ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

UNIT I Diode
Diode:
Diode - Static and Dynamic resistances, Equivalent circuit, Diffusion and Transition
Capacitances, V-I Characteristics, Diode as a switch- switching times.

1.1 Basics
Atom:
• The smallest particle of an element that can exist either alone or in combination.
• Atoms consist of a heavy central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged
particles called electrons.
• The nucleus contains positive particles (protons) and electrically neutral particles (neutrons).

Electronics:
• The branch of science that deals with the study of flow and control of electrons and the
study of their behavior and effects in vacuums, gases, and semiconductors.

Passive Components:
• Those devices or components which do not required external source to their operation.
Examples: Resistor, capacitor and inductor.

Active Components:
• Those devices or components which required external source to their operation.
Examples: Diode, Transistors, SCR, Integrated Circuits, DIAC, TRIAC, LED etc.

DC (Direct Current):
• The electrons flow in one direction only. Current flow is from negative to positive.

AC (Alternating Current):
• The electrons flow in both directions in a cyclic manner.

Frequency:
• The rate of change of direction determines the frequency, measured in Hertz (cycles per
second).

Valence Electrons:
• Valence electrons are the electrons present in the outermost orbit of an atom.

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Free Electrons (or) Conduction Electrons:
• Free electrons are electrons that are not attached to an atom.

Energy band:
• The range of energies possessed by an electron in an atom.

Conduction band:
• The range of energies possessed by conduction electrons in an atom.

Valence Band:
• The range of energies possessed by valence electrons in an atom.

Energy band diagram:

• It is a diagram between interatomic spacing and energy

Forbidden Energy Gap:

• The separation between conduction band and valance band of the energy band diagram

1.1.1 Classification of Solid state materials

Insulators:
• Insulators are the materials which are not allowing flow of electric current through them.
Examples – Glass, Wood, Rubber, Plastic and air.
Conductors:
• Conductors are the materials which are easily allowing flow of electric current through them.
Examples – Copper, Aluminum, Iron and silver

Semiconductors:
• Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical conductivity lies in between insulators
and conductors.
Examples – silicon, Germanium and Gallium

1.2 Theory of P-N Junction

1.2.1 Types of Semiconductor
• Semiconductors can be classified into two types:
o Intrinsic Semiconductors or Pure of Semiconductors
o Extrinsic Semiconductors or Impure of Semiconductors
1.2.1.1 Intrinsic semiconductors:
• The normal silicon and Germanium are intrinsic semiconductors.
• The number of electrons present in the outermost orbit of intrinsic semiconductor is four
• So, intrinsic semiconductors are tetra valent in nature.

1.2.1.2 Doping:
• The process of adding impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor is known as doping.
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1.2.1.3 Extrinsic Semiconductors:
• With respect to the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two
types.
o N- type semiconductors
o P- type semiconductors

1.2.1.3.1 N- type semiconductors

• When a small amount of penta valent impurity (e.g. Antimony, Arsenic) is added to a pure
semiconductor, we will get N - type semiconductor.
• The addition of penta valent gives a large number of free electrons in the semiconductors
crystal.

Tetra valent + Penta valent = N- type Semiconductor

(4 electrons) + (5 electrons) = 9 electrons
= 9 Negative charges
= Excess of an electron

• The Majority Carriers in N - type are electrons (Negative charges) and Minority carriers are
holes (positive charges).
• N – type semiconductors are known as Donor impurities because they donate free electrons
to the semiconductor crystal.

1.2.1.3.2 P - type semiconductors

• When a small amount of trivalent material (e.g. Indium, Gallium) is added to a pure
semiconductor, we will get P - type semiconductor.
• The addition of trivalent impurity gives a large number of holes in the semiconductor.
• The hole shows absence of an electron.

Tetra valent + Tri valent = P – type Semiconductor

(4 electrons) + (3 electrons) = 7 electrons
= Shortage of an electron
= One positive charge
= Hole

• In a P - type semiconductor, Majority carriers are holes and Minority carriers are electrons.
• P - type semiconductors are called Acceptor Impurities because the holes created can
accept the electrons.

1.3 P-N Junction as a Diode

• A junction is formed by joining P - type semiconductor with N – type semiconductor, the
structure is called PN Junction or PN Diode.
• The structure of PN junction diode is shown in figure 1.1.

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 Fig.1.1 PN Junction diode
• Symbol of diode is given in figure 1.2.

Fig. 1.2 Symbol of PN Junction diode

1.3.1 Parameters used in PN Junction diode

• Figure 1.3 shows the open circuited PN Junction.

Fig. 1.3 Open circuited (No Biasing) PN Junction

• The free electrons from the n-region start diffusing into the p-region.
• The holes from p-side diffuse across the junction into the n-region.
• As more and more electrons recombine in p-region and holes in n-region, more charges get
formed near the junction.
• Hence in equilibrium condition there exists a layer of negative charges in p-region and
positive charges in n-region, near the junction.

1.3.1.1 Diffusion:
• Diffusion is the process by which electrons move from high concentration area towards low
concentration area.

1.3.1.2 Depletion region:

• A region is formed with empty free charge carriers at both the sides of junctions are called
as depletion region (or) depletion layer (or) space charge region.

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1.3.1.3 Potential barrier:
• The barrier which does not allow charge flow across the junction is called as potential
barrier.

• The barrier potential depends on,

o Type of semiconductor
o The acceptor impurity added
o The donor impurity added
o The temperature
o Intrinsic concentration

1.3.1.4 Biasing:
• Applying external D.C. voltage to any electronic device is called biasing.

1.4 Operation of PN Junction Diode

• Operation of a PN junction diode can be explained in two ways.
➢ Forward Biasing
➢ Reverse Biasing

1.4.1 Forward Biasing:

• If an external d.c voltage is connected in such a way that the p-region terminal is connected
to the positive terminal of the d.c. voltage and the n-region is connected to the negative
terminal of the d.c, voltage.

Fig. 1.4 Forward biasing of PN Junction Diode

1.4.1.1 Construction
• The Fig. 1.4 (a) shows the connection of forward biasing of a p-n junction.
• To limit the current, practically a current limiting resistor is connected in series with the p-n
junction diode.
• The Fig. 1.4 (b) shows the symbolic representation of a forward biased diode.

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1.4.1.2 Operation:
• As long as the applied voltage is less than the barrier potential, there cannot be any
conduction.
• When the applied voltage becomes more than the barrier potential, the negative terminal of
battery pushes the free electrons against barrier potential from n to p-region, and positive
terminal pushes the holes from p to n-region.
• Thus holes get repelled by positive terminal & electrons get repelled by negative terminal
and cross the junction against barrier potential.
• Thus the applied voltage overcomes the barrier potential, which reduces the width of
depletion region.
• As forward voltage is increased, at a particular value the depletion region becomes very
much narrow such that large number of majority charge carriers can cross the junction.
• Hence the overall forward current is due to the majority charge carriers.

1.4.1.3 Forward V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

• The Fig. 1.5 shows the forward biased diode.

Fig. 1.5 Forward biased diode

• The applied voltage is V while the voltage across the diode is V f and the current flowing in
the circuit is the forward current If.
• The graph of forward current If against the forward voltage Vf across the diode is called
forward characteristics of a diode and is shown in fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6 Forward characteristics of a diode

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Cut-in voltage:
• Minimum forward voltage required to conduct the diode.
Knee:
• The point P, after which the forward current starts increasing exponentially is called knee of
the curve

1.4.1.4 Operation of forward characteristics

• Region O to P (From Fig. 1.6):
o As long as Vf is less than cut in voltage (VƳ), the current flowing is very small.

• Region P to Q and onwards (From Fig. 1.6):

o As Vf increases towards VƳ the width of depletion region goes on reducing.
o When Vf exceeds VƳ i.e. cut-in voltage, the depletion region becomes very thin
and current If Increases suddenly.
o This increase in the current is exponential as shown in the Fig. 1.6 by the region P
to Q.
o The forward current is treated as positive and the forward voltage V f is also
treated positive.
o Hence the forward characteristic is plotted in the first quadrant.

1.4.1.5 Forward Resistance of Diode

• The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode in forward biased condition is called
forward resistance. The forward resistance is defined in two ways.

1.4.1.5.1 Static forward resistance:

• The resistance offered by the p-n junction under d.c, conditions is called static resistance
and it is denoted as Rf
• It is calculated at any particular point on the forward characteristics.
• The static resistance Rf is defined as the ratio of the d.c, voltage applied across the p-n
junction to the d.c. current flowing through the p-n junction.

1.4.1.5.2 Dynamic forward resistance:

• The resistance offered by the p-n junction under a.c, conditions is called as dynamic
resistance and it is denoted as rf.
• Consider the change in applied voltage from point A to B shown In the Fig. 1.6 and denoted
as ∆Vf.
• The corresponding change in the forward current is from point C to D and denoted as ∆I f.

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1.4.2 Reverse Biasing of P-N Junction Diode
• If an external d.c voltage is connected in such a way that the p-region terminal of a p-n
junction is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-region terminal of a p-
n junction is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.

Fig. 1.7 Reverse biasing of PN Junction Diode

1.4.2.1 Construction
• The Fig. 1.7 (a) & 1.7 (b) shows the connection of a reverse biasing and symbolic
representation of a p-n junction.
1.4.2.2 Operation:
• When the p-n junction is reverse biased, the negative terminal of battery attracts the holes in
the p-region and it is away from the junction.
• The positive terminal of battery attracts the free electrons in the n-region and it is away from
the junction.
• No charge carrier is able to cross the junction.
• As electrons and holes both move away from the junction, the depletion region widens.
• As depletion region widens, barrier potential across the junction also increases.
• The electrons on p side and holes on n side are minority charge carriers, which constitute
the current in reverse biased condition.
• The current flow due to minority charge carriers alone is called as reverse saturation current
(IO) which are small in number.
• The generation of minority charge carriers depends on the temperature and not on the
applied reverse bias voltage.

1.4.2.3 Reverse V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

• The Fig. 1.8 shows the reverse biased diode.
• The reverse voltage across the diode is VR while the current flowing is reverse current IR
due to minority charge carriers.
• The reverse voltage is taken as negative and reverse saturation current is also taken as
negative.

Fig. 1.8 Reverse biased diode

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 • The graph of IR against VR is called reverse characteristics of a diode and is shown in figure
1.9.

Fig. 1.9 Reverse characteristics of a diode

• As reverse voltage is increased, reverse current increases initially but after a certain
voltage, the current remains constant equal to reverse saturation current IO, though reverse
voltage is increased.
• The point A where breakdown occurs and reverse current Increases rapidly is called knee of
the reverse characteristics.

Reverse Breakdown Voltage

• The maximum voltage at which breakdown occurs is called as reverse breakdown voltage.

1.4.2.4 Reverse Resistance of Diode

• The p-n junction offers large resistance in the reverse biased condition and is as called
reverse resistance.
• This is also defined in two ways.

1.4.2.4.1 Reverse static resistance:

• This is reverse resistance under d.c conditions and it is denoted as Rr.
• It is the ratio of applied reverse voltage to the reverse saturation current IO.

1.4.2.4.2 Reverse dynamic resistance:

• This is the reverse resistance under the a.c. conditions and it is denoted as r r.
• It is the ratio of incremental change in the reverse voltage applied to the corresponding
change in the reverse current.

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1.4.3 Complete V-I Characteristics of a Diode
• Complete VI characteristics of PN Junction diode under the forward and Reverse bias is
shown in single graph.

1.10 Complete V-I Characteristics of a Diode

1.5 Diode Equation

• The mathematical representation of V-I characteristics of diode is called V-I characteristics
equation or diode current equation.
• It gives the mathematical relationship between applied voltage V and the diode current I and
is given by,

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• The factor ƞ is called an emission coefficient or Ideality factor.
• This factor takes into account the effect of recombination taking place in the depletion
region.
• The voltage equivalent of temperature indicates dependence of diode current on
temperature.
• The voltage equivalent of temperature VT for a given diode at temperature T is calculated
as,

• The value of VT also can be expressed as,

• The diode current equation is applicable for all the conditions of diode i.e, unbiased, forward
biased and reverse biased.
• When unbiased V=0 tends to I=0
• For forward bias V=Positive value tends to I=Positive value
• For Reverse bias V=Negative value tends to I=Negative value

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1.6 Diode Equivalent Circuits
• The diode is required to be replaced by the equivalent circuit in many practical electronic
circuits, for the analysis purpose. Such an equivalent circuit of a diode is called circuit model
of a diode.
• There are three methods of replacing diode by its circuit model, which are,
➢ Practical diode model
➢ Ideal diode model
➢ Piecewise linear model

• When the diode is forward biased, the total voltage drop across the diode is V f which is
equal to sum of the drop due to barrier potential (cut-in voltage VƳ) and the drop across the
internal forward dynamic resistance rf of the diode.
• When the diode is reverse biased, reverse saturation current is very small and practically
neglected. Hence reverse biased diode is practically assumed to be open circuit.

1.6.1 Practical Diode Model

• In forward bias, the practical diode model consists of a battery equal to cut-in voltage and
the forward resistance in series with an ideal diode which is shown in fig.1.11 (a).
• In reverse bias, it is open circuited and is shown in fig. 1.11 (b).
• While the Fig. 1.11 (c) shows the corresponding V-I characteristics.

Fig. 1.11 Practical diode model

1.6.2 Ideal Diode Model

• In many cases, as the forward resistance of diode is small and cut-in voltage is also small,
the diode is assumed to be an ideal diode.
• In case of ideal diode, it is assumed that it starts conducting instantaneously when applied
voltage VD is just greater than zero and the drop across the conducting diode is zero.
• So conducting diode can be ideally replaced by a short circuit, for the analysis of various
diode circuits.
• The Fig. 1.12 shows the ideal diode characteristics.

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 Fig. 1.12 Ideal diode model

1.6.3 Piecewise linear Model of Diode

• Another way to analyze the diode circuits is to approximate the V-I characteristics of a diode
using only straight lines i.e. linear relationships.
• In such approximation, the diode forward resistance is neglected and the diode is assumed
to conduct instantaneously when applied forward biased voltage V D is equal to cut-in
voltage VƳ and is shown in the fig. 1.13 (a).
• When the diode is in reverse biased condition i.e VD < 0, the diode does not conduct at all
and is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (b).
• As the diode conducts at VD=VƳ, the V-I characteristics with straight lines is as shown in the
Fig. 1.13 (c).

Fig. 1.13 Linear piecewise model of diode when rf = 0

• If forward resistance is considered to be finite, then forward biased characteristic is a
straight line with a slope equal to reciprocal of rf and is shown in the fig. 1.14 (a).
• In reverse bias, the diode is still assumed to be open circuited and is shown in the fig. 1.14
(b).
• The linear piecewise model with finite forward resistance rf is shown in the Fig. 1.14 (c).

Fig. 1.14 Linear piecewise model of diode with finite rf

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1.7 Junction Capacitances
• Depending upon the biasing condition, two types of capacitive effects exist in the diodes.
These are.
o Transition capacitance (CT) under reverse biased condition.
o Diffusion capacitance (CD) under forward biased condition.
1.7.1 Transition Capacitance (CT or Cpn)

Fig. 1.15 Transition Capacitance

• When a diode is reverse biased, the width of the depletion region increases.
• So there are more positive and negative charges present in the depletion region.
• Due to this, the p-region and n-region act like the plates of capacitor while the depletion
region acts like dielectric.
• Thus there exists a capacitance at the p-n junction called as transition capacitance.
• It is denoted as CT and is shown in figure 1.15.
• Mathematically it is given by the expression,

• As the reverse bias applied to the diode increases, the width of the depletion region (W)
increases. Thus the transition capacitance CT decreases.
• In short, the capacitance can be controlled by the applied voltage. The variation of C T with
respect to the applied reverse bias voltage is shown in the Fig. 1.16.

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 Fig. 1.16 Variation of CT versus Reverse voltage

• As reverse voltage is negative, graph is shown in the second quadrant.

• The value of transition capacitance is of the order of pico farads.
• For a particular diode shown, CT varies from 80 pF to less than 5 pF as VR changes from
2 V to 15 V.

1.7.2 Diffusion Capacitance (CD)

• During forward biased condition, another capacitance comes into existence called diffusion
capacitance (or) storage capacitance and denoted as CD.
• In forward biased condition, the width of the depletion region decreases and holes from p
side get diffused in n side while electrons from n side move into the p-side.
• As the applied voltage increases, concentration of injected charged particles increases.
• This rate of change of the Injected charge with applied voltage is defined as a capacitance
called diffusion capacitance.

• The diffusion capacitance expression can also be given as

• So diffusion capacitance is proportional to the current.

• For forward biased condition, the value of diffusion capacitance is of the order of nano
farads to micro farads while transition capacitance is of the order of pico farads.
• So CD >> CT.
• The graph of CD against the applied forward voltage is shown in the Fig. 1.17.
• As the applied forward voltage increases, current I increases hence diffusion capacitance
CD increases.
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 Fig. 1.17 Diffusion capacitance versus applied forward voltage

1.8 PN Junction Diode act as a switch

• The principle of working of a diode as a switch is nothing but the forward and reverse
biasing of the diode.
• When a forward voltage is more than the cut-in voltage of the PN junction diode, the current
flows through the junction. Thus, the diode junction becomes a short circuit.
• The diode comes in the reverse bias when the voltage at the diode’s anode is more
negative than the voltage at the cathode. In this condition, the diode junction is an open
circuit.
• The figure 1.18 shows the Circuit diagram for diode act as a switch
•

Fig. 1.18 Circuit diagram for diode act as a switch

• A diode has a PN junction.

• In a diode, P-region has lightly doped holes as the majority carriers and N- region has highly
doped electrons as the majority carriers.
• When the switch is at the ON position, the anode of diode D gets a positive supply and the
cathode of diode D gets a negative supply.
• In this condition, the diode gets forward biasing and it starts conducting.
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 • Now, when the switch position changes from ON to OFF state, the anode of the diode gets
the negative voltage at the anode.
• Under this condition, the current that was flowing in the forward bias state drops to zero, and
the diode becomes an open circuit.

Fig. 1.19 Equivalent circuit for diode act as a switch

1.9 switching times of a PN Junction diode

• When the diode is switched from forward biased to reverse biased or vice versa, it takes
finite time to reach the final steady state. The behaviour of diode during this time is called
switching characteristics of diode.
• To study the switching characteristics of diode, consider simple diode circuit and an input
waveform as shown in the Fig. 1.20.

Fig. 1.20 Simple diode circuit

• The following events will take place due to the nature of the applied voltage.

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• Event 1:
o Till time t1, the forward voltage applied is VF and diode is forward biased.
o The value of R is large enough such that drop across forward biased diode is very
small compared to drop across R.
o The forward current is then IF = VF /R, neglecting forward resistance of diode.
• Event 2:
o At time t1, the applied voltage is suddenly reversed and reverse voltage of - VR is
applied to the circuit.
o Ideally diode also must become OFF from ON state instantly. But this does not
happen instantly.
o The number of minority carriers take time to reduce from Pn - Pno to zero at the
junction as shown in the Fig. 1.21 (b).

Fig. 1.21 Switching characteristics of diode

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 o Due to this, at t1 current just reverses and remains at that reversed value —IR till the
minority carrier concentration reduces to zero.
o This current is given by -IR = - VR /R. This continues to flow till time t2.
o Storage time:
➢ During time t1 to t2, the minority charge carriers remain stored and decrease
slowly to zero. Hence this time is called storage time denoted as ts.
• Event 3:
o From t2 onwards, the diode voltage starts to reverse and the diode current starts
decreasing as shown in the Fig. 1.21 (c).
o At t=t3, the diode state completely gets reversed and attains steady state in reverse
biased condition.
o Transition time:
➢ The time from t2 to t3 i.e., time required by the diode current to reduce to its
reverse saturation value is called the transition interval or transition time
denoted as tt.
o Reverse recovery time:
➢ The total time required by the diode which is the sum of storage time and
transition time, to recover completely from the change of state is called reverse
recovery time of the diode and denoted as trr. This is an important consideration
in high speed switching applications.
o For quick switching from ON to OFF state, the reverse recovery time should be as
small as practicable.
trr = ts + tt
o The reverse recovery time depends on the RC time constant where C is a transition
capacitance of a diode.
o To have fast switching from ON to OFF of a diode, the transition capacitance should
be as small as possible.
• Thus, the transition capacitance plays an important role in the switching circuits using
diodes.
• Most commercially available switching diodes have the reverse recovery time ranging from
a few nanoseconds to one microsecond.
• However, diodes are specially manufactured having reverse recovery time as small as only
a few picoseconds.
• The total switching time trr puts the limit on the maximum operating frequency of the diode.
Hence trr is an important datasheet specification.
• To minimize the effect of the reverse current, the time period of the operating frequency
must be atleast ten times trr.

where fmax is the maximum operating frequency.

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