Characteristics of

LIFE

Modern Cell Theory

Unicellular (has one cell) - The cells are the
Multicellular (has multiple cells) smallest living unit in
all organisms.
- All living things are
BIOLOGICAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION made of cells.
Cell - tissue - organ - organ system - all cells are from pre-
existing cells.
Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli
Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can
bend toward a source of light, climb on fences and walls, or
respond to touch.
Reproduction
The process by which an organism produces its offspring is
called reproduction.When a single parent is involved in
reproduction and gamete formation does not happen, it is called
asexual reproduction.

Growth and Development

Organisms grow and develop following specific instructions
coded for by their genes. These genes provide instructions that
will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a
species’ young grow up to exhibit many of the same
characteristics as its parents.
Reproduction
All living organisms must have the ability to reproduce. If a
species cannot create the next generation, the species will go
extinct. Sexual reproduction involves two parents and the fusion
of gametes, haploid sex cells from each parent. Sexual
reproduction produces offspring that are genetically unique and
increases genetic variation within a species. Asexual
reproduction involves only one parent.
Homeostasis
is the ability or tendency to maintain internal stability in an
organism to compensate for environmental changes.
 History of Microscope

The Romans discovered the use of magnifying glasses

during the first century AD.
In the late 16th century several Dutch lens makers
design devices that magnified objects. In 1609
Galileo Galilei (father of modern physics and
astronomy) develops a compound microscope with
convex and a concave lens.
In 1590, Dutch spectacle makers Zaccharias Janssen
and Hans Lipperhey are the first to develop the
concept of compound microscope and telescope.
In 1625,Giovanni Faber coins the name “microscope”for Galileo Galilei’s
compound microscope

In 1665, Robert Hooke an English Physicist publishes Microgaphia in which he

coins the term “cells”when describing tissue. The book includes drawings of
hairs on a nettle and the honeycomb structure of cork. He uses a simple, single-
lens microscope illuminated by a candle.

In 1676,Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek builds a simple microscope with one lens

to examine blood,yeast and insects. He is the first to describe cells and
bacteria. He invents new methods for making lenses that allow for
magnifications of up to 270 times. He is also called, Father of
Microscope.

In 1830, Joseph Lister reduces spherical aberration (which produces

imperfect images) by using several lenses together at certain distances
to give good magnification without blurring the image.
In 1931, Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll design and
build the first Transmission Electron Microscope
(TEM), based on an idea of Leo Szilard. This
electron microscope depends on electrons not
light to view an object. Modern TEM can visualize
objects as small as the diameter of an atom.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

-study the surface structure of the cells
-the sample surface is covered with the thin
film of gold
-the electron beam excites the electrons on the
sample surface
BASICS OF BIOLOGY

• Biology: The study of living things.

• Evolution: Change in characteristics of living things over time.

• Natural Selection: Organisms with more favorable traits are able to
produce more offspring and pass on their favorable traits.
• Adaptation: Characteristic that helps organisms survive and reproduce
in a given environment.

• Population: Group of organisms of the same species living in a given

area.
• Community: All organisms living in a given area.

• Ecosystem: All living things and nonliving factors in a given area.

• Biome: A group of similar ecosystems.

• Biosphere: the regions of the surface, atmosphere, and hydrosphere of
the earth. Area where organisms live including ground and air.

• Symbiosis: Relationship between different organisms where at least

one organism benefits from the relationship. Like animals w plants.

• Competition: Relationship between organisms needing the same

resources in the same place at the same time.
 CELL TRANSPORT & HOMEOSTASIS

• Homeostasis: Process of maintaining a

stable environment inside a cell or an
entire organism.
• Concentration Gradient: A measurement
of how much the concentration of a
substance changes across a distance.
• Passive Transport: Substances cross
the cell membrane without the cell
providing energy.
• Diffusion: A substance moves through
a membrane from an area of high
concentration to an area of low
concentration.
• Osmosis: The diffusion of water
molecules across a membrane.
• Facilitated Diffusion: Diffusion with
the help of transport proteins in the
plasma membrane.
• Transport Protein: Special proteins
in the membrane.
• Active Transport: A substance moves
against the concentration gradient (uses
energy from cells).
• Sodium-Potassium Pump: When this pump
is in operation, sodium ions are pumped
out of the cell, and potassium ions are
pumped into the cell. Both ions move
from areas of lower to higher
concentration.
• Vesicle Transport: Type of transport
in which very large molecules cross the
cell membrane.
• Endocytosis: Type of vesicle
transport that moves a substance into
the cell. The plasma membrane completely
covers the substance, a vesicle pinches
off from the membrane, and the vesicle
carries the substance into the cell.
• Exocytosis: Type of vesicle transport
that moves a substance out of the cell.
A vesicle containing the substance moves
through the cytoplasm to the cell
membrane. Then, the vesicle membrane
fuses with the cell membrane, and the
substance is released outside the cell.
HUMAN CHROMOSOMES & GENES

• Humans have 23 pairs chromosomes

divided into 22 pairs of autosomes and
1 pair of sex chromosomes.
• Chromosome: Coiled structure made
of DNA and proteins containing sister chromatid
chromatids that is the form in which
the genetic material of a cell goes
through cell division.
• Chromatid: One of two identical
copies of a chromosome.
• Centromere: Region where two sister
chromatids are joined together.
• Nucleosomes: Unit of DNA where a Telomere
segment of DNA is wrapped around a
histone.
• Histones: Proteins that associate
with DNA.
• Telomere: Repeating segments of
non-coding DNA at the end of each
chromosome.
• Karyotype: Characterizes a cell by
describing the number of chromosomes
and their appearances under a
microscope. Check genetic abnormality
• Autosome: Any chromosome that is
not a sex chromosome.
• Sex Chromosome: Either an X or Y
chromosome.
• Barr Body: An inactivated X
chromosome.
• Allele: Variant of a specific gene.
• Linked Genes: Genes on the same
chromosome.
• Sex-Linked Gene: Gene on the same
sex chromosome.
• X-Linked Gene: Genes on the same X
chromosome.
• Linkage Map: Shows the relative
position of genes on a chromosome.
 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BIOMES
• Biome: Climatically and
• Organic Compound: A chemical geographically similar areas with
substance created within an similar conditions on the Earth.
organism. This includes communities of
• Carbohydrate: An organic plants, animals, and soil
compound containing carbon, organisms.
hydrogen, and oxygen that supply • Terrestrial Biome: A biome on
the energy living systems need to land.
survive. • Aquatic Biome: A biome
• Lipid: An organic compound surrounding or in water
produced for storing energy. • Climate: The average weather
• Protein: An organic compound conditions in any given area over a
making up muscles, enzymes, and long period of time. It is
other organs in the body. described in terms of temperature
• Nucleic Acid: An organic and moisture.
compound used to store genetic • Growing Season: The period of
information. time each year when it is warm and
• Fatty Acid: Molecule in which wet enough for plants to grow
carbon atoms are bonded to successfully.
hydrogen atoms or other groups of • Dormancy: A state in which a
atoms. plant slows down its cellular
• Amino Acid: Small molecule activities and may shed its leaves.
that is a building block of • Marine Biome: Aquatic biome
proteins. located in the ocean.
• Nucleotide: Small molecule • Salinity: The saltiness of a
containing a sugar, phosphate body of water. It usually refers to
group, and base that is a the amounts of sodium chloride,
building block of nucleic acids. bicarbonates, magnesium, and
• Complementary Base Pair: Pair calcium sulfates in water.
of nucleotide bases that bond • Intertidal Zone: In marine
together biomes, the narrow strip along the
coastline that is covered by water
at high tide and exposed to air at
low tide.Also known as seashore.
• Freshwater Biome: An aquatic
biome that has little or no salt.
• Wetland: Area that is saturated
with water or covered by water at
least one season annually.
• Estuary: A body of water that
has both saltwater and freshwater.
• The following are seven of the
most widely reoccurring biomes:
• Tropical rain forest
• Savanna
• Taiga
• Tundra
• Desert
• Temperate grassland
• Temperate forest (deciduous and
evergreen)
The Plasma Membrane
-double layer of phospholipids
-various proteins are attached to
it
-carbohydrate side chains are
found only on the outer surface
of plasma membrane
- function of plasma membrane
= selective barrier that
allows passage of oxygen,
nutrients, and wastes for the
whole volume of the cell.

Both animal and plant cells have

mitochondria but only plant cells
have chloroplasts.
- plants need to make sugar from
sunlight(photosynthesis) this process
takes place in chloroplasts.
- animals dont need chloroplasts
because they get sugar from the food
they eat,they only need mitochondria.

Plant cells have cell wall as well

as cell membrane. In plants, the
cell wall surrounds the cell
membrane.
Animal cells simply have a cell
membrane but no cell wall.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
-ER consists of a network of membranous tubules and sacs
called cisternae. (cisterna = a reservoir for a liquid)
-the network are interconnected - The ER membrane is
continuous with the nuclear envelope and the cisternal
space of the ER is continuous with the space between the
two membranes of the nuclear envelope.

Smooth ER:
synthesis of lipid (oils,
phospholipids, and steroids) glycogen metabolism in
the liver cells
detoxification of drugs
and poisons
store calcium for muscle
contraction
Rough ER: ribosomes are attached to the outside
-is abundant in cells that secrete protein
-synthesis secretory proteins, cell membrane protein
and organelle protein
(proteins are targeted to determined location
according to the sorting signals.
Sorting signals are encoded in a.a sequences or in
the attached oligosaccharides)
-synthesis of phospholipids and ER
36 Golgi apparatus
associated protein - is responsible for packaging
proteins into vesicles prior to
secretion and therefore plays a key
vacuoles role in the secretory pathway.

are cytoplasmic organs (organelles), performing Centrosomes and Centrioles

functions such as storage, ingestion, digestion, Centrosomes (microtubule-organizing
excretion, and expulsion of excess water. center) = a region near the nucleus from
which microtubules sprouts.
Mitochondria and Chloroplast
-both are energy transformers of cells
mitochondria = cellular respiration
chloroplast = photosynthesis

Cilia and Flagella

-both cilia and flagella are constructed from microtubules
-both provide either locomotion for the cell or move fluid
pass the cell
-found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
-cilia and flagella differ in their beating pattern
cilia sweep mucus carrying trapped debris from the lungs

Intermediate filament
-cytoplasmic ropelike fibers with average 10 nm in diameter (and
thus are "intermediate" in size between actin filaments (8 nm) and
microtubules (25 nm)
- intermediate filament play similar roles in the cells:
providing a supporting framework within the cells
 Biomolecules

Monomer- building blocks

Carbohydrates Proteins
- source of energy. This has monomer - great for muscle building. Monomers
called monosaccharide that makes up of protein are amino acids.
carbohydrates. - working immune systems and acting as
enzymes (enzymes are made of protein)
Lipids
- better known as fats. They have two eg, meat and beans
different types of building blocks.
1. Fatty acid Nucleic Acids
2. Glycerol - includes DNA and RNA. Their monomer
is called nucleotide.
eg, butter, oil and cholesterol. - if considering DNA and RNA,both of
these are involved in genetic
Lipids are great for insulating and are information for the coding of your
great source of long term energy. traits and mostly found in any of your
food.

Levels of Organization

Cell
- Basic unit of structure and function of all living things.
Tissue
- Group of cells of the same kind.

Organ
- Structure composed of one or more types of tissues. The
tissues of an organ work together to perfume a specific
function. Human organs include the brain, stomach, kidney, and
liver. Plant organs include roots, stems, and leaves.
Organ system
-Group of organs that work together to perform a certain
function.
Examples of organ systems in a human include the skeletal,
nervous, and reproductive systems.

Organism
- Individual living thing that may be made up of one or more
organ systems.