General characters
n Semi-hard specialized connective tissue
n Components: specific cells and extracellular matrix
n Matrix: solid, firm, elastic, rich in glycosaminoglycans
n Allows diffusion to nutritive substrates
n Cartilagineous model for the next bones
n Postnatal: articulations, trachea, bronchi
Histogenesis
n From mesenchymal tissue
n Head and throat: neural crests
n Aggregation of mesenchymal
cells
n Differentiation in specific
cartilage cells
n Sinthesis of matrix, cells
become chondroblasts
n Peripheric mesenchym:
perichondrum
Cartilagineous cells
n Types:
chondroprogenitors,
chondroblasts,
chondrocytes
n Chondroblasts: to the
periphery, flattened,
smaller than chondrocytes
n From division,
differentiation and
synthesis of matrix C
become chondrocytes
The chondrocytes
n Rounded, oval or angular
n Larger than chondroblasts
n Included in lacunes of matrix
n Nucleus is excentric
n Cytoplasm rich in non-specific organelles and inclusions
(glycogen and lipids)
n Potential of division maintained
n Synthesizes components of matrix: collagen type II,
GAG and anchorin
n Pericellular pseudocapsule: resistent to compression
TC
Cb
C
P
1 2
Chondrocytes, EM
1 – peripheric
2 – central
3 - degenerated
3
Isogenic groups
n Agglomertes of chondrocytes
n All cells of one isogenic group come from the same chondrocyte
from division (iso – same, genos – origin)
n Coronar isogenic groups: chondrocytes disposed radially –
cartilage mature hyaline
n Axial isogenic groups: chondrocytes disposed in lines – growth
ring of the bones in length
Coronary isogenic groups
Axial
Isogenic
groups
Extracellular matrix
n Components:
n Fibres of collagen, net
around lacunes
n Fundamental substance
n Biochemical:
n Collagen type II
n Glycosaminoglycans
n Glycoproteines
n Chondronectin, anchorin
n Water 60 – 75%
n Types:
n Territorial
n Interterritorial
Blue of toluidin
Collagen II
Anchorin
EM of scan, extracellular matrix fibres
The perichondrum
n Connective shell of cartilage
n Tissue type: dense
disordered
n Contains blood vessels
n Internal strate:
chondroprogenitor
n External strate: typically
dense disordered
Fibrous
Cartilage types
Hyalin
Elastic
The hyalin cartilage
n The best represented
n Localization
n Primitive skeleton
n Nasal sept
n Trachea, bronchi
n Costal cartilage
n Mobile articulations
n Morphology
n Chondrocytes,
chondroblasts
n Amorphic, acidophil matrix
The elastic cartilage
n Elastin in matrix
n Large chondrocytes, coronary
isogenic groups
n Matrix reduces face of hyalin
n Has pericondrum
n Does not calcify
n Localization: epiglottis,
aritenoid cartilage, earlobes ,
auditive canal
P
Cb
Fibrous cartilage
n Components
n Chondrocytes
n Territorial matrix
n Connectiv tissue dense
disordered
n Localization
n Intervertebral disks
n Pubic synphisis
n Temporo – mandibular
articulation
n Does not have
perichondrum
n Frequently calcifies
The cartilagineous canals
n Apears only in hyalin
cartilage
n Derives from
perichondrum
n Contains: Lax connective
tissue, blood vessels,
polymorphic cells to the
periphery
n Localization: nasal sept,
larynx
n Numerous cartilagineous
canals: chondrodisplasia
Growth and regeneration of cartilage
n Growth of cartilage
n Aposition
n Interstitial
n Influenced by: vitamine A, STH, androgens, estrogens
(stimulants), glucocorticoids (inhibitors)
n Regeneration of cartilage
n Limited, in regards of pericondrum
n Larger lesions: repare from dens disordered connective
tissue or formation of bony tissue
Regeneration of cartilage
Polarized light
Calcification of cartilage
n Process of impregnation with mineral salts of
cartilagineous matrix
n Frequence in hyalin, fibrous cartilage and does not
happen in the elastic one
n Calcification conditions:
n The outer cartilage in contact with bony tissue
n Cartilage which will be replaced normally with bone
n Slow matrix calcification in all hyalin cartilages (ie. in
trachea with microcalcification)
n Cellular-matrix remains are destroyed by
chondroclasts
Bone tissue and
osteogenesis
Bone tissue: specialized connective tissue, extracellular matrix
impregnated with mineral salts
Components and functions
n Extracellular matrix
n Bony tissue cells
Ø Osteoprogenitors
Ø Osteoblasts
Ø Osteocytes
Ø Osteoclasts
n Functions
Ø Mechanic resistence
Ø Metabolic (reservoir of
calcium)
Bony tissue structure
n Basic morphologic unit: bony
lamelle
n Contains cells and matrix OM
OI
n Types
Ø Compact or haversian
Ø Spongeous or trabecular
n Variants
Ø Immature or primary: fibres of OI
OM
colagene arranged disorderly
Ø Mature or secundary (lamellar)
fibres of collagene disposed
orderly
Immature bone
Mature bone
Bone tissue cells
n Proper
Ø Osteoprogenitors
Ø Osteoblasts
Ø Osteocytes
n Medullary origin
Ø osteoclasts
n Osteoprogenitor cells
Ø Bony surfaces
Ø Can transform into
osteoblasts
Ø Ovoidal, flattened, with few
non-specific organelles
Osteoprogenitor cells
The osteoblasts
n Differenciated cells which secrete bony matrix
n Origin: osteoprogenitor cells
n Morphology
Ø Polyhedric or cuboidal, short prologations
Ø Central nucleus, euchromatic, with nucleolus
Ø Basophilic cytoplasm with numerous organelles and
inclusions
n Functions
Ø Ossein synthesis, collagen I and non-collagenic proteins
Ø Receptors for parathormon (secrets a substance which
activates osteoclasts)
P Ob
Oc
Compact bone
Golgi
Collagen
Osteoblast
Non mineralized
matrix
Mineralized
matrix
The osteocytes
n Mature bone cells
n Smaller than osteoblasts
n Included in matrix
n Lacunes of matrix, contain
steocytes, interconected through
canalicules
n Canalicules contain
prolongations of osteocytes,
interconected (gap)
Osteocytes included in lacune
3
1
Osteocyte (1), osteoblast (2), osteoprogenitors (3)
Glicogen
Matrice
nemineralizată
Prelungirea
osteocitului
Joncţiune
între
osteocite
Canalicul
Matrice
mineralizată
Functional forms of osteocytes
n Repair
Ø Cytoplasm chromofob or slightly basophilic
Ø rER redused
Ø Mature matrix, calcified, placed in plasmalemma
n Formation
Ø Basophilic cytoplasm
Ø Osteoid around cells
n Resorbtion
Ø Acidophilic cytoplasm
Ø Around cells: discontinuous matrix (zone of resorbtion)
Repair Formation Resorbtion
The osteoclast
n Multinucleated giant
n Resorbtion of matrix
n Origin: blood monocyte
n Localization: bones surfaces
n Nuclei: 10-60, to opposite poles
sufaces of contact
n Acidophilic cytoplasm:
lisosomes (acid phosphatesis,
collagenesis)
Oc
Os
Osteoclasts
Howship Lacunes
Oc
S
Ultrastructural organization
n Active pole, of resorbtion: in contact with bone surface
n Numerous microvilli: involved in endocytosis
n Cytoplasm of sub microvilli: numerous contractile filaments: cell
movements (“clear” zone)
n Vesicular zone: lysosomes with acid hydrolase
n Inclusions of degenerated collagen and cristals of hydroxiapatite
n Nuclei and non-specific organelles: at opposit poles of surfaces of
contact (functional polarization)
mitocondria
nucleus
Golgi
microvilli
Resorbed bone
Osteoclast, detail of surface of resorbtion
Osteoclast functions
n Resorbtion and remodelling of bony tissue
Ø Maximum in osteogenesis and repair of fractures
Ø Enzymes: realizes acid medium
n Secretory
n Mobility at bone surfaces level through contractile
filaments
n Stimulated by secretion of osteoblasts
n Membranal receptor for calcitonin, wich blocks their
resorbtive function
n Long lifespan and intermitted activity
Extracellular matrix (acidophilic)
Sythesized by osteoblasts and osteocytes
• Organic and inorganic substances
• Organic substances
• collagen type I, glycosaminoglycans
• non-collagen proteins
• osteonectin, osteopontin, osteocalcin
• Inorganic substances
• Calcium and phosphorus salts
• Water, electrolytes
• Osteomalacy
• contained in mineral salts reduces
itself to 35%
Bony matrix impregnated with
calcium salts
Von Kossa reaction
Types of bone tissue:
compact and spongeous
Compact bone tissue (haversian)
n Localization: diaphysis of long bones, cortex of short
and wide bones
n Formed from lamelles disposed orderly
Ø Haversian system centred in canal, structure of maximum
resistence
Ø Interstitial system, lamelles decentred from canal
Ø Internal circumferencial system: long, parallel lamelles, with
internal surface
Ø External circumferential system: parallel lamelles with external
surface
Havers – osteon
system
n Morphofunctional unit of
compact bones
n Parallel with axis of the
bone
n Cilindrical form
n Components
Ø Concentric lamelles
Ø Canal with connective
tissue and blood vessels
Ø Canal are interconected by
oblique canals (Volkmann)
C
Ob
Oc
Op
Ob
C Oc
Oc
Osteon, electronic microscopy
Oblique canal
Osteonal canal
Osteonal
canal
Oblique canal
Circumferential
Osteon
Interstitial
Spongeous bony tissue
n Formed from boney
ramified trabeculi
n Localization: long bones
epiphysis and central zone
of short wide bones
n Forms compartments for
haematogenic spine
n Trabeculi: thick form and
variable orientation
n Exceptionally contains
osteons
Bone as organ
n Periosteum
Ø External surface
Ø Dense connective tissue
Ø Contains osteoprogenitors
n Endosteum
Ø Internal surface
Ø One strate of osteoprogenitor
cells
n Compact bony tissue (periferic)
n Spongeous bony tissue (central)
n Articular cartilage (epifize)
n Bony spine
Periosteum Endosteum
Periosteum
Endosteum
Osteoblast
Osteocyte
Types of bone marrow
n Osteogenic red
Ø Osteogenesis, reticular tissue, osteoprogenitors and blood
vessels
n Haematogenic red
Ø Wide, short, vertebral bones: forms figured elements
Ø Reticular tissue, myeloid and blood vessels
n Yellow
Ø In cavities of diaphysis of long bones
Ø Reversibile haematogen (fractures, anaemia)
n Fibral gray
Ø In the elderly, connective fibres, rarely cells, irreversibile
haematogen
n Gelatinous
Ø Only in pathological conditions
Ø tuberculosis, cancers
Nutrition and innervation
n Nutriction
Ø Arterial branches from
periosteum
Ø Capillars in oblique and
osteonal canals reach the
spine
n Innervation
Ø Amyelinic nervous spines
Ø Enter in oblique and
osteonal canals
Ø Vasomotor and trophic role
Ø Incapsuled terminations
(sensitive corpuscules)
Osteogenesis
n Process of formation of bony
tissue
n Intramembranous: on the
model of connective tissue (wide
bones)
n Endochondral: on the model of
hyalin cartilage (axial skeleton
and extremities)
n Both: immature bony tissue
(temporary), then secundary,
lamellar (definitive)
Conditions for osteogenesis
n Osteoprogenitor cells presence
n Rich vascularization: substances for synthesis of extracellular
matrix
n Diferentiation of osteoprogenitoar cells in osteoblasts, which
synthesize preosseous matrix (osteoid)
n Mineralization of preosseous matrix
n Prezence of osteoclasts: modellation and remodellation of the
neo-formed bone
Intramembranous Osteogenesis
n Connective model: mesenchymal tissue
n Mesenchymal cells condensate and transform into osteoblasts
n Osteoblasts synthesize matrix and deposit it pericellularly
n Synthesis continuation and deposition of matrix: cells depart from
each other, but remain connected by prolongations
n Osteoblasts mutate into osteocytes
n Neo-formed bony tissue: grows by apposition
n Remaining mesenchymal tissue forms periosteum
• first bony trabeculi:
along collagen fibres
• Between bony trabeculi:
mesenchymal tissue and vessels,
forms bony spine
• At the periphery: compact bone
• Wide bones: central spongious
bone, peripheric bone compact
• Bones which form by
membrane ossification:
- cranial bones
- superior maxillary
Os
M
M
Os
Os
Endochondral Osteogenesis
n Model of hyalin cartilage
n Primary centre of ossification: diaphysary
n Secondary centres: epiphysary (tardive)
n Stages
I. Formation of hyalin cartilage model
II. Formation of periostal bone and diferentiation of periosteum
III. Formation of primary ossification centre in the middle of
diaphysis
IV. Formation of connective-vascular periostal gem
V. Periostal osteoprogenitor cells differentiate into osteoblasts,
first appeared bony trabecules
VI. Resorbtion: formation of medullary cavities
VII. Longitudinal development of diaphysis: interstitial
VIII. Formation of secondary epiphysary centres
1 – cartilage model
2 – periostal bone
3 – calcification of matrix
of diaphysary cartilage
4 – vessels and connective
tissue invades
calcified cartilage
5 – vascular proliferation
in diaphysis
6 and 7 – epiphysary
proximal centre
8 – epiphysary distal centre
9 – epiphysary distal plaque
disappears
10 – end of growth
OP A
C CH C
OP MC
OP
OE
A
OE
OP C
Primary centre of ossification
Length bones growth
n Continues postnatally until 18-20 years of age
n Based on presence of cartilage of growth (at the limit
of diaphysis – epiphysis)
n Growth disk: forms cartilage through epiphysis and
bony tissue through diaphysis
n Zones of growth cartilage:
Ø Zone of reserve cartilage
Ø Zone of proliferation
Ø Hypertrophic zone
Ø Zone of cartilage calcification
Ø Zone of ossification
Ø Zone of resorbtion
Bone
Calcified cartilage
Reserve cartilage
Proliferative
Hypertrophic
Calcified cartilage
Resorbtion
Bone
Osteoclast
Blood vessel
Osteoblasts
Complete ossification of growth cartilage
Remodelling
n Transformation of the bone from immature to mature
n Orientation of osteons in direction of mechanic
stimulus
n Condition of apparition
Ø In intrauterine life
Ø Formation of new osteons and trabecules in adults
Ø Continuous remodelling of spongious bone in adults
n Remodelling stages: cone of resorbtion, canal of
resorbtion, osteonal canal, deposition of matrix
n Types of remodelling: internal and external
Ø Internal: forms new osteones
Ø External: presents bones' form
Fracture repair
n by membranous
ossification
n Stages
I. Hemorrhagic
II. Haemostasis
III. Granulation
IV. Hypertrophy of the
periosteum and endosteum
V. Temporary calluses
VI. Formation of hyaline
cartilage
VII. The final callus
VIII. Remodeling
Callus – activation of osteoprogenitor cells
Articulations
n End articulations of bones: the compact bone tissue
covers the spongious one
n Hyalin articular cartilage
n Intra-articular disk: fibrocartilage (meniscus)
n Articular capsule, articular ligaments
n Synovial: synovial villi (connective axis covered by
cuboidal simple epithelium)
n Synovial liquid: similar to plasma, with much
hyaluronic acid
