Pipeline Engineering

Philosophy

03.01.10-Pipeline_Engineering_Philosophy
Contents
Contents ................................................................................................................................................................2
Document History .................................................................................................................................................3
1.0 Purpose .......................................................................................................................................................4
2.0 Scope ..........................................................................................................................................................4
3.0 Confidentiality and Distribution ...............................................................................................................4
4.0 Normative References ...............................................................................................................................6
5.0 General ........................................................................................................................................................7
6.0 Design .........................................................................................................................................................8
7.0 Material Procurement ..............................................................................................................................32
8.0 Integrity Requirements for Pipeline Projects: ......................................................................................36
9.0 Construction .............................................................................................................................................39
10.0 Hand-Over Documentation .....................................................................................................................39
Definitions ...........................................................................................................................................................40
Acronyms and Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................44
Appendix A Building Proximity Distances ......................................................................................................45
Appendix B Pipeline Stresses ..........................................................................................................................46
Appendix C Flowline Design .............................................................................................................................47
Appendix D Road Crossing Design and Standard Traffic Loads..................................................................53
Appendix E - Upheaval Buckling Calculations ...............................................................................................59
Appendix F - Non-Metallic Pipeline Design.....................................................................................................63

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Document History

Version Date Author Approver Description of Amendment

No.

1.0 Oct, 2022 Kamarudheen Sameer Mahmood Al Amri First Issue

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1.0 Purpose
The purpose of this document is to define the minimum technical requirements for engineering and design of
onshore pipelines transporting hydrocarbons or other fluids, for OQ group on COMPANYs projects.

2.0 Scope
This Philosophy gives minimum technical requirements and recommended practices for the design, material
procurement, construction and handover of onshore pipelines used for the transport of hydrocarbons and other
fluids commonly transported in OQ operations.

In this Philosophy, a pipeline is defined as a system of pipes for the transportation of fluids in the liquid or gaseous
phase, or a combination of both phases, between (but excluding) wellhead facilities, manifold stations, production
plants, pressure boosting stations, processing plants or storage facilities.

Figure 1 provides a diagrammatic representation of pipeline scope boundaries.

3.0 Confidentiality and Distribution

• This document is the property of OQ Group of Companies. Unless otherwise authorized by the Company,
the distribution and use of this Philosophy is limited to Company authorities and the Contractors’
nominated by the Company. Unauthorized sharing is strictly prohibited and Company shall not bear any
responsibility further.

• This document should be part of the ITT/Contract and thus becomes a contract requirement for the
CONTRACTOR / VENDOR to comply with as applicable.

• This document shall be revised only by the document custodian that is OQ Projects, CoE team.

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 Figure 1 - Pipeline Scope Boundaries

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4.0 Normative References
International Standards

ASME B31.3 Process Piping

ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquids and Slurries

ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems

ASME B31.12 Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines

API Std 5L Specification for Linepipe

API Std 5LC Specification for CRA linepipe

API Std 1104 Standard for welding pipelines and related facilities

API RP 1102 Steel Pipeline Crossings – Railroads & highways

API RP 571 Damage Mechanism

API RP 579 Fitness for Service

API RP 580/581 Risk based Inspection

DNV-RP-J202 Design and Operation of CO2 pipelines

Preparation of Steel Substrates before Application of Paints and Related Products –

Visual Assessment of Surface Cleanliness Preparation of Steel Substrates before
ISO 8501-1
Application of Paints and Related Products – Tests for the Assessment of Surface
Cleanliness

Preparation of Steel Substrates before Application of Paints and Related Products -

ISO 8502-1 to 4
Surface Roughness Characteristics of Blast- Cleaned Steel Substrates

Preparation of Steel Substrates before Application of Paints and Related Products -

ISO 8503-1 to 4
Specification for Metallic Blast-Cleaning Abrasives

ISO 13623 Pipeline transportation systems

ISO 14692 Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries – Glass Reinforced Plastics (GRP) Piping

Paints and varnishes — Friction-reduction coatings for the interior of on- and offshore steel
ISO 15741
pipelines for non-corrosive gases

Order of Precedence
The order of precedence shall be:
• Project Specifications

• OQ Specifications and Philosophies

• National and International Standards

If any conflict arises in the above documents Contractor shall raise it with Company for resolution.
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5.0 General
Primary Design Codes and Exceptions

Metallic (steel) pipelines with liquid service shall be designed in accordance ASME B31.4, and with gas or
multiphase fluids in accordance with ASME B31.8 supplemented by this Philosophy.

Specific guidance for Flowlines are given in Appendix C.

HDPE pipelines shall be designed to ISO-4427 and ISO-4437, supplemented with the relevant requirements
stated in Appendix F of this Philosophy and OQ HDPE Specification 03.01.201.

For GRE Pipelines, ISO-14692 shall apply in addition to the requirements stated in Appendix F of this Philosophy
and OQ GRE Specification 03.01.200.

For Long Length Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipes (LLRTP) the requirements of API 15S shall apply and
procurement shall be per LLRTP Pipe, Flanges and Fittings Specification 03.01.201.

Further notes:
• Offshore pipelines are not specifically covered in this Philosophy. Specialist advice should be sought for
any offshore lines. DNV-ST-F101 is a widely used design code for offshore pipelines, but if adopted for
a project, a detailed gap analysis shall be performed and documented.

• High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) pipelines are those with compressive forces high enough to
make them susceptible to buckling. High Temperature is defined in ASME B31.4 as 150°F (65.5°C), but
is sometime considered to be > 82°C, High Pressure is not specifically defined by ASME, but is typically
considered > 80 barg. Typically, the D/t ratio is <10 for these lines. Some guidance on the design of
HPHT lines is given in this Philosophy. Alternative pressure design calculations may be used as per API
RP 1111, but if they are proposed, a detailed gap analysis shall be performed to document justification.

• Strain based design is not specifically covered by this philosophy, except as per ISO 13623 with no
modifications.

• Further guidance on the design and operation of CO2 pipelines can be found in DNV-RP-J202.

• Further guidance on Hydrogen service is given in ASME B31.12.

• For sour service in gas pipelines refer to B31.8 Chapter IX.

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6.0 Design
General Considerations

The pipeline shall be designed taking into consideration the operating conditions and requirements over its entire
projected life cycle including final abandonment, i.e. the maximum planned throughput and turn-down, the
characteristics of the fluids to be transported, the pressure and temperature requirements, the mode of
operations, the geographic location, and the environmental conditions.

6.1.1 Fluid Category

The fluid transported in the pipeline should be categorised in one of the following five groups, depending on its
hazard potential:
• Category A: Non-flammable water-based fluids. Example: water, (as in water injection
/ disposal / supply lines).
• Category B: Flammable fluids that are liquids at ambient temperature and at
atmospheric pressure conditions. Example: stabilised crude, oil (such as
MOL).
• Category C: Flammable multiphase liquids. Example: unstabilised crude (as in
interfield headers / pipelines) and crude (as in flowlines).
• Category D: Flammable multiphase fluid which are gases at ambient temperature and
atmospheric pressure conditions (such as gas flowlines / pipelines, Gas
lift network lines, export natural gas lines, etc).
• Category E: Critical sour fluids, which contain hydrogen sulfide (H2S) at 65 psia (450
kPa) or greater at a partial pressure of 0.05 psia (350 Pa) or greater. See
NACE MR0175 / ISO 15156.

Flammability is defined in the Definitions section of this Philosophy.

6.1.2 Design Code Break

A pipeline extends from pig trap to pig trap and includes the pig traps and associated pipe work and valves or, if
no pig trap is fitted, up to the first isolation valve within the plant boundary. The delineation between the pipeline
and the facility is the specification break between pipeline design code (ASME B31.4 / B31.8) and the station
design code (ASME B 31.3). Where this is not the case e.g. at intermediate pig trap stations or where the pig
trap ties into a slug catcher designed to ASME B31.8, the delineation is not applicable.

Typical code break arrangement between ASME B31.4 / B31.8 and ASME B31.3 is shown in Figure 2. The
recommended option results in the trap itself being designed to pipeline design code and therefore will not have
a step change in wall thickness, whereas the kicker line (etc.) are designed to Piping design code similar to the
rest of the facility. The enclosures shall be designed and manufactured to ASME Sec VIII Division 1. The first
isolation valve on the branch/bypass shall be per 03.01.82.

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Figure 2 - Design Code Break

6.1.3 Reviews

For all new pipelines, reviews shall be performed and documented to ensure that technical integrity is guaranteed
from a design viewpoint. These shall cover as a minimum:
• HAZID study during feasibility stage to provide a basis for hazard identification during conceptual design.

• Conceptual design review concentrating on the hydraulic design, materials selection, corrosion control
strategy, inspection philosophy and pigging facilities.

• HAZOP study during the front-end design stage, often as part of the facilities HAZOP.

• Detail design review by senior Discipline and Operations members covering isolating and safeguarding
philosophies as well as overpressure protection requirements.

The future asset holder and the custodian shall be involved in the design review, HAZOP and policy decisions
where deviating from this Philosophy.

When existing pipeline systems are extended, e.g. by adding a new branch line, the whole pipeline system shall
be subject to a design review to ensure that, for example, over pressurisation of the system from the new branch
line is not possible.

6.1.4 Safety Risk Assessment

A formal quantitative risk assessment (QRA) shall be carried out on all pipelines except flow lines unless
otherwise required and the report shall be approved by COMPANY. The assessment should confirm that the
selected design factors, proximity distances to buildings and block valve spacing etc. are adequate.

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6.1.5 Environmental Impact Assessment

An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a process for identifying the possible impact of a project on the
environment, for determining the significance of those impacts, and for designing strategies and means to
eliminate or minimise adverse impacts.

An EIA should consider the interaction between the pipeline and the environment during each stage of the
pipeline life cycle. The characteristics of the environment may affect pipeline design, construction method,
reinstatement techniques, and operations philosophy.

An EIA shall be carried out for all pipelines or groups of pipelines, which have not received an environment permit
issued under Oman Law RD 114-01. COMPANY Environmental Advisor shall be consulted to establish whether
an area is environmentally sensitive or not.

Environmental Impact Statements shall be prepared for all new and replacement pipelines.

6.1.6 Hydraulic Design

In order to determine the possible range of operational parameters of the pipeline, a hydraulic analysis shall be
performed. For a given pipe size; fluid properties and flow rate; the hydraulic analysis should provide the pressure
and temperature profiles along the pipeline for steady state and transient conditions. Possible changes in
flowrates and operational modes as per selected design class shall be considered for hydraulic design.

Guidance on hydraulic design is given in the 03.01.63-Pipeline Sizing Guideline.

6.1.7 Line Pipe Material Selection

The selection of the pipeline material type is a fundamental issue to be decided at the conceptual design stage
of a pipeline project, and shall be made in accordance with the 03.01.160-Material Selection and Corrosion
Control Specification.

For new developments or major modification projects, the Life Cycle Cost Analysis shall be conducted using the
principle of total development costs of facilities and pipelines combined.

6.1.8 Operating Philosophy

For the predicted life cycle conditions, the design shall take due account of operations, inspection, maintenance,
and start-up/shut-down requirements, as well as established operating philosophy and practices, agreed in
advance with the personnel responsible for the operation and maintenance of the pipeline. These include
manning levels for the operation, integrity monitoring and maintenance of the pipeline system, the requirements
for telecommunications and remote operations, means of access to the right of way, etc.

6.1.9 System of Units

Metric system shall be used.

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 Pipeline Routing

6.2.1 Introduction

The selection of the route shall take full account of the associated risks, particularly safety and environmental
risks, the accessibility for maintenance and inspection, as well as normal direct cost considerations.

6.2.2 Surveys

Detailed survey data should be collected and made available prior to carrying out detailed design. This includes
data relating to:
• Population and building densities for the establishment of location classes, location of inhabited buildings,
taking into account any future land development plans, as advised by government authorities.

• Topographical data, location and class of wadis, location of sand dunes, and roads including type and
density of traffic.

• Records of any existing special features, which will need reinstatement after construction is completed.

• Soil investigation to collect geotechnical data for foundation design (burial and/or supports design),
subsidence areas (e.g. due to mining activities).

• Soil resistively for cathodic protection design.

• Environmental data (climatic, floods, earthquakes, landslides, currents at wadi crossings, flora and
fauna).

• Existing facilities and CP systems, which may influence pipeline design and construction.

• Buried pipelines and cables

• Overhead high voltage power lines

Pipeline route survey shall be carried out as per the Pipeline Survey Specification 03.01.59.

6.2.3 Establishment of Location Classes for Onshore Pipelines

Based on the survey data, appropriate location classes shall be identified along the pipeline route for pipelines
transporting category C, D and E fluids, in accordance with ASME B31.8 Article 840.2. There is no specific
requirement for pipelines transporting category A and B fluids, apart from access requirements during
construction and for maintenance and emergency services during operations.

ASME B31.8 Article 840.2.2 identifies 4 location classes, ranging from location class 1 (sparsely populated areas)
to location class 4 (densely populated areas).

Since location classes are used for the determination the design factor, the route selection should take due regard
for the cost impact on pipeline sections in location classes of higher category (e.g. class 3 and class 4).

6.2.4 Proximity to Occupied Buildings

In comparison to pipelines transporting category A and B fluids, pipelines transporting category C, D, E fluids
constitute potentially higher hazards to people nearby. There are no provisions in ASME B31.8 to cover this,

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apart from the location classes which only addresses population densities. For the purpose of initial routing,
Appendix 1 provides guidance for establishing minimum distances of pipelines from normally occupied buildings
depending on the type of the fluid, the pipeline diameter and its maximum allowable operating pressure. Final
routing should be established following the pipeline Safety Risk Assessment.

6.2.5 Proximity to Other Facilities

Separation requirements between the pipeline pig traps and other adjacent facilities should be at least 15 meters.
Pig trap systems should generally be located adjacent to each other at a minimum distance of 10 meters, for
ease of pigging operations.

6.2.6 Special Routing Considerations

Special considerations should be given when selecting a route for pipeline / flowline. The route shall ensure it is
safe for construction activities like trenching, material handling etc.

Existing pipeline routes shall be followed where possible, in accordance with the below statements. This is to
reduce land take by pipelines and create common corridors.

All pipelines should have a permanent right of way (ROW). As per Royal Decree 8/2011 Article 28, The
permanent ROW shall be 25 meter either side of the pipeline centreline.

Where two or more pipelines are laid in parallel in the same corridor, the right of way corridor should be enlarged
by the space between the pipelines.

An access road with a minimum width of 6 meters shall be provided along one side of the full length of major
pipelines which would otherwise have limited access. In the case of pipeline corridors, a common access road
that can adequately support all the pipelines is sufficient upon Company approval.

Stress due to elastic radius of curvature shall be considered when evaluating equivalent stresses. The equivalent
stresses (including stress due to elastic radius) shall not exceed the values given in Table 3. Hot or field cold
bends shall be used when equivalent stresses exceed the allowable limit.

Pipelines may be evaluated for installation in same trench where technically and economically justified, e.g. in
rocky terrain where blasting may be used or in congested locations. In that case, the clear separation between
two adjacent pipelines shall be 1 m minimum. The minimum clear distance for pipelines installed in a separate
trench or an aboveground line alongside an existing buried pipeline should consider access for installation and
decommissioning, and the local soil properties. The recommended distance is 7 m.

The crossing of existing pipelines, cables, power lines, roads, railways and waterways should be as close as
practicable to 90 degrees angle but should not be less than 45 degrees.

The minimum horizontal separation distance and other mitigation measures required to minimise hazards arising
from induced voltage effects, when a proposed pipeline route runs parallel to an overhead power line, shall be
evaluated. The effects of overhead powerline parallelism shall be considered for all metallic pipelines. The
aboveground flowlines / pipelines shall be spaced from overhead line poles at a distance more than the height
of nearby overhead line pole.

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For new pipeline / flowline installations in existing corridors / congested areas, crossing of lines shall be done in
such a way that proper marking is done to provide easy traceability of lines by maintenance team. This is to
ensure that there will be no incorrect identification of lines in future, when cutting / demolishing need arises.

Pipeline Strength Considerations

6.3.1 Steel Quality

Carbon steel Pipelines are commonly constructed with linepipe in steel grades API 5L X42 to X65.

Lower grades (e.g., Grade B) and higher grades (e.g., ≥ X70) may be appropriate in some cases. Problems have
been encountered in the industry for higher grades (hydrogen embrittlement caused by cathodic protection,
weldability, required tensile to yield ratio). Use of grades X80 and above should at present be avoided.
Appropriate derating factors, in accordance with Table 841.1.8-1 of ASME B31.8, should be used for pipelines
operating at high temperatures (above 121 °C).

Attention shall be given to the fracture toughness properties of pipe material for gas pipelines to prevent the
possibility of long running fractures. This is particularly critical when low temperatures are possible, e.g.,
downstream of pressure reduction stations and at exposed above ground locations, such as the throttle bypass
valves at Block Valve Stations.

The pipe body materials for pipelines carrying category C, D, E fluids shall be capable of arresting running ductile
shear failures. Running ductile shear failure resistance is assessed by parent material Charpy testing.

6.3.2 Minimum Wall Thickness

A minimum corrosion allowance (CA) of 1 mm shall be considered in the design. This should be confirmed with
based on the metallurgy, service and operating conditions. Refer to 03.01.160 Material Selection and Corrosion
Control Specification for details.

The nominal pipe wall thickness shall not be less than 4.8 mm for all metallic flowlines and PE-lined pipelines.
All Transmission/Distribution Gas Pipelines, Export lines (Oil & Gas), GRE Pipelines and Trunklines, the minimum
wall thickness shall be 5.6 mm.

The diameter to wall thickness ratio should not exceed 96 for metallic pipelines, unless it can be demonstrated
that higher values are not detrimental to the handling, field bending and other aspects relating to construction
and in-situ integrity of the pipeline.

For HFW pipes, refer to Carbon Steel Line Pipe (HFW) Specification 03.01.80, and the following shall apply:
• HFW pipes not to be used for critical sour application.

• D/t restricted to 75 for steel grade X52 and below.

• D/t restricted to 65 for steel grade higher than X52.

• Restricted to maximum wall thickness of 25mm.

Collapse due to vacuum conditions shall be accounted for in the design of all pipelines, even when vacuum
conditions are not expected to occur in service.

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Design pipe wall thickness may be custom ordered (i,e., using calculated thickness). If required, standard wall
thicknesses per ASME B36.10M should be selected if it is commercially attractive during the procurement phase,
in consultation with Company.

6.3.3 Design Factors for Hoop Stress Limitation of Metallic Pipelines

The design factor applies to the minimal pipe wall thickness, excluding any corrosion allowance.

The recommended design factors for the calculation of the minimal wall thickness are given in Table 1, derived
from ASME B31.8 Table 841.1.6-2, but expanded to include ASME B31.4 pipelines.
Table 1 - DESIGN FACTORS FOR ONSHORE STEEL PIPELINES

Fluid Category: A and B C, D and E

Location Class: 1 Div. 1 1 Div. 2 2 3 4

Pipelines 0.72 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40

Pipelines near concentration of people (Note 6) 0.60 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40

Pipelines within plant fences (Note 7) 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40

Crossings (Note 2, 3)

Temporary crossings over existing pipeline (< 2 weeks) 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72

Wadi type A, livestock 0.72 0.72 0.6 0.5 0.40

Private roads 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40

Unimproved public roads 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40

Roads, highways, streets, wadi (Type B and C) 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40

Rivers and beaches 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40

Parallel encroachments (Note 4)

Private roads 0.72 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40

Unimproved public roads 0.72 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40

Roads, highways, streets 0.72 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40

Fabricated assemblies (Note 5) 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40

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 Fluid Category: A and B C, D and E

Location Class: 1 Div. 1 1 Div. 2 2 3 4

Above ground pipelines 0.72 0.72 0.60 0.50 0.40

Pipelines on bridges 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40

NOTES
1. ASME B31.4 does not use design factors other than 0.72, which is considered inappropriate at critical
locations (e.g. crossings, within plant fences, near concentration of people), and for fabricated
assemblies. In these situations, modified design factors in line with ASME B31.8 location Class 1
Division 2 shall be used. For flowlines refer to Appendix 3.

2. ASME B31.8 differentiates crossings with casings and without casings. Because of the poor
experience of cased crossings (i.e. annular corrosion), the same design factor is recommended,
whether a casing is used or not. However, casings shall be avoided for all crossings. Design factors for
crossings of rivers, dunes and beaches as well as temporary controlled crossings, not included in
ASME B31.8, are provided. Temporary crossings shall be monitored on a daily basis and windrow shall
be reinstated within one week of completion of the activity requiring a crossing.

3. Reference is also made here to Appendix 4 for assessment of vehicle loading over existing lines.

4. Parallel encroachments are defined as those sections of a pipeline running parallel to existing roads, at
distance less than 50 metres.

5. Fabricated assemblies include pig traps, valve stations, headers, finger type slug catchers, etc.

6. Concentrations of people are defined in ASME B31.8 Article 840.3.

7. This category also includes facilities such as block valve stations, pig trap stations, compressor stations
and. It is not specifically covered in ASME B31.8 but is added for increased safety.

8. Wadi types are defined in the 03.01.11-Pipeline Construction Philosophy.

6.3.4 Longitudinal Stress Limits

The allowable longitudinal stress is per ASME B31.4 / B31.8, depending on whether it is a restrained or
unrestrained line, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 - ALLOWABLE LONGITUDINAL STRESS

Activity Maximum Permitted Longitudinal Stress

Restrained Pipelines 90%

Unrestrained Pipelines 75%

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6.3.5 Equivalent Stresses (for restrained pipelines)

The wall thickness, initially derived from hoop stress considerations based on design factors (Table 1), should
be such that the longitudinal, shear, and equivalent stresses in the pipe wall under functional and environmental
loads do not exceed certain values. This is covered in ASME B31.4 Article 402 and of ASME B31.8 Article 833.
Because the requirements in these various articles differ from each other, it is recommended to use a single
approach for all pipelines as detailed below.
The equivalent stress is defined as follows:
𝑆𝑒𝑞 = (𝑆ℎ2 + 𝑆𝐿2 − 𝑆ℎ2 𝑆𝐿2 + 3𝑆𝑠2 )0.5
(von Mises equation)
Where:
Seq = equivalent stress
Sh = hoop stress (due to pressure)
SL = longitudinal stress (due to pressure, thermal expansion and bending)
Ss = combined shear stress (due to torque and shear force)

Formulae for Sh, SL and Ss can be found in Appendix B.

The equivalent stress shall not exceed the values given in Table 3.

The stress calculations for the operational phase shall be carried out with the nominal wall thickness excluding
the corrosion allowance.

Instead of an equivalent stress criterion as detailed above, a strain-based criterion may be used if considered
more appropriate (see clause 6.3.7 for Strain Based Design).
Table 3 - ALLOWABLE EQUIVALENT STRESS (PERCENT OF SPECIFIED MINIMUM YIELD STRESS)

Activity Functional plus Environmental Loads

Installation (Note 1) 90%

Road crossings 90%

Hydrostatic test (Note 1) 100%

Operation 90%

NOTES
1. For the installation and hydrostatic test conditions, the environmental loads may be based on one-year
return period.

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6.3.6 Stress Analysis

A detailed stress analysis shall be carried out using CAESAR II or Company approved equivalent software to
ensure that the induced stresses are within above allowable limits during operation phases of the pipeline.

Detailed flexibility analysis shall be carried out during detail design for above ground (or sections of) metallic
pipelines, at design pressure and black bulb or design temperature whichever is higher. For buried (or sections
of) metallic pipelines, this analysis shall be carried out at design pressure and maximum & minimum operating
temperature. Hydrotest case shall also be run with appropriate test pressures.

The installation temperature should be selected to be representative of the ambient temperature in the project
location for the scheduled construction season. However, for a conservative approach 21 °C shall be considered
as the installation temperature for stress analysis if the ambient temperature is greater than 21 °C.

Metallic lines shall comply with B31.4 / B31.8 codes as applicable. Soil modelling for buried portion of the
pipelines shall be done based on American Lifelines Alliance guidelines on design of buried pipelines and
geotechnical survey data should be used during detailed design. For buried metallic lines, design consultant shall
ensure that the combined stresses in the stress report are based on Von Mises theory of failure. For above
ground / unrestrained metallic lines the acceptance criteria for allowable stress shall be as per B31.4 / 31.8 codes.

Longitudinal stresses shall be computed considering both tensile and compressive values of bending stresses.

Flange leakage calculation shall be carried out based on ASME Section VIII Div 1.

For high temperature buried pipelines (> 82 °C) the thickness of the line should be optimised by considering
larger radius bends in offplot areas and higher cover depth as practical.

Pipeline design basis shall indicate details like load case combinations, soil modelling input data, etc, and shall
be submitted to Company prior to stress analysis. Any dynamic analysis in case required shall also be identified
in the Pipeline design basis (including slug loads /surge loads / other dynamic conditions as applicable).

Permanent supports shall be used to support and restrain the pig traps. These shall be designed to carry the
weight of the pig trap system filled with water (or other fluids if their density is greater than that of water) together
with the weight of intelligent pigs, if applicable. The supports under the pig trap barrel should normally be of the
sliding/clamp type to compensate for expansion of the unrestrained part of the pipeline. Other supports may be
fixed if design calculations indicate that sufficient flexibility is incorporated in the pipework to compensate for any
possible axial and transverse movements.

The detailed design of pipelines shall include a stress analysis of the complete length of the pipeline using
appropriate software (e.g., CAESAR II) and include provisions such as thrust and/or anchor blocks where
necessary to ensure that the pipeline is not overstressed locally. In general, it is preferred to design the pipeline
with sufficient wall thickness and large radius bends such that the use of thrust blocks or anchor blocks is
minimised / eliminated.

Stress analysis reports shall be approved by Company prior to start of construction.

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6.3.7 Strain Based Design

During pipeline construction, it is sometimes more appropriate to apply limitations to the maximum allowable
strain of the pipe wall rather than to a maximum allowable stress. Examples during installation are field cold
bending of onshore pipelines. When the pipeline is plastically deformed, it shall be demonstrated that, after
straining, the pipeline material still complies with the required specifications; this is particularly relevant to
toughness, hardness and yield to tensile ratio properties. A maximum permanent bending strain of 2 percent
resulting from installation is acceptable in general. For pipelines in operation, the equivalent stress requirements
may lead in some situations to very high wall thicknesses and a strain-based approach may be used instead.
This is particularly relevant to pipelines transporting hot products.

6.3.8 Field bends

Pipes may be bent cold in the field to fit pipeline alignment and topographical conditions. Field bends shall be
made on bending machines, which provide sufficient support to the pipe cross-section to prevent buckling or
wrinkling of the pipe wall and to maintain coating integrity.
In general, the minimum bending radii should not be less than the following:
• pipe with NPS of less than 8” 25 D

• pipe with NPS of 8” to 16” 30 D

• pipe with NPS of over 16” 40 D

However, cold field bends on the pipeline portion of the pig trap systems (swan neck portion) should have
minimum bending radius of 60 D, where D is the pipeline diameter. Refer also to section 6.10.4 for use hot bends
in mainline designed for intelligent pigging.
The strain induced in a pipeline by bending it along a radius R is given by:
𝐷
𝜀=
2𝑅
where:
ε = Bending strain in outer fibre
D = Pipe outer diameter (m)
R = Bending radius (m)
Bend thinning calculations shall be performed. Recommended formula for calculating bend thinning, Fbt, is as
below.
50
𝐹𝑏𝑡 (%) = %
𝑛+1
𝑅𝑖
𝑛=
𝐷

𝑡𝑏 = (1 − 𝐹𝑏𝑡) ∗ 𝑡
Where
Fbt = Factor for bend thinning, as a percentage
Ri = inner bend radius, = R-D/2 (mm)
t = nominal wall thickness (mm)

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 tb = pipe wall thickness after bending (mm)

Note, if R is defined in terms of diameter (25 for 25D, 40 for 40D etc.) the formula for the wall thickness after
bending simplifies to:
1
𝑡𝑏 = [1 − ( )] 𝑡
2𝑅 + 1

In exceptions where severe space constraints exist, cold field bends may be made to a shorter radius than shown
above provided that, after bending, the permanent bending strain is within 2%, the pipe ovality is not greater than
2.5% and the wall thickness is not less than permitted by design. A field test bend shall be made to demonstrate
that the cold field bends with shorter radius than shown above are with smooth surface and free from buckles,
wrinkles, cracks, coating damages and other evidence of mechanical damage.

Elastic bend radius shall be as per approved calculations or 500 x D whichever is more. This value of elastic
bend radius shall be indicated on the alignment sheets.

Shear fracture toughness

The pipe body materials for pipelines carrying category C, D or E fluids shall be capable of arresting running
ductile shear failures.

Running ductile shear failure resistance is assessed by parent material Charpy testing in accordance with API
5L. Annex G is applicable for PSL 2 pipe for gas pipelines.

The permitted charpy values are provided in the line pipe specifications, see 03.01.79, 03.01.80 and 03.01.81
for LSAW, HFW and SMLS pipe respectively.

Crossings

The design of crossings depends in general on the installation method.

Casings for the crossing of roads shall not be used for metallic pipelines, because of the difficulty in providing the
pipeline with adequate protection against external corrosion.

Trenchless crossings (e.g. horizontal directional drilling, micro-tunnelling) should be used for blacktop road
crossings, where it is found more feasible than open trench, with due consideration to space availability,
economics and government permission requirements.

NOTE: Directional drilling is particularly suitable for crossings of major rivers and waterways; this method can
achieve large burial depths, and it is unaffected by currents and river traffic, and results in less impact on the
river etc. It is also particularly suitable for landfalls where sea defences have to be crossed and in areas of
environmental sensitivity.

The recommended minimum covers at crossings are given in Table 5.

A minimum vertical separation of 0.75 m shall be kept between the pipeline and any other buried structures, e.g.
existing pipelines, cables, foundations, etc.

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Detailed road crossing analyses shall be performed using API RP 1102 for new crossings, taking into account all
potential traffic loads or where unusually heavy traffic loading is foreseen at the road crossings of new pipeline.
Guidance is given in Appendix D.

Allowable loads per road crossing shall be fully documented and shall form part of the handover documentation.

6.5.1 Special Considerations for Wadi Crossings

The design of wadi crossings shall take the following factors into account:
• Crossings at wadi should be avoided where practicable.

• Pipelines running laterally within the wadi bed or running parallel and close to the top of the banks shall
be avoided.

• The predicted maximum flow rates shall be based on the wadi width and depth, and the location of the
wadi within the hydrological system and land use.

• The crossing point shall be selected where the likelihood of scour is to a minimum, and shall consider
the following:

o Avoidance of areas where the local velocity is higher due to local increased bed slope or local
narrowing of channel width, changes of direction, intersections, etc.

o Natural constrictions or obstacles, such as large boulders.

o Manmade structures such as bridge foundations/abutments, other pipelines, etc.

o Ground/geological conditions and material present at the crossing point.

• The depth of cover shall be increased to ensure the pipeline is sufficiently far below the channel bed to
ensure that if scour occurs then remedial action can be taken before exposure of the pipeline is likely.

• Where it is proposed to install concrete or rock protection, or a pipeline maintenance access track, within
the wadi bed then it shall be carefully assessed to ensure it will function as intended and not increase
the likelihood of scour.

• The classification of wadis shall be supported by geological/geotechnical or other specialists who will
generate a wadi classification report, to ensure that the likelihood of exposure of the pipeline due to scour
shall be minimised as far as is practicable.

• The need for concrete weight coating shall be evaluated and shall be designed such that it is sufficient
to counteract buoyancy forces when the pipeline is empty.

Wadis shall be categorised as flood plains and types A, B, or C, and erosion and anti-buoyancy measures shall
be applied in accordance with Table 4.

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 Table 4 – WADI CROSSING DEFINITIONS

Minimum
Water required Slope
Wadi Wadi Vege- Boulders Minimum erosion or anti-
velocity depth of of wadi
Type width tation / rocks buoyancy measures
(m/s) cover bed
(m)

A Narrow Low 1.5 Low None None None

• The straight section of the pipeline

crossing the wadi shall be concrete
Medium or coated.
Small to
medium size •
High with Some Both sides of the wadi crossing shall
B Medium 2.0 Medium
medium vegetation be provided with Gabions.
boulders
erosion • Trench shall be backfilled using rocks
(without sharp edges) with particle
size per Company specification.
• The straight section of the pipeline
crossing the wadi shall be concrete
coated.
• Gabions shall be provided on top of
High with the pipeline across the wadi.
Dense
C Wide heavy 2.0 High Large size
vegetation • Both sides of the wadi crossing shall
erosion
be provided with Gabions.
• Trench shall be backfilled using rocks
(without sharp edges) with particle
size per Company specification.

Pipes installed in ‘Flood Plains’ shall be stabilised at 3 meters interval by means of bags of dry concrete/ sand
mix placed on top of the pipeline. The contractor shall demonstrate by calculations that the weight of the cement
bags and soil overburden (excluding the windrow and post padding) is sufficient to counteract the buoyancy force
of the pipeline in empty condition.

Burial Philosophy / Pipeline Protection

Pipelines should be buried to protect them from mechanical damage, fires and tampering. The recommended
minimum covers are given in Table 5, based on ASME B31.8 Article 841.1.11, but modified for increased safety
margins and vehicle loading at crossings. Pipelines may be installed aboveground if this can be shown to reduce
NPV life cycle costs, if approved by Company, based on showing acceptable level of risk through a risk
assessment. Gas flowlines from gas wells shall not be installed aboveground.

In determining depth cover in agricultural areas, the depth of ploughing and of drain systems shall be considered.

The location of buried pipelines shall be clearly identified by markers and windrows. In areas where the risk of
interference by mechanical excavators is high, a warning tape should be installed in the trench above the pipeline
to further lower the risk of accidental damage.

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In areas where lines can be covered under blown sand, the supports of above ground pipelines shall be of the
goal post type to avoid external corrosion. Pipe supports should be designed in accordance with the Pipe Support
Specification 03.01.220.

Buried pipelines operating at high temperatures may be susceptible to upheaval buckling caused by high
compressive loads. Upheaval buckling can be prevented either by expansion offsets regularly spaced along the
pipeline, or a sufficient burial cover. The use of expansion bellows to accommodate thermal movement is not
recommended. Reference is made to OTC 6335 / K Peter’s technical paper. Upheaval buckling calculations are
recommended for all buried lines to document that they are not susceptible, guidance is given in Appendix E.
Table 5 - RECOMMENDED MINIMUM COVER FOR ONSHORE PIPELINES

Minimum Cover (m) (Note 1)

Location Class
In normal ground In hard rock (Note 3)
(per ASME B 31.8)

Location Class 1 0.8 0.50

Location Class 2 0.90 0.60

Location Class 3, 4 and Flood Plain 1.2 0.90

Public and private roads (minor

road/track), live stock passage 1.50 1.50
crossings

Highway / Major Road crossing with

3.00 3.00
trenchless technique

Wadi Crossing See Table 4 See Table 4

NOTES
1. The cover refers to the undisturbed ground level. Additional protection by way of minimum 0.75 m
(750 mm) high windrow shall be provided over the buried pipeline.

2. For pipelines transporting category A and B fluids, the minimum cover to the pipeline shall meet the
requirements of Location Class 1 above.

3. Hard rock excavation is excavation that requires blasting or rock cutting (breaking).

4. At high water table locations the cover depth should be 0.5m considering construction difficulties.

Stability

All submerged sections of onshore pipelines in floodable areas, high water table areas, wadi crossings, etc.,
should be stable under the combined action of hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces. The on-bottom stability can

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be achieved by increasing the pipe wall thickness, by the application of concrete weight coating, by spaced
anchor points, by trenching, or by burial. Special considerations shall be given to pipelines installed in weak soils
(e.g. peat or soft sand, false fills), at dyke and sand dune crossings, etc. as well as anchor and thrust block
locations where differential settlements may lead to pipeline loss of integrity.

Buoyancy calculations shall show the pipeline is 1.4 times neutral buoyancy (i.e., negatively buoyant).

Special considerations shall be given to pipelines installed in weak soils (e.g., peat or soft sand), or at sand dune
crossings, anchor/thrust block locations etc., where differential settlements may lead to loss of pipeline integrity.

Corrosion Protection and Monitoring

6.8.1 General

Refer to the 03.01.160 Material Selection and Corrosion Control Specification for details on Corrosion Protection.
The key points are summarised in this philosophy.

6.8.2 External Corrosion

All metallic buried pipelines including duplex material pipelines, shall be coated externally by a suitable anti-
corrosion coating, supplemented by cathodic protection (CP). Note, for duplex steel pipelines, Company should
be consulted for specific recommendations and requirements on CP.

Refer to 03.01.285-External Coating of Buried Pipeline, Piping and Equipment Specification for anti-corrosion
coating selection.

As a normal practice, flanged connections should be avoided for buried pipelines. If they are required, they shall
be placed in a pit access for inspection. Per field experience, pits may fill with sand and water which may cause
corrosion and is a threat to integrity of flange joints. In such cases buried flange connections shall be wrapped
with approved Viscoelastic system with filler paste between the flanges without air inclusions. The selection of
such viscoelastic coating system shall be based on operating temperature of the pipeline. Sections of the pipeline
that are externally insulated (either for thermal requirements or fire protection) should be designed to prevent
ingress of water in the annulus between the pipeline and the insulation, and should be inspectable for external
corrosion. The design of cathodic protection systems for onshore pipelines shall be carried out in accordance
with Specification 03.01.105-Cathodic Protection Specification.

For 132kV and above overhead power line running parallel to the pipeline, if the separation distance from the
pipeline is less than 500 m and the length of parallelism is more than 0.5 km, then mitigation study is required
and any recommended mitigation measures shall be implemented.

For 33kV and below overhead power line running parallel to the pipeline, if the separation distance from the
pipeline is less than 15 m and the length of parallelism is more than 0.5 km, then mitigation study is required and
any recommended mitigation measures shall be implemented.

A specialist CP Engineering Consultant shall execute the CP design and mitigation measures. The Company
representatives for Electrical Engineering and Corrosion & Material should also be consulted.

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Cathodic overprotection in terms of differential potential shall be avoided. Duplex stainless steel and higher grade
carbon steels (above L415 / X60) are particularly sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement caused by excessive
cathodic protection voltage.

To ensure that adequate cathodic protection can be demonstrated at all times, pipelines shall be electrically
isolated individually from the plants to which they are connected. The requirement of isolating joints shall be
confirmed by Company. Where permitted electrical isolation of pipelines from plants shall be done by isolation
joints.

A temporary cathodic protection system shall be installed for pipelines which are not covered by permanent CP
systems e.g., during construction. Sacrificial anodes shall be used. Anode connections shall be constructed such
that they can easily be connected / disconnected during and/or after commissioning of the permanent system.

In case, metallic casings are used at road crossings upon Company approval, these should be protected by
proper coating and CP to meet the design life.

6.8.3 Internal Corrosion

Corrosion barriers and design requirements for internal corrosion shall be as per Project material
selection/corrosion control report, in accordance with 03.01.160 Material Selection and Corrosion Control
Specification.

Polyethylene linings are susceptible to attack by aromatics, and to permeation of any dissolved gas in the
transported fluid. To prevent lining collapse when the pipeline is depressurised, the permeated gas should be
relieved from the annulus. PE Lining systems shall be designed and installed by team or subcontractor/vendor
with appropriate experience. Spools and fittings used in PE lined pipelines shall be rotolined for internal corrosion
protection. Break away flanges shall be provided to facilitate pulling of liners, as per PE liner vendor
recommendations. Break away flanges for buried lines shall be in flange pits OR flanges wrapped with
viscoelastic coating. PE Lining is only accepted for liquid pipelines with GLR (Gas to liquid ratio) limited to 300.

Internal coatings for preventing corrosion shall only be applied if automatic joint coating and holiday detection
systems can guarantee a holiday-free application. Alternatively, use of internal joint sleeves (e.g. ‘thrukote
sleeves’) may be considered if this does not affect piggability and inspectability of the line.

Inhibitor injection and sampling points should be considered for corrosion mitigation and monitoring. The
requirement for inhibition shall be clearly stated and recognized during material selection. This requirement is not
recommended for non piggable pipelines.

Internal paint markings for individual pipe identification should not be used when corrosive conditions will be
present in service.

6.8.4 Corrosion Monitoring

For buried pipelines, any occurrence of coating damage is normally controlled by cathodic protection measures.
Requirements for corrosion control for carbon steel pipelines shall be as per 03.01.105-Cathodic Protection
Specification. If the pipeline is made of corrosion resistant material (e.g. duplex, GRE, clad steel), there is
normally no need to monitor for internal corrosion.

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The control of internal corrosion is normally accomplished by applying a tight control on the process parameters
(e.g. water dew point in gas transmission systems, BS&W on crude systems, injection of corrosion inhibitor).

Carbon steel lines laid above ground shall have access for inspection by MFL tools and by UT. When corrosive
conditions, which may lead to significant corrosion damage, are present, either internally or externally, a complete
inspection of the pipeline should be carried out using intelligent pigging. Intelligent pigging should also be used
when the criticality of the pipeline is such that proof of continued integrity is required.

6.8.5 Isolation at Facilities

Where required to maintain cathodic protection potentials for external corrosion protection, pipelines should be
electrically isolated from plants or other pipelines. This shall be by means of either monolithic isolating joints (MIJ)
or flange isolation kit (FIK) located above ground.
• Isolating joints should preferably be installed in a horizontal position and shall be capable of withstanding
any mechanical loads resulting from the adjacent pipework configuration.

• Isolating joints shall be supported on both sides by sliding supports in order to minimise bending
moments.

• When the transported fluid is conductive e.g., oil with high water cut, the length of the isolating joint
required to achieve sufficient electrical isolation may be such that an internally coated isolating spool is
a more cost-effective solution.

Internal Flow Coatings

Internal flow coatings shall be considered for gas applications in order to reduce hydraulic friction losses, pig
wear and the formation of pyrophoric dust and iron oxide. It is highlighted that flow coating is NOT a corrosion
protection mechanism.

Pyrophoric dust (FeS) may be produced in pipelines, when the fluid contains H2S (even in small quantities),
under specific conditions. FeS will form when the fluid is in contact with bare steel pipe over a sufficient period,
and the water vapour content of the gas is in excess of 60 percent of the content corresponding to the water dew
point. FeS creates operational problems, particularly at pressure reduction stations; it is a hazard when it comes
in contact with air, e.g. when it is recovered at a pig receiver (self-ignition). Finally, the dust can accumulate at
isolating flanges and, since it is conductive, render them ineffective. When pyrophoric dust is expected, internal
flow coating of the pipeline is strongly recommended (coating at the field welds, however, is not required).

The hydraulic studies conducted during the conceptual and FEED stages of a project shall include an assessment
of the economic benefits of use of flow coat. The resulting reduction in friction pressure loss may suffice to reduce
the line size and or allow savings in the required compression power.

Internal flow coating, where required, shall be per as per ISO 15741 and 03.01.17-Internal Lining of Piping and
Pipeline Equipment Specification.

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 Provision For Pigging

6.10.1 General

All pipelines shall be suitable to pass pigs for maintenance, even if pig traps are not permanently installed. Pigging
should be used for the pre-commissioning, commissioning and decommissioning of pipelines, cleaning and
corrosion control (removal of wax, debris and stagnant liquids, batch inhibition), the control of liquid hold-up in
gas lines, and pipeline repairs if required.

Pipelines shall be designed to allow intelligent pigging with the following exceptions: flowlines, non-metallic or
corrosion resistant metallic materials or PE lined pipelines.

Pipelines made of corrosion resistant materials, non metallic and PE lined shall have provision for maintenance
pigging. This is required to allow pigging to take place efficiently, without having to drain large volumes of
hydrocarbons. Any maintenance pigging activity in non-metallic pipelines shall require approval from Company.

The provision for pigging may consist of a pig trap or pig valves, or a barred tee and a full-bore valve with a blind
flange to which a temporary pig trap can be connected. These lines may be provided with removable spools, in
lieu of these provisions, only in cases where it is feasible to install temporary pigging facilities on removal of these
spools, when required to facilitate commissioning / decommissioning pigging. Special attention should be paid to
the requirement to maintain a minimum internal diameter and bending radius for the whole length of the pipeline.
Permanent pigging facilities should be justified based on an analysis of pigging frequency and operational
constraints. The maximum acceptable distance between pigging stations should be decided on the basis of
anticipated pig wear and amount of collected solids, but should normally not exceed 150 km for oil lines.

Permanent pig signallers (non-intrusive strap-on) should only be fitted when frequent pigging operations are
anticipated. Refer to 03.01.194 Specification for non-intrusive type pig signallers.

The design of permanent pig trap systems shall be in accordance with 03.01.83 Pipeline Pig Trap Specification.
Operational pigging requirements shall be considered during the design of pig trap systems. When designing the
temporary pigging facilities due cognisance shall be given for the requirements for isolations. The end closure
shall be in vertical plane, even when slope is provided on the barrel.

Ancillary equipment should be flush mounted and barred tees should be used on main line sections of the
pipeline. Barred tees shall be installed at all branch connections with a diameter equal to or greater than 25 % of
the pipeline diameter. Refer to 03.01.192-Specification for Pipeline Barred Tee.

For piggable pipelines, prior to commissioning, cleaning pigs (including two years of spare parts) shall be
procured and made available, for maintenance activities.

6.10.2 Isolation philosophy

The isolation of the main stream and of the ancillary equipment on pig traps requires careful choice of valve type
and configuration to allow safe operation, maintenance and repair without depressurising or decommissioning
the pipeline. A double block and bleed system, consisting of two separate isolation valves in series with a bleed
point in between to allow diversion to a safe location of any fluid leaking through either valve, should be used as
prescribed in 03.01.02 Isolation Specification.

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6.10.3 Isolation methods on live pipelines

The line isolation technique to be used on live pipelines, shall be selected based on feasibility, schedule and
costs. If shutdown is not possible, then hot tap / stopple method or with isolation plugs may be used, based on
feasibility and the method used is economically justified. Hot taps shall be in accordance with the Hot Tap
Specification 03.01.196. Welding of split tees on live lines is permitted only by approved contractors.

6.10.4 Intelligent Pigs

The following should be considered based on the requirements for intelligent pigging:
• The internal diameter variations of main line sections should be limited. This may require the heavy wall
sections of the pipeline (e.g. road or railway crossings) to be specified based on the internal diameter,
instead of the outside diameter normally used.

• Where sections of different internal diameter are connected together, the chamfer angle at the transition
should not exceed 14 degrees, measured from the axis of the pipe (i.e. a taper of 1:4).

• All main line valves shall be full bore.

• All main line bends should have a sufficient radius to allow passage of intelligent pigs. Induction heated
hot bends in the pipeline should be of the following minimum radii.

o Pipeline below 6” size: 7D to 10D

o Pipeline of 6” and above sizes: 5D

The Manufacturers/Suppliers of internal inspection tools should be contacted during the design stage, to ensure
that the configuration of the pipeline (bend radius, distance between bends, changes in ID) and pig
launchers/receivers is adequate.

6.10.5 Documentation and records

When pigging, the following minimum records shall be maintained and issued to Company.
• Number of runs, with type of pigs;

• Quantity and type of debris recovered during each run;

• Record of any damage or excessive wear of the pigs;

• Drying records, including certificate of dryness.

Line Sectionalising and Emergency Shut Down Valves

6.11.1 General
See 03.01.07-Emergency Shutdown and Depressuring Philosophy as applicable.

6.11.2 Sectionalising Block Valves

The spacing of sectionalising block valves should consider limiting the pipeline contents between adjacent valves.
Recommended maximum spacing is given in Table 6.

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Future tie-ins from other fields or tie-in of (partial) looplines should be considered in the design, and selection of
the location of block valve stations (BVS). BVS’s should preferably be located on a local high spot with good
access from public roads, and never in a Wadi or low point.
Table 6 - MAXIMUM SPACING BETWEEN TWO SECTIONALISING BLOCK VALVES

Location Class Maximum spacing between block valves (km)

Class 1 32.0

Class 2 24.0

Class 3 16.0

Class 4 8.0

6.11.3 Emergency Shutdown Valves

ESD valves should be located at each end of the pipeline, and on the incoming and outgoing sections of any in-
line facilities, such as compressor or pumping stations and intermediate pig trap stations, if required by 03.01.02-
Isolation Specification. The valves should be located close to the plant fences, and they should preferably be
welded into the main pipeline to minimise the number of potential leak paths.

ESD valves shall not incorporate bypass arrangements. Pressure balancing, if required prior to valve opening,
should be done using the operational valves located immediately upstream or downstream of the ESD valve.

6.11.4 Valve Actuation

Three methods of operating block valves may be considered: locally, remotely (preferred) and automatically (not
preferred). The appropriate method shall be determined from a study of the likely effects of a leak and acceptable
release volumes, based on the total time in which a leak can be detected, located and isolated. The closure time
of the valves shall not create surge pressures in excess of the pressure allowed by this Philosophy, as applicable.
The option of installing a two-speed actuator may be considered to reduce valve closure speed over the last 10%
to 20% of the valve travel movement. However, the failure rate of these two speed actuators shall be assessed
and reliability confirmed before its use.

Automatic valves can be activated by detection of low pressure, increased flow, rate of loss of pressure or a
combination of these, or a signal from a leak detection system. Low pressure detection shall not be used if the
control system is designed to maintain the pipeline pressure.

Valve actuators & gearboxes should be adequately sized to operate valves without over gearbox damage and
shear pins should be fitted to valve stems to prevent gearbox / actuator damage in event of high torques due to
valve damage / debris in valve seats / ball.

The process safeguarding system when an emergency shutdown condition occurs at the plant or facility shall
actuate the emergency shutdown valves.

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6.11.5 Leak Detection

The requirements for and type of leak detection systems should be derived from an evaluation of the criticality of
the pipeline with regards to the consequence of a leak, depending on:
• the transported product, Hazardous fluids include Category C, D and E.

• the potential amount released. Large diameter, high flow rates and long sections between block valves
contribute to higher potential release volumes.

• the sensitivity of the environment. Environmentally sensitive areas crossed by the pipeline should be
identified and the consequence of a leak considered for each.

• the level of preparedness of emergency response system in place. This affects choice of alarm system
and type of clean-up effort that would be required.

• the location class, as defined in ASME B31.8. Areas near population have potentially higher
consequences in case of a leak.

Common leak detection systems include fibre optic cable laid in the pipeline trench or mass balances placed at
the start and end of the line.

If a fibre optic leak detection system is used it shall be installed in the same trench as the pipeline with 300 mm
offset radially in the 10 o’clock or 2 o’clock position for gas pipelines and 7 o’clock or 4 o’clock position for liquid
lines. Detection method can be distributed acoustic sensing or distributed temperature sensing. Leak detection
supplier shall be consulted when selecting the system to ensure it is fit for purpose. See also clause 6.14 on
Telecommunications.

6.11.6 Blowdown

Facilities for operational and emergency pipeline depressurisation shall be available at one end of the pipeline
and, for pipelines transporting category C and D (but not E) fluids, which are gaseous at ambient temperature
and pressure, and at each sectionalising valve location. The capacity of the blowdown system should be such
that the pressure in the pipeline can be reduced as rapidly as practicable without requiring that the material of
the pipeline be exposed to temperatures below the design temperature. The facilities for blow down shall be
examined during the FEED design review.

Cold vents shall be of sufficient height that the flammable envelope has disappeared prior to reaching ground
level. The vent shall be surrounded by a fenced sterile area of sufficient size considering the radiation levels from
an (accidentally) ignited vent.

For category C, D & E fluids, the material specified for the blowdown system should be compatible with the low
temperatures encountered during blowdown.

Overpressure Protection

The risk of pipeline over pressurisation shall be controlled by pressure safeguarding system in accordance with
03.01.86 Overpressure Protection and Design of Pressure Relief Flare and Vent System Specification.

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6.12.1 Maximum Allowable Pipeline Pressures

There are two governing levels of pressure in the safeguarding of pipelines against overpressurisation: the
Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure (MAOP), which shall not be exceeded at any point along the pipeline
during normal continuous operations, and the Maximum Allowable Incidental Pressure (MAIP), which shall not
be exceeded at any point along the pipeline during upset conditions.

For steel pipelines, the maximum allowable incidental pressure (MAIP) shall be 1.1 times MAOP for Category A
and B fluids. However, for Pipelines with category C, D and E fluids, MAIP is limited to a pressure which results
in a hoop stress not exceeding 75 % of SMYS considering the minimum wall thickness (excluding corrosion
allowance).

6.12.2 Overpressurisation by the Upstream Facility

When the pressure immediately upstream of the pipeline is in excess of the evacuation requirements, the pipeline
may be designed to operate at lower pressures, in which case a pressure control system shall be installed to limit
the pipeline inlet pressure. However, any type of pressure control system shall not be considered as an
overpressure protection system.

When, following failure of the pressure control system, the maximum pressure which may be generated by the
upstream facility is such that it results in pipeline pressures in excess of MAIP, an overpressure protection system
shall be fitted between the upstream facility and the pipeline. Four methods can be considered:
• Fully rated mechanical design

• Combination of Full flow relief and Safety Instrumented function

• Combination of Partial flow relief and Safety Instrumented function.

• Safety Instrumented functions as ultimate protection.

6.12.3 Surge Pressures

Pressure surges in pipelines are created by a change in momentum of the moving stream (e.g. resulting from
valve closure). The occurrence of pressure surges should be determined by transient pressure analysis, using a
specialised simulation computer program. OLGA should be used to analyse transient hydraulic behaviour of
multiphase pipelines.

Surge pressures are particularly critical for pipelines transporting liquid fluids, because of the high density and
lower compressibility compared to gaseous fluids. Although damping of the pressure wave initiated at the point
of blockage occurs as it travels upstream, surge may in some cases result in the highest pipeline pressure at a
location well upstream of the point of origin. This may occur in particular for liquid pipelines in hilly terrain.

The pipeline system shall be designed such that surge pressures cannot exceed MAIP at any point along the
pipeline, and will not trigger the system for overpressure protection from the upstream facility if fitted.

Methods of preventing the generation of unacceptably high surge pressures include valve closure speed
reduction, use of two speed actuators or special fast-response pressure relief systems installed to close to the
point of surge initiation. Surge pressures from closure of mainline valves at block valve stations can be avoided
by installing in-line relief valves or surge relief valve on the bypass line.

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6.12.4 Thermal Effects

If a pipeline, or part of it, can be blocked-in while containing a medium with a low compressibility (e.g. liquids),
the effect of possible thermal expansion of the blocked-in fluid volume on the internal pressure of the pipe section
(e.g. due to solar heating) should be investigated.

The pipeline system shall be designed such that pressures generated by thermal effects cannot exceed MAIP at
any point along the pipeline, and will not trigger the system for overpressure protection from the upstream facility
if fitted. When those pressures are part of the routine operation of the pipeline, i.e. they occur a significant portion
of the time they shall not exceed MAOP.

Applying relief valves may affect the protection against overpressure due to thermal effects. Except on
assemblies which can be isolated such as pig trap systems and slug catchers, an isolation valve may be installed
between the pipeline and the relief valve for maintenance purposes, provided that procedural controls are in
place to ensure that the isolation valve remains normally in the open position, and that the pipeline is not required
to be shut in while the relief valve is out of service.

Thermal relief valves located on above ground pipework between valves (e.g. Block valve station pipework) may
be routed back into the main pipeline (but not across ESD valves).

Branch Connections and Fittings

Threaded connections (pipe to pipe, fittings), Positive Seal Coupling (PSC), slip-on flanges and mitred
connections shall not be used in any part of the pipeline system, except for one which are 150# rated category A
fluid.

The minimum length of pup pieces shall be the larger of D or 500 mm.

All branch connections (except for pressure relief systems) should be provided with a valve to permit isolation of
the branch from the pipeline.

For mechanical strength reasons, there shall be no branch or instrument connection smaller than NPS 2” on
pipelines except in case of PE liner vents (with ½” valves) which shall be as below:
• Up to and including NPS 6” pipe ½” size

• From NPS 8” to 12” pipe 1” size

• NPS 14” pipe and above 2” size

For pipelines smaller than NPS 2”, the branch connections should have the same diameter as the pipeline.
Weldolets larger than NPS 4” shall not be used. Sockolets shall not be used.

For flanges with a lower yield strength than the mainline pipe to which they are welded, the pipe to flange
transition design shall be confirmed to comply with the transition requirements specified in ASME B31.4 / B31.8.

The number of flanged connections in pipeline systems should be minimised. Tie-in welds and welded mainline
BVS and ESD valves are preferred. Flanged joints can be buried for Category A fluids only, and if is a selected
method, Contractor shall submit the proposal on flange joint installation for approval by Company.

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Special precautions shall be taken while tightening any flanged joints. Possible methods include use of
conventional wrenches/spanners, hydraulic torquing and hydraulic jack bolt tensioning. Selection of a particular
method for flange tightening shall depend on bolt size, system pressure rating, service and material of
construction. Company shall be consulted for use of appropriate method and procedures.

Branch connections to operating pipeline shall be made by hot tap technique as detailed in the Hot Tap
Specification 03.01.196.

Telecommunications

For any pipeline system, telecommunications should be provided to assist in the operational and maintenance
activities (pipeline inspection, end to end communications for pigging operations, emergency situations, etc.).
Pipeline monitoring from a central location and remote operations involving the use of reliable
telecommunications such as fibre optic cables should be considered for all pipelines transporting toxic fluids (i.e.
fluid E).

Telecommunications shall consider any fibre optic leak detection system in the design if applicable upon
Company approval.

Records

A comprehensive set of design documents shall be produced and retained for the life of the pipeline. These
documents should include all the design calculations and assessments, which led to the technical choices during
conception and design of the pipeline. They shall form part of the hand-over documentation.

7.0 Material Procurement

General

All materials shall be procured from Manufacturers/Suppliers approved by the Company. The Company shall
specify if, and to what extent, the requirement is to perform surveillance inspection. This shall be in accordance
with Company specifications and/or procurement documentation.

Pipeline Components and Coatings

Linepipes, Fittings, flanges and special components installed in the pipeline shall be procured in accordance with
applicable Company and international standards as indicated below. This list also includes pipeline coatings.

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Table 7 – Applicable Standards for Pipeline Components

Components (Specifications) Applicable Standard

Linepipe (CS) 03.01.79 / 03.01.80 / 03.01.81 / API 5L

Pipeline fittings and flanges 03.01.190

Pipeline barred tees 03.01.192

Induction bends 03.01.193

Pig Signaller 03.01.194

Pipeline split tees 03.01.195

Pipeline ball valves 03.01.82

Pig trap systems 03.01.83

Pipeline isolating joints 03.01.84

PE liner system 03.01.17

External coating 03.01.235

Concrete coating ISO 21809-5

GRE Pipe, Flanges, Fittings 03.01.200

HDPE Pipe, Flanges, Fittings 03.01.201

LLRTP Pipes and Connectors 03.01.202

Re-Use of Materials

Materials from an abandoned pipeline may be used for a new project, provided that they can be certified as fully
complying with the specifications required for the new application. Materials shall be inspected and tested to the
level presently specified for new materials, i.e. by visual, destructive and non-destructive means.

Spare Materials

Sufficient spare material should be ordered to cover for route deviations and possible pipeline damage during
construction, and the set-up of a material contingency stock for pipeline emergencies during the operational
phase. The quantity of spare materials depends on the pipeline length, route deviations, test bends, location and

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the likelihood of damage during transport, construction and operation. The following quantities are provided for
guidance. Any additional quantity to the below should be approved by Company.
Table 8 – Sparing for Metallic Pipelines

Route Length Spare Linepipe Quantity

Less than 100 m 12 m

100 m to 1 km 12 m (min) < 5% < 50 m (max)

1 km to 10 km 50 m (min) < 3% < 250 m (max)

10 km to 200 km 250 m (min) < 1.5% < 1000 m (max)

above 200 km 0.5% of route length

For each pipe size, spare linepipe material for welding procedure/welder qualification tests shall be ordered in
consultation with welding engineers in addition to spares mentioned above. The contingency stock of linepipe
material should consist, for each pipe size, of 60 m for onshore pipelines if required by Company.

Pipe information such as heat number and manufacturer shall be permanently marked on the spare pipes for
future references and tracking.

Linepipe Material

Carbon steel linepipe shall be in accordance with the applicable Company specification depending on the
manufacturing method. This is 03.01.79 for Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded (LSAW) pipe, 03.01.80 for High
Frequency Welded (HFW) pipe, or 3.01.81 for Seamless (SMLS) pipe.

Selection of SMLS, HFW and SAW line pipe shall be based on cost and fitness for service.

7.5.1 Sourcing small pipe order quantity

Where small quantities of pipe are required (less than a normal pipe mill order, for spools, induction bend mother
pipe, pig trap pipes, etc) options to be considered are:
• Verify if any surplus material is available in Company warehouses and carryout reverse engineering
based on the available material.

• Group multiple projects requirements into one single enquiry.

• Raise enquiry to the pipe manufacturers and/or Pipe stockists.

• Consider pipes in stock with the following conditions:

o Pipe stockist shall be selected from the approved vendors

o Small pipe orders and those from stock shall be produced from approved raw materials suppliers,
and manufactured by approved pipe manufacturers.

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 o Pipe from stock shall be evaluated and a gap analysis undertaken from MTC (material test
certificates).

o Supplemental tests (e.g. NDT, mechanical, sour, dimensional, etc.) deemed necessary from the
gap analysis.

7.5.2 Sourcing pipes for casing purpose

In order to utilize the surplus material in OQ warehouses, no pipes shall be ordered without approval from
Company for casing purposes (e.g casings for non-metallic lines under roads or wadi crossings).

7.5.3 Requirement of weldability test

Pipe weldability test requirements shall be checked by Pipeline engineer with Company welding engineer.
Weldability test shall be carried out by WPS/PQR qualification for the below cases:
• For material grade higher than X65 (L450).

• For minimum design temperature below -20°C.

• For maximum design temperature more than 120°C.

• In case of any deviation to hardness requirements.

• Wall thickness more than 25mm.

Records

The material test certificates and equipment vendors’ data (including operating/maintenance instructions), shall
be digitalised and to be included in the hand-over documentation and shall be kept for the life of the pipeline.

Each individual pipe should be allocated an identification number at the pipe mill, and the same number should
be used for coating and construction records. For large pipeline projects, a computer-based system for recording
and tracking each individual pipe joint from the pipe mill to the construction location should be considered.

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8.0 Integrity Requirements for Pipeline Projects:
Baseline Inline Inspection (ILI)

Baseline inspection shall be performed not later than three (3) months after commissioning. EPC Contractor shall
perform baseline of inline inspection of new pipeline/s by performing the following:
• Geometry (caliper) survey. Perform a Geometry tool run on the new pipeline to check for manufacturing
and/or construction defects or restrictions.

• Metal-loss detection. Perform metal loss detection on the pipeline utilizing high-resolution MFL (HR MFL)
tool that combined with inertial measurement unit that provides high accuracy measurement that tally
with GIS surveillance result.

• Geographical mapping or inertial measurement unit equipped with odometer and gyro sensors for GPS
coordinates which shall survey the pipeline centerline and depth.

Scope of work including:

• Development of specification for the sub-contractor or ILI vendor to deliver the baseline inspection and
preliminary cleaning activities to ensure safe ILI tool run. Only the Company’s approved sub-contractor
or ILI vendor to perform the baseline inspection work.

• Conduct verification after the Company perform review on the ILI report and release defect verification
and inspection (DVI) list for maximum of four (4) locations.

• DVI work includes excavation, coating removal and surface preparation for AUT inspection, re-coating
using anti-corrosion wrapping approved by the Company, and backfill the verified section.

• Perform automated UT inspection on the verified defect location and conduct repair and/or sectional
replacement of the unacceptable defected section.

Digital NDT

Digital Radiography: the EPC contractor shall perform Digital RT on all pipeline girth welds. The contractor shall
qualify a digital RT procedure specific to company project. The procedure shall be witnessed and approved prior
to implementation and Contractor shall be responsible for all qualification process. For the procedure
qualification, the Contractor shall introduce artificial defects on a test specimen (or shall use a specimen with
known weld defects) and conduct test with conventional RT and Digital RT. The sensitivity and sharpness shall
conform to oil & gas pipeline engineering industry standards. The Digital RT procedure shall include a calibration
frequency, which shall describe minimum requirement as will be agreed by Company.

Contractor may use any suitable hardware/software to execute the activity. However, the following technical
requirements are stipulated as a minimum:

• Computerized Radiography Scanner: The CR scanner shall be BAM certified and shall be suitable to be
used with both Isotopes and X-ray source. The scanner shall have resolution capability of 17 micron, 25
micron, 50 micron and 100 micron.

• Software: The software shall comply with ASTM E2339-04 DICONDE Standard requirements. The
software shall have feature for image optimization, enhancement and adjusting the brightness and
contrast settings to obtain the sharpest image as well as capability for report generating.
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 • Imaging Plates: The contractor shall use high quality radiographic imaging plates sufficient to cover RT
of a 24” pipeline.

• Digitizer: the contractor shall use Digitizer to convert the Conventional radiographic films to Digital format.
The digitizer shall handle the full density range (D = 0 up to 4.70 D) in one working range with the
requested contrast sensitivity. It shall meet the requirements for class DS film digitizers, according to
EN 14096 part 2 classification confirmed by BAM, the German Federal Institute for Materials Research
and Testing.

Contractor shall utilize Company’s recognized suppliers for the digital radiography equipment and software.
Company shall have the right to select a particular product with no prejudice to Company decision.

The Company requirement for digitized RT shall not affect Contractor’s responsibility to deliver high quality
Radiography services in accordance with Company accepted practices and procedures.

The inspection process shall comply with all inspection standards and requirements as indicated by Company in
other sections of scope of work and contract document. Acceptance criteria are in accordance with API 1104 and
Company standards. Other conventional NDT shall be performed as stipulated in other sections of scope of work.

The final handing over of RT images shall be in readable formats such as JPEG type, or else the original software
with license shall be supplied with the RT images.

GIS (Geographical Information System)

The EPC contractor shall provide Pipeline Information Management System (PIMS) for the whole pipeline and
any other on plot and/or off plot facilities included within the scope of this project. The PIMS shall be suitable to
fit into Company’s GIS utilizing PODS data model and shall have immediate linkage to following data;

• Detailed GIS surveillance using highly accurate GPS positioning instrument (accuracy shall be +/- 1m)
on the centreline of the pipeline. The details shall indicate changes on ground surface elevation, depth
of cover, wall thickness changes, location class difference, etc.

• Survey all pipeline aboveground features as well as third party installations within the radius of 50m from
pipeline centreline using above mentioned GPS instrument. This shall include but not limited to BVS’s,
launcher/receiver traps, marker posts, CP test posts, CP stations, anode ground beds location, etc.

• Survey and identify the pipeline crossings features from start to end point for all wadis, roads, overhead
cables, utilities (i.e. FOC, electrical cables), foreign pipelines, and other infrastructure in the vicinity of
pipeline right of way. Identification including the crossing angle of the features to new pipeline.

• Submit all pipeline book data with reference of each weld to GPS coordinates. This shall also include
any inspection, testing, material certificates, vendor/manufacturing data, etc.

• GIS shall include satellite imagery for the entire length of the pipeline within 5km width of corridor. The
images shall be provided with the highest quality with resolutions of 50cm, 2m Digital Terrain Model and
ortho-rectify the imagery based on collected field Ground Control Points (GCPs).

• Submit all above data in electronic format (as native file) prior to pipeline commissioning. The data shall
be compatible with the Company GIS system and coordinate projection system. The contractor shall
request for company data format prior to data gathering/preparations.

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 • PIMS data shall fit the PODS database that currently used as Company system.

Pipeline Risk based Assessment

The EPC Contractor shall carry out a semi-quantitative RBI exercise in accordance to the methodology as
specified by ASME B31.8S, IGEM/TD/1. The following shall be RBI deliverables;

• Corrosion Circuits (appropriate corrosion modelling is expected).

• Detailed analysis of threats and degradation modes (corrosion & non-corrosion related).

• Probability and Consequences of failure

• Risk ranking for the pipeline section and on-plot facilities

• RBI Inspection plan shall come up with Maintenance Reference Plan and task list for each asset in a
format that can be launched into SAP and PIMS.

• EPC Contractor shall populate the RBI data with isometrics into the approved company system, i.e.
ROAIMS

• Develop line type isometrics for each equipment and piping (in BVS’s).

• The Contractor shall perform baseline inspection using ultrasonic technique and shall submit results to
Company.

The approach shall also address the requirement of the following industry standards;

• API RP 580/581 – Risk based Inspection

• API 571 – Damage Mechanism

• API 579 – Fitness for Service

Emergency Pipeline Materials

A small number of pipe with the same specification shall be provided as part of emergency stock materials.
Details shall be given upon completion of the detail design and Contractor shall be responsible to dispatch these
numbers of pipe to respective Company region.

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9.0 Construction
General
Pipeline construction shall be performed in accordance with the Pipeline Construction Specification 03.01.11.

Construction Hydrotesting

All new pipelines shall be tested after construction and burial (if applicable) to prove the strength and leak
tightness, by means of a hydrostatic pressure test.

The hydrostatic pressure testing of metallic pipelines shall be as per the Specification for Hydrostatic Testing of
Onshore Pipelines 03.01.199.

Golden welds, i.e., welds which are not subject to the hydrostatic pressure test, shall be subjected to additional
non-destructive testing:
• 100% ultrasonic inspection

• 100% radiographic inspection

10.0 Hand-Over Documentation

The pipeline documentation should be structured in a manner such that all parties involved with the operation,
maintenance and inspection of the pipeline system have ready access to all data required to control pipeline
integrity.

Hand-over documentation shall include the design, materials, construction and pre-commissioning records,
agreements, permits and authorisations related to the pipeline system, plus a pipeline operating and maintenance
manual to be prepared during the engineering phase of the project. The manual should cover the range of key
operating conditions that are envisaged for the entire pipeline life span, and the operating envelope for which the
pipeline is designed. The manual should be compatible with any operational and maintenance practices already
in place.

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Definitions
• Vendor: Third party contractors that OQ can utilize in supporting them with FM activities

• Company: OQ or appointed representatives

• Contractor: Pipeline construction contractor who will fabricate, install, commission the pipeline.

• Assembly: An arrangement of pipes and components such as a pig trap, a block valve station.

• Barred tee: Tee-piece provided with bars across the internal bore of the branch pipe to prevent entry of
a pig.

• Block valve: Valve for interrupting the flow or to shut-in a section of a pipeline. A block valve is normally
either fully opened or fully closed.

• Branch pipe: Pipe connected to a pipeline of equal or larger diameter, using a tee-piece.

• Cold bend: A bend made from linepipe at ambient temperature, normally on the construction site, using
a mechanical bending machine.

• Commissioning: An activity where the fluid to be transported is initially introduced into a pipeline.

• Consequence: The result of an event in terms of human safety, damage to the environment and
economic impact.

• Design Class: Classification of facility.

• Design factor: Ratio of the hoop stress created by the design pressure and the SMYS of the pipeline
material.

• Design pressure: Maximum fluid pressure expected in the design, per ASME B31.4 / B31.8

• Design temperature: Maximum fluid temperature expected in the design, per ASME B31.4 / B31.8

• Emergency shutdown valve: Valve for isolating a pipeline from a source or destination in case of
emergency situations.

• FEED: Engineering and design activities, following the conceptual design, where a project is given further
technical definition and where a job specification can be drawn for the preparation of the tender
documents.

• Flammable fluid: Refers to any liquid, gas or vapour, that is easily ignited as defined in Energy Institute
(formerly Institute of Petroleum) Model Code of Safe Practice Part 15.

• Flowline: A pipeline transporting fluid hydrocarbons and/or other reservoir fluids between a wellhead
and a gathering (RMS or MSV) or treatment facility or vice versa.

• Fluid: A substance, which is transported through a pipeline in liquid or gaseous phase, or a combination
of these.

• Header: A section of pipe or pipeline collecting or distributing fluids from several sources or destinations.

• Hot bend: A bend made under factory conditions by hot working billets, plates or pipes.

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 • Incidental pressure: Pressure occurring in a pipeline with limited frequency and duration. Pressures
due to surges or heating of blocked-in static fluid are considered incidental pressures, provided they are
not regular operating occurrences.

• Injection line: A pipeline transporting gas, water or other fluids for injection into a well or a group of
wells.

• Inter-field Pipeline: A pipeline between two processing facilities, transporting processed hydrocarbon
or other reservoir fluids.

• Isolation valve: Valve used to interrupt the flow or to isolate one section of a pipeline from an adjacent
section or a facility connected to the pipeline. An Isolation valve is normally either opened or fully closed.
Isolation valve is also referred to as a block valve.

• Line pack: In a gas transmission system, the line pack is the volume of gas in a pipeline above the
minimum volume of gas necessary to provide the pressure to facilitate the flow of gas through a pipeline
to achieve the required delivery rate and pressure. The line pack is used to continue deliveries for some
period following interruption of supply upstream.

• Liquid hold-up: Quantity of liquids present in a two-phase pipeline.

• Loading line: A pipeline between a storage facility and a sales facility, e.g. a single point mooring or
product truck loading.

• Maximum allowable incidental pressure: The maximum pressure that is allowed to occur in a pipeline
with a limited frequency and duration, determined in accordance with applicable design standard.

• Maximum allowable operating pressure: The maximum pressure at which a pipeline is allowed to be
operated under steady state process conditions, in accordance with ASME B31.4 / B31.8.

• Maximum operating temperature (MOT): Highest operating temperature, per ASME B31.4 / B31.8

• Off-plot: A location outside designated plant boundaries.

• Off-take line: A pipeline with a transporting fluid from a larger pipeline through a branch connection.

• On-plot: A location inside designated plant boundaries.

• Operating envelope A defined set of key parameters or parameter ranges which should be adhered
to during operation of the pipeline in order to prevent loss of technical integrity.

• Overpressure protection valve: Valve intended to protect the pipeline against overpressure by
preventing pressure from a source building up in the pipeline.

• Pig A device which can be propelled through a pipeline by fluid flow and normally used for cleaning,
batching, inspection or other activities.

• Pig trap system An ancillary item of pipeline equipment, with associated pipework and valves,
for introducing a pig into a pipeline or removing a pig from a pipeline.

• Pipeline A system of pipes and other components used for the transportation of fluids, between
(but excluding) plants/facilities. A pipeline extends from pig trap to pig trap (including the pig traps), or, if
no pig trap is fitted, to the first off take isolation valve within the plant boundaries or a more inward valve
if so nominated.
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 • Pipeline code: An industry or national code written for the purpose of designing, constructing and
operating pipelines.

• Pipeline leak: An uncontrolled fluid release from a pipeline.

• Plant: An installation, such as well-head, processing facility, pressure boosting station, storage tank,
offshore platform, refinery, etc., with defined boundaries and which is not normally accessible to the
public.

• Pre-commissioning: A series of activities, including cleaning and possibly drying, executed to prepare
the pipeline for commissioning.

• Pressure equalisation line: Small bore bypass pipe with valves to allow equalisation of pressure across
a larger valve, avoiding damage to the seats of the larger valve or equipment on the depressurised side.

• Pressure relief safety valve: Valve for protecting a pipeline against overpressure by releasing fluid from
the pipeline.

• Remote vent line: A pipeline used for discharging light gaseous fluids to atmosphere at a safe location.

• Risk: The product of the probability of an event occurring and the consequences of the event when it
has occurred.

• Sour Service: Exposure to oilfield environments that contain sufficient H2S to cause cracking of
materials by the mechanisms addressed by NACE MR0175 / ISO 15156.

• Sectionalising block valve: Main valve for sectionalising a pipeline, in order to limit the release of line
contents in case of pipeline leak or rupture.

• Slug Catcher: A device located at the downstream end of a two-phase pipeline, for the primary
separation of the liquid and gas phases, and the temporary storage of liquids generated by pigging and
transient flow conditions. There are two types of slug catchers: the vessel type and the finger type.

• Specified minimum yield stress (SMYS): The level of stress which produces 0.5 percent total strain
(API definition). This stress is specified by the Company and guaranteed by the Manufacturer/Supplier.

• Sphere: A spherical shape pig, used for batching, wax control, meter proving and liquid hold-up removal
in two-phase pipelines.

• Sphere tee: A jacketed tee-piece with a perforated inner pipe to prevent entry of a sphere into the branch
pipe.

• Spurline: A pipeline transporting fluid into a larger pipeline.

• Stable fluid: A stable fluid has an NFPA reactivity grade number of zero.

• Surface safety valve: Valve, part of the well-head assembly, applied as isolation valve between flowline
and wellhead.

• Surge pressure: Pressure due to mass flow velocity changes, caused by operational activities, e.g.
valve closures, pump shut-down or start-up.

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 • Technical integrity: Technical integrity of a facility is achieved when, under specified operating
conditions, there is no foreseeable risk of failure endangering safety of personnel, environment or asset
value.

• Test pressure: The pressure at which the pipeline will be or has been tested for strength.

• Thermal pressure: Pressure due to thermal effects on the fluid in the blocked-in pipeline or blocked-in
pipeline sections.

• Trunkline: A main transmission pipeline connecting processing facilities and/or pump stations to which
spur lines and off take lines may be connected.

• Two-phase pipeline: Pipeline transporting fluids where the liquid phases and the gas phase are present
at pipeline pressure and temperature conditions.

• Two speed actuator: An actuator that enables to reduce the valve closure speed over the last 10% to
20% of the valve travel movement.

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Acronyms and Abbreviations
ALARP As Low As Reasonably Practicable
BVS Block Valve Station
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CP Cathodic Protection
CS Carbon Steel
DN Diameter nominal
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ERW Electric Resistance Welding
ESD Emergency Shutdown
FBE Fusion Bonded Epoxy
FCP Flexible Composite Pipe
FRP Flexible Reinforced Pipe
FEED Front End Engineering Design
FIK Flange Isolation Kit
GRE Glass Reinforced Epoxy
H2S Hydrogen Sulphide
HAZID Hazard Identification
HAZOP Hazard and Operability
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
HFW High Frequency Welded
HIC Hydrogen Induced Cracking
HIPPS High Integrity Pipeline Protection System (against overpressure)
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
LLRTP Long Length Reinforced Thermoplastic
M&C Material and corrosion
MAIP Maximum Allowable Incidental Pressure
MAOP Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure
MFL Magnetic Flux Leakage
MIJ Monolithic Isolation Joint
MOL Main Oil Line
MOT Maximum Operating Temperature
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NGL Natural Gas Liquids
NPS Nominal Pipe Size
NPV Net Present Value
OD Outside Diameter
PE Polyethylene
PLEM Pipeline End Manifold
PQR Procedure Qualification Record
QRA Quantitative Risk Assessment
SAP-PM System Application and Product – Plant Maintenance
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
SMYS Specified Minimum Yield Stress
TGLR Total Gas to Liquids Ratio
UT Ultrasonic Testing
WPS Welding Procedure specification

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Appendix A Building Proximity Distances
This appendix does not replace the requirement to perform a quantitative risk analysis (QRA) / Risk assessment.
Adopting a QRA approach would typically reduce the building proximity distance, recognizing the low probability
of failure for pipelines. For the purpose of initial pipeline routing/ guidance only, the following formulae provide
the minimum distance, d, between the pipeline and normally occupied buildings:

Pipelines having a design factor not exceeding 0.72:

𝐷2 𝐷 𝑃
𝑑 = 𝑄[ + + 11] [ + 1.4]
32,000 160 32

Pipelines having a design factor not exceeding 0.4:

𝑡
𝑑 = 𝑄 [0.7 − ] [𝑃 + 82]
21
Where:
d distance (m).
D pipeline diameter (mm); if this is < 150 mm (6 in), it should be set equal to 150 mm.
t pipe wall thickness (mm); if this is < 9.5 mm or > 13.5mm, it may be set to 9.5 mm or 13.5 mm
respectively.
P pipeline MAOP (barg); for pipelines operating < 35 barg (510 psig), P should be taken equal to 35 barg.
Q fluid factor, as provided in Table 9

Table 9 - Fluid Factor for Calculating Building Proximity Distance

Fluid Category Fluid Factor

Q = 0, i.e., there is no minimum distance requirement except for access during

A or B
construction and operations

C Q = 0.3 for all fluids

Q = 0.5 for methane (Natural Gas)

Q = 0.8 for ethylene
Q = 1.0 for LPG
D or E Q = 1.25 for NGL
Q = 0.45 for hydrogen
Q = 2.5 for ammonia

Fluids not specifically mentioned above should be given the fluid factor most closely similar in hazard potential
to those quoted.

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Appendix B Pipeline Stresses
Below is only a synopsis of pipeline stresses and in no way comprehensive.

There are three types of stresses to be considered in the calculation of the equivalent stress: the hoop stress,
the longitudinal stress and the combined shear stress.
Hoop stress (Barlow’s Formula):
𝑃𝐷
𝑆ℎ =
2𝑡
Longitudinal stress:
Fully restrained pipeline (Note, bending and any external loads not included here):
𝑆𝐿 = 𝜈𝑆ℎ − 𝐸𝛼(𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
Fully unrestrained pipeline:
𝑆ℎ 𝑀𝑏 𝑆ℎ 𝐷𝐸
𝑆𝐿 = − = −
2 𝑍 2 2𝑅
Combined shear stress:
𝑇 2𝐹𝑠
𝑆𝑠 = +
2𝑍 𝐴
Where:
P pipeline internal pressure,
D pipeline diameter,
t wall thickness,
ν Poisson's ratio,
E modulus of elasticity,
α linear coefficient of thermal expansion,
T1 pipeline installation temperature,
T2 pipeline design / operating temperature, (refer to section 4.3.6)
Mb bending moment applied to the pipeline,
Z pipe section modulus,
R bend radius
T torque applied to the pipeline,
Fs shear force applied to the pipeline,
A pipe wall cross section area,
Note –Refer to section 6.3.4 for combined stress calculations and allowable stresses criteria.

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Appendix C Flowline Design
C.1 Introduction

This Appendix supplements the requirements in the main text of this Philosophy. This Appendix outlines
additional design and material requirements and recommendations relevant to flowlines, inter field lines and
pipelines carrying untreated hydrocarbons/reservoir fluids, water and gas injection lines. Provisions may be
considered for general application to all surface laid pipelines.

C.2 Operating Envelope

For carbon steel flowlines, the limiting operating conditions covered by this Appendix are:
• Temperature: 5 °C to 82 °C

• Design Pressure: upto 23,800 kPag

• Location Class: 1 (as defined in ASME Code B31.8)

The design pressure for carbon steel flowlines is based on 82 °C max temperature.

C.3 Climatic Conditions

The climatic conditions in Oman should reflect the geography, climate and season of the projects construction.

C.4 Mechanical Strength

For various flowlines sizes, wall thickness values have been determined using the Barlow formula with a design
factor of 0.72 as indicated in Table 10, at all locations including road crossings.

Carbon steel flowlines in OQ are typically installed above ground and this imposes additional bending and thermal
(expansion) stresses not taken account of by the Barlow formula. To ensure that code allowable stresses are not
exceeded due to these additional stresses on flowlines, stress analysis shall consider applicable loads and load
cases.

Other strength requirements shall be as specified in Section 6.3 of the main text of this Philosophy.

C.5 Routing

In line with Company philosophy to minimise land take, designated flowline corridors or streets should be followed
as much as possible when a new flowline is to be laid. In this context, flowline town maps showing clearly
designated flowline routes should be developed for each field, and flowlines should be planned to follow these
routes only. Opportunities for inspectable bulklines and headers should always be explored.

In planning flowline routes, access shall be provided for inspection / maintenance, and flowline crossovers.
Number of road crossings shall be minimised. Space should also be provided for future flowlines. For urban
planning and new installations no more than eight (8) flowlines shall be installed per corridor, with lines spaced
at minimum clearance of 250 mm from each other to allow inspection by an external MFL tool. Adjacent flowline
corridors shall be spaced five (5) meters apart. Marker plate to identify the flowline shall be provided every 200 m
and at crossings (before and after the crossing). The details of marker plate shall be submitted for Company
approval.

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C.6 Overpressure Protection

Company requires that flowlines should be fully rated, i.e. their design pressure shall exceed the maximum
pressure that can be produced on shut-in. If fully rating the pipeline is not found to be ALARP, appropriate partial
relief system shall be implemented to safeguard the system.

C.7 Material Procurement

Standard linepipe material for flowline is listed in Table 10. Any linepipe materials not listed in this table, shall not
be used without approval from Company.
Table 10 - Carbon Steel Flowlines

Size Design API 5L Corrosion Wall Hydrotest Remarks

Pressure Material Allowance Thickness Pressure
(barg) Grade (mm) (barg)

FBE Coated Flowlines

6" 48 X52 3 mm 4.8 mm 60

6" 55 X52 3 mm 4.8 mm 69

6" 80 X52 3 mm 5.6 mm 100

PE Lined Flowlines

4" 48 X42 0 4.8 mm 60

4" 120 X42 0 4.8 mm 150

4'' 240 X52 0 5.6 mm 295

6" 48 X42 0 4.8 mm 60

6" 100 X42 0 4.8 mm 125

6" 140 X52 0 4.8 mm 169

6" 240 X52 0 7.9 mm 277

Base CS Flowlines

3'' 100 X42 3 mm 5.6 mm 125 Gas lift flowlines

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Size Design API 5L Corrosion Wall Hydrotest Remarks
Pressure Material Allowance Thickness Pressure
(barg) Grade (mm) (barg)

6'' 80 X52 3 mm 5.6 mm 100 Gas injection flowlines

8'' 95 X52 0 4.8 mm 119 Steam injection

Linepipe should be procured in bulk to meet forecasted requirements for new wells and for replacement of
existing flowlines (or sections thereof) to maintain technical integrity. For flowlines within design temperature
range of 5 °C to 82 °C, pipes, fittings, flanges for sizes 2” and below, are acceptable as per applicable equivalent
piping class.

The minimum radius for cold bends shall be as prescribed in the main text of this Philosophy. All bends with a
bend radius less than as prescribed should be factory made and procured in accordance with 03.01.193-Induction
Bend Specification as an induction heated or forged bends. Minimum bend radius for factory made bends for
different diameters of piggable flowlines should be as prescribed in the main text of this Philosophy.

Bends for carbon steel flowlines should be manufactured in a material grade and wall thickness the same as the
linepipe.

Materials other than carbon steels shall be procured in accordance with the relevant Company and International
standards.

C.8 Installation

C.8.1 General

This section expands some of the installation related requirements of the main text of this Philosophy where
special provisions are necessary for flowlines and other surface laid pipelines.

C.8.2 Crossing of Pipelines, Roads and Service Lines

Flowlines and other above ground pipelines should remain on supports while crossing existing buried pipelines.
The pipeline windrow should be removed at the crossing point. For flowlines longer than 2 km, provisions shall
be made for camel and seismic vehicle crossings at 2 km intervals.

Buried sections of pipelines crossing existing pipelines and other services should be arranged with a ramp or
standard road crossing so that access is retained at those services. Where a flowline passes by an electricity
pylon, access should be maintained by the use of a ramp or standard road crossing.

To absorb expansion stresses at road crossings, it is recommended that carbon steel lines follow the
configuration that allows thermal (expansion) stresses to be channelled into the loops on either side of the
crossing rather than into the pipe crossing. By providing an avenue for stress relief, thermal stresses, which can
be a cause of leaks at crossings, are properly absorbed by the loops.

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As an alternative to the loop arrangement described above, carbon steel flowlines may be sagged into crossings.
Sagging flowlines into crossings does not relieve thermal stresses, hence pipe movement may still occur and
nevertheless it allows damaged sections at crossings to be more easily clamped.

Use of low radius bends at crossings (except when used in a loop configuration) is not advised as the gooseneck
formed interferes with inspection and repair.

In developed / built-up areas (i.e., ASME B31.8 location Class 2 or above) where there is increased risk to the
flowline and to population, burial of flowlines is required.

Where proper field layouts have been developed with designated flowline corridors, open culverts serving as
conduit for flowline street(s) should be considered at road crossings. This will ensure that stresses from traffic
loads are not transmitted to the flowlines, soil cover acting as anchor does not restrain expansion, and access is
provided for inspection and maintenance at the crossings. Culverts should be designed taking into account future
service requirements (e.g., heavier traffic and additional flowlines).

Short buried sections (e.g. road crossings, wadi crossing) shall be externally protected by using 3LPE /3LPP as
per 03.01.235 External Coating of Buried Pipeline Piping and Equipment Specification, and coating selection
shall be based on economic justifications.

Short aboveground sections likely to be covered by blown sand shall be externally protected by using 3LPE as
per 03.01.235 External Coating of Buried Pipeline Piping and Equipment Specification, and coating selection
shall be based on economic justifications.

Welding is not permitted on coated flowlines.

C.8.3 Crossing of wadis

Flowlines can be laid aboveground for Wadi type A only. In such locations goal post supports shall be installed
with minimum height of 750 mm. For other types of wadis, flowlines shall be buried.

C.8.4 Flowline corridors

Refer to Routing section of this Appendix.

C.8.5 Supports

Above ground carbon steel flowlines shall be installed on supports, clear of the ground, to protect the flowline
from burial by wind-blown sand. 03.01.230 Piping Flexibility and Stress Analysis Criteria shall be referred to for
support spacing, limit stop spacing and the loads for which they shall be designed for.

Standard pipe supports for different sizes and combinations of standard Company flowlines shall be followed.
These supports shall be checked for loads and optimised. Modifications to these standard drawings are permitted
to suit local conditions but such modifications should be reviewed and approved by Company. It should be
ensured that supports do not interfere with the free expansion of the flowline.

Depth of burial below grade for support foundations should as a minimum be as indicated in the standard support
drawings to prevent washout by rain, and ensure adequate resistance to overturning moments from thermal
(expansion) and pressure (end cap) stresses.

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Standard sleeper-type supports to a minimum of 300 mm elevation above grade should be used where there is
a low risk of wind-blown sand, and at well pads. Goal post type supports shall be installed from 550 mm to 1200
mm elevation above grade depending on the risk of wind-blown sand in the area. Local requirements and
experience should guide the selection of support type and height of support.

C.8.6 Expansion Loops and Anchors

Expansion or contraction will occur when the temperature of the flowline material is different from that at time of
installation, or due to pressure and end-cap effects at changes in direction.

Temperature changes may be due to the transported fluid or to changes in ambient temperature. Due to wide
variations in field ambient temperature, considerable thermal expansion can occur in above ground carbon steel
flowlines requiring special considerations for their anchoring and flexibility.

An expansion loop is not required on the side of a road crossing where a mainline expansion loop is located
within 200 metres of the crossing.

To prevent preferential expansion in one direction, anchors should be provided to ensure that each expansion
loop absorbs only the thrust (caused by thermal expansion or contraction) for which it has been designed.
Anchors should be installed midway between successive expansion loops, and in such other locations as may
be required to prevent pipe movement. It is important to locate the anchors in the correct place as tremendous
stresses could be set up in a flowline when its free expansion is completely restrained in the wrong location. A
minimum of one in four supports should be equipped with pipe guides to prevent large lateral movement of the
pipe and to channel expansion into expansion loops.

C.8.7 Hook-Up

Hook-up refers to the piping required to tie-in flowline to wellhead and to production facilities. Hook-up piping is
designed to ANSI B31.3. Buried Carbon steel flowlines should be electrically isolated from the wellhead and
station manifold piping by internally coated insulating spools.

C.8.8 Hydrostatic Testing

New flowlines shall be subjected to strength and leak tightness test after construction. The test pressure indicated
in the Table 10 is based on pipe wall thickness limitation only for flat terrain. Design consultant shall re-verify the
test pressure based on the weakest component (e.g. flange) and elevation profile.

A hydrostatic pressure test procedure outlining safety precautions, test equipment, sources of water, test
connection and vent points, filling and pressurising, depressurising and emptying and other pertinent information
(e.g. hydrotest date and timing and nominated supervisory staff); shall be submitted for Company approval ahead
of hydrotest operations. See also 03.01.199.

C.8.9 Internal PE-Lining

Internal PE-lining of carbon steel flowlines may be undertaken:
• To take advantage of carbon steel to contain pressure and PE liner to prevent internal corrosion in new
water injection or production lines with no additional corrosion allowance
• to arrest further internal corrosion in existing in-service carbon steel lines

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 • to rehabilitate an abandoned line for new service, where the parent pipe still has adequate strength (wall
thickness) to contain the new service MAOP
• to take advantage of the conduit provided by an abandoned line to install a low pressure, stand-alone
HDPE line.
Advice of the Company should be sought on suitability of PE-lining for given fluid and service conditions. PE
Lining is only accepted for liquid pipelines with GLR (Gas to liquid ratio) limited to 300.

C.8.10 Commissioning and Handover

Commissioning commences when the flowline has been successfully hydro-tested, hooked-up at both ends, and
is ready for operational duty. Displacement of hydrotest water by the well fluid particularly for liquid lines is the
most common method of flowline commissioning. For gas lines, it is usually necessary to develop specific
commissioning procedures taking account of the gas properties, and the producing and / or receiving facilities.

Refer to Pipeline Construction Philosophy 03.01.11 for chemical treatment, flushing and drying requirements.
Where dewatering of a line is necessary in advance of the line being operational, an appropriate drying method
that ensures that no residual water is left in the line should be implemented.

Pre-commissioning activities shall include handover of pipeline / flowline drawings and pertinent technical data
to Operations.

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Appendix D Road Crossing Design and Standard Traffic Loads
D.1 Purpose

The passage of a vehicle over a buried pipeline will result in additional stresses on the pipeline. The international
pipeline design codes recognize this and specific calculation methods and allowable stress criteria are
established to avoid the possibility of failure under this condition. In general, a pipeline will experience less stress
from a passing vehicle with increasing depth of burial.

The purpose of this Appendix is to describe the process to be followed in the assessment of a vehicle crossing
an existing buried steel pipeline / casings for non-metallic pipeline OR in design of new pipeline road crossing in
OQ.

For transportation pipelines which have road crossings, the required thickness of these buried road crossings will
be affected by soil and traffic loads. These loads cause a circumferential bending stress in the pipe. Hence, the
pipe must be designed for the traffic load, soil weight, and passive soil reaction.

This Philosophy does NOT apply to crossings involving:

• Points where the pipeline is already protected from vehicles loads using reinforced concrete slabs or
culverts/casings

D.2 Calculation Methodology – New Pipelines

The following basis shall be considered in the analysis of road crossings for the new installations for metallic
pipelines and casings used in non-metallic pipelines:

The design factors for the road crossing analysis are presented below, and are consistent with the Pipeline
Engineering Philosophy (This document), ASME B31.8 & B31.4 design code, and the intent of API RP 1102.

The stress acceptance criteria shall be that the effective stresses calculated based on API 1102 shall be less
than 90% of SMYS.

Buried pipe tends to ovalize under the effects of earth and live loads. This ovality shall be calculated with
deflection lag factor of 1.0, as per section 4.2 of American Lifelines Alliance technical paper on “Guidelines for
the design of buried steel pipe” and shall be limited to 2.5%.

The guideline values to be used in the calculation are given in the section below.

D.3 Calculation Methodology

The steps involved are:

The originator to obtain the details for the line which are listed in the Crossing Acceptance Form below, see D.7.

The data can usually be obtained from the pipeline marker plates along a pipeline route, or from the asset owner.
It is noted that the MAOP is not the normal operating pressure of the pipeline and that care should be exercised
in confirming that the MAOP is obtained. The depth of cover can be obtained from the pipeline alignment sheets,
including the as-built records and verified at site with the detectors if applicable.

Originator shall select the proper loading data for the vehicle, and contact area of wheel which will cross the
existing pipeline from ( provide the clause number of (STANDARD OQ TRAFFIC CLASSES)

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D.4 Seismic Vehicle Crossings

To record 3D seismic surveys efficiently in areas containing oilfield infrastructure it is often necessary to construct
additional temporary earth ramps over existing buried pipelines and above ground flow-lines. The use of these
additional ramps enables the seismic source vehicles to minimise the time that would otherwise be wasted in
detouring to existing crossing points and results in increased production.

Construction and demolition of temporary pipeline ramps falls under the direct line supervision of the OQ
Construction Supervisor for the field or area in which they are required. It is only these personnel who can give
permission for any third party to operate in the area for which they are responsible. Any third parties wishing to
cross OQ pipelines and flow-lines should make a rigorous assessment of their equipment and agree an
appropriate specification for ramp construction.

Full guidance is not provided in this document, instead, specialist advice should be sought for seismic vehicle
crossings.

D.5 Standard OQ Traffic Classes

• OQ traffic class 05, Figure 3
• OQ traffic class 20, Figure 4
• OQ traffic class 50, Figure 5
(Note – Contact area over wheel load applied shall be minimum 0.0929 m2 or actual data)

Figure 3 - OQ Traffic Class 05

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 Figure 4 - OQ Traffic Class 20

Figure 5 - OQ Traffic Class 50

D.6 Special Traffic Load Systems

• Standard Heavy Transporter 60 Tons, Figure 6
• Rig #6, Figure 7
• Oman Highway Design Manual, Figure 8

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 Figure 6 - Standard Heavy Transporter 60 Tons

(Note - Contact area over wheel load applied shall be minimum 0.1858 m2 or actual data)

Figure 7 – Rig #6

(Note – Contact area over wheel load applied shall be minimum 1.9 m2 or actual data)

Figure 8 – Extract from Oman Highway Design Manual (2010)

(Note – Contact area over wheel load applied shall be minimum 0.1275 m2 or actual data)
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 GUIDELINES FOR PIPELINE ROAD CROSSING CALCS

Design Parameter Value to be used

Step a - Design Parameters
Nominal diameter (NPS) Project specific information
Outside diameter (D) Project specific information
Operating pressure (P) Project specific information
Steel grade Project specific information
Specified minimum yield strength, SMYS Project specific information
Design factor (for hoop stress - Barlow), F 0.6 / 0.5 / 0.4 (depending on location class & Code)

Design factor (for Eff. stress), F' 0.9

Design factor (for Fatigue stresses), F'' 0.6 (for tarmac roads / highways)
1.0 (for RIG 62/63/64 ABRAJ loading)
Longitudinal joint factor, E 1.0 (B31.4 Table 403.2.1-1 /
B31.8 Table 841.1.7-1)
Installation temperature, T1 21ºC (or as per local site conditions)
Maximum or minimum operating temperature, T2 Project specific information
Temperature derating factor, T B31.8 Table 841.1.8-1
Wall thickness, tw (corroded condition) Project specific information
Soil cover / type Project specific information / Loose soil is
conservative assumption
Step b - Check Allowable Hoop (Barlow) Stress API 1102 section 4.8.1
Step c - Circumferential stress due to earth load API 1102 section 4.7.2.1
Step d - Impact factor, Fi and applied design API 1102 section 4.7.2.2.2
surfaces pressure
Step e - Cyclic stresses, DSHh and DSLh API 1102 section 4.7.2.2.3 and 4.7.2.2.4
Step f - Circumferential stress due to internal API 1102 section 4.7.3
pressurization, SHi
Step g - Principal stress, S1, S2, S3 API 1102 section 4.8.1.3
Step h - Check fatigue (if applicable) API 1102 section 4.8.2
Ovality check As per American Lifeline Alliance technical paper:
D = pipe outside diameter, inches
∆𝑦 𝐷1 𝐾𝑃 Δy = vertical deflection of pipe, inches
=
𝐷 (𝐸𝐼)𝑒𝑞 D1 = deflection lag factor (1.0)
( 3 ) + 0.061𝐸′
𝑅 K = bedding constant (0.1)
P = pressure on pipe due to soil load PV plus live
Acceptance criteria < 2.5% load PP, psi
R = pipe radius, inches
(EI)eq = equivalent pipe wall stiffness per inch of
pipe length, in./lb.
E' = modulus of soil reaction, psi

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D.7 Crossing Acceptance Form
(Exception Seismic vehicle crossing – seek specific guidance)

Input Data Units Actual Value

Pipeline Start & Finish point

Crossing Point Km
Service (oil & gas, oil, gas, water) oil & gas, oil, gas, water
Nominal diameter (D) mm
wall thickness (t) mm
Grade of Pipeline / Casing Material Gr B, X42 etc.
Pipeline Maximum Allowable Bar g
Operating Pressure (MAOP)

Type and weight of vehicle Tons

Depth of cover at proposed crossing Metre
point (to be verified on site)

Vehicle wheel / tyre contact area mm2

Results of calculations as per Pipeline Engineering Philosophy 03.01.10 and API 1102

Units Actual Value

Estimated effective stress Bar
Allowable effective stress Bar

Approvals Name Ref ID Signatures Date

Authorised Local
Pipeline Design
Consultants / Feed
Office
Company

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Appendix E Upheaval Buckling Calculations
Upheaval buckling checks shall be performed to confirm whether upheaval buckling is a phenomenon which is
applicable to the pipeline.

Typically, upheaval buckling occurs in hot lines, with low overburden (low depth of cover and/or low soil density
considering moisture), high wall thicknesses (which increases thermal force) and where the as-built pipeline
profile has significant imperfection heights or prop-type features.

It is recommended to perform these checks on all pipelines regardless of the above, as it is good practice to
document the calculation results showing that a pipeline has a low risk of upheaval buckling, and showing that
no additional mitigation is required.

E.1 Calculation Methodology

The methodology outlined in OTC 6335 may be used.

The ‘profile imperfection height’ (prop height) as defined in OTC 6335 should be set at 300 mm; this value is
considered adequate for the expected construction quality. If upheaval buckling is a potential concern, then
Calculations should check from 100mm-500mm imperfection heights to assess if there is a limiting case within
this range.

The ‘uplift coefficient’ should be set at 0.5, in line with the value used in OTC 6335, if soil submerged unit weight
is approximately 8.5 kN/m3.

In the absence of cohesion data for the clay soil units, the ‘uplift resistance’ calculation as defined in OTC 6335
is made for ‘cohesionless sand’ only. For the same unit weight, assuming cohesionless soil is considered
conservative compared to cohesive soil.

The calculation shall determine:

• The minimum depth of cover to Top of Pipe required to prevent upheaval buckling.
• The Utilisation Factor of the total downward load (comprising the pipe, its contents, and the backfill
weights) when the pipeline is buried at the baseline minimum depth of cover to TOP. A utilisation factor
of 1.5 is considered desirable at the nominal wall thickness.

Ratcheting effects shall be considered for hot pipelines which experience temperature cycling over their
operational life. The allowable movement during each cycle shall be limited to 5-9% of OD.

E.2 Equations
The first-pass required download to prevent upheaval buckling is given by OTC 6335 Equation 12 as follows:
𝐸𝐼𝑤0 0.5 𝛿𝑤0 0.5
𝑤 = [1.16 − 4.76 ( ) /𝑃] 𝑃 ( )
𝛿 𝐸𝐼
Where:
E Youngs Modulus
I Second Moment of Inertia = π/64(OD^4-ID^4)
w0 weight of pipe, equation below
P force in pipeline, equation below

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δ imperfection height
The force, P, is given by the end cap force minus poisons effect plus thermal expansion force, per below:
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑐𝑎𝑝 − 𝑃𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 + 𝑃𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 𝐷𝑃 ∗ 𝐴𝑝
𝐷𝑃 ∗ 𝑂𝐷
𝑃𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑝 ∗ 𝜈 ∗ 𝐴𝑝 = ∗ 𝜈 ∗ 𝐴𝑝
2∗𝑡
𝑃𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 𝑆𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 ∗ 𝐴𝑝 = 𝐸𝛼(𝑇2 − 𝑇1)𝐴𝑝
Where:
DP design pressure
Ap Area of pipe, = π/4(OD^2-ID^2), = π.t.(D-t)
OD Outside diameter
t wall thickness (corroded or uncorroded depending on design case)
ν Poissons ratio, = 0.3 for steel
α coefficient of linear thermal expansion, = 11.7 x10-6 C-1
T2 Design temperature
T1 Installation temperature

The weight of submerged pipe should account for internal fluid, coating, and displaced water if submerged. The
equation is as follows:
𝑤0 = 𝑤𝑝 + 𝑤𝑓 + 𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝑑
𝜋 𝜋
𝑤0 = 𝐴𝑝 ∗ 𝜌𝑝 + ∗ 𝐼𝐷2 ∗ 𝜌𝑓 + 𝑤𝑐 − ∗ 𝑂𝐷2 ∗ 𝜌𝑑
4 4
Where:
ρ density, = 7850 kg/m3 for steel, 1000 kg/m3 for water (displaced fluid)

Note, coefficients p, f, c and d correspond to pipe, internal fluid, external coating and displaced fluid (groundwater)
respectively.

The available download, wd, is dictated by the soil properties and burial depth. This is equal to soil density
multiplied by effective area, q, given by OTC 6335 equation 13 or 14, depending if the backfill is cohensionless
or cohesive.
For cohesionless sand, silt and rock:
𝑓𝐻
𝑞 = 𝐻𝐷(1 + )
𝐷
For cohesive clay and silt cover:
𝐻
𝑞 = 𝑐𝐷 ∗ min⁡(3, )
𝐷
Where:
H Burial depth from grade to top of pipe
D Outside diameter of pipe

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f uplift coefficient, =0.5 typically
wd download on pipe, = γ.q
γ density of soil accounting for submerged effects if applicable.

A second pass check is to use the non-dimensional values of Φw and ΦL to check against the empirical formula
given in OTC 6335. The non-dimensional parameter ΦL is given by equation 7, as follows:
𝑃 0.5
𝛷𝐿 = 𝐿 ( )
𝐸𝐼

4 72 ∗ 𝐸𝐼 ∗ 𝛿
𝐿=2∗ √
𝑤𝑝

Where:
L inflection length of the pipeline laid over an imperfection with height δ

Φw is calculated from formulas 9, 10 and 11 depending on the value for ΦL, as follows:
𝛷𝐿 < 4.49, 𝛷𝑤 = 0.0646
5.68 88.35
4.49 < 𝛷𝐿 < 8.06, 𝛷𝑤 = −
𝛷𝐿2 𝛷𝐿4
9.6 343
𝛷𝐿 > 8.06, 𝛷𝑤 = 2 − 4
𝛷𝐿 𝛷𝐿

Finally, with this value for Φw, equation 6 can be rearranged to give the required download, as follows:
𝑤𝐸𝐼
𝛷𝑤 = ( )
𝛿𝑃2

It is recommended that both the first pass and second pass checks are performed, and the worst case is selected
for the required download.

The system can be checked for susceptibility to upheaval buckling by adding the weight of pipe and download
from the soil overburden and comparing to the factored required download, as follows:
𝑤0 + 𝑤𝑑 > 𝑈𝐹 ∗ 𝑤
Where
UF Utilisation factor, recommended to be 1.5

This methodology is based on empirical formulas and may be overly conservative for some use cases. If, based
on this analysis, upheaval buckling is considered to be a concern, then it is recommended to perform more
detailed analysis (e.g., DNV-ST-F101 or finite element analysis) before selecting mitigation methods.

E.3 Typical Mitigations

If there is a potential for upheaval buckling during operating, typical mitigations include:
• Increasing depth of cover.
• Use of imported backfill. The cost of imported fill should be compared against increased depth.

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 • Careful control of pipeline trench bottom during construction to limit imperfection height.
• Lowering the operating temperature, if possible.
• Raising the installation temperature, if possible, by limiting lowering in activities during cold weather.
• Perform a more detailed upheaval buckling study, following probabilistic methods such as DNV-ST-F101
and/or using finite element analysis software.

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Appendix F Non-Metallic Pipeline Design
F.1 Introduction

Non-metallic pipelines include HDPE, GRE, LLRTP and FRP. Specific requirements for the design of these
pipelines are given in this appendix.

High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) pipelines shall be designed to ISO-4427 and ISO-4437, and procurement
shall be per 03.01.201-HDPE Pipe, Flanges and Fittings Specification.

For Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) Pipelines, ISO-14692 shall apply and procurement shall be per 03.01.200-
GRE Pipe, Flanges and Fittings Specification.

For Long Length Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipes (LLRTP) the requirements of API 15S shall apply and
procurement shall be per 03.01.201-LLRTP Pipes and Connectors Specification.

F.2 Design Code Break

The code break shall be at the non-metallic / metallic interface flange.

Non-metallic code shall be per the relevant standard listed above, depending on material.

Metallic shall be B31.3 within facilities.

F.3 Special Routing Considerations

Standard angle elbows should be used for routing as per manufacturer recommendations. Metallic cable OR
detectable tape, for future detection of non-metallic buried pipe, shall be provided in congested areas and near
station approaches for a minimum length from station fence as decided by design consultant depending on site
conditions. This cable or tape need not be installed if there is a FOC with detectable marker tape installed along
the pipeline in the same trench.

For all non-metallic lines, a detailed route survey is required before detailed design.

For FCP lines, routing shall consider below requirements:

• Topographical data, location and class of wadis, sand dunes, road crossings including type and density
of traffic

• Environmental impact (if any)

• Proximity to Occupied buildings / other pipeline corridors/ roads …etc

• Bend radius shall be based on manufacturer recommendations.

• Minimise crossings (road / wadi / pipelines…etc); Ensure crossing design is similar to GRE lines.

• Optimise length

• Feasibility of installing protection for FCP lines

• When FCP flowlines are routed in between existing lines of existing corridors, no protection is required
(except markers provision), since protection is provided by the adjacent existing pipelines / above ground
flowlines on either side of the FCP line.
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F.4 Design Factors

Guidance on design factors shall be sought in the referenced design codes for the relevant material.

Flexible composite pipes (FCP) shall have a design factor of 0.5 for water service with static loading. Guidance
for other services and loading conditions is given in API 15S.

F.5 Minimum Wall Thickness

For all GRE pipelines minimum thickness shall be 5.6 mm (including liner and topcoat), notwithstanding handling
and impact resistance requirements.

F.6 Equivalent Stresses

Type of support / stops to be used shall be based on the outcome of stress analysis and manufacturer
recommendations. For complete GRE-metallic piping, this shall be carried out by Company approved
manufacturers / consultants only.

F.7 MAIP in GRE lines

The maximum allowable incidental pressure (MAIP) for GRE lines shall not exceed the design pressure of the
pipeline.

F.8 Crossings

Carbon Steel (CS) casings should be used for non-metallic pipelines. Calculations shall be approved prior to use
of CS casings. HDPE casings shall not be used at crossing locations.

Casing centralizers are required for GRE lines to avoid and point loading. Centralizers are not required for HDPE
& LLRTP carrier pipe.

F.9 Burial Philosophy

All GRE lines shall be buried. For any aboveground at end facilities, special attention should be paid to supporting
and anchoring where GRE is installed on supports on on-plot locations. GRE is intolerant of vibrations and
stresses induced (by thermal expansion, pressure surges, etc.) at connections to fixed steel headers. Properly
engineered anchors and supports shall be designed and installed taking into account all possible operational
stresses.

F.10 Pigging

Pipelines made of GRE or LLRTP shall be pigged with a soft ball pig during commissioning and decommissioning.
HDPE pipelines are not to be pigged.

F.11 Road crossings – existing non-metallic pipelines

Road crossing design of existing non-metallic pipelines shall consider:
• Use of casing over the non-metallic pipelines may be considered. In this case the casing design basis
and requirements shall use the Guidelines for Pipeline Road Crossings below.

• Use of concrete slab / culverts; In this case the design shall be approved by Company.

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HDPE casing calculations should be done in accordance with “Plastics Pipe Institute Hand Book”. However,
these casings are not suitable for heavy loading conditions.

F.12 Material Specifications and Fittings

For GRE components, mitered bends are allowed, provided that the bends are qualified and fabricated under
factory-controlled conditions as a single fitting connected to straight pipe.

The fibre content (by volume) in polymer composites is typically in the range of 50 % to 60 %.

Specifications relating to the pipe, fittings and flanges for each non-metallic pipeline type are given in Table 11.
Table 11 – Applicable Standards for Non-Metallic Pipeline Components

Material Applicable standard

GRE Pipes, Fittings & Flanges 03.01.200

HDPE Pipes, Fittings & Flanges 03.01.201

LRTP and FRP 03.01.202

F.13 Sparing Philosophy

Sparing philosophy for GRE linepipe and fittings should be as per the recommendations of GRE manufacturer
and shall be approved by Company

F.14 Typical Material Properties

A summary of typical material properties of non-metallic pipe under ambient conditions is presented in Table 12.
Table 12 - Typical Material Properties of Non-Metallic Pipe

Typical properties HDPE GRE (E-glass) GRE (S-glass)

Density (g/cm3) 0.941 - 0.965 2.54 2.59

Mechanical properties
at Reference 23 °C 23 °C 23 °C
Temperature:

Yield (tensile) strength (MPa) 25

Tensile stress at break (MPa) 20 2400 3500

Elongation at break (%) > 400 4 4

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Typical properties HDPE GRE (E-glass) GRE (S-glass)

Tensile modulus (MPa) 700 73 86

Izod impact, notched (kJ/m2) 6

Thermal conductivity (W/m.K) 0.4 0.045 0.045

Coefficient of thermal
200 5 5
expansion (m/mK * 10-6)

Mechanical Properties
as a Function of 23 °C 40 °C 60 °C
Temperature:

Modulus (MPa) 700 450 250

Poisson ratio 0.35 0.38 0.4

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 DOCUMENT INFORMATION

Title Pipeline Engineering Philosophy

Document number 03.01.10

Purpose Contains the minimum technical requirements for design of onshore pipelines

Audience OQ Project Community

Category Project and Technology

Subcategory Projects and Engineering

Effective date October 2022

Review date N/A

Procedure advisor Principal Engineer, Pipeline CoE

Approving authority VP, Project CoE

RELATED AND SUPPORTING DOCUMENTS

03.01.02 Isolation Specification

03.01.11 Pipeline Construction Philosophy

03.01.17 Internal Lining of Piping and Pipeline Equipment Specification

03.01.59 Pipeline Survey Specification

03.01.79 Carbon Steel Line Pipe (LSAW) Specification

03.01.80 Carbon Steel Line Pipe (HFW) Specification

03.01.81 Carbon Steel Line Pipe (SMLS) Specification

03.01.82 Pipeline Ball Valve Specification

03.01.83 Pig Trap System Specification

03.01.105 Tanks, Buried Vessels, Buried Piping, Pipeline Cathodic Protection

Specification

03.01.160 Materials Selection and Corrosion Control Specification

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 03.01.190 Pipeline fittings and flanges Specification

03.01.192 Pipeline barred tees Specification

03.01.193 Induction bends Specification

03.01.195 Pipeline split tees Specification

03.01.199 Hydrostatic Testing of Onshore Pipelines

03.01.200 GRE Pipe, Flanges, Fittings

03.01.201 HDPE Pipe, Flanges, Fittings

03.01.17 Internal Lining of Piping and Pipeline Equipment Specification

03.01.202 LLRTP Pipes and Connectors Specification

03.01.235 External Coating Specification

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 APPROVALS

Authorized Approver Date Signature(s)

VP Project CoE 16-10-2022

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