and
course markers.
Navigation is challenging, and it is fun to be able to
navigate successfully. Like most diving skills, it involves
learning the theory, practicing the skills under the super-
vision of an instructor, and becoming proficient through
practice. Set yourself a goal to become a good diving
navigator. These are skills you can use on every dive and
ones that you will need for future diving activities.
 CHAPTER

Night and
Limited
Visibility Diving
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

LEARNING GOALS limited. Visibility under water is considered limited when

you cannot distinguish another diver at a distance of 3
In this chapter you will:
meters (10 feet) or less in a horizontal direction. There
1. Learn the basic procedures for limited visibility
are many things of interest in murky waters - wrecks,
and night diving.
artifacts, fossils, etc. - and the only way to get to see
2. Understand the attraction that limited visibility
them is to know the procedures for diving under these
and night diving have for many divers.
conditions. Turbid water is frequently nutrient-rich
3. Learn about the equipment used in limited visi-
water. Life is often abundant in areas where the visibility
bility and night diving activities.
is reduced by the vast amount of nutrients, but the ani-
4. Learn the special signals and communication
mals that abound make diving in such areas exciting
challenges of limited visibility and night diving.
and enjoyable (figure 4-2).
5. Understand the precautions associated with limit-
Your instructor will introduce you to the techniques
ed visibility and night diving.
for diving at night and for diving in turbid water, but
6. Explore a typical Advanced Scuba Diver course
don't expect to be proficient at either as a result of this
limited visibility and night dive.
orientation. Your night diving ability will be limited to
circumstances similar to those in which you make your
introductory dive. Because such dives are usually con-

INTRODUCTION ducted in clear, calm water; at a protected, previously

You may be wondering why anyone would want to

plunge into inky black waters at night or dive when the
visibility is hardly arm's length. When you find out why,
you may become just as excited about night and limited
visibility diving as the thousands of enthusiasts who
enjoy these activities regularly (figure 4-1).
Night diving has a special fascination and mys-
tique, but this only supplements the real motives for
descents into darkness. One attraction of night diving is
the opportunity to view aquatic animals. Many of them
that flee upon sight or keep their distance during day-
light hours can be approached quite closely during noc-
turnal dives. Because much of the life under water is
nocturnal, you also get to see animals that you might
not encounter during daytime dives.
By using a dive light at close range, you also get to
appreciate the rich, vibrant colors of the sub-aquatic
world at night. With no dilution from natural lighting,
the colors appear more intense than at any other time.
Your narrow beam of light also focuses your attention so
your awareness of detail is increased. Night diving is an
excellent way to enjoy the beauty of the underwater
world.
Limited visibility diving may not seem as attractive
FIGURE 4-1. NIGHT DIVING IS AN ACTIVITY REGULARLY ENJOYED
as night diving, but in many areas visibility is always
BY THOUSANDS OF DIVERS.
 Chapter 4- Night and Limited Visibility Diving

FIGURE 4-2. MANY TIMES THE NUTRIENTS THAT FOSTER AN ABUNDANCE OF INTERESTING AQUATIC LIFE LIMITS THE VISIBILITY.

dived site and with a well-known dive buddy, you have and lights are often available for rent so you can find out
much experience to be gained before you are proficient. which type you prefer before purchasing your own. Dive
As with all special interest areas of diving, additional store employees or your instructor can help you select the
training is recommended. appropriate ones for your area (figure 4-3).
Pay particular attention to the handle configuration.
It may be a pistol grip or it might be designed to be held

EQUIPMENT
by the body of the light itself. Make sure it will be com-
fortable to hold for a long period of time. Especially
Much of the extra equipment needed is common to
both of the topics of this chapter - night and limited
visibility diving. First let's examine the gear recom-
mended for night diving, then we'll note a few suggested
items for limited visibility diving.
Lights are an obvious requirement for diving at
night, but you may not be aware that several different
types are available. The principal requirement is a broad
beam main or primary dive light. A smaller back-up
light is also useful to make a safe exit in the event your
primary light fails during the dive.
The lights you use for diving must be designed
specifically for the purpose. A light which is simply water-
proof will not work well. The light must be designed to
operate not only in water but also under pressure. There FIGURE 4-3. DIVE LIGHTS COME IN A VARIETY OF STYLES TO MEET
are many quality lights available at your local dive store, JUST ABOUT ANY NEED.
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

when diving in colder waters and wearing neoprene These include lights to use for dive preparations as well
gloves. A neoprene glove's tendency to resist forming a fist as marker lights to help you locate the entry/exit loca-
(such as would be required around the handle of a dive tion at the end of the dive. It is recommended that you
light) can cause fatigue and a hand cramp over time use regular flashlights for above-water use. This con-
(figure 4-4). Whether you choose a light that uses dispos- serves the batteries and bulbs in your dive lights. Also,
able batteries or is rechargeable should be detennined by some dive lights will overheat unless cooled by immer-
how frequently you intend to use the light. The more sion in water. While you need not have additional dive
often the light is used, the more practical it becomes to lights for the topside use, even your topside flashlights
pay the extra expense for rechargeable batteries. should be of the "waterproof" type in case they acciden-
Rechargeable lights are also more ecologically friendly. tally fall into the water (figure 4-5).
Good ideas also include buying spare bulbs at the time Lights to mark the entry/exit point on a shore dive
you purchase your dive lights and keeping them with can be anything from lanterns to a pair of roadway
your dive equipment so they're at hand if you need them. flasher types. Two lights arranged in a line perpendicu-
A stretch able lanyard should be attached to your lar to the shoreline can form a range for you to follow
dive light and your wrist in order to prevent its loss. The on your return. Another consideration is for them to be
stretchable feature (usually looped around your wrist) is distinctive so they won't be readily confused with other
important so your hand can pull free in case the light lights in the dive area. Be careful to avoid the use of
becomes entangled. lights that might resemble navigational aids, especially
In addition to the dive lights designed for use flashing red, green, or white lights. Amber or yellow is a
underwater, you will need lights for above water use. good alternative.

FIGURE 4-4. WEAR A GLOVE AND CHECK TO SEE IF THE LIGHT WILL BE COMFORTABLE TO USE THE WAY YOU WILL BE USING IT.
 Chapter 4- Night and Limited Visibility Diving

FIGURE 4-5. EXTRA LIGHTS TO ILLUMINATE THE STAGING AREA ARE NECESSARY AFTER THE SUN HAS SET.

A special type of light is also recommended for night

dives - a safety light to mark you and your position.
These help divers keep track of one another in the water
and also allows a dive boat to spot a diver at the surface
even if the diver's other lights have failed. A glowing or
flashing light is attached to each diver, usually on or
near the tank valve. They are available as battery-pow-
ered strobe lights or with a long, translucent front lens or
as chemical glow sticks. The glow tube produces "cold"
light through chemical reaction (figure 4-6). A glass
tube of one chemical is sealed inside a plastic tube con-
taining another chemical. Bending the outer plastic
tube until the glass tube inside breaks, allows the chemi-
cals to mix and produce light. Safety lights make it easy
to spot divers in and under the water, and their use is
highly recommended on all night dives. In many loca-
tions using them is standard practice and considered a
requirement. However, they are really only "marker"
lights and do not produce sufficient light to be useful for
other purposes. Be sure to wait to activate the safety light
FIGURE 4-6. COLD LIGHT FROM A CHEMICAL GLOW STICK MAKES
until just before you begin the dive.
AN EXCELLENT NIGHT DIVER LOCATOR.
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 4-7. IT IS IMPORTANT THAT BUDDY LINES BE HAND HELD AND NOT MADE FAST WITH A KNOT OR CLIP, IN CASE OF ENTANGLEMENT.

Luminescent gauges are preferred for night diving.

A luminescent gauge will "store" light energy from a
PROCEDURES AND PRECAUTIONS
dive light that is shined on it and glow for many min- Night diving can be every bit as enjoyable as diving
utes. It is unusual to find gauges that do not have lumi- in the daytime. There are even advantages to diving at
nescent properties or, in the case of dive computers, an night. It is cooler for gearing up, there usually are fewer
ability to illuminate the display. divers to stir up an area, and your light allows you to be
Other useful equipment includes items that are seen as well as to see. In order to enjoy the underwater
hopefully part of your regular gear set. These items world, however, you do need to abide by the following
include a good dive knife, gloves, a diving compass, and procedures and be aware of a few new hazards.
a whistle for surface signaling. A low-pressure inflator, Night diving is usually better when done from a
that has become standard equipment, allows buoyancy boat, but shore dives are perfectly acceptable. However,
to be controlled with just one hand, which is helpful, rock strewn entry areas profuse with plant life that
since one of your hands will be occupied with a dive makes the footing treacherous even in daylight should
light. A surface float with a "down" line is also recom- be avoided at night. The best shore diving areas are
mended unless you are diving from a boat. Consider those where reefs are just offshore from a smooth, unob-
attaching a glow light to the float. It is not a good idea structed entry. Diving in familiar areas is recommended.
to carry additional gear such as a camera until you Even then, it is a good idea to dive the known area the
have acquired training and are comfortable while night same day prior to a night dive to evaluate the conditions
diving. and to reacquaint yourself with the site. No matter where
the dive is based, it is helpful and advisable to have
Except for the use of dive lights, limited visibility
someone remain above water during night diving activi-
diving equipment needs are the same. A dive light might
ties as a contingency against mishap.
be helpful, but back-up lights, surface marker lights,
and chemical glow lights are not required. The use of a The planning process for a night dive is even more
"Buddy Line," a short line held between two divers to important than for regular dives. Because of the height-
maintain contact, is often helpful to prevent separation ened excitement from anticipating a night dive and the
in murky water (figure 4-7). added challenge of working in the dark you should be
 Chapter 4- Night and Limited Visibility Diving

sure to give extra attention to all aspects of your dive wrist by a stretchable lanyard. This will prevent it from
plan. Make sure your dive lights have fresh batteries or a being dropped after your entry and while you make
full charge. last minute preparations at the surface. Experienced
As you prepare to dive, be sure to review signals with night divers facing a long swim usually want to leave
your buddy. Standard hand signals can be used, but their lights off until they reach the dive site. This will
remember that they must be given in front of a light in help avoid having the light flashing about on the sur-
order to be visible to others. Signaling with your dive face and from depleting your batteries prior to the dive.
light is unique to night diving. A large "O" formed by Dive preparations also include checking your gear for
moving the light in a slow circle is the long distance proper adjustment, and setting a compass heading for
version of the "OK" signal. Rapid wiggling of the light reference.
from side to side is often used to signal, "Attention" or Whenever possible descents should be made on a
"Look here." Distress is signaled by extending the light line or on a gradually sloping shore. With no external
out to one side and moving the light rapidly in long, references at night, it is easy to become disoriented. The
exaggerated 180 degree arcs overhead. These light sig- disorientation can range from not knowing which way is
nals are useful both at the surface and underwater. up, to extreme dizziness and must obviously be avoided.
Be sure to note some distinctive feature on your The line serves as a reference and prevents the problem.
buddy like the color of his or her mask, so you can easi- Your depth gauge should also be checked frequently as
ly recognize him or her underwater at night. It is not you descend. Buoyancy control is just as important as on
uncommon for dive teams encountering one another to any daylight dive. Adjust for neutral buoyancy so you
can stay clear of the bottom. This will keep you from
accidentally switch partners during a dive or even return
bumping into the reef or bottom dwelling animals and
to a different boat!
stirring up silt (figure 4-8).
Other preplanning items are the same whether day
or night diving is being conducted. Discuss and agree on Once submerged and on your way, the following
the general course to be followed to improve buddy coor- procedures and precautions become important:
1. Keep excursions short. It is neither necessary nor
dination. Agree in advance which buddy will navigate
wise to cover large areas during a dive at night.
for the first half of the dive as the partner points out
Enjoy the small things.
things of interest. The roles can then be reversed on a
reciprocal course during the second half of the dive.
Before you attempt a night dive, you and your buddy
should be practiced at successfully staying together dur-
ing daytime dives.
As stated earlier, lights should be set up to help you
identify the exit point prior to your dive. When using
shore lights that are already in place, only lights that are
fixed and can be relied upon to remain on until after
diving operations end should be used. For example,
street lamps are usually reliable, but a residential porch
light might be switched off. If you have set up your own
pair of lights as a range, consider it another good reason
to have someone remain on shore to ensure the lights
are still in place at the end of the dive.
FIGURE 4-8. MAINTAINING NEUTRAL BUOYANCY WILL ALLOW
Before you enter the water to begin your night dive, YOU TO AVOID LANDING ON THE BOTTOM !N THE
double check to be sure your light is attached to your WRONG PLACE.
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

2. Monitor your air supply, direction, and buddy ture! Moving shadows created by your light will
more frequently than usual. It is easier to stay soon cease to startle you. You may see a surprised
together than it is to find each other at night. Be animal trying to get away from the brightness of
sure to surface with an adequate reserve of air in your lights. As you become interested in things,
your cylinder in case your underwater navigation your anxieties will lessen. Take it easy and enjoy
is off. yourself.
3. If separated from your buddy, remain stationary When you and your buddy agree to ascend, it is best
and turn slowly in a circle while looking for your to do so on the line you used for descent. If the line can't
buddy's light or glow light. If unsuccessful, move be found, you can ascend without becoming disoriented
in the direction in which your buddy was last by holding your depth gauge in front of you in one
seen, stop and look again for light. If your buddy hand and shining your light on the gauge and your
is not located within one minute, ascend to the exhaust bubbles as you ascend. The gauge helps you
surface, looking about as you ascend. Once at the determine your ascent rate, and the bubbles provide an
surface, continue to look for your buddy while up and down reference.
turning completely around with your light off. As a general rule that applies to most dive excur-
Do this for one full rotation at the surface and sions, all of your equipment should be kept in place
again while looking underwater toward the bot- until you are clear of the water after a dive. This will
tom. It will be easier to see the glow of your help prevent the loss of gear.
buddy's locator light or glow stick with your dive The procedures and precautions for night dives also
light turned off. Your buddy should be duplicat- apply to limited visibility dives except for use of lights. A
ing your actions, so you should be able to reunite dive light can be useful in murky water, but it may help to
quickly and continue your dive. hold the light to one side to reduce the glare from light
reflected off particles suspended in the water ("backscat-
4. Be sure to keep your light beam out of the eyes of
ter"). Perhaps the best use of a light in limited visibility is
other divers. Shining your light in their eyes
for examining objects at close range. Other limited visibil-
compromises their night vision for a short period.
ity procedures include moving slowly and with one hand
When you shine a light toward other divers, point
extended in front of you. In extremely turbid water, it is
it toward their waists.
necessary to feel your way along the bottom, but diving in
5. If your light fails while diving, there is no cause
such conditions is not usually enjoyable, and a dive
for alarm. Your buddy has a light and you should
should be aborted if the visibility is that poor. Use of a
both have back-up lights. First, make sure your
buddy line or holding hands can help prevent separation.
primary light is really defective by checking the
Disorientation can be even more of a problem in turbid
switch and by shaking the light. If the light is
water than in clear water at night. The use of a
inoperative, switch to your back-up light and fin-
descent/ascent line or following the contour of the bottom
ish the dive. Even if all of your lights fail, you
to and from shore is suggested. Both techniques help you
can still make a normal ascent. By remaining avoid being in mid-water with no reference.
calm on the bottom and allowing your eyes to
adjust to the darkness for a couple of minutes
you will find that there is usually enough avail-
able light to allow you to see things dimly. You
OVERVIEW OF A TYPICAL
INTRODUCTORY DIVE
and your buddy can then ascend and terminate
the dive.
6. Control your anxiety. Night diving may seem Your night dive may be preceded by a daytime dive
spooky at first. But this can be half the adven- at the site. You might engage in a social activity while
 Chapter 4- Night and Limited Visibility Diving

waiting for darkness or you may reassemble at the activities is like, you will probably want to develop your
staging area after dark. The objective is to be familiar abilities further so you can take advantage of opportuni-
with the area. Your instructor will brief you on the par- ties that may arise. Ask your instructor about a Night
ticulars and recap the main points to keep in mind. A Diving specialty course or one for Limited Visibility
lot of attention will be given to your equipment and Diving. Now that you know it is fun to do these activi-
your lights. If you do not own or are not ready to pur- ties, why not have some more fun and gain the training
chase a good dive light for this dive, you can probably and experience that will enable you to engage in them
rent/hire one from you local NAUI affiliated dive center. safely without supervision?
Depending on your instructor's preference, you may
need to use a chemical light or battery powered locator
light.
During the actual dive your instructor may choose
to lead all of the dive teams as a group, or you may be
assigned to dive by teams in a specified area. Either way,
your descent will probably use down-line or follow the
contour of the bottom so you will have a continuous ref-
erence. The underwater tour follows your descent, and
time passes quickly as you become engrossed in the way
things appear as your dive light cuts into inky dark.
Your instructor may have you settle to the bottom,
remain motionless, and turn off your lights to see what
it is like without them. Soon you will be able to make
things out and will discover that the glow lights put out
quite a bit of light when they are the only source. Your
instructor will turn on his or her light as a signal for
you to turn your lights back on and resume the dive.
Until then you should remain motionless on the bottom.
Your ascent will also be controlled via the line or
bottom contour. Surface lights will help you recognize
the exit area.
Afterwards, even the discussion of the dive is special
at night. If there is insufficient light to allow you to fill
out your logbook, be sure to complete it at the earliest
opportunity and to have it signed by your buddy and by
your instructor.
A limited visibility introductory dive usually consists
of dive teams following an assigned heading or course
underwater. The use of buddy lines may be introduced.
Your primary goals will be to navigate accurately and to
maintain buddy contact.
Your opportunities to dive can be increased once
you are trained to dive competently at night or in limit-
ed visibility. After discovering what either or both of these
 CHAPTER

Introduction to
Deeper Diving
 NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

LEARNING GOALS meters (60 feet). A single experience will not necessarily
qualify you to make deeper dives without leadership
In this chapter you will:
supervision, but it will acquaint you with deep diving
1. Learn the basic procedures for deeper water
procedures and will help you appreciate why additional
diving.
training for deeper diving is a good idea.
2. Learn about the hazards of deeper water diving
and how to mitigate their potential to cause
problems.
3. Be introduced to the equipment used for deeper POSSIBLE HAZARDS
water diving.
As you already know, pressure increases with depth.
4. Learn the steps of planning and preparing and
This results in an increased rate of air usage due to the
the procedures and precautions for a deeper
greater density of the air you breathe. The increased
water dive.
density of the air increases the effort needed to exchange
5. Explore a typical Advanced Scuba Diver course
air in the lungs. Poorly maintained regulators can easily
deeper water dive.
amplify this problem and cause feelings of "air starva-
tion".
When wet suits are worn in colder waters, increas-
INTRODUCTION ing and decreasing pressure can also cause significant
changes in buoyancy due to compression and expansion
As you gain experience in diving, you are almost
certain to be encouraged to dive at sites that have depths of the gas trapped in the neoprene rubber. Wet suit com-
in excess of your qualifications. Deeper diving is gener- pression reduces insulation and increases heat loss.
ally defined as dives to depths greater than 18 meters Combined with the colder water usually found at depths,
(60 feet). Satisfactory completion of the NAUI Advanced increased heat loss can quickly lead to chilling. As the
Diver course can prepare you to undertake no-required- suit expands during ascent the increasing buoyancy
decompression dives at depths up to 40 meters (130 feet) must be compensated for in order to control your ascent
as long as the diving occurs under circumstances simi- rate.
lar to those experienced during your training. Divers are Higher nitrogen levels contribute to a greater likeli-
often tempted to dive deeper for adventure and for the hood of decompression sickness occurring. Also, nitro-
challenge, but more meaningful objectives are encour- gen breathed under higher pressures can produce
aged. Good objectives might include exploration, study- Nitrogen Narcosis, which affects judgment and, there-
ing aquatic animals, or photographing exotic sites, such fore, safety.
as wrecks, which happen to be located in deeper water. In addition to these physical considerations, know-
The point is that deeper diving should be justified, and ing that you are diving deeper can lead to increased lev-
not done just for the sake of going deep. els of stress or feelings of anxiety.
It can be exciting and rewarding to descend farther Since the risks and potential hazards increase with
below the surface to observe and explore new places. depth, greater caution must be used when diving deeper.
However, you must be aware of the hazards of deeper This demands more thorough planning and prepara-
diving and be prepared to cope with them. This involves tion, extra equipment, and special procedures. By know-
careful planning and preparation, proper training, spe- ing and applying deep diving techniques, you can
cial equipment, experience and special procedures. In increase your safety and your enjoyment whenever you
this chapter you will become acquainted with each of dive to deeper depths. But you must know what to do
these areas. This information will help you prepare for and how to do it, and you must exercise the necessary
an introductory experience at a depth greater than 18 self-discipline to follow the recommended practices.
 Chapter 5- Introduction to Deeper Diving

EQUIPMENT
We recommend that your regular diving equipment
include an extra second stage on your regulator, a low
pressure inflator on your buoyancy compensator, a dive
computer and backup instrumentation, and an under-
water slate. Your equipment should also be in good con-
dition and in excellent working order.
An extra second stage can simplify air-sharing situa-
tions underwater, but for deeper diving a complete back-
up scuba system such as a "pony bottle" with its own
regulator is recommended (figure 5-1). Your instructor
will probably show you a back-up system, which has the
advantage of being a completely separate source of air
for either the person wearing the unit or for another
diver in need of air. Since you are only being introduced
to deep diving you will not be required to have a back-up
unit, but you should be familiar with them and know of
their desirability for dives to greater depths.
Instruments are important for diving, but they are
essential for deep dives. First and foremost-as always-is
the submersible pressure gauge. It is required on all
dives, but is critical for deep dives to help you avoid run-
ning out of air.
Depth gauges are also essential, as are watches
FIGURE 5-1. A COMPLETELY REDUNDANT AIR SUPPLY IS RECOM-
or dive timers (figure 5-2). A reliable depth gauge is
MENDED FOR DEEPER WATER DIVING.
absolutely necessary for dives planned using dive tables.

FIGURE 5-2. DEPTH GAUGES COME IN A WIDE VARIETY OF DESIGNS WITH MANY DIFFERENT FEATURES. YOUR LOCAL NAUI AFFILIATED DIVE CENTER
CAN HELP YOU MAKE A GOOD CHOICE.
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 5-3. DIVE COMPUTERS ALSO USE A VARIETY OF DESIGNS WITH MANY DIFFERENT FEATURES. ONE BENEFIT IS THE ACCURACY AND RELIA-
BILITY OF INFORMATION THAT IS AUTOMATICALLY RECORDED.

The best accuracy is usually achieved with a dive com-

puter (figure 5-3)- A dive computer is not only more accu-
rate, it also continually monitors your dive status and pro-
vides essential information including remaining dive time
based on calculations of your absorbed nitrogen levels.
Dive computers help divers avoid decompression
sickness by providing reliable and accurate measures of
depth and time. If you use a dive computer is important
to have read the manufacturer's instructions for its use.
It is also a good idea to have used the computer on shal-
lower dives to familiarize your self with its operation.
It is essential that each member of the dive team be
able to independently monitor his or her own depth and
dive time, whether with a depth gauge and a watch or
timer or with a dive computer. Sharing depth and time
instruments with your dive buddy is risky and should be
avoided on all dives regardless of depth.
Another useful, but not critical, instrument is the
compass. The ability to use the compass to navigate
effectively underwater can be valuable on deep dives. It
is not easy or wise to surface for bearings, therefore, a
compass for each diver is recommended as well as com-
petency in its use.
Having extra cylinders available for deep dives is
highly recommended. Divemasters some times place an FIGURE 5-4. DECOMPRESSION BARS WITH EXTRA CYLINDERS ARE
extra cylinder with an attached regulator in the water to EASILY DEPLOYED FROM A BOAT.
 Chapter 5- Introduction to Deeper Diving

FIGURE 5-5. EMERGENCY OXYGEN FOR USE IN FIRST AID HAS BECOME A STANDARD PRACTICE.

be used in the event of an out-of-air emergency. When (figure 5-5). Oxygen is of significant value in the event
diving from a boat, the spare cylinder/regulator is hung of decompression sickness.
below the vessel at a depth of about 5 meters (15 feet). It It is not unusual for low light levels to be encoun-
is wise to also have a couple of spare cylinders of air tered in deeper water, so a dive light might be another
readily available at the surface (figure 5-4). useful item. The chapter on night and limited visibility
When diving in poor visibility or when making diving explores the many considerations when using or
training dives, a descent/ascent line, sometimes referred choosing an underwater light.
to as a "down line," is recommended. The line should As you can see, there are quite a few equipment
be at least one centimeter (three-eighths inch) in diam- requirements for deep diving. You may not be required
eter, weighted at the bottom, and marked at 3 meter (10 to have all of the gear just described when you make
foot) intervals. This line provides reference, control, and your introductory dive because you will be under the
a base for the extra scuba unit and for decompression. supervision and direction of your instructor, but you
The set-up procedures for the line and recommendations should be aware that this equipment is necessary when-
for its use will be covered in the procedures section of ever you and your buddy plan to dive "deeper" without
this chapter. the benefit of an instructor being present.
Many specialized forms of diving are best undertak-
en from a boat, and usually deeper diving is no excep-

PREPARATION
tion. A boat is an excellent surface support station. It is a
good idea for the boat to be equipped with a radio for
emergency communications and with a depth sounder. The deeper you intend to dive, the more preparation
Emergency equipment is recommended for all required. You begin by making sure that you have
dives, but it is even more strongly suggested that a first yourself prepared for the dive with proper training. You
aid kit and oxygen be at the dive site for deeper dives must also have a good, confident feeling about the dive.
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 5-6. TECHNICAL DIVING IS A DISCIPLINED APPROACH TO OVERTAKING DIVING THAT HAS A MUCH HIGHER DEGREE OF RISK THAN
TRADITIONAL DIVING.

If you are apprehensive about the situation, it is fine to in need of treatment. Finally, your necessary agreements
suggest an alternative dive. Personal preparation also need to be exacting and well understood.
includes general good health and physical fitness, cur- A review of the NAUI Dive Tables or your dive com-
rency in skill proficiency, adequate rest the night before puter manual is in order. Re-familiarize yourself with
the dive, and proper nutrition prior to the dive. them by reading the information on the dive planning
Abstinence from drugs that alter your physical or mental and the dive tables in the NAUI text, NAUI Scuba Diver.
state or affect your decompression obligation is essential. You must be able to use the tables correctly when the
You need to feel fit, both physically and mentally, when dives you are making are actual dives rather than just
intending to make a deeper dive. problems posed on paper. Your instructor will probably
You have already read that your equipment needs to review them as part of your Advanced Scuba Diver
be in proper working order, but we are re-emphasizing Course. A more thorough review plus some new infor-
the point here due to the importance of properly func- mation on the dive tables is included in the NAUI Master
tioning gear at depth. Scuba Diver and Deep Diving Specialty courses. For the
Planning for the dive needs to be more thorough diver who plans to exceed the limits of traditional recre-
than usual. Extra equipment is needed. Emergency pre- ational diving, NAUI's Technical Diving Division quali-
paredness requires more attention. You need to know the fies instructors who deliver "cutting edge" training (fig-
location of the nearest operational recompression cham- ure 5-6). NAUI members have been pioneering diving
ber, how to contact the appropriate medical and/or since 1960. It is not surprising that they were the first to
chamber facility, how to make arrangements for any embark on "extreme" dives and develop training proto-
needed treatment and how to get someone there who is cols for those who wish to follow.
 Chapter 5- Introduction to Deeper Diving

TNT = TNT = TNT =

FIGURE 5-7. THE DIVE PLANNING WORKSHEET IS USEFUL TO PLAN AHEAD AND FOR RECORDING DATA AFTER THE DIVE.

When planning your deep dive, it is important that (130 feet) is to enter the realm of "technical diving,"
you complete the "Dive Plan" section of your NAUI where additional special procedures and gas mixes are
"Dive Planning and Recording Worksheet" on the back employed, and mandatory decompression is a virtual
of your NAUI Dive Tables (figure 5-7). This contingency certainty.
information provides instantaneous time limit informa-
tion in the event that you should exceed your planned

PROCEDURES AND PRECAUTIONS

depth. For deep dives, it is recommended that an
expanded contingency plan be written on your slate and
taken along on the dive. This provides previously deter- Upon arrival at the dive site and determining that
mined information for various times plus various conditions are suitable for the dive, you should check
depths. This approach is preferred to attempting to refer- emergency communications systems and determine that
ence the dive tables underwater where errors are more they are functional. Telephones or radios are of no value
likely to occur. if they do not work.
These are the minimum preparations for deeper When applicable, set up a "down line" and an air
dives, but don't be misled into believing that this is all cylinder with a regulator attached. Place the tank and
there is to going to increased depths in diving. There are regulator at the precautionary decompression stop depth
more procedures, more things to be learned and addi- of 5 meters (15 feet). This extra tank is often called a
tional training requirements to be met before you "hang-off" tank. It should be turned on to ensure that it
should make excursions approaching the maximum is full and that the regulator is functioning properly, but
recommended 40-meter (130-foot) depth limit for tradi- it should then be turned off to prevent loss of air if the
tional recreational diving. It is important now for you to regulator should free-flow while the tank is hanging on
learn and apply the basics of preparation and planning the line. All of the divers in the group should be informed
during this Advanced Scuba Diver course so you can dive that they will need to open the valve on the hang-off
with confidence to deeper depths. In your own diving, tank if it is needed. The down line should be vertical and
stay within your "comfort envelope" by advancing grad- taut. This is accomplished by placing weights on the bot-
ually towards greater depths. You should understand tom of the line and suspending it above the bottom. If
why advanced specialty training is necessary if you the line is suspended from a surface float rather than a
desire to dive even deeper. Diving beyond 40 meters boat, an anchor and line can be rigged from the weights
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 5-8. PRE DIVE EQUIPMENT CHECKS ARE ALWAYS AN IMPORTANT STEP AND EVEN MORE SO WHEN EXECUTING A DEEPER WATER DIVE.

at the end of the line to the bottom. your timing device or computer to make sure it is set to
Whenever possible and practical, it is recommended begin measuring elapsed time. Your descent should be
that surface support personnel be present during deeper controlled. Descend slowly, feet first and eye-to-eye with
dives and that these individuals be divers. Their function your buddy. Stop occasionally to recheck your gear and
is to assist in the preparations to dive, to keep a record of to test your buoyancy. If you sink with a full breath, you
diving activities (times, depths, etc.), and to do any and need to add air to your buoyancy compensator.
all physical work required following the dive (retrieving Upon reaching the planned depth, test your buoy-
the down line, pulling the anchor, etc.). The divers ancy again by letting go of the down line briefly. If you
should keep physical exertion to a minimum following are too heavy or too buoyant, grasp the line while you
a deep dive because activity increases the chances of make adjustments, then test your buoyancy again. Do
decompression sickness, as does drinking alcoholic or not leave the descent line until your buoyancy is correct.
caffeinated beverages and taking hot showers. Next, select the desired direction in which to begin your
It is a good idea to check your equipment three times dive and take a moment to orient yourself to the sur-
before entering the water for a deep dive (figure 5-8). You roundings and to the down line. Note the direction of
should inspect it yourself after suiting up, your buddy any current and be aware that the current at the bottom
should check it, and the surface support person should may run in a different direction than the surface cur-
also look you over before you enter the water. It is safer rent.
and easier to make corrections to equipment above As the dive progresses, you should frequently refer-
water than it is underwater. Upon entering the water and ence your proximity to the ascent line. Also reference
agreeing with your buddy to begin your descent on the both your instruments and your buddy's. If there is a dif-
down line, again make a quick check of your gear to ference in the readings on your gauges compared to
make sure it is secure and properly oriented, then check those on your buddy's gauges, use the more conservative
 Chapter 5- Introduction to Deeper Diving

reading. In other words, use the deeper reading gauge

for the determination of your present depth. If you are
both using dive computers, end your dive when the more
conservative computer reaches its limit.
It is important that you proceed at a slow, easy pace
during deeper dives. Breathe continually. Avoid "skip
breathing," and avoid heavy exertion. As you monitor
your air, keep in mind that one-half of your air supply is
for your bottom time, which includes your descent, and
one-half is for your ascent, decompression stop (safety
or emergency) and for contingency purposes. For dives
to even deeper depth, the rule is modified to one-third
for descent and bottom time, one-third for ascent and a
precautionary decompression stop, and one-third for
contingency.
A slow, controlled descent and a slow, easy pace on
the bottom can also reduce the likelihood of experienc-
ing nitrogen narcosis. There are numerous and various
symptoms of narcosis. If you experience any strange or
unusual feelings, you should immediately signal your
buddy and ascend until the feelings are alleviated. Even FIGURE 5-9. DEEPER WATER DIVING IS COMMONLY CONDUCTED
if you just feel uncomfortable, you should signal your ON DROP-OFFS OR "WALLS." IT IS IMPORTANT TO
buddy and ascend until you are again at a comfortable FOLLOW INSTRUCTIONS AND THE DIVE PLAN TO
depth. An established rule of diving, and one which is AVOID PROBLEMS.
especially important for deeper diving, is that anyone
can call an end to a dive at any time and for any reason.
do, you can cause the dive to be shortened for everyone
If your buddy signals you to ascend, respond at once
in the group, and you won't be very popular after the
rather than trying to communicate that you are still
dive. A good practice is to move away from the boat
fine, have time, air, etc. When in doubt, ascend and end
along the wall at a pre-determined depth and to return
the deep dive. to the boat at a shallower depth. There are other proce-
One of the more popular types of deep diving is dures that will be explained to you. Pay attention during
"wall" or "drop-off" diving (figure 5-9). At many loca- the briefing and follow the instructions, which are for
tions in the Caribbean, the continental shelf drops off your benefit and safety.
steeply into extremely deep water quite close to shore. It is important that you adhere closely to your dive
The vertical walls of the drop-off offer spectacular div- plan on deep dives. One of the conventions for deeper
ing, but those who dive these areas need to follow rec- dives is that a dive plan should not be changed during
ommended procedures and practices. It is common to the dive with the exceptions, of course, to dive shallower,
anchor the boat near the edge of the drop-off. Buoyancy ascend sooner, or respond to emergency situations.
must be trimmed precisely before venturing out over the Remember, "Plan your dive, then dive your plan." This
deep water. With proper buoyancy control, there is a feel- is more important than ever for deeper dives.
ing of exhilaration as you hang suspended in space on a Your ascent should be made on the down line,
wall dive. This type of dive is often led by a divemaster or which provides a reference, control, and a place to carry
guide. You should not go deeper than the guide. If you out precautionary decompression stops. Your rate should
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

not exceed 9 meters (30 feet) per minute or the rate for the start of your surface interval, signal the surface
specified by your dive computer. This rate is much slow- support person that you are "OK," and make your way
er than most people realize, so monitor your progress by to the exit. After exiting the water and removing your
watching your depth gauge and counting slowly or com- gear, take it easy for a while. Avoid exertion, hot showers,
paring your ascent to elapsed time. You should stop at 5 alcohol, and drinks containing caffeine. You should also
meters (15 feet) to decompress for a minimum of three wait at least 12 hours, longer if your dive is one of a
minutes, even if your total dive time is well under the series of repetitive dives, before flying in an airplane. Any
no-decompression limits. This is a good safety precau- hard work, such as pulling the anchor or carrying heavy
tion. It is good practice, also, in the event that a manda- equipment, should be performed by people who were not
tory decompression stop should ever be required. involved in the dive.
Maintain yourself at the decompression stop level and Perhaps you feel that with all of this knowledge and
keep activity to a minimum. Sometimes a weighted bar, with the experience of a couple of dives beyond 18
called a "decompression bar" or "deco bar," is used to meters (60 feet) you are ready to handle any kind of
provide a better base for decompression than the down deep dive. There is much more you need to know. Your
line. The decompression bar can accommodate more deep diving ability as an Advanced Scuba Diver is limit-
divers than a down line, and its use is common practice ed to the depth of your training. Gradually increase your
for charter dive boats. depths to stay within your comfort envelope and multi-
In order to relocate the down line for your ascent, tasking ability. Plan to obtain additional training if you
you will need to dive nearby, or you will need to navigate are interested in deep diving or have a need to make
accurately. It is best to stay close to and in sight of the dives to deeper depths. Before you rush off to make deep
ascent line. If you are unable to locate the down line for dives on your own, remember all of the equipment you
your ascent, you will have to perform a hovering safety need in order to make deep dives and remember your
responsibility to the diving community to conduct your
stop and surface without the reference and control pro-
recreational dives safely.
vided by the line. This could be hazardous under condi-
tions that warranted the use of a vertical descent/ascent
line. If a deep dive is being made from shore, you may
be able to swim toward shore and make your safety
decompression stop on the bottom in shallow water. OVERVIEW OF A TYPICAL
Deep dives from shore also allow you to follow the con- INTRODUCTORY DIVE
tour of the bottom for descents and ascents, but result in
The planning and preparation for your introductory
less time at depth because the angled descent requires
dive may be assigned to you. As you set up and prepare
more time than a vertical descent on a down line.
for the dive, you do so under the supervision and direc-
When a dive has very short bottom time, such as a tion of your instructor. Equipment such as the down line
quick dive to free a fouled anchor, the dive is termed a and the hang-off tank is provided, but you may be
"bounce dive." Such dives can increase the chances of required to prepare it for use. A review of the NAUI Dive
decompression sickness occurring and are to be avoided, Tables is usually included, and may be part of the brief-
especially following a deep dive or any dive approaching ing for the dive. A more thorough review and additional
the no-decompression limits. It is better to spend one, information on dive tables theory and usage is included
continuous length of time at a depth than it is to spend in the NAUI Master Scuba Diver course. The briefing will
an equal amount of time at that depth with a couple of also include instructions on activities for the dive, which
trips to the surface included. may involve recording the readings of depth gauges for
Upon surfacing from the water after completion of comparison, noting the effects of pressure on various
your precautionary decompression stop, note the time items, buoyancy loss measurements, an aquatic life sur-
 Chapter 5- Introduction to Deeper Diving

vey, a guided tour, or a combination of these. A precau-

tionary decompression stop will be included, and you
may have the opportunity to practice additional precau-
tionary decompression stops on the down line.
It is important for an introductory deep dive to be
well organized and coordinated, so be attentive during
the briefing and ask questions for clarification. Find out
such details as whether you should go around divers
who have stopped on the down line during descent or
whether you should hold your position above them.
You will learn more about deeper diving during the
discussion following the dive. Another review of the dive
tables is usually included in the debriefing. Remember
to log the dive and have your log book signed by your
buddy and by your instructor.
 CHAPTER

Conservation
and Aquatic
Life Studies
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

LEARNING GOALS have in this area. There are plenty of books, classes, and
opportunities for you to learn more and to further devel-
In this chapter you will:
op your ability to do research as a diver.
1. Be introduced to conservation and aquatic life
studies.
2. Learn about biological study techniques. Activities
3. Be introduced to the equipment used in aquatic Biological study techniques vary. Typical activities
life studies. include quantitative counts, comparison studies, surveys,
4. Learn the procedures for conducting biological controlled observations, tagging, collecting, and preserv-
studies. ing. You might study all life forms in an area or focus
5. Explore a typical Advanced Scuba Diver course on only one. It can be fun to learn the habitats, special
aquatic life study dive. relationships, distinctive characteristics, roles, behaviors,
dangers, and names of various creatures. Techniques
include timed or controlled searches and counts, general

AQUATIC LIFE STUDIES

and transect surveys, use of special scientific equipment,
and more. Generally, though, studies involve an organ-
This chapter provides an introduction to conserva- ized approach to learning about a particular life form in
tion and aquatic life studies. The study of fresh water a designated area.
animals and plants is known as limnology. The study of

Equipment
marine plants and animals is known as marine biology.
You will learn some of the techniques used by scientists
in the fields of limnology and marine biology. The equipment for underwater studies of aquatic
There are millions of species in the waters of our life ranges from an underwater slate to sophisticated
earth. Some people are more interested in studying these electronic measuring devices. You are not likely to be
life forms than others, but all divers should at least be exposed to elaborate equipment during your dives, but
able to recognize certain types of animals for safety rea- there are some simple items of gear that you may use
sons. There are benefits from studies of aquatic life. You and with which you should be familiar. The activity usu-
will learn how to see things you would otherwise over- ally involves the recording of a lot of data, so a good
look, you will be able to satisfy some of your curiosity underwater slate and pencil or a clipboard with water-
about some plants and animals, and you will be able to proof paper is a must (figure 6-1). Professional
explain some of the aspects of aquatic life to others. "research divers" even use waterproof tape recorders
This type of diving is also a very interesting way to with special mouthpieces that enable them to speak
develop other valuable diving skills such as navigation. underwater. Slates for aquatic studies are usually larger
Perhaps the most interesting part of all, however, is the than the general use ones available for recreational div-
interest you will develop when learning about relation- ing. Rulers and measuring devices may also be useful
ships between animals, their traits, their uses, and their for determining sizes when collecting data.
role in the environment. You will develop a greater Standard techniques involve the studying of a spe-
appreciation for nature, you will learn to identify ani- cific area, so equipment such as marker buoys, lines,
mals, and you will view hunting, collecting and preserv- anchors, bottom markers, counting grids, measured
ing of plants and animals from an entirely different per- lines or poles, etc. are frequently required. The idea is to
spective. mark off an area on the bottom and to limit the study to
After your introduction to aquatic life studies, you the area that has been defined.
won't be qualified to participate in scientific expeditions, Diving instruments are important. A compass is
but you will have an idea of how much interest you needed for navigation, establishing transects, and posi-
 Chapter 6- Conservation and Aquatic Life Studies

FIGURE 6-1. A SLATE WILL BE NECESSARY TO RECORD YOUR FINDINGS ON AN AQUATIC LIFE STUDY DIVE.

tion fixing. A depth gauge is necessary to record data

about habitats, and a thermometer is useful. A dive
watch allows activities to be coordinated and findings to
be keyed to time.
A dive light is helpful for peering into dark places
and allowing colors to be observed. Many colors in the
spectrum are removed from natural light by absorption.
The deeper the depth, the more colors are absorbed until
only blue or violet light remains. By providing artificial
light in close proximity, the colors of an object in deep
water can be seen.
Collecting equipment such as nets, collecting guns,
traps, collecting bags, and tagging equipment may be
called for. One type of collecting gun is the "slurp gun,"
which is a vacuum-type plastic tube that "slurps" ani-
mals into a chamber.
An underwater camera can be a useful tool to the
research diver (figure 6-2). A picture can literally be
worth a thousand words when documenting animal
behavior or habitat. You will learn more about under- FIGORE 6-2. FOR UNDERWATER RESEARCH AND STUDY, A PICTURE
water cameras and photography in the chapter on the CAN BE WORTH A THOUSAND WORDS.
topic later in the book.
When a large area needs to be surveyed, a diver's possible by swimming. A DPV is a battery-operated
sled or a Diver Propulsion Vehicle (DPV) may be used to device with a motor and a propeller that the diver holds
allow systematic searching at speeds faster than those onto or rides (figure 6-3). Another device for surveying
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

large areas is a diver's sled, sometimes referred to as an

aquaplane. This is a board with handles which is towed
behind a boat and held onto by a diver. The board can
be tilted to provide directional control. Since the force on
the diver can be quite great, towing speeds must be slow.
A seat may be attached to reduce the strain on the diver's
arms. A quick disconnect device is a necessary safety fea-
ture. Use of this latter piece of equipment requires train-
ing and practice, and should be used only by highly
experienced divers.

Procedures
Organization is a necessary first step. The partici-
pants in the study need to know what to look for, where
to look for it, what data to obtain, and the techniques to
be used. Communications and coordination are a neces-
sary part of organization. Special signals may be used,
FIGURE 6-3. DIVER PROPULSION VEHICLES (DPV'S) COME IN DIF- and will need to be introduced and agreed upon. Once
FERENT DESIGNS AND ARE USEFUL WHEN YOU NEED everyone is organized, some of the following procedures
TO COVER GREATER DISTANCE THAN IS CONVENIENT may prove useful.
WHILE SWIMMING. As your dive progresses, you will find that it is easy
to look at something underwater and yet not see it.
Many life forms are experts at camouflage. Light levels
are often low as well. Unless you make a conscious effort
to observe and to identify, you may not see many of the
creatures you are looking for. The skill of keen observa-
tion is one that can be developed. One key is to impress
into your mind the contour of the animal you are seek-
ing. As you look about, keep this contour in mind and
you will be surprised at how the creature you seek will
seem to jump from its background as its contour match-
es your imagined one. You should also focus narrowly
on things as you come upon them and not let your eyes
move idly from one thing to another.
Once you find an animal, note the circumstances.
Is the creature among rocks, on sand, in open water?
What is the depth? This will help you to find others of
the same species. Note the size and color. Fix the animal
in your mind by naming it, by discussing it as soon as
possible, and by using a reference book (figure 6-4).
Seeking one type of plant or animal to the exclusion of
FIGURE 6-4. NOTE THE SURROUNDINGS WHEN YOU FIND A all else is usually preferable to looking for a variety of
SUBJECT FOR STUDY. life forms.
 Chapter 6- Conservation and Aquatic Life Studies

FIGURE 6-5. SURVEYS SHOULD ALWAYS BE CONDUCTED IN BUDDY PAIRS.

After your dive, take time to reflect upon the experi- from plastic pipe may be used. The square is placed over
ence. Leisurely go over it in your mind and picture the a representative section of the animals being studied and
significant things you saw. The more you ponder your the number of animals inside the square is recorded. By
experience, the more you will learn and retain, and the measuring or estimating the total area covered by the
more effective you will be on your next dive. Finally, animal population and multiplying it times the number
transfer your observations and circumstances from your of animals per area covered by the square, the total pop-
slate and record them in your logbook. Writing rein- ulation can be estimated.
forces your memory. To survey animals on a larger scale, such as starfish
Much aquatic life is not out in the open where it on a sandy bottom, a different method is used. A
can be easily viewed. You must either discover the hiding "Transect" line of a specific length-say 20 meters-is
place of the animal or attract it. Dive lights are very use- stretched and anchored along a selected heading on the
ful for peering into holes and crevices and beneath over- bottom. The divers making the count swim up one side
hangs. of the line and down the other using a measured pole to
Baiting animals with food is a common practice as delineate the survey area. One end of the pole is kept
a means to observe them. The desire for food is often next to the line, and all animals passing beneath the
greater than the fear an animal may have for your pres- pole are counted. In this way, multiplying the density
ence. Your goal is to observe the animal within its envi- per known area times the estimated total area can
ronment without harming the creature. The use of approximate the total population. For increased accura-
lights and bait can help you to achieve this goal. cy, the search line can be moved parallel by two pole
During biological studies, searches for plants and lengths one or more times and the survey repeated to
animals are usually controlled. Depending on the determine a more accurate density average.
underwater terrain, the density of the objects being sur- Another method of surveying using the transect
veyed, and other factors, more or less methodical forms method is for divers to follow an assigned heading
of quantitative studies can be used. For high-density sit- through an area and count all of a certain species
uations, such as a sand dollar bed, a square formed encountered on that course. The area viewed needs to be
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

determined, and will depend on the distance covered, the an orientation to the area and a briefing on the dive
animal being studied, the visibility, and other factors. By activity. Your study may consist of finding and identify-
having several teams of divers make parallel transect ing a list of plants and animals common to the area, or
counts in an area, and by knowing the dimensions of you may be asked to conduct a survey of an area for one
the area being covered, fairly accurate estimates of pop- particular species. Collecting is usually discouraged in
ulation size can be made. order to conserve aquatic life.
It is important that all surveys be performed by Post-dive activities include a review of the dive
buddy teams of divers (figure 6-5). Solo diving is not objective and the procedures used, a compilation and
permitted for obvious safety reasons. Also, teams of examination of the data collected, a discussion of any
divers increase the opportunities for sightings of the problems experienced during the dive, suggestions from
plant or animal being sought. For better accuracy, it is your instructor, and logging of the dive. Aquatic study is
usually a good idea for each diver to count separately frequently one of the most enjoyable dives in the
and for either the higher number or an average of the Advanced Scuba Diver Course.
two counts to be used.
In addition to density studies, data recording is also
important. You may want to record the depth, tempera-
ture, bottom composition, and other information when-
ever you find an animal. It is also useful to note any
special relationships the animal may have with other
animals, any unusual behavior, and distinctive charac-
teristics. It is fun to try to determine what role the ani-
mal plays in the overall environment. The more you
learn about an animal, the more interesting it becomes.
By recording information for later reference, you will
learn more and get more enjoyment from your diving.
Some activities, such as comparison studies and
tagging projects, are beyond the scope of recreational
diving, but you can imagine the challenges and rewards
possible when such undertakings are successful. Your
experience in learning a little about biological studies
may provide you with an opportunity to participate as a
volunteer diver in a local environmental study.
Additional training will increase your capabilities and
your opportunities.

OVERVIEW OF A TYPICAL
INTRODUCTORY DIVE
As is usually the case in the Advanced Scuba Diver
Course, your instructor will provide you with informa-
tion on the dive and you will need to prepare a dive
plan. You will probably meet at the dive site and receive
 CHAPTER

Search and
Recovery
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

LEARNING GOALS this area during the NAUI Master Scuba Diver course.
Your initial studies and introductory dive will help make
In this chapter you will:
your attempts to locate and retrieve items safer and more
1. Learn the basics of finding and recovering objects
effective. You will also find that your search and recovery
lost underwater.
training involves the application of many diving skills
2. Be introduced to the general procedures of search
that improve as you apply them for a new purpose. You
and recovery operations.
will become a better underwater navigator, for example,
3. Learn how to rig a found object for lifting to the
and will also develop increased underwater awareness.
surface.
4. Learn about the equipment used on search and
recovery.
5. Understand the techniques and precautions of GENERAL PROCEDURES
search and recovery.
We will divide the general procedures into those for
6. Explore a typical Advanced Scuba Diver course
searching and those for recovering.
search and recovery dive.
The first fundamental of searching for an object
under water is to define the area to be searched and to
mark the starting point. The sooner the point at which an
INTRODUCTION object has been lost can be marked, the better the chances
for recovery. Some experienced divers carry a marker buoy
You won't be a diver for long before you will lose
on all dives just so they can mark the location of an
something and need to find it or before someone asks
object that has been found or one that might be dropped.
you to find and recover something they have lost in the
In this way, they are able to relocate and recover objects
water. Most non-divers assume that because you are a
easily. Having a marker buoy handy in your gear bag at
diver you can easily find something that has been lost
underwater. This usually isn't the case unless you have
been trained in at least the basics of searching for and
recovering objects. Finding things underwater requires a
proper approach for success and safety. This is also true
of recovery. This chapter will introduce you to this very
useful activity area and will provide you with a few
basics that will help you find and recover lost equip-
ment, items dropped from a boat while at anchor, and
lightweight objects found while diving. The techniques
described will also help you in searching for good dive
sites. This chapter, however, is not intended to prepare
you to salvage heavy objects or to engage in search and
recovery operations that would be considered commer-
cial or professional. The scope of this introduction is
limited to the basics of the topic, practice of simple
searches, and the use of a small "lift bag," which will be
described later.
NAUI Search & Recovery Diver Specialty courses are
available to help you learn more complex aspects of this FIGURE 7-1. MARKER BUOYS ARE INDISPENSABLE FOR SUCCESS-
topic, and you can greatly increase your capabilities in FUL SEARCH AND RECOVERY OPERATIONS .
 Chapter 7- Search and Recovery

FIGURE 7-2. WITHOUT A STARTING POINT AND BOUNDARIES THE OCEAN IS A LIMITLESS AREA IN WHICH OBJECTS LOST ARE SELDOM FOUND.

the surface is also a good idea. If someone drops some- With the starting point marked, the area defined,
thing overboard, the immediate marking of the spot will and the pattern selected, the next item of concern is to
increase the chance of recovery (figure 7-1). keep track of the areas that have been searched. It is
After determining the starting point as accurately as obviously a waste of time to meticulously search the
possible, define the area to be searched. This will depend same area twice. Marker buoys can be used to designate
on many factors, but unless you define the limits of the the limits of the search. In still water on certain types of
search, you will not be able to search systematically, bottoms it is even possible to draw lines on the bottom to
which is critical to success (figure 7-2). The boundaries mark your progress. Training and experience will help
of the area to be searched are sometimes identified with you select ways to keep track of the areas searched.
buoys, but other limits such as depth can be used. The final basic item to be considered for searching
The next step is to select an appropriate search pat- may seem obvious, but it is frequently not followed and
tern.Types of search patterns and how to conduct them causes frustration. The principle is to mark an object
will be introduced in the Techniques and Precautions once it has been found unless the object is light enough
part of this chapter. Search techniques are taught in to be recovered immediately. A marker buoy should be
greater detail in NAUI Master Scuba Diver and in NAUI attached to the item and deployed to the surface. All too
Search and Recovery Diver Specialty courses. For now often the object of a search has been located, and after
you need only understand that the type of pattern to be the divers have surfaced to report the find they have
used is affected by visibility, bottom conditions, the size been unable to relocate it! That can be frustrating, espe-
of the object, currents, and other considerations. The cially when it is so easily avoided.
ability to choose the best pattern for a given situation If an object is small and light, recovery is simply a
may well determine whether or not the objective of the matter of picking the object up and returning to the sur-
search is quickly met or leads to frustration. Much of face. But when the object weighs more than about ten
search and recovery training is about learning search kilograms (twenty-two pounds), a "lift bag" should be
patterns and practicing them. used to raise the item to the surface. A typical lift bag is
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

shaped like a small hot-air balloon. Adding air to the lift divers present, and the lift itself. The procedures for
bag provides the buoyancy used to lift objects underwa- doing this are also presented in the part on Techniques
ter. Divers are often tempted to simply grasp the object and Precautions.
and inflate their buoyancy compensators and use them- Become familiar with these basic principles, which
selves as "human lift bags," but this is a dangerous are now summarized for you. No matter how much you
practice that should be avoided. If the diver with the learn about search and recovery, you will find that these
excess buoyancy accidentally drops the object, a danger- apply.
ous, uncontrolled ascent can occur and result in injury.
Even if the object is retained during the ascent, holding
onto it occupies the diver's hands and may prevent the
BASIC PROCEDURES OF SEARCH AND RECOVERY:
diver from controlling buoyancy as the air in the BC 1. Define the area to be searched and mark the
expands. Never risk being a "human lift bag." starting point.
2. Select the appropriate search pattern.
To salvage an object that has been found and
marked, the first step is to "rig" the item securely. 3. Keep track of the areas searched.
4. Mark the position of an object when it has been
Rigging is the term used to describe the attachment of
found.
ropes, cords, and straps, between the object to be sal-
vaged and the lifting device. You may be required to tie a 5. Securely rig the object to be lifted.
6. Match the lift bag capacity to the weight of the
line to an object, so knowledge of and the ability to tie
object being recovered.
several knots will be required. The main idea to be kept
in mind when rigging an item is that preventing the 7. Control the lift.

item from coming loose during the lift is essential for

safety. Equipment
The next salvage fundamental is to match the lift-
Many of the items of extra equipment used for
ing force of a lift bag to the weight of the object being search and recovery have already been mentioned.
recovered. A lift bag is a bag that can be filled with air to Continue reading to learn more about this equipment.
provide a buoyant force for the lifting. More on lift bags
Marker buoys are available in various sizes and
will be presented in the Equipment part of this chapter. configurations. They are small and compact so they can
When a lift bag is used to raise an item, the lifting be easily carried by divers. Well-designed marker buoys
capacity of the bag should not greatly exceed the weight obtained from a dive center are recommended over
of the object. If it does, the air inside the bag will expand homemade. Most buoys have nothing to stop their line
during ascent, accelerate the lift, and the lift can get out from completely unraveling (make sure you've checked
of control. By matching the capacity of the bag to the that the bitter end of the line is secured to the buoy or
weight of the object being recovered, the bag will be full you can lose the float in the current) when deployed
or nearly full at the start of the ascent, the excess air will underwater resulting in the excess knotting at the sur-
simply bubble out the bottom of the bag, and the ascent face or drifting down current. This can be unavoidable
will take place at a fairly constant, controlled rate. You when used to mark an unexpected find. Once you have
will learn how to estimate the size of the lift bag in the regained the surface tie off the line, but allow a little
Techniques and Precautions part of this chapter. slack to accommodate waves and tide changes. You
The next principle of recovery is to maintain con- don't want your marker buoy to be hidden underwater
trol during the lifting process. Even when the object is because you made the line taut and the tide has come in
properly rigged and when the appropriate size of lift bag when you return to begin the recovery phase.
is being used, control is required. You must control the Underwater slates are useful for communications as
entire situation, including yourself, your buddy, other well as for information recording. Time can be saved
 Chapter 7- Search and Recovery

FIGURE 7-3, LIFT BAGS COME IN A VARIETY OF DESIGNS AND SIZES. IT IS IMPORTANT TO MATCH THE BAG TO THE ITEM BEING LIFTED

and frustration avoided when coordinating with your An extra source of air should be used for inflating a
buddy if you can simply write a message to convey your lift bag under water. Use of the diver's primary regulator
point. Draw the search area on the slate before you start second stage is not recommended. The regulator could
and mark off each area as you search it. become entangled in the lift or get caught as the lift
Even better is the use of underwater radio commu- begins to ascend. Being pulled to the surface with no
nications so that you and your buddy and others on the source of air is a potentially hazardous circumstance
team can simply talk to each other. These devices are and one that can be avoided by use of an extra source of
readily available, reliable and becoming a popular addi- air. The use of a separate cylinder of air to fill a lift bag
tion to many recreational divers equipment. is recommended, although use of a regulator's extra sec-
To define an area to be searched or to keep track of ond stage is permissible if care is taken to avoid the
what has been searched, surface floats are often used. potential for entanglement and adequate air supply is
These are a form of marker buoy, but are larger and available. The potential for entanglement can be
more positive indicators than smaller marker buoys reduced if one diver holds the bottom of the lift bag
designed to be carried by a diver. The larger float is easi- open while the other adds air to the bag. Also, do not
er to see at the surface, and can deploy a heavier anchor push your hand up inside the lift bag while adding air.
that provides better holding power. However, surface
floats can be anything from a plastic jug to a specially
designed buoy as long as the purpose of defining and
maintaining the search area is fulfilled. TECHNIQUES AND PRECAUTIONS
Perhaps the most specialized item of equipment You are now familiar with the basics of what to do,
for search and recovery operations is the lift bag (figure but you need information on how to do it. This part of
7-3)- The bags are made from different materials, and the chapter will explore the appropriate techniques to
the type of material isn't important as long as the bag use and will help you learn about potential hazards
holds air under water. The neck of the bag is fairly nar- involved with search and recovery so you can avoid
row and usually has a strap attached for rigging the them.
bag to the object being lifted. A desirable feature on Again, your first step is to mark the starting point.
a lift bag is a "dump valve" - a manually operated The use of a marker buoy was suggested, but what if you
valve that allows expanding air to be vented from the don't have one? Then a "fix" of the position as described
lift bag during ascent. This is one way in which a lift in the chapter on navigation should be taken as quickly
can be controlled. and accurately as possible. Even if there is absolutely
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 7 7. CIRCULAR SEARCH PATTERN

FIGURE 74. CONTOUR SEARCH PATTERN

nothing visible that can be used as a reference, you

should still write down any information that can help in
establishing the search area. What is the depth? What
time is it? Which way is the current flowing and how
strong is it? If you were diving in the vicinity, what was
the bottom like? Were any underwater landmarks or dis-
tinctive features nearby? Information such as this can
help a great deal and may lead to successful search, but
don't trust it to memory. Write it down.
The second step is to select an appropriate search
pattern. However, you don't always have to conduct an
underwater search. In some situations, snorkeling on
the surface is all that is necessary. No matter which tech-
FIGURE 7-5. PARALLEL SEARCH PATTERN nique you use, your search needs employ the appropri-
ate pattern and be well planned (figure 7-4,5,6,7).
There are two basic types of search patterns: circu-
lar and straight line. There are countless variations of
these basic types, but we will look at only a few of them
that are useful for areas where the bottom is relatively
unobstructed.
A circular search is most useful when the point of
loss is rather well defined. The idea is to extend a line
from a marked center point and search in ever-widening
circles until the lost object is located. The technique
usually uses a heavy weight as the hub for the sweeps,
but your buddy can serve as the anchor point while you
make the circular passes. It is necessary to know when a
circle has been completed. This can be done by placing
FIGURE 7-8. EXPANDING SQUARE SEARCH PATTERN an object on the bottom, marking the bottom, noting a
 Chapter 7- Search and Recovery

compass heading, or by being signaled by a buddy who known area, and finish the search at a known point.
remains at the hub and signals completion of a circle by Only when these criteria have been met can a systematic
tugging on the line. It is important that the line be kept search be conducted.
taut during the sweeps. The amount of area searched It is important that buddy contact be maintained
during each sweep depends on the visibility and the size during searches. There are different ways to accomplish
of the object. There are many variations to the basic cir- this depending on the type of search. For circular sweep
cular sweep, and your instructor will explain the exact searches, buddy contact can be maintained with line
approach you will use in your training. A circular sweep pull signals, but the signals used need to be agreed upon
is the easiest and fastest search method available, but it in advance. During compass course searches, the divers
does require a search line and good coordination should swim together with one diver navigating the pat-
between the divers involved. tern and the other doing the searching.
Straight-line searches are used when the exact point When the object of a search has been located and
of loss is less well known. The general concept is to sweep the divers need to surface to obtain the lifting equip-
back and forth over an area in a systematic pattern until ment, its position should be marked. It is a good idea if
the object is located or until the area has been thorough- each member of a dive team has a marker buoy. One
ly covered. The pattern is usually executed by following can be used to mark the starting point for a search, and
compass headings. Distances for various legs of the pat- the other can be used to mark the object once it is locat-
terns are measured by time or by counting kicks. ed. If no marker buoy is available, employ the same pro-
A more precise variation of a straight-line search cedures for marking a point of loss. Write down perti-
pattern uses semi-fixed search line to control the nent data before surfacing, and establish ranges and/or
searchers' progress. The line is deployed along the bot- bearings to get a "fix" on the location as quickly as pos-
tom and its ends are weighted in place at the limits of sible upon surfacing. Also note your location in relation
the search area. The buddy team then searches along to the buoy marking the starting point.
the length of the line. When they reach an end, that end If a lift bag is needed, its capacity should approxi-
is moved sideways a short distance, and the team search- mate the weight of the object. Lift bags are usually rated
es back along the line. The process is repeated, moving in terms of weight of lift. For example, a 20 kilogram
each end of the line in turn until the object is located or bag will lift 20 kilograms of weight (50 pound bag will
the search area has been covered. This "jack-stay" or lift 50 pounds of weight). Unfortunately, lift bag capaci-
"z" search pattern is very thorough because there is ties are not divided into very small increments; but for-
extensive overlap as the line is searched back and forth, tunately many bags have "dump valves" for venting
but it is also time consuming. excess air during lifts. As long as control can be main-
It is a good idea to practice a search pattern by tained by venting expanding air on ascent using a bag
walking through it on land before attempting it under- with more lift than is necessary is acceptable. It is unac-
water. This way it allows you to discuss the signals and ceptable to use a bag that is much too large and which
coordination needed before you submerge and are forced has no provision to reduce the excess buoyancy.
to rely on slates and hand signals. The next step is to rig the object for lifting. The lift
After executing a pattern and finding nothing, the bag may have a strap and a clip, and this simplifies the
pattern may be repeated by establishing a new starting rigging procedure. When possible, place a full wrap or
point and repeating it. It should minimally overlap part "round turn" of the strap around the object before
of the area covered by the previous search. The overlap securing the end of the strap rather than simply passing
increases efficiency and helps prevent any of the search the strap around the item. You may need to secure the
area from being missed. It should now be rather obvious object to the lift bag with line, and you will need to be
why you need to begin at a known point, search a able to tie some appropriate knots (figure 7-8). As a
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

minimum you should be able to tie: Two Half Hitches, a

Bowline, and a Sheet Bend. These knots will be useful
for you to know for other applications besides diving.
Two Half Hitches are useful for securing the end of
a line to something (also useful is a Clove Hitch) or for
making a slipping loop in the end of a line when tied
around the line itself.. A Bowline forms a non-slipping,
easy-to-untie loop in the end of a line. Because a square
knot may work loose if continually flexed by wave
Single Sheet Bend action, a Sheet Bend is often preferable for joining two
lines together particularly if they are of different circum-
ferences. For most rigging purposes, these knots should
meet your needs. Remember that desirable features of
any knot are not only that it is easy to tie, but also that
it holds well and is easy to untie.
With the proper size lift bag rigged securely to the
object, you are ready to begin the lift. Signal your buddy
and make sure the area is clear of other divers. Use the
extra air source to put air into the lift bag. Proceed slow-
ly, adding a small amount of air at a time and noting
the effect. If you just keep adding air until an object
Bowline starts off the bottom, you will have more buoyancy than
is needed for the lift and it will be difficult to control. Try
Two Half Hitches to get the object neutrally buoyant so it hovers just off
the bottom. You can then check the rigging to make
sure it is holding properly when it is supporting the full
weight of the object. Start the lift on its way when you
are ready by simply pushing the object upward a little.
The expansion of air from the pressure reduction will be
enough to establish positive buoyancy. It is important
that you and other divers stay clear of the area below a
lift. You and your partner should ascend with the lift
and use the dump valve in the lift bag to maintain a
Clove Hitch
(End of Rope) proper ascent rate. If the lift gets out of control by rising
faster than it should, let it go, swim horizontally away
from it, and surface. It is possible that the bag may clear
the water enough to dump air when it reaches the sur-
face, and the object will immediately sink. You do not
want to be underneath if this happens. In the event that
you vent too much air and the lift begins to sink, release
it, follow it to the bottom, add air and start again. Don't
try to support a sinking lift by holding it and swimming
or by trying to add air to it as it descends.
FIGURE 7-8, KNOTS
 Chapter 7- Search and Recovery

OVERVIEW OF A TYPICAL SEARCH AND You will find that the time goes quickly on this
dive because it is interesting and fun. You will also
RECOVERY INTRODUCTORY DIVE refine some diving skills, learn about a new dive site
You will need some extra equipment for this dive, and find out how well you like search and recovery as
including a compass, a marker buoy, an underwater a diving activity.
slate, some line, and a lift bag. Your instructor may pro-
vide some or all of it or make arrangements for you to
obtain it. If you want to always be prepared to recover
small items underwater, you may see the value of pur-
chasing your own gear for this activity. Your local NAUI
affiliated dive center can aid you in selecting the equip-
ment, but be sure to point out that at present, you are
only interested in simple operations and in salvaging
lightweight objects.
When you arrive at the dive site, your instructor will
brief you on the area and the dive and explain in detail
the search and recovery procedures. You should practice
the rigging procedures and the search patterns on land.
Practice as buddy teams and use the opportunity to
establish any signals you might need under water.
The objects to be found and recovered may be
known to the instructor or may be placed in known
locations in advance with a marker buoy placed nearby
to mark the starting point. You will usually begin your
dive by swimming to the starting point and then search-
ing by teams. There may be several objects placed in the
area so each dive team will have an opportunity to find
and salvage something. If you are unsuccessful in your
first couple of searches, your instructor may interrupt
your searching, place you closer to an object, and have
you start again so you will be successful in finding an
item and so you will have the opportunity to salvage it.
So both members of a buddy team can gain experi-
ence, it is common to re-sink an item after it has been
recovered, for the diver who rigged it to unrig it, and for
the other diver to then rig the object and salvage it
again. The salvaged items may be brought to shore or
returned to the bottom - whatever your instructor
directs you to do.
After the dive you will meet and discuss what you
did and how well it went. Problems will be reviewed and
your instructor will offer suggestions to help overcome
them. Your log books should be completed and signed.
CHAPTER

Wreck
Diving
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

LEARNING GOALS People dive on wrecks to collect relics and artifacts

(where it is legal), to use them as an interesting back-
In this chapter you will:
ground for underwater photos, to hunt or observe the
1. Be introduced to the popular and challenging
abundance of life often found there, to pursue interests
activity of wreck diving.
in history or archaeology, or just for personal reasons
2. Learn the possible hazards of wreck diving.
such as curiosity or fascination. There is an awe and
3. Be introduced to the equipment used by wreck
mystique about wrecks that seems to keep divers return-
divers.
ing to them (figure 8-2).
4. Learn about the procedures used by wreck divers.
Finding wrecks isn't easy, even if you know their
5. Understand the legal and ethical issues associat-
exact location. And finding wrecks that are undiscovered,
ed with wreck diving.
challenges even to those who devote their lives to it.
6. Explore a typical Advanced Scuba Diver course
There is always the possibility that you will come across a
wreck dive.
wreck by chance, but such findings are rare. Even if you
should come upon a wreck site, you might not be aware
of it. The classic Spanish galleon wrecks depicted in

INTRODUCTION movies are not to be found in the sea. The elements and
the creatures of the ocean soon reduce a wreck to a pile
Nearly everyone has dreamed of discovering an of rubble and hide it with a dense covering of growth.
ancient galleon filled with treasure. Just the thought of However, shipwrecks can be preserved amazingly well in
finding gold and silver, jewelry, money, and other treas- fresh water.
ures is exciting. The possibility does exist because more
Wrecks often occur because of the geographical
than one fourth of all of the gold that has ever been
area. There are often dangerous reefs and strong cur-
mined has been lost underwater. It is rare that treasure
rents that contributed to the sinking of the vessel and
is recovered, but Wreck Diving is one of the most popu-
with which divers must contend if they wish to visit the
lar diving activities for other reasons. Some ships are
site. Wrecks are frequently found at deeper depths,
even sunk purposely to form artificial reefs and interest-
requiring careful planning and procedures. In the next
ing dive sites (figure 8-1).
part of this chapter you will learn of many other poten-

FIGURE 8-1. SHIPWRECKS HAVE ALWAYS INTRIGUED DIVERS AND MANY LEARNED TO DIVE JUST FOR THE OPPORTUNITY TO DIVE A WRECK.
 Chapter 8- Wreck Diving

FIGURE 8-2. BEFORE YOU REMOVE ANYTHING FROM A WRECK CONSIDER THE LEGAL AND ETHICAL ISSUE OF ARTIFACT COLLECTING

tial hazards associated with wreck diving. This activity is

definitely a specialty, requiring training, special equip-
ment, and experience to ensure enjoyment. You are
about to gain some insight into this exciting and chal-
lenging pursuit, but you must be aware that you will by
no means be qualified to engage in wreck diving activi-
ties beyond those to which you are introduced.
Penetrations, external surveys, salvage, and similar
activities on wrecks require special training.

POSSIBLE HAZARDS
In addition to the possible environmental condi-
tions of currents, limited visibility, and deep water,
other potential problems include silt and hazardous
animals. It is common for wrecks to be covered with a
layer of silt and sediment that has filtered down upon it
for years. The slightest disturbance can raise a cloud FIGURE 8-3. LEARNING A GOOD PINNING TECHNIQUE THAT AVOIDS
that can immediately reduce visibility to zero. Being DISTURBING THE BOTTOM, WHETHER NEAR A REEF OR
able to move about without disturbing silt is often a INSIDE A WRECK, HELPS PRESERVE THE ENVIRON-
requirement (figure 8-3). MENT AND THE VISIBILITY.
Wrecks are artificial reefs-often the only shelter in
an area-and are havens for life. This is one of the wrecks. You need to know what creatures could be
attractions of wrecks, but it can also present problems harmful, how to identify them, where they are likely to
because of potentially hazardous animals that dwell in be encountered, and how to avoid injury from them.
 NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

Being armed with this knowledge and using some cau- Pay particular attention to this area during your studies
tion will allow you to enjoy the animals while helping to and during your dive.
prevent injuries.
Since fish and other life is abundant, wrecks are
popular with fishermen, both anglers and commercial
fishers. Expect to encounter fishing line, hooks and even EQUIPMENT
nets on wrecks. Entanglement in these is possible, but Your wreck diving gear includes all your regular
getting caught is usually not a danger if handled prop- gear, such as full instrumentation, an extra second stage
erly. A sharp knife for cutting line and nets is essential. on your regulator, a dive knife, and gloves. Having a
The greatest hazards of wreck diving are encoun- dive light does not qualify you to enter a wreck. It takes
tered when divers enter the interior of sunken vessels. It additional equipment, training, experience and practice.
is very easy to become disoriented in an unfamiliar Some additional instruments are needed.
maze of passageways, especially when references are at Minimally, these include a depth gauge or dive comput-
unusual angles because of the orientation of the wreck. er and a compass. Note that the compass will not per-
Darkness, silt, entanglements, and anxiety compound form properly when on or near a metal wreck. In fact,
the problem. Entrapment is also possible should any erratic behavior by a compass can sometimes indicate
part of the wreck collapse or move while you are inside that you are close to a wreck for which you are search-
or underneath it. There is a great deal you need to know ing. An underwater slate is always useful for recording
and be able to do before you can penetrate wrecks observations and for communications.
underwater. Wreck diving is often done from a boat. The boat
Two possible hazards for you to keep in mind for may anchor directly on the wreck or in some instances a
your introductory, non-penetration external survey dive permanent mooring may be in place. In either circum-
are sharp edges and losing your bearings. Deterioration stance, divers can descend directly to the wreck site using
of metal underwater causes it to become thin, sharp, the anchor line as a down-line (figure 8-4). If there is
and jagged. Serious cuts are possible. Heavy gloves are current present a "trail line" or "current line" should
mandatory. It is easy to become disoriented on a wreck deployed behind the boat to be used by divers who sur-
unless you follow the procedures that will be outlined. face down current from the vessel.

FIGURE 8-4. IF YOUR BOAT IS ANCHORED 0N OR NEAR THE WRECK THE ANCHOR LINE MAKES A GOOD DESCENT AND ASCENT LINE FOR THE DIVE
 Chapter 8- Wreck Diving

Serious external survey or penetration wreck diving As mentioned, wreck diving is often done from a
at the specialty level requires additional specialized boat. Upon arrival at the vicinity of the wreck, use the
equipment. This gear and its use are covered in the time spent pinpointing its location to evaluate condi-
Wreck Diving Specialty course. tions. Estimate depth, current(s), visibility and the sta-
bility of the current weather pattern to decide whether or
not it is appropriate to dive. Conditions can be further

PROCEDURES
checked as the boat is being anchored and you set up for
the dive. Watch the anchor as it is lowered to check the
Your first task is to locate a wreck. For this course, visibility, and watch the trail line float, as it pays to
that is the responsibility of your instructor. Other sources check out the strength of the current.
include commercial dive boats, commercial fishermen, Be aware that an anchor line can be chafed or cut
charts, record searching, and other divers. Finding a by a wreck if you anchor on one, but this is a common
wreck can often be as challenging and rewarding as div- and reliable way to position a vessel for wreck diving.
ing on it. Always be sure the wreck you seek will be with- However, if you can get on the wreck without anchoring
in your limits of ability. in it, this is preferred, since anchors can severely dam-
When you find a wreck and enjoy diving on it, you age wrecks, spoiling them for future dives.
will need to carefully mark your location so you can relo- If diving from a private vessel it is a good idea to
cate the wreck for future dives. This can be done by taking check the anchor and make sure it is secure. The next
a "fix" as described elsewhere, taking bearings carefully, step is very important - that of orienting yourself to the
and/or using a GPS or other electronic navigation equip- anchor line and to the wreck itself. Which way is the
ment. If you only have a general position, when you wreck positioned in relation to the line? What distin-
arrive in the vicinity you will want to pinpoint the wreck guishing features of the wreck can be used to help you
as closely as possible. This may be done with the aid of a recognize the area where the anchor line is located? Use
depth sounder/finder, a magnetometer (metal detector), the techniques to which you were introduced on your
or by dragging a weighted line or grapple in an attempt navigation dive. Get a compass bearing so you will be
to snag the wreck. When your instructor or the boat cap- able to return to the anchor line for your ascent. Pick
tain locates a wreck for your dive, pay attention to the out a landmark at the far limit of the visibility and work
techniques used so you can better understand them. your way to it. Upon reaching the landmark, look back
Your planning for the dive needs to be more to view what you have traversed from the opposite direc-
involved than usual. You should obtain drawings, dia- tion, then look ahead to the next landmark or feature,
grams, or pictures of the wreck so you can familiarize work your way to it and so forth. To return, just proceed
yourself with it. Note the dimensions, the shallowest and from landmark to landmark in the reverse order. It is
deepest depths, and the orientation of the wreck with common for wrecks to have a pattern to them. If you
respect to the bottom and to compass direction for pur- can quickly identify this pattern, it will help quite a bit
poses of navigation. Does the wreck parallel the shore- with your orientation. You can also see why studying
line or run perpendicular to it? Information such as this illustrations of the wreck in advance can be very helpful.
can help you locate a wreck and navigate better while Before beginning your tour of a wreck, check again
you are diving on it. Find out if the wreck is intact. for current(s). Remember currents can change in inten-
Consult the tide tables to determine slack water time. sity and/or direction during your dive. If the direction of
Find out about potential hazards and prepare yourself to the current is not in line with the ship's hull and you
be able to identify them and cope with them. All of these can dive along the lee (sheltered) side, explore the shel-
steps are necessary in addition to all of the regular ones tered portion of the wreck first.
of your dive plan. As you proceed along the wreck, move carefully so
 IVIAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

removing and replacing equipment when wreck diving.

Entering the wreck is definitely inappropriate at the
introductory level. Even partially entering the wreck to
better view the interior can be dangerous because of
potential entrapment. Avoid trying to wedge through
narrow openings. If you are so intrigued with the wreck
that you want to explore it internally and in greater
detail, first complete Penetration Wreck Diver Specialty
training. Then you return to the wreck and examine it
more thoroughly with additional training and proper
equipment (figure 8-5).
Check your instruments and the position of your
buddy more frequently than you would on the average
dive. Time and air go by unnoticed when you are inter-
ested in something, and wrecks can be extremely inter-
esting. Your dive planning should include discussion
FIGURE 8 5. SWIMMING THROUGH A WELL-LIT, OPEN WHEELHOUSE
and agreement on who will lead which portion of the
IS NOT CONSIDERED PENETRATION WRECK DIVING.
dive and at what point in time or air pressure you will
VENTURING INTO AREAS WHERE YOU NEED A DIVE
turn around and make your way back to the anchor
LIGHT, INTO INTERNAL PASSAGEWAYS OR AREAS
line.
WITH ONLY ONE OPENING MUST BE AVOIDED UNTIL
PROPERLY TRAINED. Upon returning to the anchor line at the end of the
dive, it is wise to again check the anchor to make sure it
can be freed when raised. Your instructor will take care
little or no silt will be raised. Pull yourself along with
of this for your introductory dive. Ascending in contact
your hands as much as possible. Swim with your fins at
with the anchor line is recommended so you will surface
a slight upward angle so their thrust will not stir up
at the boat and not have to swim to it. This is especially
clouds of sediment. Try using a frog or a scissor kick
important if you are up current from the vessel when
that moves water from side to side, rather than the usual
you reach the surface. Monitor bottom time and remem-
flutter kick, which moves water up and down and can
ber to include a precautionary decompression stop at the
stir things up. Kicking up silt can ruin the visibility for
end of your dive just as you would on any other dive.
you and for other divers and can make your return to
the anchor more difficult.
If you should become entangled in fishing line,
simply pulling on the line is not an effective means of
getting free. Monofilament line can be extremely strong
LEGAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES
and will stretch quite a bit before it snaps. You may also OF WRECK DIVING
pull a fishhook into yourself. Get your buddy's attention People are usually interested in taking objects from
and have him or her untangle you or cut the line. You wrecks, but this may not be appropriate for a couple of
can also try reversing direction in order to maneuver the reasons. In many areas, such as Tobermory in Ontario,
line in front of you and cut it yourself. Avoid turning as Canada and Truk Lagoon in Micronesia, taking objects
this usually makes matters worse. The same principles is strictly forbidden because these areas have been estab-
apply to entanglement in fishnets, although you may lished as sanctuaries to protect the sites. Viewing com-
need to remove your scuba unit to free the net. It is easy pletely intact wrecks such as these is an exhilarating
to see the need for proficiency in basic skills such as experience that can be appreciated by all who visit them.
 Chapter 8- Wreck Diving

Wrecks in other areas seem to be fair game for sal- to study colors at close range and to look inside the hull
vage, and the temptation to take a porthole or other arti- (from the outside of course). Look around and observe
fact may be difficult to resist. However, the taking of arti- the marine life. You may want to locate as many types of
facts from wrecks can result in complicated legal prob- aquatic animals as possible and record them on your
lems, and artifacts include just about anything you slate. Also keep a lookout for hazards. Your instructor
might pick up from a wreck. Every country in the world will probably point them out in advance, but be sure to
has laws concerning the salvage of wrecks. You should call them to the attention of your buddy so he or she will
always consult local, state, or federal authorities prior to also recognize them and thereby avoid them.
any salvage attempts, no matter how small or seemingly You may observe and point out other possible haz-
inconsequential. ards to the instructor. You may be tested on your aware-
The taking of objects from wrecks is discouraged, ness of your position relative to the anchor line.
not only because of the legalities involved, but because Sometimes the instructor will ask various divers to indi-
you are also removing part of the reason for the attrac- cate the direction of the anchor line. This is a good way
tion of a wreck site. There are many wrecks that were to help develop concentration on orientation. Another
once magnificent dive experiences that have lost their question may be for you to indicate how much air you
attraction because individuals have irresponsibly have left when signaled by the instructor. You might be
removed all items of interest. A stripped wreck is a disap- expected to indicate this before looking at your gauge.
pointment. Controlling the desire to collect objects will
To have the correct response, you will have to monitor
keep you out of legal difficulties, but even more impor-
your gauge frequently. Similar questions can be asked
tantly, will demonstrate your responsibility to the com-
for depth or elapsed dive time.
munity of divers who also enjoy visiting wrecks.
Regrouping at the anchor line and ascending on
Especially wrecks that have all of their intrinsic worth
the line will probably complete the dive. A simulated
preserved. The best things to take from a wreck are pho-
decompression or a safety stop will be included.
tographs.
The debriefing following an introductory wreck dive
is usually quite enthusiastic. Everyone seems to want to
comment and ask questions. This is fine, since a great

OVERVIEW OF A TYPICAL deal is learned by discussing everyone's experiences.

Each dive team will be encouraged to share what took
INTRODUCTORY DIVE place and what was seen on the dive. Be sure to log the
Your instructor is likely to assist you with the plan- experience and to mark it as your first wreck dive. You
ning of the dive by providing a diagram of the wreck to will know firsthand why wreck diving is one of the most
be visited and, perhaps, by showing pictures of the wreck popular of all diving activities.
itself and the life which lives in and around it. The bet-
ter your orientation to the wreck in advance of the dive,
the safer and more enjoyable your dive will be.
The briefing for your dive will be rather thorough.
Organization and coordination is important, and your
cooperation will be required. Pay attention and ask
questions if any clarification of plans or procedures is
required.
You will probably descend as a group by buddy
teams on the anchor line and be guided about the wreck
by your instructor. During your tour, use your dive light
 CHAPTER

Underwater
Photography
 NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

LEARNING GOALS very much enjoy your introduction to this special inter-
est area of diving.
In this chapter you will:
1. Learn what it takes to get started in underwater
photography.
2. Be introduced to the equipment used by under- GETTING STARTED
water photographers.
Under the right conditions-namely clear water-it is
3. Understand the basic principles of underwater
easy to take photos underwater. This can be done with
photography.
simple, waterproof snapshot cameras, or excellent pic-
4. Learn some picture taking techniques that will
tures can also be obtained quite easily with more expen-
improve your photographic results.
sive amphibious cameras by using highly sensitive film
5. Explore a typical Advanced Scuba Diver course
and the natural light.
photographic dive.
When the water isn't clear, it is still possible to
obtain good photographs, but simple cameras usually
do not produce good results, and the point-and-shoot

INTRODUCTION technique may not be effective. The use of wide-angle

lenses, close-up attachments, artificial lighting
Underwater photography appeals to many, whether
(strobes), and proper picture-taking techniques can pro-
they are interested in transferring already award win-
duce good results, however.
ning photography skills to an underwater application or
just desire to record their diving memories. It allows you
to share sub-aquatic experiences through images, where
truly, "a picture is worth a thousand words". Taking
photos in "inner space" is also challenging and reward-
ing. Furthermore, this special activity requires and
develops a high degree of proficiency in the fundamen-
tal skills of diving.
The adage, "Take nothing but pictures, leave noth-
ing but bubbles", is becoming more and more appropri-
ate as an ever-increasing number of people are visiting
the underwater world. In addition to all of this, photog-
raphy can be a source of profit to those who develop the
ability to capture images worthy of being published.
Quality underwater pictures are always in demand (fig-
ure 9-1).
This chapter will familiarize you with an exciting,
enjoyable pastime so you can determine if you would
like to learn more about it by taking a NAUI Underwater
Photography Specialty course. You can always learn
more about photography, but during the specialty course
you can learn the basics and quickly develop your ability
to consistently capture high quality images on film or FIGURE 9- 1. UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY APPEALS TO MANY
digital format. If any or all of the above aspects of DIVERS AID REQUIRES GOOD BASIC DIVING SKILLS
underwater photography appeal to you, then you will TO BE FULLY ENJOYED.
 Chapter 9- Underwater Photography

FIGURE 9-2. A CAMERA IS DESIGNED TO ADMIT A MEASURED AMOUNT OF LIGHT AND FOCUS IT ON FILM IN ORDER TO PRESERVE A REFLECTED IMAGE

SOME FUNDAMENTALS that white light is comprised of various colors. As you

learned in your entry-level scuba course, different colors
It helps to compare a camera to your eye to under-
are absorbed at different depths as the light passes
stand photography (figure 9-2). Both are self-contained
through the water. Bright colors such as red and orange
and have lenses, irises (called an aperture in a camera),
will not be recorded on film unless the water is very
light recording surfaces, and shutters (the eye uses the
shallow because these colors of the natural light spec-
lid as the shutter). If you open your eye momentarily,
trum have been absorbed by the water and cannot be
light passes through the iris and is focused by the lens of
reflected from a red or orange object at depth. By illumi-
your eye onto the light-sensitive surface in the rear of
nating objects at close range with artificial light, their
the eye. When less light is available, the iris of your eye
colors become visible. Without artificial light, pictures
opens wider to allow more light to enter and record the
appear predominantly blue and with minimal contrast.
image. If it is dark, a source of light is needed in order
You now know two good reasons for using an artifi-
to supply enough light for vision. The same principles
cial light source underwater, but the use of the light
apply to a camera. The shutter is opened to allow light
source requires certain light-handling techniques for
to pass through the aperture and be focused onto the
good results. There are almost always particles sus-
film surface by the lens. The less light present, the wider
pended in water, and if light from your flash unit strikes
the aperture must be opened. At times, a flash must be
these particles straight-on and is reflected from them
used to provide enough light to properly expose the film.
back into your camera, the result will be "backscatter,"
The principle of photography is to register
or a picture that looks like it was taken in a snowstorm.
reflected light rays on film in a controlled and pre-
The more turbid the water, the greater the problem. Not
dictable manner, and the less light there is, the more
stirring up silt is an absolute requirement in order to
challenging the task becomes. As a diver descends into
obtain acceptable photos, and you will learn how to
the water and depth increases, the amount of light
minimize backscatter through proper light positioning
decreases. The light from the surface is absorbed and
techniques such as side-lighting.
diffused and is often insufficient for natural light pho-
When light rays pass from air into water or from
tography. The lack of adequate available light often
water into air, they bend or "refract." The refraction,
requires light to be supplied artificially with lights,
which occurs underwater at the face mask/water inter-
strobes or flashes.
face, causes the familiar magnification of objects. It also
Another important reason for using artificial light is
causes them to appear closer than their measured dis-
to add color to photographs. You are probably aware
tance. Understanding and compensating for this phe-
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 9-3. CAMERAS COME IN MANY DESIGNS FROM POINT AND SHOOT DISPOSABLE TO SOPHISTICATED AMPHIBIOUS MODELS USED BY PRO-
FESSIONAL PHOTOGRAPHERS.

nomenon is important for photography. The lens on a eras, movie cameras, and video cameras are all used
camera must be focused, and if you focus it for the actu- successfully underwater. The majority of underwater
al distance to the subject, your picture may not be sharp photography is "still" photography, so we will concen-
because the apparent distance to the subject is less than trate on that area; but the principles and techniques of
your setting. You must focus on the apparent distance as underwater photography for still cameras apply to digi-
perceived by the eye and as would be seen when focusing tal photography, cinematography and underwater video
through the lens with a single lens reflex camera. as well.
Refraction also makes it harder to accurately point The two basic types of underwater cameras are
a strobe or a flash at a subject. You will learn how to amphibious cameras and housed cameras. Both are
compensate for this in the Picture-taking Techniques capable of producing quality pictures (figure 9-3). The
section of this chapter. advantages and disadvantages of each type are presented
in detail in an Underwater Photography Specialty course.
The capability to interchange lenses is a desirable
feature found on many cameras used underwater. By
EQUIPMENT changing the lenses (the lenses must be changed above
All types of cameras may be used underwater as water), the area included in a photograph can be varied,
long as they are housed in waterproof, pressure-proof depending on the type of picture wanted and the diving
containers that allow access to the controls. Still cam- conditions. Lenses are classified as close-up, wide angle,
 Chapter 9- Underwater Photography

standard, or telephoto.
A strobe or flash unit has already been identified as
an important item of equipment for the underwater
photographer. Strobe units are much more popular
today than flash units; and, like cameras, are amphibi-
ous or may be enclosed in a housing. The underwater
strobes of today offer many features such as automatic
exposure control and variable power settings. As you
learn more about photography, you will become familiar
with the advantages and application of more sophisticat-
ed strobes.
There are many accessory items for underwater
photography. The accessories may be useful or essential.
Examples include a viewfinder to help frame the subject,
trays to hold the camera and strobe bracket, arms to FIGURE 9-4, UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHERS USE RACKS ON
hold the strobe, meters to measure light levels, attach- WHICH TO SECURE THE VARIOUS SEPARATE PIECES OF
ments for taking close-up pictures, filters and diffusers, THE CAMERA AND ITS ACCESSORIES TO MAKE IT
etc. The more you learn about underwater photography, EASY TO HANDLE UNDERWATER.
the better acquainted you will become with the purpose
and use of the various accessories.
All of the components for underwater photography
BASIC PRINCIPLES
are typically combined into a "system" to allow for ease The most important consideration in underwater
of handling. In underwater camera systems the camera, photography is proper exposure of the film. This is con-
strobe, and various accessories are connected together to trolled in several ways. You have just read that different
form a unit which can be handled effectively while div- types of films have different sensitivities, so that is one

ing (figure 9-4). means of controlling the exposure. Another method to

control exposure is with the camera controls. The size of
Be very conscious that the equipment you will be
the aperture or "f-stop" can be varied to admit more or
using is subject to pressure, water, and an otherwise harsh
less light, and the shutter speed (the length of time the
environment. It requires proper, careful preparation and
shutter remains open) can also be varied to affect expo-
care to protect it from the elements it will encounter.
sures. During your Underwater Photography Specialty
Whether you use a camera by itself in clear, shallow
course you will learn the relationship between f-stop,
water or a complete system for more complex applica-
shutter speed, and film speed.
tions, you will need to put film into the camera, unless
Another means of controlling exposure is by use of
it is a digital camera. You can use either color or black-
artificial lighting. The use of an amphibious strobe can
and-white film, and you have your choice of either provide light in closer proximity and in a greater
prints or slides. Film is rated according to its sensitivity amount than the available natural light (figure 9-5).
to light, and you have some control over the results of This allows more color to be captured on film and for
your efforts through the selection of the film rating. You sharper images because a smaller aperture can be used.
will learn more about various types of film as you The relationship between the aperture setting and the
become better acquainted with photography. Basically, area in front of the camera in which subjects will be
the higher the sensitivity rating number, or "ISO," of the in focus will also be explained in your specialty course.
film, the less light needed to properly expose the film. For now, recognize that there is a limited range of focus
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 9-5, A STROBE IS NECESSARY TO CAPTURE ALL OF THE

COLOR IN PHOTOS TAKEN DEEPER THAN ABOUT
THREE METERS.

for underwater photography and that you will need to

know this range when taking pictures during your
introductory dive.
So far you have learned that there are several ways
to control the amount of light reaching the film. For
your introductory dive you will probably be provided
with a camera system which is set up to produce accept-
able results at a given distance, so all you will need to do
is concentrate on keeping the camera steady and com-
posing a pleasing picture. This leads us to the subject of
composition, the remaining ingredient required for a
good photograph. As with the other topics presented thus
far, there is a great deal to consider regarding the com-
position of a photograph, but we will share just a couple
of basic concepts for your immediate use on your intro-
ductory dive.
As you view a scene to be photographed, imagine
the area seen in the viewfinder as being divided into
three equal parts vertically and horizontally. Rather FIGURE 9-6. VARYING THE POSITION Of THE CAMERA CAN PRO-
than placing the point or points of interest in the exact DUCE DIFFERENT EFFECTS IN THE FINISHED PHOTO.
center of your picture, try to position them at one of the
four intersecting points in your imaginary grid. This 35mm film format is rectangular, that is, it's longer
simple rule will help you achieve much more pleasing than it is high, so remember that the camera can be
results than that of "bulls-eye" shots typical of begin- rotated 90 degrees to better compose vertical pictures for
ning photographers. long, vertical subjects. It is often a good idea to shoot
 Chapter 9- Underwater Photography

both horizontal and vertical shots of an exceptional sub- wait for that perfect moment. A properly functioning
ject. When you photograph a single diver alone, you will low-pressure inflation system on your buoyancy com-
usually want a vertical shot (figure 9-6). pensator is required because it allows reliable one hand
buoyancy control. This is another reason to have your
personal equipment regularly inspected and profession-
ally maintained. If you want to sharpen your diving
PICTURE-TAKING TECHNIQUES skills, underwater photography will provide an excellent
We have already mentioned that the gear must be incentive for you to quickly become proficient.
properly handled. Your instructor will show you how to Camera movement when the shutter is operated
hold and handle the camera system. Remember that causes many poor pictures. You should position yourself
underwater photographic equipment is expensive and for stability, and as you are completing your exhalation,
rather delicate, so please, treat it that way. Resist the squeeze the shutter release rather than punching it.
temptation to twist or turn things that you don't under- Never hold your breath while taking photos underwater.
stand. Don't force any controls that you have been While this is a natural tendency for most people, photog-
instructed to use, but for some reason do not work easily. raphers have suffered lung over-expansion injuries by
Rather than force anything, let the instructor examine accidentally ascending while holding their breath and
the problem and correct it if possible. On most cameras, trying to take a photo. As describe above, a good method
it is very important that you not push hard on the shut- is to exhale fully as you pose the picture in the viewfind-
ter-cocking lever when the film reaches the end of the er, squeeze the shutter release and inhale very slowly as
roll. If you do this, you can tear the film off the reel. This you release it.
may make it impossible to unload the camera without
ruining the film. Treat the gear with loving care!
You may not have to hold the strobe or aim it for
the pictures you take on your first photo dive, but if you OVERVIEW OF A TYPICAL
do, remember the problems with estimating distance INTRODUCTORY DIVE
underwater and point the strobe slightly beyond the
Your instructor may provide the photographic sys-
subject in order to get the light onto it. Otherwise, you
tem for you to use, or you may rent it from your local
may have the light pass in front of the subject as you
NAUI affiliated dive center. In either case, it should be all
point it at the apparent image instead of where the set up for your use by a trained and experienced under-
subject actually is. water photographer. This set up includes selecting and
To reduce backscatter, hold the strobe away from loading the film, assembling any accessory items, and
the lens of the camera and angle it toward the subject. setting all controls.
The need for this procedure explains why strobes are As part of the briefing for the dive, your instructor
usually mounted on arms and at some distance from will show you how to operate the camera system. This
the camera. will include such things as how to advance the film and
You have a lot to think about when you are trying cock the shutter, how to operate the shutter release, and
to dive and take pictures at the same time. This is one how to turn on and off the strobe if one is used. Pay
reason why your diving skills improve - they have to! careful attention to these instructions.
You will soon develop the ability to move about without It is very likely that a camera will have to be shared
stirring up silt. You must, or your attempts to capture for the introductory dive pictures or that more than one
good pictures will be frustrated. Your buoyancy control type of camera system will be used. Your instructor may
improves because good buoyancy control is needed to give you an opportunity to take pictures with different
hover near a subject as you make final adjustments or types of cameras so you can compare the differences in
 NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

their use and in the results. In order to keep track of even be able to process color slides by means of easy-to-
who took which pictures with which camera, it is neces- use developing procedures. The sooner you can see the
sary to keep a log of the pictures taken with each cam- pictures you have taken, the better. And, it is a lot of fun
era. Most cameras have a frame counter to show the to view the results as a group.
number of exposures taken. An underwater slate usually It is quite probable that you will become instantly
accompanies each camera on a photographic dive, and "hooked" on underwater photography as soon as you
you should record your name, the subject and the frame produce a good picture. Your NAUI instructor will pro-
number for every picture you take. This will help identify vide you with information on NAUI Underwater
which pictures are yours when the film is developed. Photography specialty courses in the area, as you are
Have the instructor recheck all of the camera set- qualified to enroll. Taking pictures underwater is a won-
tings just before entering the water. The camera will be derful hobby that is challenging, rewarding, and can
set for a proper exposure at a specified distance. Just take even be financially rewarding. We hope you enjoy your
all of your pictures at that distance and according to the introductory experience and all of the photographic
directions of your instructor and you should obtain dives you are bound to make in the future.
properly exposed photographs.
Don't worry about not being allowed to change set-
tings on this first dive. You will have your hands full just
handling the equipment, keeping yourself stable and the
camera still, and applying the principles of composition.
Don't forget the importance buoyancy control and prop-
er breathing.
If you have to hold the strobe and point it at the
subject, don't forget to hold it away from the camera
and angle it toward the subject to avoid back scatter and
beyond the apparent image to allow for refraction.
Remember also to turn the strobe off when you are
through taking pictures. This conserves battery power.
If the water is clear and bright, you may take pic-
tures using available light and a wide angle lens. If the
water is dark and turbid, you may take close-up pictures
during your introductory dive. A good procedure when
sharing a camera in any conditions is for you to search
for a subject for your photos while your buddy is taking
pictures and recording them. Your buddy can do the
same when you are using the camera. The rules of the
buddy system still apply, however, so don't wander away
so far that you lose sight of your buddy.
After the dive, it is always fun to get together to view
the results and share your experiences. Some film can be
processed in a very few minutes right at the dive site.
Many dive charters, especially "live aboards," offer film
processing on board. "One hour" photo labs can also
allow you to see the results quickly. Your instructor may
 CHAPTER

Other Diving
Specialties
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

LEARNING GOALS being fed by divers, and some fish have been known to
become obnoxious and belligerent when divers appear
In this chapter you will: without food. In some areas, such as Stingray City in
1. Be introduced to some of the other underwater Grand Cayman, where the creatures are fed as a matter
activities that are available to divers. of course, excursions to feed them are very popular. If
2. Understand the precautions associated with feed- you want to feed the fish, you should learn how and
ing fish. where to do it from others with experience.
3. Be introduced to spear fishing and the need for There is a sense of adventure in diving new loca-
responsible practices that will preserve the envi- tions. Newness is not reserved for far away places,
ronment for those who follow. though. Unique things are commonly discovered when
4. Be introduced to underwater hunting of shellfish, diving at well-known sites. Coming across new things
lobster and the like. keeps many people excited about diving. Sightseeing
5. Be introduced to underwater collecting of rocks, and exploring are special interests just as much as wreck
bottles, artifacts and shells. diving or underwater photography. Some divers are every
bit as excited about observing something new as others
are about taking something new from our waters.

SOMETHING FOR EVERYONE

By this point in your Advanced Scuba Diver course,
you have probably already selected an underwater activi-
ty you wish to pursue and in which you would like to
become more proficient through training and experi-
ence. Diving allows you to engage in many above water
hobbies underwater. It also offers opportunities not
available to those who are unqualified to visit the under-
water world. No matter what your interests, however, div-
ing has something special to offer you. In addition to
the more popular special interest areas presented
already, there are many other diving specialties. If you
aren't already convinced, you are about to discover that
diving has something for everyone.
Maybe you simply enjoy visiting the world beneath
the waters. There is much to be said for just sightseeing,
exploring, observing and identifying aquatic life. These
underwater pastimes appeal to many (figure 10-1).
Fish, shellfish, and plant identification guides are
available on waterproof paper and on plastic cards. A
great deal of satisfaction can be achieved by identifying
animals you observe underwater. For many, underwater
life identification is an ideal way to spend diving time.
Generally, it is not a good idea to feed animals
underwater. Although it may be exciting and fun, FIGURE 10-1 ENCOUNTERS WITH AQUATIC LIFE CAN BE EXHILA-
remember that these are wild animals that can always RATING. MANY DIVE OPERATIONS OFFER SUCH
react unpredictably. Also they become habituated to EXCURSIONS.
 Chapter 10- Other Diving Specialties

UNDERWATER HUNTING
Many divers enjoy hunting for game, and if regula-
tions are followed and conservation is kept in mind,
marine life will not be decimated by the underwater
hunter. Nevertheless, when a heavily dived area is
stripped of life by enthusiastic hunters, it may be
years—if ever-before the life returns. It is suggested that
hunters seek remote areas to pursue their interest. The
game will be more plentiful there, the effect will be less
because adequate breeding stock will remain, and the
more popular diving areas will be preserved for all divers
to enjoy.
When underwater hunting is mentioned, people
usually think of spearfishing, although divers hunt for
shellfish as well. Spearfishing was the primary activity in
the early days of diving, and it is still very popular today.
Some divers achieve great satisfaction from spearing
elusive fish in competition, while others are satisfied to
have good, fresh fish for dinner (figure 10-2).
Divers hunt on the bottom for flatfish, such as
flounders and sole, among rocks and plants for rockfish
and bass, and even in the open sea for jacks and tuna-
related fish. Spearfishing for certain species is often pro- FIGURE 10-2. WHERE SPEARFISHING IS LEGAL IT CAN PROVIDE
hibited, especially in fresh water. Be sure to familiarize DIVERS WITH MANY SATISFYING DIVES AND MEALS.

FIGURE 10-3. SPEAR GUNS MUST BE TREATED WITH THE SAME RESPECT GIVEN ANY WEAPON. A COURSE IN SPEARFISHING WILL PROVIDE YOU
WITH THE KNOWLEDGE TO PARTICIPATE SAFELY AND ETHICALLY.
NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

yourself with the local fishing regulations. Obey them to

avoid being fined and also to prevent divers from being
given an unfavorable reputation. Etiquette also requires
that you respect the rights of line fishermen in an area
whether you are spear fishing or not.
With the popularity of ecology and conservation
today, it is important that divers not kill fish indiscrimi-
nately just for the "sport" of it. If you return from a dive
with a sack full of small, easily killed fish, you are likely
to become subject to peer pressure. The ethical modern
underwater hunter chooses the type of fish he wants,
hunts that species exclusively, and either gets a quarry of
respectable size or waits until another day. Spearfishing
is a wonderful sport, but good sense requires that it be
done with the interests of conservation in mind.
In some circles it is felt that spearfishing should be
done only while breath-holding, but others find no
objection to using scuba to allow hunting in deeper
water. The major spearfishing competitions are per-
formed while breath-hold diving.
Spearfishing is done with poles, slings, and guns
(figure 10-3). All of these are dangerous weapons and
must be handled very carefully. No matter what your FIGURE 10-4. THIS SPINY LOBSTER OBVIOUSLY EXCEEDS MINI-
philosophy about underwater hunting, if you intend to MUM SIZE LIMITS. MEASURING YOUR CATCH AND
engage in spearfishing, be sure to complete a NAUI ONLY RETAINING LEGAL SIZES NOT ONLY AVOIDS
Underwater Hunting Specialty course. You will learn not LEGAL DIFFICULTIES BUT PRESERVES THE YIELD OF
only techniques that will increase your chances of suc- CATCH-ABLE GAME.
cess, but you will also learn important safety procedures.
Divers also hunt for shellfish, including lobsters, meal prepared on a boat or a beach after a day of good
shrimp, crabs, crayfish, abalone, scallops, and clams. diving.
The same principles of conservation stated for spearfish- Divers hunt for lobsters in rocks and in wrecks.
ing also apply to the taking of shellfish. Many shellfish There are three types of lobsters: the New England vari-
take years to reach an adult size and some are immobile. ety, which has claws; the Langouste type, which has a
When all of the animals are removed from an area, it is spiny exterior but no claws, and the Shovelnose or
easy to see how that particular species may never be Slipper Lobster. Which tastes better is a controversy, but
found there again. The idea of fish and game regulations the meat of all of them is a delicacy.
is that if only a certain number and size of an animal is Lobsters can be as difficult to catch as they are good
taken, there will be enough of them remaining to propa- to eat. In some areas, only the gloved hand may be used;
gate the species. Taking undersized animals or more and the lobsters are extremely quick. In other areas, use
than is allowed disrupts the sustained yield principle. of a wooden dowel is permitted. By tapping the lobster
Shellfish are delicious, and fresh shellfish are the on the side of the tail, you can guide it to a position
most delicious. There are people who dive just to get where you can reach it. Spearing lobster is illegal in U.S.
their own fresh seafood, and it is difficult to beat a good waters. Also, be sure the ones you do catch meet the
 Chapter 10- Other Diving Specialties

minimum size requirement. Bringing home legal-sized until disturbed, and the mantle of the animal inside can
lobsters means more than just good food for a meal; the be detected. The slightest disturbance usually causes the
lobsters are usually accompanied by a diver who is well-camouflaged shell to close, and the animal
proud of the catch! (figure 10-4) becomes almost invisible in its surroundings. A knife or
Crabs are not as difficult to catch, but it can still be diver's tool is required to break the animal loose. It is
enjoyable to hunt for them. Since crabs are capable of not uncommon to find scallops in abundance in some
regenerating lost limbs, some divers take just one claw areas, and they make an excellent meal.
from a crab. The animal will live as long as it has one Clams are typically found in muddy or sandy bot-
claw with which to feed and defend itself. Check local toms in both fresh and salt water. They are well known
fish and game regulations as to the legality of this prac- for their flavor. Clams may be difficult to locate and
tice in your area. It isn't often that you can take a meal hard to get, depending on the visibility, the bottom com-
from the ocean and leave one there for another day as position, and the depth to which the animal is buried.
well. Part of the fun of hunting, however, is in overcoming
Shrimp, crayfish, and prawns are similar to lobster, the obstacles to get a catch!
but smaller. They are found in abundance in some areas
and during certain seasons. No matter how many you
may encounter, take only what you need so there will be
more of the animals for generations to come. COLLECTING
Abalone are merely giant ocean snails, growing up Divers can bring home trophies other than game.
to a foot in diameter, but they are extremely tasty and Rocks, bottles, artifacts, shells, algae, and other items
considered a gourmet food. They are found on rocks in are sought and treasured by divers who love collecting
Pacific waters. Some of the largest abalone in the world such items from the realm beneath the waters.
live in the ocean off the Western coast of the United Collecting can be a non-destructive pastime; or the col-
States. These animals attach themselves to the rocks lection of certain things, such as tropical fish and sea
with a large, suction foot; and a special tool, called an shells, can require conservation practices similar to
"Ab Iron" is required to dislodge them. There are several those presented for hunting. When you think about tak-
types of abalone. All of them are edible, but some species ing something, you should always consider the impact it
are more tender and tasty than others. You should learn will have on the environment and on other divers who
how to take abalone if they are found in your area and may dive in the same area.
you are interested in hunting for them. You will learn Among the most popular items sought by underwa-
such things as the importance of not cutting an abalone ter collectors are bottles. Not only are they unusual and
when you remove it from a rock. If it is undersized and a good means to recall memories of diving, they can be
you put it back, it will die if it is cut because the blood of of historical and monetary value. Antique bottles can be
these animals does not clot and they will bleed to death. worth hundreds of dollars, so it is easy to see why they
As with all diving special interests, it is always a good are the objective of many divers. Researching books to
idea to learn how to do something from instructors identify specific bottles and document them according to
experienced in the activity. their era, use, etc., is satisfying and educational.
Scallops are bi-valves found on rocks, reefs, wrecks Many divers find great pleasure in bottle collecting.
or any solid structure. Some scallops are free swimmers, In some areas where bottle collecting is popular, you
while others are free swimmers in their infancy until may find bottles stuck into the bottom upside down. This
they find a suitable location on which to spend the means that the bottle has been found by another collec-
remainder of their lives. Attached scallops are visible to tor who has inspected it and found it to be of no particu-
the trained eye because the shell is usually slightly open lar value. Tidbits of information such as this can be
 NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

FIGURE 10-5. COLLECTING SHELLS AND OTHER MATERIAL IS SOMETIMES RESTRICTED. MAKE SURE YOU HAVE CHECKED BEFORE YOU TAKE ANY
THING FROM THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT

learned and shared with other underwater bottle collec- gaining in popularity in some areas. Seeking and find-
tors. Collecting is a great way to meet people and make ing an object which is thousands of years old can be
new friends. every bit as challenging and rewarding as any other
Many divers make the objective of their dive the form of hunting and collecting, and the diver again has
finding of artifacts. Indian artifacts and other products the opportunity to make a contribution to science. Fossil
of human workmanship are interesting and can provide finds should be shared with archaeologists just the same
valuable historical information. As artifact-seeking as artifacts. Divers have achieved recognition and
divers become more zealous in their quest for relics, they acclaim for sharing fossil finds. With any form of col-
frequently become students of archaeology; and signifi- lecting in which you may discover something unique, it
cant archaeological contributions have been made by is extremely important that a willingness to contribute
recreational divers who became serious about their pas- your find for the good of mankind be a prerequisite to
time of hunting for artifacts. After all, a find that is your participation in the activity.
brought to the attention of experts and shared with Shell collecting is also very popular (figure 10-5).
mankind through science and displayed in a museum is Because it can involve taking living animals, it requires
much more valuable than a find which is hoarded away conservation-minded participants. Amateur collectors
by an individual. An artifact that is retained privately is are encouraged to seek dead specimens. However, even
one which might provide critical information to an dead shells provide homes for other animals who take
experienced archaeologist, and a similar object may over their shells. Proper collecting techniques include
never be found again. It would be tragic if such a find finding an area in which shells of a particular species
were to be kept from making its contribution to our are plentiful and then taking only one of them. The tak-
understanding of the past. ing of all of the shells located, especially if there is a
Also keep in mind that artifacts are often protected scarcity of them, is selfish and unethical. When collect-
by law, so be sure to familiarize yourself with laws and ing shells in earnest, traveling to remote areas is recom-
ordinances before you start out after souvenirs of the mended because the shelling will be better and because
past. your effect on the shell community may be less harmful.
Fossil collecting is an underwater activity that is Taking close-up pictures of living shells is preferred
 Chapter 10- Other Diving Specialties

to the collecting of shells, whether living or dead. The good conscience. Note: In Florida and many other
animals are actually more beautiful when alive and places, the taking of coral, whether dead or alive, is
extended. The beauty of the shell and the memory of the illegal.
dive can be preserved with a photograph, while the ani-
mal remains to propagate the species and provide enjoy-
ment in the future. Collecting photographs of shells is
an excellent way to combine two very popular underwa- CHOICES, CHOICES
ter activities. We told you there were many things to do underwa-
A form of underwater collecting that is quite enjoy- ter and that diving had something special to offer to
able but less well known than the gathering of shells, everyone, and we haven't even mentioned the excite-
artifacts, and bottles, is accumulation of various types of ment of ice diving, cavern diving, cave diving, river div-
algae (aquatic plants). The algae is pressed onto paper ing, etc. Some people like to specialize in just one area,
and dried to form attractive displays that are good for while others like to become proficient in several or in as
decorations and gifts. There are many types of plants, many as they can. What a wonderful situation it is to
and finding them and preserving attractive pressings can have so many exciting and rewarding activities avail-
be a source of many years of pleasure. Since algae is able.
plentiful and since only small samples are needed for
When you are trained to do what you are interested
pressings, conservation is not a problem. If you would
in doing, you will have more fun, be safer, and have a
like to have a unique, enjoyable hobby, consider algae
better chance of ensuring success. That's what underwa-
collecting.
ter specialties are all about.
Some people like to dive to collect living creatures
for aquariums. It can be a great source of enjoyment to
have a little of the underwater world in your home for
continuous enjoyment. Conservation, obedience to laws
and regulations, and ethical practices in the taking of
animals are all required for the diver who pursues this
interest. Nets are often used to catch small fish, but
determined collectors frequently use a suction gun,
called a "slurp gun" to pull small fish from cracks and
crevices without harming them. Education in aquarium
maintenance is mandatory, but this learning process is
usually part of the fun for divers who collect animals for
home aquariums.
Divers will collect just about anything they can
carry, including rocks and coral. No matter what you
collect, always consider your responsibility to the envi-
ronment and to the diving community. If you want to
take coral, for example, be aware that the growth of
coral is extremely slow. With this in mind, you should
seek pieces which have been broken by natural causes
rather than adding to the destruction of the environ-
ment, particularly in areas which are heavily dived.
Enjoy your collecting, but always be able to do so in
 NAUI Advanced Scuba Diver

Index Deep Diving

Deviation
5,50-59
32,34,35

A Disorientation
Distance Estimating
45,46
30
Abalone 100,101
Dive Lights 35,41-45,65
Advanced Scuba Diver 6
Dive Planning 6,12,16-19, 54,84
Air Consumption 16,22,32
Dive Tables 51, 54, 58, 59
Algae Collection 101,103
Diver Propulsion Vehicle 63
Anchor Buoy Line 16, 70,82,83,84,85
Aperture 89,91 Diving Environments 5

Aquaplane 64 Down Line 44,47, 53-59,82

Aquariums 103 Drift Diving 16

Aquatic Life Studies 62

E
Archaeology 80,102
Emergency Equipment 53
Artifacts 102,103
Emergency Preparedness 54
B Entanglement 44, 73,82,84
Back-up Scuba 51 Entrapment 82,84
Backscatter 46 Extra Second Stage 51,82
Bearings 16. 28,36, 52,75,83
Bottles 101,103
F
Bounce Dive 58 F-Stop 91
Buddy Line 44,46 Fix 36, 37,73,75,83
Buddy System 18,94 Fossils 40
Buoyancy Control 20,45, 57,93 Freshwater Diving 21
Fresh Water Weighting 21
C
Cameras 63,88,90,91,93,94 H
Chemical Light 47 Hang-off Tank 58
Clams 100,101 Hazardous Animals 81
Collecting 5,6,62,63,66,101-103 Hunting 6,62, 98,99,100,101,102

I
Collecting Equipment 62, 63
Compass 16.28-31,33-37,44,52,62
Composition 66,92,94,101 Instruments 14, 51, 56, 62,82,84
Contingency Plan 55
Coral 103 K
Crabs 100,101 Knots 72,75,76
Currents 13,15,32,35, 71,80,83
L
D Legal Aspects 81,84,85,99,100,101
Decompression Bar 58 Lift Bag 70-77
Decompression Safety Stop 58 Light Signals 45
Decompression Sickness 50, 52, 53,56, 58 Limited Visibility Diving 28, 34, 40-47,81