cost, reliability, power consumption: po - ieee Power consumption; portability etc. rayne ener we technologies! aspect of each generation : 2 ation : echni first generation computersare SS (i) Use of v; ; ; in the circui puters ) f vacuum tubes : The vacuum tubes were used in the circuits of these com. fi) Use crn : They were too bulky in size, requiring ise of punched card : Thei i i card teutinbToey ¢ input and output operations were done using punched : (iv) Use of magnetic memory : For external storage magnetic taj netic drum was used as internal memory. (v) Limited applications : Since these computers w« have limited commercial use. ; (vi) Speed : The processing speed was vel dred instructions per second. (vii) Power consumptit amount of heat. (viii) Programming in machine limited programming capability. They min large rooms for installation, pes were used. Mag- ere difficult to program and they ry low. These computers can execute hun- ‘on : These computers consumed high power and generate great and assembly language : These computer had very use machine and assembly language for program- g. (ix) Reliability : Due to frequent failure of circuits these computers were not very reliable. (x) Cost : Cost of these computers were very hi Examples Computer belonging to first general 1BM701, IBM704, 1BM709, MARK I, MARK I. 2. Second generation of computers (1955-1964 = Kchas ic first generation igh. tion are EDVAC, UNIVAC, IBM700, }) : With invention of transistors by were replaced by transistors. TheeT Nae iui ats EU VAL, UNLVAC, [BM700, *PM/U1, LBM704, IBM709, MARK I, MARK - 2. Second generation of computers (1955-1964) : With invention of transistors by Bell laboratories, the vacuum tubes is first generation were replaced by transistors. The major advantage of use of transistors wa: as the power consumption. The following teclinical features of these computers of second generation : (i) Use of transistors : Transistors were used it (ii) Punch card as input/out punched cards and papers were use in the circuits in place of vacuum tubes. ut unit : The input operations were performed using (ii) Tape and disk as secondary storage : Magnetic tapes and magnetic disk were the main secondary storage media used in second generation. (iv) Size : Size of these computers are smaller than first generation computers because transistors take less space than vaccum tubes. (v) Speed : Processing speed of these computers higher than first generation. They can execute about thousand instructions per second. ' ' (vi) Programming in high level language : The high level languages like FOR- TRAN, COBOL, BASIC etc. were used as the language by the computers. (vii) Reliability : These computers were more reliable because transistors had more i tubes. a wea Power consumption : Transistors consumed less power, generated less heat ibes. ; ia Cost : These computers are less expensive to produce. ql = computer applications : New computers are used for management as wel (x)as for commercial use. Management information system were introduced in their genera- tions. Examples : IBM 1620 Series, IBM 7090 Series, IBM 7094 I, IBM 7094 II, PDP1, PDP3, PDPS, PDP8, ATLAS, LEO, PDP (Programmed Data Processor). 3. Third generation of computers (1965-1974) : Third generation of computers witnessed major advanced and changes in hardware and software capacities. The major technological features of computers of this generation are : (i) Use of integrated circuits : Transistors were replace by integrated circuits. IC’s decreased the size, cost and power consumption to a great extent. (ii) Input/output media : For input and output operations monitors and keyboards were introduced. (iit) Use of magnetic disk : For secondary storage magnetic disk were used which was larger in capacity and faster. For internal memory magnetic core were used. (iv) Use of operating system : Sophisticated operating systems, capable of handling several jobs concurrently were used. (v) Evolution of easy high level languages : New high level language like BASIC, COBOL, PASCAL were developed that allowed programs written for one computer to be easily ported to and executed on another computer. (vi) Speed : There was great important in processing speed of these computers. These can execute millions of instructions per second (MIPS). (vii) Cost : Cost was lower than second generation. (viii) Reliability : These computers were more reliable and less prone to hardware failures than second generation computers. Maintenance cost was also lower. (i) Rise of mini computers : The mini computer of third generation made computers affordable even by smaller companies. Examples : Major computers of these generation include, [BM307 series, PDP TL CDC7600 series, CYBER-175, STAR-100. 4. Fourth eeneration of computers (1975-1990) : With large scale integrated (LST)CDC7600 series, CYBER-175, STAR-100. ; a 4. Fourth generation of computers (1975-1990) : With large scale integrated (LSI) semi conductor circuits called microprocessor getting developed, this was a revolution in computers technology. With microprocessor microcomputer were developed. The following are the technological features of computers of these generation : ( Development of microprocessor ; With the development of VLSI now it is pos- sible to design entire CPU in single chip of size less than one inch, which is called micropro- cessor. (ii) Input/output media : With use of keyboard, monitor, printer new input/output media were developed that include direct input device, optical scanning, audio responses etc. (iii) Semi conductor internal memory : In fourth generation in place of magnetic memory semi conductor made internal memory were used. These memory were fast in speed, small in size and cheaper in cost. (iv) Modern secondary memory : With magnetic disk as secondary memory new secondary memories magnetic bubble, floppy disk, optical disk were used. (¥) Miniature size : With the use of VLSI and microprocessor now it is possible to design thousands of components of circuits that has drastically reduced the size of comput- ers. Now typewriter size micro computers are available. (vi) Speed : Computers of these generation were faster than previous generations. These computers can execute tens of millions instruction per second. (vii) Use of improved high level language : New standard high level language like C+, KLI, RPG SQL were developed.Computer hardware, software and user works as a system, called computer system. Main units of computer system : Computer system has following main units : (i) Input Unit, (ii) Central Processing Unit, (iii) Output Unit, (iv) Memory. (i) Input Unit : An input unit is a device that accepts instructions and data from the user and communicates these to the computer, Computer can understand only binary lan- guage so the instructions and data must be presented to computer in binary language. All input devices converts the input data into the binary codes which is then processed by pro- cessing unit. Following are the functions performed by an input unit : (2) It accepts (or reads) the instructions and data from the outside world. (b) It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable formKeauen Ways (ii) Central Processing Unit : CPU is the brain of the computer. The part of the computer that performs the bulk of data processing operations is called central processing unit. The CPU fetches the instruction of the program from the memory at time, decodes it and then executesit. CPU takes the data from the input unit , process it and passes the output tothe output unit. In a computer system all major calculations and comparisons are made by CPU. CPU is responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units of computer system. The CPU consist of the following units : (a) Control Unit : This is that nit afthe CPT] which manages and coordinates all theREAEES computer system. 1ne UYU consist of the following units : (a) Control Unit : This is that unit of the CPU, which manages and coordinates all the activities of each and every element of computer. Control unit does not perform any actual processing on the data, it acts as a central nervous system for other components of computer system. It control the entire operations of the computer system. It fetches the instruction from the memory, decodes the instruction, interprets the instruction to know what task are to be performed, sends suitable control signal to other component to perform necessary step to execute the instruction. It gives order to ALU what operation is to be performed . It gener- ates timing and control signal and provide them for all operation. It control the data flow between CPU and peripherals. Fiinetians af cantral unit + (a\ Ta retrieve data fram innnt devieas (h\ Th eanvartALL TNe INSIFUCUULS ZIVeL Uy LOL UL WEE ate owt ey renee me means of system bus and control bus. (b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) : All processors contain an arithmetic/logic unit, which is often referred to simply as the ALU. The ALU, as its name implies, is that portion of the CPU hardware which performs the arithmetic and logical operations on the binary data . The ALU must contain an Adder which is capable of combining the contents of two registers in accordance with the logic of binary arithmetic. This provision permits the processor to perform arithmetic manipulations on the data it obtains from memory and from its other inputs. ALU performs arithmetic operations like Add, Subtract, Multiply, Divide etc. and logical operations like Logical And, Logical Or, Compare, Shift, Rotate etc.Gii) Output Unit : The output unit provides results to the user. The output unit is 2 communication link between the computer and the user. The results of various operations performed by the computer on the given data according to specified instructions are com- municated by the computer to the user through this unit. Although the computer works in binary language, the results produced is also in the binary form. Hence, before supplying the result to the outside world, they must be converted into human readable form. This task is accomplished by units called output interfaces. Output interfaces are designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices (terminals, printers etc.), to the requirements of the external environment. Following are the functions performed by the output unit : 1. It accepts the results produced by the commuter. which are in coded farm and hanaswee (i) Analog Computers : These are the computers which operate on the principle of creating a physical analog of mathematical problems. The input signals are continuous flow of physical quantities like temperature, speed, pressure, velocity, mass etc. Analog computer measures and answers the questions by following the method of “HOWMUCH”. The results given by these computers usually is not very precise, accurate and consistent. These are esnecially desioned for industrial annlicatianc like netrolenm refineriesgaye, spocusiier, Wey Nee, WEIgHANE UAV wee (ii) Digital Computers : These are the computers which accepts digits and alphabets as input. These computer take data in form of discrete digits 0 (represents ON) and 1 (rep- resents OFF). These computers convert data into discrete form before operating on it. These are designed for various fields like Mathematics, Engineering, Statistics, Operation Research, Accounting etc, Most of the computer used in our day to day life are digital com- puters. Examples are, Calculators, Data processing machine, Digital watches etc. Gii\ Awhrid Camnutere + Uvhrid eamnutar ic tha anmbinatinn af heet anealitian af: Examples are, Calculators, Data processing machine, Digital watchesetc. (ii) Hybrid Computers ; Hybrid computer is the combination of best qualities of analog and digital computers. Hybrid computer are capable to work on analog or digital data. These are mostly used for automation of various complicated physical processes and machines. These are used for special problems in which the input data, a form of measure- ment is converted into digits and processed by computers. Examples are, Flight radar sys- tem, Robot controlling machine used in CAM (Computer Added Manufacturing). (B) Types of computer on the basis of size : On the basis of the size computer can be/. Major Manulactures are LOL, Apple, Vompay, VEU, LusuIva, eWICUnr aunatu, (ii) Mini Computers : These computers are relatively smaller and faster than micro computers. Some major characteristics of mini computers are : 1. The size of mini computer is less than micro computer. 2. Mini computer can support about 10-20 user terminals connected to it. 3. The memory capacity processing speed is more than micro computers. 4, These computers generally support multiuser environment. 5. Mini’s are more expensive than micro computers. 6. Mini computers are used for engineering tasks. Network servers, work group sys- tems, application systems, banking, payroll generation etc.Both are actually categories of digital computers. (i) General purpose computer : These are those computers which can theoretically used for any type of applications. These computers can be used for solving a business prob- lem as well as mathematical equation with same accuracy and consistency. The instructions which are needed to perform any task are not permanently stored into the memory of machine but they are read from input and kept in memory till the task is completed. All the PC's which have become almost every household affair are all general purpose digital com- we Thana ava thaca cammnters Which are desioned mad~puvets. (ii) Special purpose computer : These are those computers which are designed, made and used for any specific task. These are usually used for those purpose which are critical and need great accuracy and response like satellite launching, weather forecasting aircraftAls. Liva- ives, bout din ced Computer works as a system. Computer system mainly consists of two things : 1, Hardware : Computer hardware is the physical part of a computer, including the digital circuitry. The term hardware covers all those parts of a computer that are tangible. Circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mouse are all hardware. The physical component that we can see, touch and feel in the computer system is called hard- ware, Tinite af camnntar hardware + Camnntar hardVaauapive Us UuUpur ULL 2. Software : In computer science computer software is nothing but all computer programs. To perform any task on computer, the programmer has to write a set of instruc- tion. This sequence of instructions given to the computer is called a program. A set of pro- grams written for the computer is called software. Software is a program that enables a computer to perform a specific task. ‘Types of software : There are mainly two types of software.computer to perorm a specinic task. Types of software : There are mainly two types of software. (a) System Software : System software controls all processing activities and make sure that resources and the power of the computer are used in most efficient manner. The major purpose of system software is to control the execution of program and help in the development of software. Functions of System Software : 1. Supports the development of other application software. 2. Supports the execution of other application software.Fig. Types of Software (a) Operating System : An operating system is a series of programs which organizes and controls a computer. An operating system (OS in short) is a master control pro: runs the computer and acts as a scheduler. It controls the flow of signals ftom various parts of the computer. Some tasks are as follows : 1. OS controls the hardware, such as the keyboard, the printer and the screen. 2. OS performs job scheduling and monitoring. 3. OS controls the processes that store data on disks and take data from disk. 4, Controls the operation of application software. 5. Organizes the hard and floppy disks, so they can store data. W- cnnanneaw an T ananage translator : A language processor or translaey Source Code Input Object Code Output Utility software : Itis a set of programs, that supports the oj . : perating system by provid- ing the additional services that the Operating system does not provide. There are many task which are performed by utility programs, some are hard disk backup, disk optimization, file recovery, safe formatting and resource editing. Utility software is also known as service program, or utility routine. It is specifically designed to help in managing and tune the com- puter hardware, operating system or application software, and perform a single task or a small range of tasks. Some important utilities are Disk defragmenters, Virus scanners/Anti- virus, Disk Compression, File Management tools, file manager etc. Application Software : Application software allows humans ta aceamnlich ane arvirus, Lisk Compression, rile Management tools, tlle manager etc, Application Software : Application software allows humans to accomplish one or more specific tasks. It is a set of programs that is necessary to carry out operations for a specified application. Typical applications include industrial automation, business software, educational software, medical software, databases. Almost every field of human activity now uses some form of application software. It is used to automate all sorts of functions. Application software is often purchased seperately from computer hardware. Some- times applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications. Applications are almost always independent programs from the operating system. Application software are of two types : (a) General purpose Application Software or Package : The software which istypes : 1. Keyboard : Keyboard is one of the most commonly used input device. Keyboard is just like a keyboard of a typewriter. It commonly consist of 108 keys. When any key is pressed, then electrical signal is generated, which is recognized by keyboard encoder, then its binary code, which isin either ASCII or EDCDIC or HEX, is sent to computer’s process- ing unit. Keyboard consist of alphabetical, numeric, digits, function keys, some special key and control keys. fi) Alphabetic keys : Keyboard consist of A to Z alphabet keys. When caps lock is\. L. What do you understand about input devices 7 Explain. Ans. Input Device : Input device is an electro-mechanical device which accept data from the user and converts it into the form which is understandable by the computer. There are many types of input device in the market. These devices are mainly divided into two categories: . 1. Online Input Devices : These are thace innnt davicss which ara die.peu alu. () Mouse : This input device is used specially for Graphic User Interface (GUL). It contains one to three buttons. This is used as pointing service. The user rolls on a smooth surface, the cursor movement on the screen is controlled by mouse. One can point to anyplace on screen, make selections, click on op- tion etc., so that input is provided to the computer, the mouse can be used either individually or in com- bination with a keyboard so that there is enhance- tioning of cursor using for non typist.ight beam 1s broken aa ne LOcALON OF DreAKINg OF HENLE DEAK IS TECUL UE, yan awe yrs 3. Data Scanning Device : Data scanning device is direct data entry device, With the help of these devices input can be directly obtained from the computer. Some data scanning devices accept special type of symbols or letters as a input. As they take input directly, therefore they requires high quality input. Some data scanning devices are « (a) SCANNER (b) OCR (c) OMR (d) MICR (¢) BAR CODE READER. 4, Digitizer : With the help of digitizer diagram and drawings are converted into ae g anhie tablet(a) SCANNER (b) OCR (c) OMR (d) MICR (e) BAR CODE READER. 4. Digitizer : With the help of digitizer diagram and drawings are converted into digital form, so that they can be stored in the computer. Digitizer consists of graphic tablet, its upper surface consist of a pen or mouse which is also known as styles. There is a net of thin wires on graphic tablet, onto which moving mouse or pen on its surface generates the signal to the computer. On the top of which there is a scanning head. This head is user for obtaining required position, after getting position button is pressed. Digitizer is used by engineers & architects in computer ced designing for making ‘ae Laelati intensive Seat rere bees wos anal6. Voice Recognition Device : The human siving rise to a very friendly input systems, which t ake innate:LL. On the basis of technologies, monitors are ot two types * (a) Cathode Ray Tube Monitor : This screen is generally used in desktop computers and many PC models. This works by using beam of electrons which move and trace regular pattern of horizontal lines on the phosphorous coating on the screen's surface. The images on the screen is produced by varying the intensity of the electron beam, The'beam scans the total screens many times each second, These screen are capable of producing monochrome or colour image depending upon the number of electron guns used, The CRT sereen can display upto 25 lines of 80 characters each. CRT is quite reliable but it is bulky, occupies more space as well as consumes more power, making it difficult to transport the computer.cause strain to the eyes. 2. Printer : Printer is an online output device, which displays the output by printing it on the player which is known as hardcopy output. Printing is an electro-mechanical device, whose work is to correct the digital data coming from the computer into human understandable form & print it out on the papers in the form of a hardcopy . ‘Types of Printer : Printer can be categorized on the basis of various characters :(a) Impact Printer : These are electro-chemical printer, in which there is a printhead. : Hammer of metal collide with paper & ribbon and letters are printed on a paper. Dot matrix printers are impact printers. (b) Non-impact Printer : In this method of printing, there is no direct contact with print head and paper. For non-impact printer, thermal, chemical, electrostatic, laser and inkjet eto. are used. Laser printer is an example of non-impact printer. Difference between Impact and Non-impact printerrs lar zes the me ies ter. VAMC CULE VELEEM Mpa AU LNON-LMpact printer S.No. Impact Printer ‘Non-impact Printer There is a direct mechanical contact between print head and paper. This printer produce noise while printing. Printing quality are poorer as com- pared to non-impact printer. These are generally character or line printer. Printing speed of these printers are slow. There is a absence of direct mechanical contact between head and paper. This printer does not produce noise while printing. Printing quality of these printers ere very good. ‘These are common page printer. Printing speed are comparatively high. Example of Impact Printer : 4ACIETS 2NG Ie OWNED Lo SLULe aU ALU LUELY CUUE tu Lees Cane ee Q. 7. Explain Input Output port (I/O port) . Ans, Input and Output device can not be interfaced toa microprocessor directly be- ed with necessary logic circuitry needed for direct interfacing to buses through electronic cause they are not provid bus the processor buses. They are usually interfaced to the processor circurity called I/O ports. An I/O port is supposed to contain device selection logic, drivers, data buffers, status register, control lines, etc.mucro controller, Intel 8051 series. (2) /O processor : A micro controller or a micro processor - based system which is used to control an input/output devices is called I/O processor. Itrelieves CPU from the task of input/output operations. A modern computer has several I/O devices. Some of them are very fast devices. To perform I/O operations I/O programs are to be executed. If CPU is kept busy in executing I/O programs, its appreciable time is wasted in it and it gets less time to perform its own task of data processing. Therefore, to make a modern computer efficient and faster important I/O devices are provided with I/O processors. Example : A keyboard contains a micro controller which scans the prossed key and4. Wat Go you mean by memory hierarchy? Explain it. Ans. In a computer system various memories are used to fulfil the requirement of storage. It is natural to group these different types of memory in terms of storage capacity and speed. This leads us to formulate an abstraction called a memory hierarchy. Because certain types of memory are faster than others, and since designers place these faster types of memory closer to the processor, it is useful to put smaller amounts of data in the faster memory, which are sub-sets of larger data stored in slower memory. The overall goal of using a memory hierarchyis to obtain highest possible average access speed while minimizing the total cost of entire memory system. The memory hierarchy system consist of all storage devices employed in a computer system from the slope but high capacity, auxiliary memory toa relatively faster main memory, to an even smaller and faster cache memory accessible to a high processing logic. A special very high speed memory called a ‘cache’ is sometimes used to increase the speed of processing by making current program and data available to the CPU at a rapid rate, Points to keep in mind for making memory hierarchy- how much, how fast and how expensive.‘Types of memory : There are 2 types of memory in a computer : (1) Primary Memory or Main Memory : The memory which is directly connected tothe computer is called as primary memory or main memory. This is very important part of computer, where data resides during execution of program and can be obtained whileneeded. Primary memory is called as main memory, semiconductor memory or simply memory. Main memory ofa computer is mainly of 2 types : fn\ DAM av Dandam Aecece Memarv + While a nrosram is being executed it re-(a) RAM or Random Access Memory : While a program is being executed it re- quires data, this data is required while execution of the program is stored in RAM. The data stored in RAM is volatile i.e., when there. is a power failure the data in the RAM is lost. Whenever new data is stored in RAM the previous data is erased. Thus, RAM is used to store data and program temporarily. RAM is available in different storage capacity. Like - 8 MB, 16 MB, 32 MB, 64 MB, IGBetc.ARoUTL is aTaMAUIE A a types + (Ly Glaue Ke, (ey yee rir (b) ROM or Read Only Memory : ROM is static memory. Some programs are always required to run the machine. These types of programs ifstored in RAM are lost as it is volatile memory, so they have to be stored in non-volatile so that they have to be stored in non-volatile storage i.e., that device in which data is not erased when there is power failure or it is switched off. ROM provides that non-volatile storage, therefore all these programs are stored in it. ROM usually contain the Bootstrap loader programs, which loads the oper- ating system into the memory. As this program is stored in ROM, it start as soon as com- puter is switched on & makes the computer ready to load OS programs in the memory. As ROMis read only memory, the contents of ROM cannot be changed but for specalized use contents of ROM can be re-programmed using special circuits. Different types of ROM are as follows : (@) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) () EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) (c) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)sor ~atoonseautuu OF Memory Chart (2) Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is also known as auxiliary storage and is used to store data and Program when they are not being processed. Secondary storage is more permanent than main memory, as data & program are retained even when the power is turned off. Secondary storage device provide a mean of permanently ‘storing ofthe informa- tion contained in temporary memory. There are several types of secondary storage devices. The most common type of secondary storage is disk. The disk is permanent storage medium for either data or a software program.RE MLULLY HOWE BUCO SLUR gE UL HOLe Le ao AULD (® Magnetic Tape : A magnetic disk is a circular plotter of plastic, which is coated with magnetizable material. One of the key components of a magnetic disk isa conducting coil named as head which performs the job of reading and writing on the magnetic surface. The head remains stationary while the disk rotates below it for the reading or writing opera- tion. For writing data on the magnetic disk current is passed through the head, which pro- duces the magnetic field. This magnetic field causes magnetic patterns to be recorded on the magnetic surface. These recorded magnetic pattern depend on the direction of the current in(1) They have a limited capacity. (2) They are relatively slow. (3) They are less reliable than hard disk. So proper care should be taken to prevent data. (iv) Hard Disk,: Hard disk is a disk storage device, often very large capacity in the gigabyte range, with a mechanism for reading and writing data. The hard disk drive was primarily developed with the reason to provide a secondary storage device which is fast and have higher capacity and compactness as well as it is much reliable as a data storage system. As it is known that the hard disk drive is basically an internal. In some cases it can be extemal. A disk is divided into tracks. cvlinder and sectors. A sinole hard disk nsnallv cancisteé \. 9. yriite sure mote on : (1) Cache memory, (2) Virtual memory. Aus. (1) Cache memory : The cache memory placed between CPU and main memory. The processor is connected to the cache memory through a cache controller. It is a semicon- ductor memory. It consist of static RAM its access time is about 10ns. | nano second = 107 ° second. Which is much less than that of the main memory. The capacity of the cache memory is 2 to 3 percent of that of the main memory. It stored instruction code and data, which are to be currently executed by the CPU. It is used to reduce the average access time for instruction and data, which are normally stored in the main memory. A cache memory so needs a cache controller. Cache controller ICs are available. The modern 32-bit microprocessor operates at very high speed. Their clack rates arehich are Datais ches to (CD's) oscopic also needs a cache controller. Cache controller ICs are available. The modern 32-bit microprocessor operates at very high speed. Their clock rates are usually in the range of |GHz-3-8GHz. The memory matching with high-speed microproces- sor must be very fast. But very fast memory is very expensive. If a fast microprocessor operates with conventional main memory. It has to operate with several wait state. This will reduce the speed of the computer. A compromise is made anda high-speed cache memory is used to supply currently needed instruction and data to CPU. The current needed instruction and data of the program are loaded into the cache from the main memory. The technique of accessing a cache memory differs from that ofthe main memory. To access main memarv the CPTI sends and address to it. In resnanse this main memory sendsamit occur, (2) Virtual memory : Virtual memory is a method that computers use to manage storage space to keep system running quickly and efficiently using the technique, operating system can transfer data between different types of storage, such as random access memory, also know as main memory and hard drive or solid state disk storage. . Virtual memory is a built in component of most mordern desktop computers. Advantages of virtual memory : (1) Optimizing central processing Unit (CPU). (2) Allowing user to operate multiple application at the some time or applications that are larger than the main memory. (3) Increasing the amount of memory available by working outside the limits of a computers physical main memory space.Ans. DASD : The online secondary storage which is always available to a processor !s called direct access storage device (DASDs). The commonly used DASDs are magnetic disks. The optical disk if incorporated in a system are also DASDS. This term DASD is in the context of permanent type directly accessible long term storage device. As for as the term direct access is concemed all semiconductor memories RAMs, ROMs, PROMs are directly accessible and have random access property. Out of these RAMs are for users and they have been categorized as primary memory. DASD allow the host computer to access data directly from wherever it is storedsovy ere vee Categorized as primary memory. : a esos eet commie to access data directly from wherever it red ig ause each data chunk is saved in a discrete and separate 1c tion from other chunks, complete with a unique address, This allows the computer 0 di- rectly point to that location to get the data. Access method includes indexed, sequential and direct. Even if the exact location of the data is known the speed of access is largely depend on the capability of the storage device. Example : Desktop servers and external hard drives are good examples of DASDs, although flash drives and SD cards can be considered DASDs as well. Advantages of DASDs : DASDs are advantageous because they can provide a user with large amount of portable storage that can be assessed from any computer. DASDs are also advantageous because they are often relatively small and provide the user with quick access to his / her data. O. &. Write short notes on : (1) Destruct tis stored e and non destructive readout,wee penne Ans. The MMU (Memory management Unit) is a hardware component placed in be- tween the processor and the main memory. Some modern CPUs contain on-chip MMU such- as 80286, 80386, Power PCs etc. The CPU which does not contain on-chip MMU uses external MMU. The MMU is used in a multiprogramming or multiuser system. The tasks which are performed by MMU can be performed by the operating system. Then the operat- ing system will not get sufficient time for program addresses used in a program are logical addresses. They indicate the logical position of instructions and data in the program. Themodern MMU provides the facility of virtual memory to provide very large memory space to users. Virtual memory is a technique which allows programmers to use more memory than what a computer actually has. To explain how MMU manages more memory than the actual capacity of the main memory, we shall take the example of 80286. It has 24 address lines. With 24 address lines only 16 MB memory can be addressed. But its virtual capacity is 1GB. In its virtual mode of operation the memory pointers consists of 16 Bit segment selector and a 16 bit offset. The segment selector has 14 address bits and 2 privilege level bits. The segment selector speci- fies an index into the memory resident table. Called descriptor. The descriptor gives a 24 bit segment address. The physical address is obtained by adding the 16-bit offset to the 24-bit segment address. This computation of physical address from a logical address is carried out by MMU.