Metal Machining and Automation

(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Course Outline

 Course Objectives

 Evaluation procedure

 Books

 Introduction to Manufacturing

 Basics of Machining

 Classification of Machining Processes

 Conventional Machining Processes

 Nonconventional Machining Processes

 Automation

 Conclusions
 Course Objectives

 To learn about the material removal processes.

 To learn about the different machine tools (both traditional and non-
traditional machining) and their operations.

 To learn and understand the working principles of these processes.

 To learn the effect of various parameters on the performance output.

 To learn and understand the importance of automation in manufacturing.

 Books

 P. C. Pandey and H. S. Shan, Modern Machining

Processes.

 H. Choudhury, Workshop Technology: Volume-I

 M.P. Grover, Automation, Production systems and

Computer Integrated Manufacturing.

 M.P. Grover, Fundamentals of Modern

Manufacturing : Materials, Processes and Systems.
 Evaluation

 End semester: 50 Marks

 Mid semester: 30 Marks
 Teacher Assessment (Assignment, test, quiz/viva): 20 Marks
 Introduction to Manufacturing

 The word “manufacture” is derived from two Latin words, manus

(hand) and factus (make); the combination means made by hand.

 The English word manufacture is several centuries old, and

“made by hand” accurately described the manual methods used
when the word was first coined.

 Most modern manufacturing is accomplished by automated and

computer-controlled machinery.
 Manufacturing

Manufacturing can be defined in two ways:

 Technologically, manufacturing is the application of physical and

chemical processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or
appearance of a given starting material to make parts or products.

 Economically, manufacturing is the transformation of materials into

items of greater value by means of one or more processing and/or
assembly operations,
Manufacturing as a Technical Process
Manufacturing as a Economic Process
 Manufacturing

 In modern context, manufacturing can be defined as:- “the

making of products from raw materials using various processes,
equipments, operations and manpower according to a detailed
plan”.
 During processing, the raw material undergoes changes to allow
it to become a part of a product(s).
 Once processed, it should have worth in the market or a value.
 Therefore, it encompasses:
✓ The design of the product.
✓ The selection of raw materials.
✓ The sequence of processes through which the product will be
manufactured
 Manufacturing

Manufacturing
process Finished
Raw
material product
 Manufacturing

Materials

Product design Process planning

Production Machinery and

control tooling
Manufacturing

Marketing Purchasing

Customer
Sales service

Shipping
Classification of Manufacturing Processes
 Solidification Processes

Solidification processes, in which the starting material is a heated liquid or

semifluid that cools and solidifies to form the part geometry. It is the basis of
casting technology, and is also an important feature of a number of other
processes.
 Particulate Processing

In particulate processing, the starting materials are powders of metals or ceramics.

The common technique involves pressing and sintering in which the powders are
first squeezed into a die cavity under high pressure and then heated to bond the
individual particles together.
 Deformation Processes

Deformation processes transform solid materials from one shape into another.
The initial shape is usually simple (e.g., a billet or sheet blank) and is
plastically deformed between tools, or dies, to obtain the desired final geometry
and tolerances with required properties. Deformation processes are associated
most closely with metalworking and include operations such as forging and
extrusion.
 Material Removal Processes

Material removal processes are operations that remove excess material

from the starting workpiece so that the resulting shape is the desired
geometry
Material Removal Processes
 Property-Enhancing Processes

 The second major type of part processing is

performed to improve mechanical or physical
properties of the work material.
 These processes do not alter the shape of the part,
except unintentionally in some cases. The most
important property-enhancing processes involve
heat treatments.
 Surface Processing

 Surface processing operations include (1) cleaning, (2)

surface treatments, and (3) coating and thin film
deposition processes.
 Cleaning includes both chemical and mechanical
processes to remove dirt, oil, and other contaminants
from the surface.
 Surface treatments include mechanical working such as
shot peening and sand blasting, and physical processes
such as diffusion and ion implantation.
 Coating and thin film deposition processes apply a
coating of material to the exterior surface of the
workpart.
 Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into

two groups:
 Primary manufacturing processes : Provide basic
shape and size
 Secondary manufacturing processes : Provide final
shape and size with tighter control on dimension,
surface characteristics.
 Conventional Machining

 Machining is the removal of unwanted materials from

the workpiece so as to obtain a finished product of the
desired size, shape, and surface quality.
 Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all the
manufacturing processes in its capability to produce a
diversity of part geometries and geometric features.
 Conventional machining, in which a sharp cutting tool is
used to mechanically cut the material to achieve the
desired geometry.
 The three principal machining processes are turning,
drilling and milling. The other machining processes
include shaping, planning and broaching.
 Abrasive processes

 Abrasive processes, which mechanically remove

material by the action of hard, abrasive particles.
This process group, which includes grinding. The
other abrasive processes include honing, lapping,
and superfinishing.
 Nontraditional machining

 The nontraditional processes, which use various

energy forms other than a sharp cutting tool or
abrasive particles to remove material. The energy
forms include mechanical, electrochemical, thermal,
and chemical.
 Reasons for Machining

 Variety of work materials: Machining can be applied to a wide variety

of work materials. Virtually all solid metals can be machined. Plastics and
plastic composites can also be cut by machining. Ceramics pose difficulties
because of their high hardness and brittleness; however, most ceramics can
be successfully cut by the abrasive machining processes.
 Variety of part shapes and geometric features: Machining can be
used to create any regular geometries, such as flat planes, round holes, and
cylinders. By introducing variations in tool shapes and tool paths, irregular
geometries can be created, such as screw threads and T-slots. By combining
several machining operations in sequence, shapes of almost unlimited
complexity and variety can be produced.
 Dimensional accuracy: Machining can produce dimensions to very
close tolerances. Some machining processes can achieve tolerances of
±0.025 mm (±0.001 in), much more accurate than most other processes.
 Good surface finishes: Machining is capable of creating very smooth
surface finishes. Roughness values less than 0.4 microns (16 m-in.) can be
achieved in conventional machining operations. Some abrasive processes
can achieve even better finishes.
 Disadvantages

 Wasteful of material: Machining is inherently

wasteful of material. The chips generated in a
machining operation are wasted material. Although
these chips can usually be recycled, they represent
waste in terms of the unit operation.
 Time consuming: A machining operation
generally takes more time to shape a given part than
alternative shaping processes such as casting or
forging.
 Machining Processes

 Most of the engineering components such as gears, bearings,

clutches, tools, screws and nuts etc. need dimensional and form
accuracy and good surface finish for serving their purposes.
 Preforming like casting, forging etc. generally cannot provide the
desired accuracy and finish. For that such preformed parts, called
blanks, need semi-finishing and finishing and it is done by
machining and grinding.
 The secondary operation are mainly necessary when a very close
dimensional accuracy is required or some such shape is desired to
be produced which is not possible through primary operations.
 Machining: Removal of material from a part in the form of
chips so as to attain a final desired shape and size.
 Machining Processes

 These operations require the use of one or more machine tools,

various types of cutting tools and cutters, work and tool holding
devices, marking and measuring instruments, testing devices etc. of
which a combined application leads to the desired dimensional
control.
 The common machining performed for this purpose are the
following:
(1) Turning (2) Drilling (3) Milling (4) Grinding (5) Planning (6)
Shaping (7) Slotting (8) Sawing (9) Broaching
Machining by Cutting
Main Elements of Machining by Cutting
 Machining Process Selection

 Selecting a machining process for producing a specific

component made from certain material depends on
many factors that include the following:
✓ Part shape
✓ Part size
✓ Part material
✓ Dimensional and geometric features
✓ Surface texture
✓ Production quantity
✓ Production cost
✓ Environmental impacts
 Machine Tools

 A machine tool is a power-driven machine, capable

of holding and supporting the work and tool and at
the same time directing and guiding the cutting tool
or job or both to perform various metal cutting
operations for providing different shapes and sizes.
 Functions of Machine Tools

 To hold and support the workpiece to be machined

 To hold and support the cutting tool
 To provide requisite motion to the workpiece, tool or
both
 To regulate the cutting speed and feed of the tool and
workpiece
 To hold various attachments for different operations
 Classification of Machine Tools

 According to the geometrical shapes of the workpiece

 According to the purpose of use
 According to the degree of automation
 According to the size
 According to configuration
According to the geometrical shapes of the workpiece

 Machine tools for machining flat surfaces (shapers,

planers)
 Machine tools for machining cylindrical surfaces (lathes)
 Machine tools for making holes (drilling machines)
 Machine tools for machining profiles (milling, hobbing
machine tools)
 According to purpose of use

 General purpose machine tools: which can perform

various operations on work piece of different shapes
and sizes.
 Single purpose machine tools: which can perform
single operation on work pieces of a particular shape
and different sizes and
 Special machine tools: which can perform a single
operation on work piece of particular shape and size.
Generally, for mass production.
 According to degree of automation

 Non-automatic
 Semi-automatic
 Automatic
 According to size

 Heavy duty
 Medium duty
 Small/light duty
 According to configuration

 Horizontal machines
 Vertical machines
 General requirements of machine tools

 High static stiffness of the different machine tool elements such as

structure, joints, and spindles
 Acceptable level of vibration

 Adequate damping capacity

 High speeds and feeds

 Low rates of wear in the sliding parts

 Low thermal distortion of the different machine tool elements

 Low design, development, maintenance, repair, and manufacturing

cost
 Basic functional principles of machine tool operations

Machine tools produce desired geometrical surfaces on solid bodies

(preformed blanks) and for that they are basically comprised of;
 Structural body to support and accommodate those systems with
sufficient strength and rigidity
 Devices for firmly holding the tool and work

 Drives for providing power and motions to the tool and work

 Kinematic system to transmit motion and power from the

sources to the tool-work
 Automation and control systems
 Various Elements of Machine Tools

 Structure of a machine tool consisting of bed, column and

frame

 Slides and guide ways

 Spindles and spindle bearings

 Various machine drives

 Various mechanisms
 Structures

➢ The principle supporting comp0onent of a machine tool is called a structure.

Machine tool parts, such as beds, bases, columns, box-type housings, over arms,
carriages, table etc. are known as structures.

➢ The principal function of these elements:

 To provide the stability to the machine tool, supports the various members and

maintains alignment among the moving members.

 To provide housings for individual units or their assemblies like s gear box,

spindle head.

 To support and move the work piece and tool relatively, i.e. table, carriage, tail

stock etc.
 Structures

 This element (structure) provides the stability to the machine tool, supports the
various members and maintains alignment among the moving members.
 The operating properties of any machine tool are determined only by the
degree of rigidity of individual parts which is defined as the degree of the
deformation undergone by a member for an external load.
 During machining operation on the machine tool, it is subjected to bending and
twisting moments and if the structure does not possess high rigidity, it may
undergo appreciable deformation.
 Thus rigidity of various parts in a machine tool is important for ensuring the
adequate accuracy of the items produced on machine tools.
 Structures

➢ The structural configuration of a machine tool is determined by

✓ The required arrangement of slideway

✓ The length of the stroke

✓ The mechanism that must be housed inside the structural elements

✓ The number and size of openings required in the walls of the structure

for assembly, disassembly, inspection, adjustment, lubrication etc., and

chutes and receptacles to collects the chips that fall down and the
coolant that may splash about.
 Structures

 Machine tool structures are classified by layouts into

open (C-frames) and closed frames.
 Open frames provide excellent accessibility to the tool
and the WP. Typical examples of open frames are found in
turning, drilling, milling, shaping, grinding, slotting, and
boring machines.
 Closed frames find application in planers, jig boring etc.
Structures
 Structures

By the method of manufacture:

(i) Cast,
(ii) Welded,
(iii) Combined cast and welded.
 Slides and slideways
 During machining operations, the workpiece or
cutting tool either travels in a straight line or in a
circle.
 The machine tools are provided with tables, slides,
carriages etc. to carry the workpieces or cutting tools
etc. These parts are slide in nature and mounted on
the ways that are fixed on the other parts of the
machines are known as slideways.
 Slideways are required to perform the necessary
machine tool motion at a high level of accuracy
under severe machining conditions.
 Slideways
The main requirements:
 Adequate load carrying capacity.
 To maintain alignment of guided parts under operating
conditions.
 Selection of proper material for minimum wear and provision
for compensating any wear developed after its use over some
time.
 Provision for effective lubrication for minimum friction.
 High stiffness and less deformation under the action of cutting
forces.
 Chip disposal should be easy and the possibility of its getting
entrapped should be minimum.
 Slideways should be maintained in good condition by providing
protective guards for safe guard against accidental damage.
 Slideways

➢ Selection of the proper shape of slideways depend on

the following factors:
• The magnitude and direction of the loads to be
carried
• Wear characteristics
• Ease of assembly
• Effectiveness of lubrication
• Chip disposal techniques
 Slideeways

 Slideways are classified as sliding friction and rolling

friction

(a) vee, (b) flat, (c) dovetail, (d) cylinder

•Intermediate rolling members (balls or rollers) are inserted

between the sliding surfaces, thus changing the nature of
friction from sliding to rolling.
Slideways
 Spindles and spindle bearings

 In machine tools, a spindle is a rotating axis of the machine, which often has a

shaft at its heart.

 Machine tools are equipped with spindles to (a) locate the job, (b) hold the

tool or work, (c) rotate the tool or work, (d) feed the tool are rotating
components that are used to locate, hold, and drive the tool or the WP.

 A spindle is provided with a tapered hole at the front end for receiving the

cantering elements.

 The machine tool spindle provides the relative motion between the cutting tool

and the workpiece which is necessary to perform a material removal operation.

Spindles and spindle bearings
 Spindles and spindle bearings

 These spindles possess a high degree of rigidity, rotational

accuracy, and wear resistance.
 Machine tool spindles are supported inside housings by means of
ball, roller, or antifriction bearings.
 The type and number of bearings to be used depends upon the
forces that come into action.
 The machining accuracy (geometrical accuracy and surface finish
of the machined components) of a machine tool depends
considerably upon the rotational accuracy of spindles
Spindle Bearings
Spindle Bearings
 Machine tool drives

 To obtain a machined part by a machine tool,

coordinated motions must be imparted to its working
members.
 Machine tool drives may be classified as electrical,
mechanical and hydraulic and as stepped and stepless.
 In all drives, the motive power is provided by an electric
motor.
 This power is transmitted to the spindles, slides, tables etc.
in such a manner that the movement of the motor shaft is
transformed through the drive elements into the required
cutting speeds and feed motions.
 Machine tool drives

 Machine tools essentially need wide ranges of cutting

speed and feed rate to enable
✓ Machining different jobs (material and size)
✓ Using different cutting tools (material, geometry and
size)
✓ Various machining operations like high speed
turning to low speed thread cutting in lathes
✓ Degree of surface finish
 Machine tool drives

The ideal drive should possess the following characteristics:

 It should be able to provide the necessary range and
number of cutting speeds and feed rates.
 Cutting speed and feed rate changes should be obtained
without interrupting the machining operation.
 Power loss in the drive should be minimum.
 The drive should be compact.
 Full power should be available at all working speeds.
 Stepped drives provide only a finite number of output
speeds. Stepless drives are ideal because they are capable of
producing speed ranges with infinitely fine steps.
 Machine tool drives

➢ Selection of drives depends upon:

✓ Purpose of the machine tool

✓ Production time

✓ Surface finish and accuracy required

✓ Optimum efficiency

✓ Power requirements

✓ Speed range ratio

✓ Mechanical characteristics of the machining operation

✓ Simplicity of design with respect to maintenance, repair and control.

 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix

 Generatrix: The line generated by the primary motion is

called the generatrix.
 Directrix: the line representing the secondary motion is
called the directrix. It provided path to generatrix.
 Depending upon the shapes of the generatrix and
directrix and their relative orientation various
geometries can be produced on the workpiece.
 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix

 Generation of flat surfaces by Generatrix and

Directrix:
The principle is where on a flat plain a straight line
called Generatrix (G) is traversed in a perpendicular
direction called Directrix (D) resulting a flat surface.
 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix

 Generation of cylindrical surfaces: The principles of

production of various cylindrical surfaces where,
✓ A long straight cylindrical surface is obtained by a circle (G)
being traversed in the direction (D) parallel to the axis.
✓ A cylindrical surface of short length is obtained by traversing a
straight line (G) along a circular path (D).
✓ Form cylindrical surfaces by rotating a curved line (G) in a circular path
(D).
 Tool-work motions

The lines representing the Generatrix and Directrix are usually produced by the
locus of a point moving in two different directions and are actually obtained by
the motions of the tool-tip (point) relative to the work surface. Hence, for
machining flat or curved surfaces, the machine tools need relative tool work
motions, which are categorized in following two groups:
• Formative motions namely
✓ Cutting motion (CM): It is the relative motion between the tool and
workpiece responsible for cutting action
✓ Feed motion (FM): It is responsible for gradually feeding the uncut portion
and may proceed in steps or continuously
• Auxiliary motions such as
✓ Indexing motion
✓ Additional feed motion
✓ Relieving motion
Formative motions in machine tools
Connections of G and D with tool-work motions
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Tool-work motions

The lines representing the Generatrix and Directrix are usually produced
by the locus of a point moving in two different directions and are actually
obtained by the motions of the tool-tip (point) relative to the work
surface. Hence, for machining flat or curved surfaces, the machine tools
need relative tool work motions, which are categorized in following two
groups:
• Formative motions namely
✓ Cutting motion (CM)
✓ Feed motion (FM)
• Auxiliary motions such as
✓ Indexing motion
✓ Additional feed motion
✓ Relieving motion
Formative motions in machine tools
Connections of G and D with tool-work motions
Connections of G and D with tool-work motions
 Indexing motion

• In milling gear teeth

 Additional feed motion
• Radial feed in gear shaping machines
 Relieving motion

• Machining flanks of form milling cutters in lathe

 TURNING OPERATION

 Turning in a lathe is to remove excess material from the

workpiece to produce a cylindrical surface of required
shape and size.
 The basic motions of turning are:

✓ The primary motion is the rotary motion of the

workpiece around the turning axis.
✓ The secondary motion is the translational motion of the
tool, known as the feed motion.
 Lathe Machine
The function of the lathe is to remove excess material from the work piece in the
form of chips by rotating work piece against a cutting tool.
Working principle of lathe
 Lathe Operations

 Facing
 Plain turning
 Step turning
 Taper turning
 Grooving
 Forming
 Parting
 Drilling
 Reaming
 Boring
 Threading
 Knurling
Lathe Operations
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Work holding devices in lathe

 Chucks

 Faceplates

 Driving plates

 Carriers

 Mandrels

 Centres

 Rests
 Chucks
• Workpiece of short length, large diameter and irregular shapes, which can
not be mounted between centres, are held quickly and rigidly in chuck.
• There are different types of chucks namely,
1.Three jaw self centering/universal chuck,
2.Four jaw independent chuck,
3.Magnetic chuck,
4.Collet chuck and Combination chuck
 Chucks

 Three jaw self centering/universal chuck: This type of

chuck is suitable for holding and rotating regular
shaped workpieces like round or hexagonal rods
about the axis of the lathe.
 Four jaw independent chuck: This type of chuck can
hold woks of irregular shapes.
 Magnetic chuck: Very small, thin and light works
which can not be held in a ordinary chuck are held in
this chuck.
 Collet chucks

Collet chuck has a cylindrical bushing known as collet. It is made

of spring steel and has slots cut lengthwise on its circumference.
So, it holds the work with more grip.
Collet chucks
 Faceplates

 It is a cast iron disk with a threaded hole in the centre for

screwing onto the nose of the spindle. It also has a number of
holes and slots for securing the workpiece
 Driving plates

 It is a small faceplate with a hole to accommodate a pin. This pin

engages with the tail of a lathe dog or carriers.
 Carriers (Lathe dog)

 These are used along with driving plates. The workpiece is

inserted into the 'V' shaped hole of the lathe dog and then firmly
secured.
 Angle plate

 Angle plate is a cast iron plate having two faces machined to make them
absolutely at right angles to each other. Holes and slots are provided on both
faces so that it may be clamped on a faceplate and can hold the job or
workpiece on the other face by bolts and clamps.
 It is always used with the face plate for holding such parts which can not be
clamped against the vertical surface of the face plate
 Mandrels

 A mandrel is a device used for holding and rotating a hollow job that has been
previously drilled or bored. The job revolves with the mandrel, which is
mounted between two centers. It is used to hold hollow work pieces to
machine their external surface.
Mandrels
 Centers

 The most common method of holding the job in a lathe is between the two
centers generally known as live centre (head stock centre) and dead centre
(tailstock centre). They are made of very hard materials to resist deflection and
wear and they are used to hold and support the cylindrical jobs.
Centers
 Rests

 A rest is a lathe device, which supports a long slender job, when

it is turned between centers or by a chuck, at some intermediate
point to prevent bending of the job due to its own weight and
vibration set up due to the cutting force that acts on it.
 The two types of rests commonly used for supporting a long job
in an engine lathe are the steady or centre rest and the follower
rest.
 Steady rests

Steady or centre rest: It may be made to slide on the lathe bedways

and clamped at any desired position where the workpiece needs
support.
 Follower rest

Follower rest: The rest is bolted to the back end of the carriage.
During machining, it supports the work and moves with the
carriage.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
Cutting tools
Single point cutting tool
 Cutting tools

 Tools consists of cutting surface and support

 Cutting surfaces can be of same material as support or a

separate insert

 Supports materials must be rigid and strong enough to

prevent tool deflection during cutting

 Cutting materials are typically carbides, ceramics or HSS

 Inserts are used to decrease the cost of the tool

 Tool holding devices in lathe

 HSS tools (shank type) in tool post

 HSS form tools and threading tools in tool post

 Carbide and ceramic inserts in tool holders

 Drills and reamers, if required, in tailstock

 Boring tools in tool post

 Tool holding devices in lathe

 Tool post
 Quick change tool holders

 Tool changing can take over 50% of manual lathe

operations

 Quick change holders are used to reduce manual tool

change time and increase production

Quick change tool holders
 Tool holding devices in lathe

Holding drill chuck and drill in tailstock Boring tool mounted in the tool post
 Tool holding devices in lathe
Carbide and ceramic inserts in tool holders
Operating condition on lathe
 Operating condition on lathe

 Rotational Speed/Spindle speed (N) in RPM

 Cutting speed: It is the linear distance moved by the tool against the part in a given time. It

is denoted by Vc in m/min.

 Cutting feed: The cutting feed, f, is the distance in the direction of feed motion at

which the cutting tool advances into the workpiece per one revolution. Thus the
feed is measured in millimeters per revolution.

 Feed rate: The feed rate, fr, is the velocity of the tool in the feed direction. It is

measured in millimeters per minute (mm/min).

 Depth of cut: It is the thickness of the layer of metal removed in one cut or pass

measured in a direction perpendicular to the machined surface. Denoted as d in

mm.
 Formula for Turning

 Cutting speed (Vc) = ( π ×D× N/1000) m/min

 Feed rate (fr) = f × N mm/min

 Cutting time (Tc) = L/ (f × N) min

 Material removal rate (MRR) = π × Davg× d × f × N mm3/min

Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Problem

 A stainless steel rod of diameter 12 mm and length

150 mm is to be turned in lathe machine to reduce
the diameter to 10 mm in one pass. The spindle
rotates at 500 RPM and the tool is travelling at a
speed of 200 mm/min. Calculate the cutting speed,
material removal rate and the required machining
time.
 Drilling

Drilling is the operation of producing circular hole in the

work piece by using a rotating tool called drill.
 Drilling machine

A power operated which

holds the drill in its spindle
rotating at high speeds and
when actuated move
linearly against the work
piece produces a hole.
Drill bit
Types of twist drill
 Motions in drilling

• The process involves two basic

motions: the primary rotary motion and
the auxiliary linear feed motion.
• In the horizontal drilling operation, the
workpiece performs the rotary motion,
while the tool undergoes the linear feed
motion. This type is used to drill long
holes using automatic, turret, and
center lathes.
• In the vertical drilling arrangement, the
tool performs, simultaneously, both the
rotary and feed motions using the
drilling standard machines. This type of
drilling is the most important and
widely used
 Drilling machine operation

 Drilling
 Reaming
 Boring
 Counter boring
 Counter sinking
 Spot facing
 Tapping
 Centering
 Drilling operations

Reaming. Reaming is the operation of finishing a hole to bring it to accurate size and have
a fine surface finish. The tool is called a reamer, and it usually has straight flutes.
Tapping. This operation is performed by a tap and is used to provide internal screw threads
on an existing hole.
Counterboring. Counterboring provides a stepped hole, in which a larger diameter follows
a smaller diameter partially into the hole. A counterbored hole is used to seat bolt heads into
a hole so the heads do not protrude above the surface.
Countersinking. This is similar to counterboring, except that the step in the hole is cone-
shaped for flat head screws and bolts.
Centering. Also called center drilling, this operation drills a starting hole to accurately
establish its location for subsequent drilling. The tool is called a center drill.
Spot facing. Spot facing is similar to milling. It is used to provide a flat machined surface
on the work part in a localized area.
Drilling operations
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Work holding devices in drilling

In general purpose drilling machine

like column and radial arm type, the
workpiece is generally mounted
✓by directly clamping on the drilling
machine bed particularly when the job
is heavy and/or of odd shape and size.
✓in a vice which is clamped on the
bed.
✓in a suitable jig clamped on the bed.
 Work holding devices in drilling

• Drill press vice

• Angel plate
• V-blocks
• Step blocks
• Angel plate
• Drill jigs
• Clamps or straps
 Drill Press Vice

 Used to hold round, square or odd-shaped

rectangular pieces
 Clamp vice to table for stability
 Angle vice

 Angular adjustment on base to allow operator to drill

holes at an angle without tilting table.
 V-blocks

 Made of cast iron or hardened steel

 Used in pairs to support round work for drilling
 Step blocks

 Used to provide support for outer end of strap

clamps
 Angle plate

 L-shaped piece of cast iron or hardened steel

machined to accurate 90º may be bolted or clamped
to table
 Drill jigs

 It is a work holding device that holds, supports and locates the

workpiece and guides the cutting tool for a specific operation.
 Drill jigs are devices designed for production drilling jobs. The
workplaces are clamped into the jig so that the holes will be
drilled in the same location on each piece. The jig may guide the
drill through a steel bushing to locate the holes accurately.
 Used in production for drilling holes in large number of identical
parts
Drill jigs
 Clamps or straps

 Used to fasten work to table or angle plate for drilling

 Usually supported at end by step block and bolted to table by T-bolt that fits
into table T-slot
 Tool holding devices in drilling

• A self-centering, three-jaw drill chuck is used to hold small drilling

tools with straight shanks.
• Quick-change chucks for tapered-shank tools.

3 jaw drill chuck Quick-change chuck

 Drill sleeves and drill socket

 Taper shank tools, of which the shank is sufficiently large, are directly fitted in
the tapered hole of the spindle nose.
 Those taper shank tools, of which the shank is too small to fit the taper hole of the
spindle are held in a socket.
 The shank of this socket has a standard taper to fit the taper hole in a spindle.
 Still smaller taper shank drills are first fitted with a sleeve, which fits into the
socket and the complete assembly in the spindle.

Tapered sleeves
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
Cutting Parameters in Drilling
 Cutting conditions
• Cutting Speed
• Feed: It is the distance a drill moves, parallel to its axis into the
work in each revolution of the spindle (mm/rev)
• Feed rate: If the total distance moved by the drill into the work,
parallel to its axis, in one minute is considered, it can be expressed
as feed per minute
• Depth of cut: In drilling operation the depth of cut is measured at
right angles to the axis of the drill i.e. the direction of feed and is
numerically equal to one-half of the diameter of the drill.
 Cutting conditions

 The cutting parameters in drilling depends on:

o Material to be cut
o Material of tool
o Depth of drilling
o Drill size
o Type of finish required
o Type of coolant used
o Capacity of machine
o Tool life
 Formula for Drilling

 Cutting speed (Vc) = ( π ×d× N/1000) m/min

Where d= drill diameter

N= spindle speed in rpm

 Feed rate (fr) = f × N mm/min

 Problem

 At what speed a 15 mm diameter drill will run to drill

a hole through a brass plate of 20 mm thick in order
to cut the material at a cutting speed of 60 m/min.
 Machining Time

Cutting time (Tc) = L/ (f × N) min

N = rpm of drill
L= Length of axial travel of drill in mm
=l+a
L= depth or thickness of work piece
a = approach of drill = 0.3 d
d = diameter of drill
F= feed per revolution
 Formula for Drilling

 Depth of cut = Drill diameter / 2 mm

 Cutting time (Tc) = L/ (f × N) min

 Material removal rate (MRR)=(π/4)× d2 × f × N mm3/min

 Problem

 Calculate the machining time and material removal

rate for drilling a hole of 16 mm diameter on a work
piece using the following data: Work piece thickness
= 30 mm; cutting speed = 22 m/min, feed = 0.2
mm/ rev
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Milling

 Milling is a process of producing flat and complex

shapes with the use of multi-tooth cutting tool, which
is called a milling cutter and the cutting edges are
called teeth.
 The milling machine consists basically of a motor
driven spindle, which mounts and revolves the
milling cutter, and a reciprocating adjustable
worktable, which mounts and feeds the work piece.
Horizontal Milling machine
Vertical Milling Machine
 Milling operations

 Plain milling operation

 Face milling operation
 Side milling operation
 Straddle milling operation
 Angular milling operation
 Gang milling operation
 Form milling operation
 Profile milling operation
 End milling operation
 Saw milling operation
 Slot milling operation
 Gear cutting operation
 Helical milling operation
Milling cutter nomenclature
 Types of Milling Operations

• There are two basic types of milling operations

(a) peripheral milling and (b) face milling.
 Peripheral Milling
• In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the tool is parallel to
the surface being machined, and the operation is performed by cutting edges on
the outside periphery of the cutter.
• The primary motion is the rotation of the cutter. The feed is imparted to the
work piece.

(a) slab milling, (b)slotting, (c) side milling, (d) straddle milling, and (e) form
milling
 Peripheral Milling

 Slab milling, the basic form of peripheral milling in which the cutter
width extends beyond the work piece on both sides.
 Slotting, also called slot milling, in which the width of the cutter is less
than the work piece width, creating a slot in the work when the cutter is
very thin, this operation can be used to mill narrow slots or cut a work
part in two, called saw milling.
 Side milling, in which the cutter machines the side of the work piece.
 Straddle milling, the same as side milling, only cutting takes place on
both sides of the work.
 Form milling, in which the milling teeth have a special profile that
determines the shape of the slot that is cut in the work.
 Face Milling
In face milling, the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being milled,
and machining is performed by cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter.

(a) conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, (c) end milling, (d) profile
milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface contouring
 Face Milling

 Conventional face milling, in which the diameter of the cutter is greater than
the work part width, so the cutter overhangs the work on both sides.
 Partial face milling, where the cutter overhangs the work on only one side.
 End milling, in which the cutter diameter is less than the work width, so a slot
is cut into the part.
 Profile milling, a form of end milling in which the outside periphery of a flat
part is cut.
 Pocket milling, another form of end milling used to mill shallow pockets into
flat parts.
 Surface contouring, in which a ball-nose cutter (rather than square-end cutter)
is fed back and forth across the work along a curvilinear path at close intervals
to create a three dimensional surface form.
 Types of milling cutter

 Plane milling cutter

 Face milling cutter
 End milling cutter
 T slot milling cutter
 Side milling cutter
 Double angle cutter
Types of milling cutter
Up milling vs. Down milling
 Up milling vs. Down milling

Up Milling/conventional milling Down Milling/climb milling

In up milling the cutter rotates against In Down milling, the cutter rotates with direction of
direction of feed. feed.
In this, chip width size is zero at initial cut and In this cutting process, chip size is maximum at start of
increase with feed. It is maximum at the end of cut and decrease with the feed. It is zero at the end of
feed. feed.
In up milling, tool wear is more because the In this, tool wear is less compare to the up milling, due
tool runs against the feed. to the cutter rotate with the feed.
Tool life is low. Tool life is high.
The cutting chips are carried upward by the The chips are carried downward by the tool so known
tool so known as up milling. as down milling.
The cutting chips fall down in front of the The cutting chips fall down behind the tool. This gives
cutting tool which again cut the chips cause better surface finish.
less surface finish.
Length of the chip is relatively longer. Length of the chip is relatively shorter.
High quality cutting fluid is required because In this process heat does not diffuse in the workpiece,
heat diffuse in the work piece. so simple cutting fluid is required.
It required high cutting force compare to down It required low cutting force.
milling.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
Up milling vs. Down milling
 Up milling vs. Down milling

Up Milling/conventional milling Down Milling/climb milling

In up milling the cutter rotates against In Down milling, the cutter rotates with direction of
direction of feed. feed.
In this, chip width size is zero at initial cut and In this cutting process, chip size is maximum at start of
increase with feed. It is maximum at the end of cut and decrease with the feed. It is zero at the end of
feed. feed.
In up milling, tool wear is more because the In this, tool wear is less compare to the up milling, due
tool runs against the feed. to the cutter rotate with the feed.
Tool life is low. Tool life is high.
The cutting chips are carried upward by the The chips are carried downward by the tool so known
tool so known as up milling. as down milling.
The cutting chips fall down in front of the The cutting chips fall down behind the tool. This gives
cutting tool which again cut the chips cause better surface finish.
less surface finish.
Length of the chip is relatively longer. Length of the chip is relatively shorter.
High quality cutting fluid is required because In this process heat does not diffuse in the workpiece,
heat diffuse in the work piece. so simple cutting fluid is required.
It required high cutting force compare to down It required low cutting force.
milling.
 Work holding devices in milling
 Relatively large and irregular shaped
jobs are directly mounted on the
table with the help of clamps,
supports, V-blocks, T-bolts etc.
 Small components of geometrical
shape are gripped in the vice which
is rigidly clamped on the table.
 Work holding devices in milling

 Jobs requiring indexing

motion, e.g., prisms, gears,
splines etc. are mounted
directly or indirectly in a
dividing or indexing head.
 Small jobs, for its repetitive
or batch production, are
preferably mounted (located,
supported and clamped) in
the fixture (designed for the
purpose) which is firmly
clamped on the table.
 Tool holding devices in milling

 Plain or slab milling

cutters and disc type
profile sharpened or
form relieved cutters
are mounted on
horizontal milling
arbour.
 End milling cutters
with straight shank are
mounted coaxially in
the spindle bore with
the help of collet-
chuck.
 Tool holding devices in milling

 Shell milling cutters and

heavy face milling cutters
are mounted in the hollow
spindle with the help of a
short but rugged arbour, a
fastening screw and a
draw bar.
 In case of carbide tipped
milling cutters, the
uncoated or coated
carbide inserts of desired
size, shape and number
are mechanically clamped
at the periphery of the
plain and disc type
milling cutters.
 Cutting conditions

 Cutting Speed: The cutting speed of a milling cutter is the distance

travelled per minute by the cutting edge of the cutter.
 Spindle speed: The number of revolutions per minute that is made by the
cutting tool of a machine.
 Feed: The distance advances by the cutting tool along the length of the
work piece for every revolution of the spindle. This can be expressed in 3
ways in milling machine
1. Feed per tooth,
2. Feed per cutter revolution,
3. Feed per minute
✓ Depth of cut in milling is thickness of the material removed in one pass
under the cutter (mm)
 Formula for Milling

✓ Cutting speed (Vc) = ( π ×D× N/1000) m/min

Where D= Diameter of the cutter

N=Spindle speed in rpm

✓ Feed rate (fr) = f × nt × N mm/min

Where f = feed (mm/tooth)

N = Rotational speed (rpm)

nt = number of teeth in the cutter

 Peripheral Milling

Front view
Side view
D
d

A
 Machining Time/Cutting Time

•Cutting time (Tc) = (L+A)/fr min

L= length of cut
A= approach distance = √(d(D-d)
D = cutter diameter
D = depth of cut
fr = feed rate (mm/min)
 Material Removal Rate

 Material removal rate (MRR) = w.d.fr

w= width of cut
d = depth of cut
fr= feed rate
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Formula for Milling

✓ Cutting speed (Vc) = ( π ×D× N/1000) m/min

Where D= Diameter of the cutter

N=Spindle speed in rpm

✓ Feed rate (fr) = f × nt × N mm/min

Where f = feed (mm/tooth)

N = Rotational speed (rpm)

nt = number of teeth in the cutter

 Peripheral Milling

Front view
Side view
D
d

A
 Machining Time/Cutting Time

•Cutting time (Tc) = (L+A)/fr min

L= length of cut
A= approach distance = √d(D-d)
D = cutter diameter
d = depth of cut
fr = feed rate (mm/min)
Face Milling

Case: 1 When the cutter is centered

over the work piece

Top view

D
w

O A
 Face Milling

TOP view
D
w

Case 2: When the cutter is offset to one side over the work piece
 Machining Time/Cutting Time

➢Cutting time (Tc) = (L+A+O)/fr min

Full face: A = O = D/2

Partial face: A= O =√ w (D-w)

L= length of cut
A= approach distance
O = cutter run out distance/over travel distance
fr = feed rate (mm/min)
 Material Removal Rate

 Material removal rate (MRR) = w.d.fr

w= width of cut
d = depth of cut
fr= feed rate
 Problem

 Determine the machining time for plain milling a

rectangular surface of length 250 mm and width 70
mm by a plain milling cutter of diameter 80 mm,
length 90 mm and 6 teeth. The cutting velocity is 60
m/min, depth of cut is 3 mm and the feed is 0.1
mm/tooth.
 Problem

 In a milling machine, a face milling operation is

performed on the top surface of a rectangular work
piece of 400 mm long and 80 mm wide. The milling
cutter follows a path that centered over the work
piece. The diameter of cutter is 90 mm and it has 8
teeth. Cutting speed is 90 m/min, feed is 0.25
mm/tooth, and depth of cut is 4 mm. Calculate the
machining time and material removal rate.
 Indexing

 Indexing is the process of evenly dividing the

circumference of a circular work piece into equally
spaced divisions, such as in cutting gear teeth,
milling grooves in reamers and taps, squares,
hexagons, and octagons.
 The index head of the indexing fixture is used for this
purpose.
 Methods of Indexing

1. Direct Indexing
2. Simple Indexing
3. Compound Indexing
4. Angular Indexing
5. Differential Indexing
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Indexing

 Indexing is the process of evenly dividing the

circumference of a circular work piece into equally
spaced divisions, such as in cutting gear teeth,
milling grooves in reamers and taps, squares,
hexagons, and octagons.
 The index head of the indexing fixture is used for this
purpose.
 Methods of Indexing

1. Direct Indexing
2. Simple Indexing
3. Compound Indexing
4. Angular Indexing
5. Differential Indexing
 Grinding

 Grinding is the most common form of abrasive machining. It is a material

removal process which engages an abrasive tool whose cutting elements
are grains of abrasive material known as grit. These grits are characterized
by sharp cutting points, high hot hardness, chemical stability and wear
resistance.
 The grits are held together by a suitable bonding material to give shape of
an abrasive tool.
 Due to the random orientation of grains and some uncontrollable cutting
condition, the selection of proper parameters often becomes difficult.
 Grinding can be performed to produce flat as well as cylindrical (both
external and internal) surface efficiently.
 Grinding is applied when the material is too hard to be machined
economically or when tolerances required are very tight.
 Grinding Process

• Work piece brought

into contact with
revolving grinding
wheel.

• Each small abrasive

grain on periphery of
wheel acts as
individual cutting tool
and removes chip of
metal
Grinding machine
Grinding tool/Grinding wheel
 Types of grinding

 Cylindrical grinding
 Surface grinding
 Centerless grinding
 Cylindrical grinding

 In this operation, the external or internal cylindrical surface of a

work piece are ground. In external cylindrical grinding the work

piece rotates and reciprocates along its axis, although for large and
long work parts the grinding wheel reciprocates.

 In internal cylindrical grinding, a small wheel grinds the inside

diameter of the part. The work piece is held in a rotating chuck in

the headstock and the wheel rotates at very high rotational speed.
In this operation, the work piece rotates and the grinding wheel
reciprocates.
Cylindrical grinding
Cylindrical grinding
 Surface grinding

• Surface grinding is normally used to grind plain flat surfaces.

• It is performed using moreover the periphery of the grinding wheel or the flat face of
the wheel.
• Because the work is normally held in a horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding is
performed by rotating the wheel about a horizontal axis, and face grinding is performed
by rotating the wheel about a vertical axis.
• In either case, the relative motion of the work part is achieved by reciprocating the work
past the wheel or by rotating it.
 Centerless Grinding

 Centerless grinding machines eliminate the need to have center holes for the
work or to use work-holding devices.
 In centerless grinding, the workpiece rests on a workrest blade and is backed
up by a second wheel, called the regulating wheel.
 The rotation of the grinding wheel pushes the workpiece down on the
workrest blade and against the regulating wheel.
 The regulating wheel, usually made of a rubber bonded abrasive, rotates in the
same direction as the grinding wheel and controls the longitudinal feed of the
work when set at a slight angle.
 By changing this angle and the speed of the wheel, the workpiece feed rate can
be changed.
 The diameter of the workpiece is controlled by two factors: The distance
between the grinding wheel and regulating wheel, and by changing the height
of the workrest blade.
Centreless Grinding
Centreless Grinding Mchine
Centreless Grinding

Click to add text

 Work holding devices in grinding

 In cylindrical grinding, workpiece is mounted in between

centres for external grinding and in chuck for internal
grinding.
 In reciprocating type surface grinding, the workpiece is
mounted on the work table in different ways:
✓ On a rectangular magnetic chuck which is clamped on
the table.
✓ Gripped in a vice which is held on the magnetic chuck or
directly clamped on the table.
✓ Directly clamped on the table by clamps, T-bolt etc.
✓ In a fixture which will be clamped on the table or
magnetic chuck.
 Work holding devices in grinding

 Work must be held in vice, held on V-blocks or

bolted directly to table for some surface grinding
operations
 Most of ferrous work ground on surface grinder held
on magnetic chuck
 Clamped to table of grinder
Work holding devices in grinding
 Tool holding devices in grinding

 All the grinding wheels are circular shaped and

rotate only about their own axis. A grinding wheel is
coaxially mounted on the spindle nose.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Planing and Shaping

 Planing and shaping are similar operations, which differ

only in the kinematics of the process.

 Planing is a machining operation in which the primary

cutting motion is performed by the workpiece and feed

motion is imparted to the cutting tool.

 In shaping, the primary motion is performed by the tool,

and feed by the workpiece.

Shaper machine
Planer machine
Planing and Shaping
Difference between shaper and planer
 Broaching

 Broaching is a machining operation that involves the linear movement of a

muti-point cutting tool (referred to as broach) relative to the work piece in
the direction of the tool axis.
 The shape of the machined surface is determined by the contour of the
final cutting edges on the broach.
 Broaching is a highly productive method of machining with advantages
like good surface finish, close tolerances, and the variety of possible
machined surface shapes some of them can only be produced by
broaching.
 Owing to the complicated geometry of the broach, the tooling is
expensive. The broaching tools cannot be reground and have to be
replaced when wear becomes excessive.
 Broaching is a typical mass production operation.
Broaching
Broach tool
Broach tool
Broaching
 Broaching

• Internal broaching is accomplished on the internal surface of a

hole in the part. Internal broaching tools are used to enlarge and
finish various contours in through holes preformed by casting,
forging, rolling, drilling, punching etc. Internal broaching tools are
mostly pull type but may be push type for lighter work.

• External broaching is performed on the outside surface of the

work to create a certain cross-sectional shape on the surface.
External surface broaching competes with milling, shaping and
planing and, wherever feasible, outperforms those processes in
respect of productivity and product quality. External broaching
tool may be push type and pull type.
 Broaching

Work shapes that can be cut by: (a) external broaching, and (b) internal broaching
 Broaching

 Pull type broaches are generally made as a long single

piece and are more widely used, for
internal broaching in particular. During operation a pull
type broach is subjected to tensile force, which helps in
maintaining and prevents buckling.
 Push type broaches are essentially shorter in length (to
avoid buckling) and may be made in segments. Push
type broaches are generally used for external broaching,
preferably, requiring light cuts and small depth of
material removal
Push type and pill type broach tool
Push type
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Non-traditional machining process

 Non-traditional manufacturing process is defined

as a group of processes that remove excess
material by various techniques involving
mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy
or combinations of these energies but do not use a
sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for
traditional manufacturing processes.
 Need of non traditional machining

Situations where traditional machining processes are unsatisfactory or

uneconomical:
 Workpiece material is too hard, brittle or difficult to machine.

 Workpiece is too flexible to resist cutting forces or too difficult to clamp.

 Part shape is very complex with internal or external profiles or small holes.

 Requirements for surface finish and tolerances are very high.

 Intricate shaped blind hole

 Deep hole with small hole diameter

 Temperature rise or residual stresses are undesirable or unacceptable.

 Machining of composites
• .
 Difference between conventional and NTM process
Conventional Machining Non-Traditional Machining (NTM)
Only mechanical energy (power) is utilized to Various forms of energy (like electrical, mechanical, thermal, chemical,
gradually remove excess material from work piece. light, etc. or a combination of two or more such forms) are directly utilized
to remove excess material.
Microscopic chip formation. Material removal occurs with or without chip formation
‘Shear deformation’ is the only phenomenon that Shear deformation plays an insignificant role in material removing in most
causes removal of material. of the NTM processes. Instead, erosion, dissolution, evaporation,
sputtering, etc. occur here.
Physical tool is always present. There may not be a physical tool present.
Physical contact between cutting tool and work piece Although no physical contact occurs between cutting tool and work piece,
and also relative velocity in between them are in few processes such as AJM, AWJM, & USM solid abrasive grits strike
indispensably necessary in order to remove materials. the work surface to erode material.
Cutting tool is always harder than work piece. The tool need not be harder than the work piece material
These processes are suitable for bulk removal of These are suitable for highly accurate and precise requirements. For bulk
material. In this sense, these are fast, reliable, and removal of materials, these processes are time consuming, less reliable, and
economic (higher material removal rate MRR). uneconomic.
There are certain shapes that cannot be produced by NTM processes sometime become a reliable option for producing such
conventional machining. critical shapes.
Examples of conventional machining processes: Examples of non-traditional machining processes: AJM, AWJM, USM, etc.
Turning, Facing, Grooving, etc.
 Characteristic features of NTM processes

 Material removal may occur with chip formation or even no chip

formation may take place. For example in AJM, chips are of
microscopic size and in case of Electrochemical machining material
removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution at atomic level.
 In NTM, there may not be a physical tool present. For example in laser
jet machining, machining is carried out by laser beam. However in
Electrochemical Machining there is a physical tool that is very much
required for machining.
 In NTM, the tool need not be harder than the work piece material. For
example, in EDM, copper is used as the tool material to machine
hardened steels.
 Mostly NTM processes do not necessarily use mechanical energy to
provide material removal. They use different energy domains to
provide machining. For example, in USM, AJM, WJM mechanical
energy is used to machine material, whereas in ECM electrochemical
dissolution constitutes material removal.
 Classification of NTM Processes
Non-traditional or unconventional machining processes may be classified on the basis of the
nature of energy employed in machining,
Mechanical
 Abrasive jet machining (AJM)
 Ultrasonic machining (USM)
 Water jet machining (WJM)
 Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
Electro-chemical
 Electro-chemical machining (ECM)
 Electrolytic grinding (ECG)
Electro-thermal
 Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
 Electron beam machining (EBM)
 Plasma arc machining (PAM)
 Laser beam machining (LBM)
Chemical
 Chemical machining (CHM)
 Photochemical milling (PCM)
 Abrasive jet machining (AJM)

 In abrasive jet machining, abrasive

particles are made to impinge on work
material at high velocity.
 Jet of abrasive particles is carried by
carrier gas or air.
 The high velocity stream of abrasives
is generated by converting pressure
energy of carrier gas or air to its
kinetic energy and hence high velocity
jet.
 Nozzles direct abrasive jet in a
controlled manner onto work
material.
 The high velocity abrasive particles
remove the material by micro-cutting
action as well as brittle fracture of the
work material
Schematic of AJM set-up
 Working principle

 It consist of a compressor (to pressurize the gas), filter, mixing chamber, hopper,
vibrator, nozzle, pressure gauge and flow regulator.
 Dry air or gas is filtered and compressed by passing it through the filter and
compressor.
 A pressure gauge and a flow regulator are used to control the pressure and
regulate the flow rate of the compressed air.
 Compressed air is then passed into the mixing chamber. In the mixing chamber,
abrasive powder is fed. A vibrator is used to control the feed of the abrasive
powder. The abrasive powder and the compressed air are thoroughly mixed in the
chamber. The pressure of this mixture is regulated and sent to nozzle.
 The nozzle increases the velocity of the mixture at the expense of its pressure. A
fine abrasive jet is rendered by the nozzle.
 As a result of repeated impact material removed from work due to erosion. Again
new surface exposing and so on material removed by erosion.
Abrasive jet machining (AJM)
 Process criteria

 Material removal rate

 Geometry and surface finish of work piece
 Wear rate of the nozzle
 Process parameters
Abrasives
a) Material – Al2O3; SiC; glass beads.
b) Shape – irregular/regular
c) Size – 10 to 50 µm/25µm
d) Mass flow – 3-20 gm/min
Carrier Gas
a) Composition – Air, CO2, N2
c) Velocity - 150 to 300 m/s
d) Pressure - 2 to 8 kg/cm2
e) Flow rate – 28 L/min
Abrasive Jet
a) Velocity - 100 to 300 m/s
b) Stand off distance (SOD)– 0.5 to 15mm.
c) Impingement angle –60 to 90 deg.
Nozzle
a) Material –WC/Sapphire
b) Diameter – 0.2 to 0.8 mm
Effect of processing parameters
Abrasive jet machining (AJM)
 Advantages

 AJM process is a highly flexible process wherein the abrasive

media is carried by a flexible hose, which can reach out to some
difficult areas and internal regions.
 AJM process creates localized forces and generates lesser heat
than the conventional machining processes.
 There is no damage to the workpiece surface and also the
process does not have tool-workpiece contact, hence lesser
amount of heat is generated.
 No tool change is required.
 The power consumption in AJM process is low.
 The process is free from chatter, vibration and heat problems
because the tool never touches the workpiece.
 It can machine thin and intricate shapes.
 This process is quite suitable for machining brittle, heat
sensitive and fragile materials like, glass, ceramic, mica etc.
 Disadvantages

 The material removal rate is low

 The process is limited to brittle and hard materials
 The wear rate of nozzle is very high
 The process can cause environmental pollution. A
dust collection system must be provided to avoid air
pollution and health hazards.
 The abrasive powders can not be reused as its cutting
ability decreases.
 Applications

 Drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces, deburring

and polishing.
 Deburring of cross holes, slots, and threads in small precision
parts that require a burr-free finish, such as hydraulic valves,
aircraft fuel systems, and medical appliances
 Machining intricate shapes or holes in brittle, and thin or
difficult-to-machine materials
 Cutting and etching normally inaccessible areas and internal
surfaces.
 Cleaning and dressing of the grinding wheels used for glass.
 Cleaning the residues from diamond wheels, dressing wheels of
any shape and size.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
Abrasive jet machining (AJM)
 Process criteria

 Material removal rate

 Geometry and surface finish of work piece
 Wear rate of the nozzle
 Process parameters
Abrasives
a) Material – Al2O3; SiC; glass beads.
b) Shape – irregular/regular
c) Size – 10 to 50 µm/25µm
d) Mass flow – 3-20 gm/min
Carrier Gas
a) Composition – Air, CO2, N2
c) Velocity - 150 to 300 m/s
d) Pressure - 2 to 8 kg/cm2
e) Flow rate – 28 L/min
Abrasive Jet
a) Velocity - 100 to 300 m/s
b) Stand off distance (SOD)– 0.5 to 15mm.
c) Impingement angle –60 to 90 deg.
Nozzle
a) Material –WC/Sapphire
b) Diameter – 0.2 to 0.8 mm
Effect of processing parameters
Abrasive jet machining (AJM)
 Advantages

 AJM process is a highly flexible process wherein the abrasive

media is carried by a flexible hose, which can reach out to some
difficult areas and internal regions.
 AJM process creates localized forces and generates lesser heat
than the conventional machining processes.
 There is no damage to the workpiece surface and also the
process does not have tool-workpiece contact, hence lesser
amount of heat is generated.
 No tool change is required.
 The power consumption in AJM process is low.
 The process is free from chatter, vibration and heat problems
because the tool never touches the workpiece.
 It can machine thin and intricate shapes.
 This process is quite suitable for machining brittle, heat
sensitive and fragile materials like, glass, ceramic, mica etc.
 Disadvantages

 The material removal rate is low

 The process is limited to brittle and hard materials
 The wear rate of nozzle is very high
 The process can cause environmental pollution. A
dust collection system must be provided to avoid air
pollution and health hazards.
 The abrasive powders can not be reused as its cutting
ability decreases.
 Applications

 Drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces, deburring

and polishing.
 Deburring of cross holes, slots, and threads in small precision
parts that require a burr-free finish, such as hydraulic valves,
aircraft fuel systems, and medical appliances
 Machining intricate shapes or holes in brittle, and thin or
difficult-to-machine materials
 Cutting and etching normally inaccessible areas and internal
surfaces.
 Cleaning and dressing of the grinding wheels used for glass.
 Cleaning the residues from diamond wheels, dressing wheels of
any shape and size.
 Water Jet Machining (WJM)

 A waterjet consists of a pressurized jet of water exiting a small

orifice at extreme velocity.
 Jet of water erodes surface of work piece, thereby cutting work
piece.
 Used to cut soft materials such as foam, rubber, cloth, paper, food
products, etc.
Water Jet Machining
 Water Jet Machining

 Water from the reservoir is pumped to the intensifier using a hydraulic pump.
 The intensifier increases the pressure of the water to the required level.
Usually, the water is pressurized up to 400 MPa.
 Pressurized water is then sent to the accumulator. The accumulator temporarily
stores the pressurized water.
 Pressurized water then enters the nozzle by passing through the control valve
and flow regulator.
 Control valve controls the direction of water and limits the pressure of water
under permissible limits.
 Flow regulator regulates and controls the flow rate of water.
 Pressurized water finally enters the nozzle. Here, it expands with a tremendous
increase in its kinetic energy. High velocity water jet is produced by the nozzle.
 When this water jet strikes the workpiece, stresses are induced. These stresses
are used to remove material from the workpiece.
Factors affecting WJM performance
 Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

 AWJM makes use of the principles of both abrasive

jet machining and water jet machining.
 The AWJM process is a high-potential process
applicable to both metals as well as non-metals.
 In this process, a high-velocity water jet mixed with
fine abrasive particles hits the workpiece surface.
 The velocity of the abrasive mixed water jet is very
high, hence the kinetic energy with which the
abrasive particles and the water jet hit the workpiece
surface is very high and hence it leads to the erosion
of the work surface.
 AWJM

 Abrasive water jet cutting machines have four basic elements: a pumping system,
abrasive feed system, abrasive water jet nozzle and catcher.
 The pumping system produces a high-velocity water jet by pressurizing water up
to as high as 400 MPa using a high-power motor.
 To mix the abrasives into this high-velocity water jet, the abrasive feed system
supplies a controlled quantity of abrasives through a port.
 The abrasive water jet nozzle mixes abrasives and water (in mixing tube/mixing
chamber) and forms a high velocity water abrasive jet.
 Sapphire, tungsten carbide, or boron carbide can be used as the nozzle material.
 Another element of the system is a catcher. (Acts as a reservoir for collecting the
machine debris and also reduces the noise level).
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
Cutting Heads
 Advantages of WJM and AWJM

 Water is cheap, nontoxic, and can be easily disposed and recirculated.

 The process requires a limited volume of water.
 The tool (nozzle) does not wear and therefore does not need sharpening.
 Dust-free process
 It is capable of producing complex and intricate cuts in materials.
 No thermal degrading of the work material, as the process does not generate heat.
For this reason, WJM process is best suited for explosive environments.
 It is capable of cutting softer materials (WJM) like rubber, plastics or wood as
well as harder material (AWJM) like granite.
 It is environment friendly as it does not create any pollution or toxic products.
 The process provides clean and sharp cuts that are free from burrs.
 The WP is subjected to a limited mechanical stress.
 In WJM, cutting is performed without the need of using elaborate fixturing of the
WP.
 Disadvantages of WJM and AWJM

 Equipment is moderately expensive.

 It is used to cut softer materials. But AWJM can cut harder material of limited
thickness.
 Very thick material cannot be machined by this process. The jet may tend to
dissipate when the target material thickness is too high, thus results in rough
wave pattern on the surface.
 Noise and high pressure require safety considerations
 Process Characteristics

 The parameters that affect AWJM are water (flow

rate and pressure), abrasives (type, size, and flow
rate), water nozzle and abrasive jet nozzle design,
machining parameters (feed rate and stand-off
distance), and work material. Other machining
parameters include angle of cutting, traverse speed
(slotting), and the number of passes.
Effect of processing parameters
 Applications of WJM & AWJM

 Thus, WJM is typically used to cut so called “softer” and

“easy-to-machine” materials like thin sheets and foils, non-
ferrous metallic alloys, wood, textiles, honeycomb,
polymers, frozen meat, leather etc.
 But, the domain of “harder” and “difficult-to-machine”
materials like thick plates of steels, aluminium and other
commercial materials, metal matrix and ceramic matrix
composites, reinforced plastics, layered composites, etc.
are reserved for AWJM.
 Other than cutting (machining) high pressure water jet also
finds application in paint removal, cleaning, peening to
remove residual stress etc.
 AWJM can as well be used besides cutting for pocket
milling, drilling, etc.
Applications of WJM & AWJM
 Ultrasonic machining (USM)

 In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an

ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25 kHz) with an amplitude of around 15-
50 μm over the work piece.
 Generally, the tool is pressed downward with a feed force. Between
the tool and work piece, the machining zone is flooded with hard
abrasive particles generally in the form of a water based slurry.
 The impact of the hard abrasive grains fractures the hard and brittle
work surface, resulting in the removal of the work material in the
form of small wear particles which are carried away by the abrasive
slurry.
 The tool material, being tough and ductile, wears out at a much
slower rate.
USM Set-up
 Machine components

 Slurry delivery and return system.

 Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool
during machining.
 2 axis table with work piece holding device.
 The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration.
✓ Piezoelectric effect
✓ Magnetostrictive effect
 The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the
vibration to the required amplitude of 15-50 m and
accommodates the tool at its tip.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Ultrasonic machining (USM)

 In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an

ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25 kHz) with an amplitude of around 15-
50 μm over the workpiece.
 Generally, the tool is pressed downward with a feed force. Between
the tool and workpiece, the machining zone is flooded with hard
abrasive particles generally in the form of a water based slurry.
 The impact of the hard abrasive grains fractures the hard and brittle
work surface, resulting in the removal of the work material in the
form of small wear particles which are carried away by the abrasive
slurry.
 The tool material, being tough and ductile, wears out at a much
slower rate.
USM Set-up
 Machine components

 Slurry delivery and return system.

 Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool
during machining.
 2 axis table with work piece holding device.
 The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration.
✓ Piezoelectric effect
✓ Magnetostrictive effect
 The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the
vibration to the required amplitude of 15-50 m and
accommodates the tool at its tip.
 Process Parameters and their Effects
 Amplitude of vibration (ao) – 15 – 50 μm
 Frequency of vibration (f) – 19 – 25 kHz
 Feed force (F)
 Feed pressure (p)
 Abrasive size – 15 μm – 150 μm
 Abrasive material –
✓ SiC
✓ Al2O3
✓ B4C
✓ Diamond
 Flow strength of work material
 Flow strength of the tool material
 Contact area of the tool – A
 Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry – C
Effect of process parameters
Horn designs
USM Process
 Process Parameters and their Effects
 Amplitude of vibration (ao) – 15 – 50 μm
 Frequency of vibration (f) – 19 – 25 kHz
 Feed force (F)
 Feed pressure (p)
 Abrasive size – 15 μm – 150 μm
 Abrasive material –
✓ SiC
✓ Al2O3
✓ B4C
✓ Diamond
 Flow strength of work material
 Flow strength of the tool material
 Contact area of the tool – A
 Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry – C
Effect of process parameters
 Disadvantages

 Soft materials like lead and plastics are not suitable for
machining by the USM process, since they tend to absorb
the abrasive particles rather than to chip under their impact.
 The USM process consumes higher power and has lower
material-removal rates compared to traditional fabrication
processes.
 As the USM process continuous, the lateral wear of the
tool increases gradually and it tends to make the holes
tapered. The sharp corners of the tool get rounded off
thereby requiring tool replacement essential for producing
accurate blind holes.
 The areas of machining and higher depths are the
constraints in USM.
 Applications

 Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys,

semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.
 Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and
surface impressions.
 Used in machining of dies for wire drawing, punching and
blanking operations.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Electro Chemical Machining

 Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a method of removing

metal by an electrochemical process.
 When the voltage is applied across the two electrodes, the
material removal from the workpiece starts.
 The workpiece and tool is placed very close to each other without
touching. In ECM the material removal takes place at atomic
level so it produces a mirror finish surface.
 The system of the electrodes and the electrolyte is referred to as
the electrolytic cell.
 Materials for tool electrode as well as the electrolyte are chosen
in such a way that although anodic dissolution takes place but no
deposition takes place on cathode surface.
Equipment: ECM

• Power supply
• Electrolyte
filtration &
delivery system
• Tool feed system
• Working tank
 Elements of ECM

Important elements of ECM are:

1. Electrolyte
2. Tool (cathode)
3. Work-piece (anode)
4. D.C power supply
 Electrolyte

 Common electrolytes used are:

✓ Sodium chloride
✓ Sodium nitrate
✓ Sodium hydroxide
✓ Sodium fluoride
✓ Sodium chlorate
✓ Potassium chloride
✓ Sulphuric acid.
 These solution on reaction produce an insoluble compound
in the form of sludge.
 Electrolyte

The main functions of an electrolyte in ECM are:

 It carries the current between tool and work-piece.
 It removes the products of machining and other insoluble
products from the cutting region.
 It dissipates heat produced in the operation.
The essential characteristics of electrolyte includes:
 Good electrical conductivity.
 Non-toxicity and chemical stability.
 Non-corrosive property.
 Low viscosity and high specific heat.
 Tool (cathode)

 The most commonly used tool material are copper, brass, titanium,
copper tungsten and stainless steels when electrolyte is made of
salts of sodium and potassium.
 Titanium has been found to be the most suitable tool where the
electrolyte has the tendency to anodize the tool as in case of
sulphuric acid.
 The other tool materials are aluminium, graphite, bronze, platinum
and tungsten carbide.
 The accuracy of tool shape directly affects the workpiece accuracy.
 The general requirements of tool material in ECM are:
✓ It should be conductor of electricity.
✓ It should be rigid enough to take up the load due to fluid pressure.
✓ It should be easily machinable to make it in the desired shape.
 Work-piece (anode)

 Work-piece should be conductor of electricity. So it is

almost limited to metals only.
 Power Supply

 Type: direct current

 Voltage: 2 to 35 V
 Current: 50 to 40,000 A
 Current density: 20 A/cm2 to 300 A/cm2
 Process Parameters

Power Supply
Type Direct current
Voltage 2 to 35 V
Current 50 to 40,000 A

Electrolyte
Material NaCl and NaNO3
Temperature 20oC – 50oC
Flow rate 20 lpm per 100 A current
Pressure 0.5 to 20 bar
Dilution 100 g/l to 500 g/l
Working gap 0.1 mm to 2 mm
Feed rate 0.5 mm/min to 15 mm/min
Electrode material Copper, brass, bronze
Surface roughness, Ra 0.2 to 1.5 m
 Advantages

 Complicated profiles can be machined easily in a single operation irrespective

of the hardness and strength of the WP material. Because of the low
temperature developed, no thermal damage occurs to the workpiece structure.
 Hard conductive materials can be machined.
 Very accurate (tolerance of ±0.02 mm).
 Relatively fast.
 Can machine harder metals than the tool.
 Extremely thin materials can be easily worked without distortion.
 Tool wear is nearly absent.
 Better surface finish (0.2 micron).
 The surfaces produced by ECM are burr-free and free from stresses.
 Labor requirements are low.
 Disadvantages

 High energy consumption.

 Non conducting material cannot be machined.
 There are difficulties in safely removing and disposing of the
explosive hydrogen gas generated during machining.
 Corrosion and rust of ECM machine can be hazardous but
preventive measures can help in this regard.
 Applications

 Die sinking
 Profiling and contouring
 Trepanning
 Drilling
 Micro-machining
 ECM has been used in a wide variety of industrial
applications ranging from cavity sinking to
deburring.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Electro-discharge Machining (EDM)

 EDM is the thermal erosion process in which metal is removed by a

series of recurring electrical discharges between a cutting tool
acting as an electrode and a conductive workpiece, in the presence
of a dielectric fluid.
 The principle of EDM is also called electro discharge or spark
erosion or electro erosion, is based on erosion of metals by spark
discharges.
 In EDM, a potential difference is applied between the tool and
workpiece. Depending upon the applied potential difference (50 to
450 V) and the gap between the tool and workpiece, an electric field
would be established.
 EDM

 This discharge occurs in a voltage gap between the electrode

and workpiece. Heat from the discharge vaporizes minute
particles of workpiece material, which are then washed from
the gap by the continuously flushing dielectric fluid.
 Generally kerosene or deionised water is used as the
dielectric medium.
 Since the spark occurs at the spot where the tool & the w/p
surfaces are the closest and since the spot changes after each
spark (because of material removal after each spark), the
spark travells all over the surface.
 This results in a uniform material removal all over the
surface, and finally the work face confirms to the tool
surface.
EDM Set-up
EDM process
 EDM process

 EDM can be divided into two categories, namely die-

sinking EDM and wire-cut EDM (WEDM).
 In the die-sinking EDM the shape of the die is
machined into the workpiece by feeding the die into
workpiece.
 On the other hand, WEDM uses a thin wire as tool
electrode.
Wire EDM
 Functions of Dielectric Fluids

 Remain electrically non-conductive until the required breakdown

voltage is attained i.e., it should posses high dielectric strength.

 When once the breakdown voltage is reached it should breakdown

electrically instantly.

 Deionize the spark gap, i.e., quench the spark rapidly after the
discharge has occurred.

 Carry away the metal particles removed from the arc gap.

 Act as a good cooling medium.

 Desirable Properties of Dielectric Fluid

In order to act as a good dielectric medium and meet the various

functions the fluid is required to posses the following properties:
 High electric strength for proper insulation
 High flash and fire point to prevent fire hazards
 Low viscosity and good wetting properties
 Chemically neutral to prevent corrosion
 Non-toxic in nature
 Low decomposition rate for long life
 Low cost
 Good quenching properties
Generally, kerosene and deionised water is used as dielectric fluid in EDM
Different Methods of Flushing in EDM Process
 Electrode

 An electrically conductive material can serve as an

electrode tool in EDM.
 In EDM process, the shape of the tool is transferred
in the cavity cut during machining. Thus, the shape
and accuracy of the machined surface is depends
primarily on the shape and accuracy of the tool
electrode.
 Electrode Material

 High melting temperature

 High thermal conductivity
 High degree of electrical efficiency
 Resistance to wear
 Ease of fabrication
 Less cost/cheaper
 Graphite, copper, brass, copper tungsten, silver
tungsten are the most commonly used tool materials.
Parameters affecting EDM performance
Effect of pulse current and pulse on time on
electro-discharge machining crater size.
Effect of Process Parameters
 Advantages

 Any material that is electrically conductive can be cut using

the EDM process.
 The use of EDM is not affected by hardness of the work
material.
 The EDM process is burr-free.
 EDM is a non-contact process that generates no cutting
forces, permitting the production of small and fragile pieces.
 Complex internal shapes can be machined.
 High accuracy and good surface finish are possible.
 Intricate-shaped cavities can be cut with modest tooling costs.
 Disadvantages

 This process can only be employed in electrically conductive materials.

 Lead time is needed to produce specific, consumable electrode shapes.
 Material removal rate is low and the process overall is slow compared
to conventional machining processes.
 Unwanted erosion and over cutting of material can occur.
 Rough surface finish when at high rates of material removal.
 Slow process, particularly if good surface finish and high accuracy are
required.
 Dielectric vapour can be dangerous.
 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) near cutting edges.
 Die sinking tool life is limited.

 Applications

 The EDM process has the ability to machine hard, difficult-to-machine materials.
 Applications of EDM include both tool fabrication and parts production.
 The tooling for many of the mechanical processes are often made by EDM,
including molds for plastic injection molding, extrusion dies, wire drawing dies,
forging dies, and sheet metal stamping dies.
 The process is widely used for machining of exotic materials that are used in
aerospace and automatic industries.
 EDM being a non-contact type of machining process, it is very well suited for
making fragile parts which cannot take the stress of machining. The parts that fit
such profiles include washing machine agitators; electronic components, printer
parts and difficult to machine features such as the honeycomb shapes.
 Deep cavities, slots and ribs can be easily made by EDM as the cutting forces are
less and longer electrodes can be used to make such as collets, jet engine blade
slots, mould cooling slots etc.
 Micro-EDM process can successfully produce micro-pins, micro-nozzles and
micro-cavities.
Applications
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
2

• EBM is a high energy beam machining process.

• Electrical energy is used to generate high energy electrons.
• The mechanism of material removal is primarily by melting and rapid
vaporization due to intense heating by the electron.
• Electron beam is generated in an electron beam gun.
• In EBM, a stream of electrons is started by a voltage differential at the
cathode.
• The concave shape of the cathode grid concentrates the stream
through the anode.
• The anode applies a potential field that accelerates the electrons.
 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
3

• The electron stream is then forced through a valve in the

electron beam machine and then through an
electromagnetic lens on the work surface.

• The lens is capable of reducing the area of the beam to a

diameter as
small as 0.025 mm.

• On impinging the surface, the kinetic energy of the

electrons is converted into thermal energy of extremely
high density that melts or vaporizes the material in a very
localized area.
 Electron Beam Machining

• Applications include drilling of extremely small diameter holes

down to 0.05 mm (0.002 in) diameter, drilling of holes with very
high depth to diameter ratios more than 100:1, and cutting of slots
that are only about 0.001 in (0.025 mm) wide. These cuts can be
made to very close tolerances with no cutting forces or tool wear.

• The process is ideal for micromachining and is generally limited

to cutting
operations in thin parts in the range 0.25 to 6.3 mm (0.010 to
0.250 in) thick.

• EBM must be carried out in a vacuum chamber to eliminate

collision of the electrons with gas molecules.
Electron Beam Machining
 Advantages

• Machines small holes at a rate of 4000 hole/s.

• Imparts no difficulty encountered with acute angles.

• Provides no limitation to workpiece hardness, ductility, and surface

reflectivity.

• Avoids mechanical distortion to the workpiece because there is no

contact.

• Achieves high accuracy and repeatability of ±0.1 mm for position of

holes and ±5% for the hole diameter.

• Produces the best surface finish compared to other processes.

 Disadvantages

• High capital equipment cost

• Long production time due to the time needed to generate vacuum

• The presence of a thin recast layer

 Applications
8

 Drilling
 Perforation of thin sheets
 Slotting
 Pattern generation and integrated circuit fabrication
Applications
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Laser Beam Machining

• LASER stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

• A laser is an optical transducer that converts electrical energy into a highly

coherent light beam.

• A laser light beam has several properties that distinguish it from other forms of
light.

• It is monochromatic (theoretically, the light has single wave length) and highly
collimated (the light rays in the beam are almost perfectly parallel).

• These properties allow the light generated by a laser to be focused, using

conventional optical lenses, onto a very small spot with resulting high power
densities.

• Depending on the amount of energy contained in the light beam, and its degree
of concentration at the spot, the various laser processes can be done.
 Laser Beam Machining

• Laser beam machining (LBM) uses the light energy from a laser to remove
material by vaporization and ablation.

• The types of lasers used in LBM are carbon dioxide gas lasers and solid-state
lasers (of which there are several types).

• In laser beam machining, the energy of the coherent light beam is concentrated
not only optically but also in terms of time. The light beam is pulsed so that the
released energy results in an impulse against the work surface that produces a
combination of evaporation and melting, with the melted material evacuating
the surface at high velocity.
 Laser Beam Machining
• LBM is used to perform various types of drilling, slitting, slotting, scribing, and
marking operations. Drilling small diameter holes is possible—down to 0.025 mm
(0.001 in).
• For larger holes, above 0.50-mm (0.020-in) diameter, the laser beam is controlled to
cut the outline of the hole. LBM is not considered a mass production process, and it is
generally used on thin stock.
• The range of work materials that can be machined by LBM is virtually unlimited.
• Ideal properties of a material for LBM include high light energy absorption, poor
reflectivity, good thermal conductivity, low specific heat, low heat of fusion, and low
heat of vaporization. Of course, no material has this ideal combination of properties.
• The actual list of work materials processed by LBM includes metals with high
hardness and strength, soft metals, ceramics, glass and glass epoxy, plastics, rubber,
cloth, and wood.
Laser Beam Machining
Parameters affecting the quality of laser-
machined parts

• Working material (Surface reflectivity, thickness, type)

• Environment
• Focusing lens
• Focal length
• Laser properties (Laser intensity, laser frequency, laser pulse,
type, composition, material, wavelength)
• Interaction time
 Advantages

• Tool wear and breakage are not encountered.

• Holes are located accurately by using optical laser system for alignment.

• Very small holes of large aspect ratio are produced.

• A wide variety of hard and difficult-to-machine materials are tackled.

• Machining is extremely rapid and the setup times are economical.

• Holes can be drilled at difficult entrance angles.

• Due to its flexibility, the process can be automated easily.

• The operating cost is low.

 Disadvantages

• The equipment cost is high.

• A blind hole of precise depth is difficult to achieve with a laser beam.

• The thickness of the material that can be laser drilled is restricted to 50 mm.

• Adherent material, which is found normally at the exit holes, needs to be

removed.

• Localized thermal stresses, heat affected zones, recast layer and thermal
distribution in thin parts.

• Hole wall geometry can be irregular.

 Applications
9

 Drilling
 Cutting and grooving
 Dressing of grinding wheels
 Trimming of electronic components
 Marking computer keyboards
 Multiple holes in very thin and thick materials
 Non-standard shaped holes and slots
 Prototype parts
 Trimming, scribing and engraving of hard materials
 Small diameter lubrication holes
Applications
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
Acceptance tests and standardization
of machine tools
 Acceptance Testing

 Acceptance Testing of a Machine Tool can be defined

as checking alignment of a component relative to the
other component.
 In order to ascertain the condition or performance of
a machine tool, inspection charts are available which
enables the manufacturer or inspector to check the
various alignments against prescribed limits.
Acceptance testing includes:
1.Geometrical tests or alignment tests,
2.Performance tests
 Acceptance tests and standardization of
machine tools

 In order to ascertain the condition or performance of

a machine tool, inspection charts are available which
enables the manufacturer or inspector to check the
various alignments against prescribed limits.
 Alignment tests check the relationship between
various elements such as forms and positions of
machine tool parts and displacement relative to one
another, when the machine tool is unloaded.
 Need of Acceptance tests and
standardization of machine tools

 The continuously increasing demands for highly

accurately machined components has led to
considerable research in machine tool design, and
particularly towards means by which the geometric
accuracy of machines may be improved and
maintained.
 It is primarily concerned with the geometric tests of
the alignment accuracy of machine tools under static
conditions.
 Determination of the alignment accuracy of machine
tools under dynamic loading conditions.
Geometrical Tests or Alignment Tests

 Straightness
 Flatness
 Parallelism, equidistance and coincidence
 Rectilinear movements or Squareness of straight
lines and planes.
 Rotation
 Movement of all working components
 Performance tests

According to approved general specifications,

acceptance tests of machine tools should include:
 Idle run tests, operation checks of mechanisms
 Load tests and productive output tests
 Checks of the geometrical accuracy, surface
roughness, and accuracy of the work-pieces being
machined
 Rigidity tests of machine tools
 Tests for vibration proof properties of machine tools
in cutting
 Equipment for Geometrical Tests

 Dial Gauges
 Test Mandrels
 Straight edges and Squares
 Spirit Levels
 Autocollimator
 Optical Alignment telescope
 Waviness-Meter
 Aesthetics and ergonomics of machine tools

 Ergonomics (Human Factors Engineering) is concerned with the

‘fit’ between people and their technological tools and
environments.
 It takes account of the user's capabilities and limitations in
seeking to ensure that tasks, equipment, information and the
environment suit each user.
 To assess the fit between a person and the used technology,
ergonomists consider the job (activity) being done and the
demands on the user; the equipment used (its size, shape, and
how appropriate it is for the task), and the information used
(how it is presented, accessed, and changed).
 Ergonomics will ensure health, safety, convenience and comfort
of the worker/user.
 Aesthetics and ergonomics of machine tools

 Aesthetics is concerned with how things look.

 This can be influenced by an objects appearance and its
style.
 The factors like shape, form, size, proportion, colour,
texture, finish are considered under aesthetics of any
product/machine tool.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Automation

• Automation can be defined as a technology concerned with the

application of mechanical, electronic, and computer-based systems t0
operate and control production.

• Automation means a system in which many or all of the processes in

the production, movement, and inspection of parts and material are
performed under control by the self-operating devices called
controllers.

• This implies that the essential elements of automation comprise of

mechanization, sensing, feedback, and control devices.
 Reason for Automation

Increased productivity. Automation of manufacturing operations help in increasing the productivity of

labor. This means greater output per hour of labor input. Higher production rates are achieved with
automation than with the corresponding manual operations.
High cost of labor. The high cost of labor is forcing business leaders to substitute machines for human
labor. Because machines can produce at higher rates of output, the use of automation results in a lower
cost per unit of product.
Labor shortages. In many advanced nations there has been a general shortage of labor. Labor shortages
also stimulate the development of automation as a substitute for labor.
Safety. By automating the operation and transferring the operator work is made safer. It has provided an
impetus for automation.
High cost of raw materials. The high cost of raw materials in manufacturing results in the need for
greater efficiency in using these materials. The reduction of scrap is one of the benefits of automation.
Improved product quality. Automated operations not only produce parts at faster rates than do their
manual counterparts, but they produce parts with greater consistency and conformity to quality
specifications.
Reduced manufacturing lead time. Automation allows the manufacturer to reduce the time between
customer order and product delivery. This gives the manufacturer a competitive advantage in promoting
good customer service
High cost of not automating. The benefits of automation often show up in intangible and unexpected
ways, such as improved quality, higher sales, better labor relations, and better company image.
Companies that do not automate are likely to find themselves at a competitive disadvantage with their
customers, their employees, and the general public.
 Classification of Automation

• Fixed automation

• Programmable automation

• Flexible automation
 Fixed Automation

➢ Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or

assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment configuration.
➢ Each of the operations in the sequence is usually simple, involving perhaps a
plain linear or rotational motion or an uncomplicated combination of the two.
➢ It is the integration and coordination of many such operations into one piece
of equipment that makes the system complex.
➢ Typical features of fixed automation are:
• High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment
• High production rates
• Relatively inflexible in accommodating product variety
 Programmable Automation

➢ In programmable automation the production equipment is designed with the

capability to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different
product configuration.
➢ The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions
coded so that they can be read and interpreted by the system.
➢ New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new
products.
➢ Some of the features that characterize programmable automation include:
• High investment in general purpose equipment
• Lower production rates than fixed automation
• Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product configuration
• Most suitable for batch production.
 Flexible Automation

➢ Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation.

➢ A flexible automated system is capable of producing a variety of parts (or
products) with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one part style to the
next.
➢ There is no lost production time while reprogramming the system and altering
the physical setup (tooting, fixtures, machine settings).
➢ Consequently, the system can produce various combinations and schedules of
parts or products instead of requiring that they be made in batches.
➢ What makes flexible automation possible is that the differences between parts
processed by the system arc not significant.
➢ It is a case of soft variety. So that the amount of changeover required between
styles is minimal.
➢ The features of flexible automation can be summarized as follows:
• High investment for a custom-engineered system
• Continuous production of variable mixtures of products
• Medium production rate
• Flexibility to deal with product design variations
Types of Automation
 Automated Manufacturing Systems

• Automated manufacturing systems operate in the factory on the physical

product.
• They perform operations such as processing, assembly, inspection, or material
handling, in some cases accomplishing more than one of these operations in the
same system.
• They are called automated because they perform their operations with a
reduced level of human participation compared with the corresponding manual
process.
• They help to increase productivity and the quality of the goods produced.
• In ideal, no human workers are needed except to perform auxiliary functions
such as tool changing, loading and unloading parts, and repair and maintenance
activities.
• Modern automated systems are integrated systems, operating under computer
control.
• In some highly automated systems, there is virtually no human participation.
 Automated Manufacturing Systems: Examples

• Automated machine tools that process parts

• Transfer lines that perform a series of machining operations
• Automated assembly systems
• Manufacturing systems that use industrial robots to perform processing or
assernbly operations
• Automatic material handling and storage systems to integrate manufacturing
operations
• Automatic inspection systems for quality control
 Types of Production

➢ Job Shop Production

➢ Batch Production

➢ Mass Production
 Job Shop Production

• Also called Low-Quantity Production.

•
• In the low-quantity range (1–100 units/year), the term job shop is often used
to describe the type of production facility.

• A job shop makes low quantities of specialized and customized products.

• The products are typically complex, such as space capsules, prototype aircraft,
and special machinery.

• The equipment in a job shop is general purpose, and the labor force is highly
skilled.

• A job shop must be designed for maximum flexibility to deal with the wide
product variations encountered.
 Job Shop Production

• Fixed position layout is adopted.

• If the product is large and heavy, and therefore difficult to move, it typically
remains in a single location during its fabrication or assembly.

• Workers and processing equipment are brought to the product, rather than
moving the product to the equipment.

• The individual components of these large products are often made in factories
in which the equipment is arranged according the process layout.
 Batch Production

• In the medium-quantity range (100–10,000 units annually), two different

types of facility are distinguished, depending on product variety.

• When product variety is medium, the usual approach is batch production, in

which a batch of one product is made, after which the manufacturing
equipment is changed over to produce a batch of the next product, and so on.

• The changeover between production runs takes time—time to change tooling

and set up the machinery.

• This setup time is lost production time, and this is a disadvantage of batch
manufacturing.

• The type of layout is used is called cellular layout.

 Mass Production

• The high-quantity range (10,000 to millions of units per year) is referred to as

mass production.
• The situation is characterized by a high demand rate for the product, and the
manufacturing system is dedicated to the production of that single item.
• Two categories of mass production can be distinguished: quantity production
and flow line production.
• Quantity production involves the mass production of single parts on single
pieces of equipment. It typically involves standard machines (e.g., stamping
presses) equipped with special tooling (e.g., dies and material handling devices),
in effect dedicating the equipment to the production of one part type. Typical
layouts used in quantity production are the process layout and cellular layout.
• Flow line production involves multiple pieces of equipment or workstations
arranged in sequence, and the work units are physically moved through the
sequence to complete the product. The workstations and equipment are
designed specifically for the product to maximize efficiency. The layout is called
a product layout, and the workstations are arranged into one long line.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Classification of Automation

• Fixed automation

• Programmable automation

• Flexible automation
 Fixed Automation

➢ Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or

assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment configuration.
➢ Each of the operations in the sequence is usually simple, involving perhaps a
plain linear or rotational motion or an uncomplicated combination of the two.
➢ It is the integration and coordination of many such operations into one piece
of equipment that makes the system complex.
➢ Typical features of fixed automation are:
• High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment
• High production rates
• Relatively inflexible in accommodating product variety
 Programmable Automation

➢ In programmable automation the production equipment is designed with the

capability to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different
product configuration.
➢ The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions
coded so that they can be read and interpreted by the system.
➢ New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new
products.
➢ Some of the features that characterize programmable automation include:
• High investment in general purpose equipment
• Lower production rates than fixed automation
• Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product configuration
• Most suitable for batch production.
 Flexible Automation

➢ Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation.

➢ A flexible automated system is capable of producing a variety of parts (or
products) with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one part style to the
next.
➢ There is no lost production time while reprogramming the system and altering
the physical setup (tooting, fixtures, machine settings).
➢ Consequently, the system can produce various combinations and schedules of
parts or products instead of requiring that they be made in batches.
➢ What makes flexible automation possible is that the differences between parts
processed by the system arc not significant.
➢ It is a case of soft variety. So that the amount of changeover required between
styles is minimal.
➢ The features of flexible automation can be summarized as follows:
• High investment for a custom-engineered system
• Continuous production of variable mixtures of products
• Medium production rate
• Flexibility to deal with product design variations
Types of Automation
 Automated Manufacturing Systems

• Automated manufacturing systems operate in the factory on the physical

product.
• They perform operations such as processing, assembly, inspection, or material
handling, in some cases accomplishing more than one of these operations in the
same system.
• They are called automated because they perform their operations with a
reduced level of human participation compared with the corresponding manual
process.
• They help to increase productivity and the quality of the goods produced.
• In ideal, no human workers are needed except to perform auxiliary functions
such as tool changing, loading and unloading parts, and repair and maintenance
activities.
• Modern automated systems are integrated systems, operating under computer
control.
• In some highly automated systems, there is virtually no human participation.
 Automated Manufacturing Systems: Examples

• Automated machine tools that process parts

• Transfer lines that perform a series of machining operations
• Automated assembly systems
• Manufacturing systems that use industrial robots to perform processing or
assernbly operations
• Automatic material handling and storage systems to integrate manufacturing
operations
• Automatic inspection systems for quality control
 Types of Production

➢ Job Shop Production

➢ Batch Production

➢ Mass Production
 Job Shop Production

• Also called Low-Quantity Production.

•
• In the low-quantity range (1–100 units/year), the term job shop is often used
to describe the type of production facility.

• A job shop makes low quantities of specialized and customized products.

• The products are typically complex, such as space capsules, prototype aircraft,
and special machinery.

• The equipment in a job shop is general purpose, and the labor force is highly
skilled.

• A job shop must be designed for maximum flexibility to deal with the wide
product variations encountered.
 Job Shop Production

• Fixed position layout is adopted.

• If the product is large and heavy, and therefore difficult to move, it typically
remains in a single location during its fabrication or assembly.

• Workers and processing equipment are brought to the product, rather than
moving the product to the equipment.

• The individual components of these large products are often made in factories
in which the equipment is arranged according the process layout.
 Batch Production

• In the medium-quantity range (100–10,000 units annually), two different

types of facility are distinguished, depending on product variety.

• When product variety is medium, the usual approach is batch production, in

which a batch of one product is made, after which the manufacturing
equipment is changed over to produce a batch of the next product, and so on.

• The changeover between production runs takes time—time to change tooling

and set up the machinery.

• This setup time is lost production time, and this is a disadvantage of batch
manufacturing.

• The type of layout is used is called cellular layout.

 Mass Production

• The high-quantity range (10,000 to millions of units per year) is referred to as

mass production.
• The situation is characterized by a high demand rate for the product, and the
manufacturing system is dedicated to the production of that single item.
• Two categories of mass production can be distinguished: quantity production
and flow line production.
• Quantity production involves the mass production of single parts on single
pieces of equipment. It typically involves standard machines (e.g., stamping
presses) equipped with special tooling (e.g., dies and material handling devices),
in effect dedicating the equipment to the production of one part type. Typical
layouts used in quantity production are the process layout and cellular layout.
• Flow line production involves multiple pieces of equipment or workstations
arranged in sequence, and the work units are physically moved through the
sequence to complete the product. The workstations and equipment are
designed specifically for the product to maximize efficiency. The layout is called
a product layout, and the workstations are arranged into one long line.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Types of Layout

• Product layout

• Process Layout

• Fixed Position Layout

 Product Layout

• In this type of layout the machines and equipments are arranged in one line
depending upon the sequence of operations required for the product.

• It is also called as line layout.

• The material moves to another machine sequentially without any deviation i.e.
the output of one machine becomes input of the next machine. It requires a
very little material handling.

• It is used for mass production of standardized products.

Product layout
 Process Layout

• In this type of layout the machines of a similar type are arranged together at
one place.

• This type of layout is used for batch production.

• It is preferred when the product is not standardized and the quantity

produced is very small.
Process layout
 Fixed Position layout

• Fixed position layout involves the movement of manpower and machines to

the product which remains stationary.

• The movement of men and machines is advisable as the cost of moving them
would be lesser.

• This type of layout is preferred where the size of the job is bulky and heavy.
Fixed Position layout
Fixed Position layout
 PQ Relationships

Q
 Cellular Manufacturing System

➢ Cellular manufacturing refers to the use of work cells that specialize in the
production of families of parts or products made in medium quantities.

➢ Parts (and products) in this quantity range are traditionally made in

batches, and batch production requires downtime for setup changeovers
and has high inventory carrying costs.

➢ Cellular manufacturing is based on an approach called group technology

(GT), which minimizes the disadvantages of batch production by
recognizing that although the parts are different, they also possess
similarities.
 Typical objectives of cellular manufacturing

• To shorten manufacturing lead times

• To reduce WIP
• To improve quality
• To simplify production scheduling
• To reduce setup times
 Group Technology

➢ Group Technology is a manufacturing philosophy in

which similar parts are identified and grouped together to
take advantage of their similarities in design and
production.

➢ Similarities among parts permit them to be classified into

part families.
• In each part family, processing steps are similar.
• The improvement is typically achieved by organizing
the production facilities into manufacturing cells that
specialize in production of certain part families.
 Group Technology

➢ Parts in the medium production quantity range are usually made in

batches.
➢ Disadvantages of batch production:
• Downtime for changeovers
• High inventory carrying costs
➢ GT minimizes these disadvantages by recognizing that although the
parts are different, there are groups of parts that possess similarities.
 Group Technology

➢ GT exploits the part similarities by utilizing similar processes and tooling to

produce them.
➢ Machines are grouped into cells, each cell specializing in the production of a
part family called cellular manufacturing.
➢ Cellular manufacturing can be implemented by manual or automated
methods. When automated, the term flexible manufacturing system is often
applied
 PART FAMILIES

➢ A part family is a group of parts that possess

similarities in geometric shape and size, or in the
processing steps used in their manufacture.

➢ Part families are a central feature of group technology.

There are always differences among parts in a family. But
the similarities are close enough that the parts can be
grouped into the same family.
 PART FAMILIES

Two parts that are identical in shape and size but quite different in
manufacturing: (a) 1,000,000 units/yr, tolerance = ±0.010 inch, 1015 CR steel;
(b) 100/yr, tolerance = ±0.001 inch, 18-8 stainless steel

Based on part design

 PART FAMILIES

• Ten parts are different

in size, shape, and
material, but quite
similar in terms of
manufacturing
• All parts are machined
by turning; some parts
require drilling and/or
milling

Based on part manufacturing attributes

Traditional Process Layout
Cellular Layout Based on GT
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
PART FAMILIES
Process layout vs. Group/cellular layout
 Benefits of Group Technology
4

Engineering design
• Reduction in new parts design
• Reduction in the number of drawings
through standardization
• Reduction of number of similar parts,
easy retrieval of similar functional
parts, and identification of substitute
parts
 Benefits of Group Technology
5

Layout planning
 Reduction in production floor space
required
 Reduced material-handling effort
 Benefits of Group Technology
6

Specification of equipment, tools, jigs, and

fixtures
 Standardization of equipment
 Implementation of cellular manufacturing
systems
 Significant reduction in up-front costs
incurred in the release of new parts for
manufacture
 Benefits of Group Technology
7

Manufacturing: process planning

 Reduction in setup time and production
time
 Alternative routing leading to improved part
routing
 Reduction in number of machining
operations and numerical control (NC)
programming time
 Benefits of Group Technology
8

Manufacturing: production control

 Reduced work-in-process inventory
 Easy identification of bottlenecks
 Improved material flow and reduced
warehousing costs
 Faster response to schedule changes
 Improved usage of jigs, fixtures, pallets,
tools, material handling, and manufacturing
equipment
 Benefits of Group Technology
9

Manufacturing: quality control

 Reduction in number of defects leading to reduced
inspection effort
 Reduced scrap generation
 Better output quality
 Increased accountability of operators and
supervisors responsible for quality production,
making it easier to implement total quality control
concepts.
 Benefits of Group Technology
10

Purchasing
 Coding of purchased part leading to standardized
rules for purchasing
 Economies in purchasing possible because of
accurate knowledge of raw material requirements
 Reduced number of part and raw materials
 Simplified vendor evaluation procedures leading
to just-in-time purchasing
 Benefits of Group Technology
11

Customer service
 Accurate and faster cost estimates
 Efficient spare parts management, leading to
better customer service
 Lower lead times
 Problems in Implementing GT

➢Identifying the part families

➢ Reviewing all of the parts made in the plant
and grouping them into part families is a
substantial task
➢Rearranging production machines into GT cells
➢ It is time-consuming and costly to physically
rearrange the machines into cells, and the
machines are not producing during the
changeover
 Ways to Identify Part Families

➢ Visual inspection
➢ Parts classification and coding
➢ Production flow analysis
 Visual inspection

➢ This method is the least sophisticated and least

expensive method.
➢ It involves the classification of parts into families
by looking at either the physical parts or their
photographs and arranging them into groups
having similar features.
➢ This method is generally considered to be the least
accurate of the three.
➢ This method is fast and simple and is useful when
the part mix is not complex.
Visual inspection
Visual inspection
 Parts Classification and Coding

➢ Most time consuming of the three methods

➢ In parts classification and coding, similarities among parts
are identified and these similarities are related in a coding
system.
➢ Must be customized for a given company or industry
 Reasons for using a coding scheme

➢ Design retrieval: A designer faced with the task of developing a

new part can use a design retrieval system to determine if a
similar part already exists. Simply changing an existing part
would take much less time than designing a whole new part from
scratch.

➢ Automated process planning: The part code for a new part can
be used to search for process plans for existing parts with
identical or similar codes.

➢ Machine cell design: The part codes can be used to design

machine cells capable of producing all members of a particular
part family
 Parts Classification and Coding

➢ Systems based on design attributes: Useful for

design retrieval and to promote design standardization

➢ Systems based on manufacturing attributes: Used

for computer aided process planning, tool design and
other production related functions.

➢ Systems based on both design and manufacturing

attributes: To combine the functions and advantages
of other two systems into a single classification
scheme.
 Part design attributes

✓ Basic external shape

✓ Basic internal shape
✓ Rotational or rectangular shape
✓ Length–to–diameter ratio (rotational parts)
✓ Aspect ratio (rectangular parts)
✓ Material type
✓ Part function
✓ Major dimensions
✓ Minor dimensions
✓ Tolerances
✓ Surface finish
 Part manufacturing attributes

✓ Major processes
✓ Minor operations
✓ Operation sequence
✓ Machine tool
✓ Production cycle time
✓ Batch size
✓ Annual production
✓ Fixtures required
✓ Cutting tools used in manufacture
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Parts Classification and Coding

➢ A number of classification and coding systems are available

and there are a number of commercially available coding
packages. However, none of the systems has been
universally adopted. One of the reasons for this is that a
classification and coding system should be customized for a
given company or industry. A system that is best for one
company may not be best for another company.
 Coding methods

➢ These are employed in classifying parts into part families.

✓ Coding refers to the process of assigning symbols to the parts.
✓ The symbols represent design attributes of parts or
manufacturing features of part families.
✓ The symbols all numeric, all alphabetic or a combination of both
types.
➢ The variations in codes resulting from the way the symbols are
assigned can be grouped into three distinct type of codes:
✓ Monocode or hierarchical code
✓ Polycode or chain type code
✓ Hybrid or mixed code
 Hierarchical structure/Monocode

The structure of Monocode is like a tree in which each symbol

amplifies the information provided in the previous digit i.e. in
which the interpretation of each successive symbol depends on
the value of the preceding symbols.
Hierarchical structure/Monocode
 Chain-type structure/Polycode
Chain-type structure, also known as a polycode, in which the
interpretation of each symbol in the sequence is always the same, it does
not depend on the value of the preceding symbols.
 Hybrid structure

Hybrid structure, a combination of hierarchical and

chain-type structures.
Successfully implemented coding systems

➢OPITZ System
➢The CODE system
➢ The KK-3 system
➢The MICLASS system
➢DCLASS system
➢COFORM (coding for machining)
 OPITZ Classification and Coding System

➢ It is a mixed (hybrid) coding system

➢ Developed by Opitz, Technical University of Aachen
➢ It is widely used in industry
➢ It provides a basic framework for understanding the classification
and coding process
➢ It can be applied to machined parts, non-machined parts (both
formed and cast) and purchased parts
➢ It considers both design and manufacturing information
 OPITZ Classification and Coding System

Form Code 1 2 3 4 5 for design attributes

Supplementary Code 6 7 8 9 for manufacturing
attributes
Secondary Code A B C D for production operation
type & sequence
 OPITZ Classification and Coding System

Primary Digits:
Digit 1: shows whether the part is rotational and also the basic dimension ratio
(length/diameter if rotational, length/width if no rotational).
Digit 2: Main external shape; partly dependent on digit 1.
Digit 3: Main internal shape.
Digit 4: Machining requirements for plane surfaces.
Digit 5: Auxiliary features like additional holes, etc.
Secondary Digits:
Digit 6: Dimensions
Digit 7: Work Material
Digit 8: Original Shape of Raw Material
Digit 9: Accuracy Requirement
OPITZ Classification and Coding System
OPITZ Classification and Coding System
OPITZ Classification and Coding System
 MICLASS system

➢ The MICLASS system was developed by Organization for Applied

Scientific Research in Netherlands and maintained in the United
States by the organization for industrial research.
➢ It is a chain-structured code of 12 digits. It includes both design
and manufacturing information.
➢ Information such as the main shape, shape elements, position of
shape elements, main dimensions, ratio of dimensions, auxiliary
dimension, tolerance, and the machinability of the material is
included.
➢ An additional 18 digits of code is also available for user-specified
information (i.e. part function, lot size, major machining
operation, etc.). These supplementary digits provide flexibility
expansion.
 MICLASS system

The various functions MICLASS was developed for

✓ Standardize engineering drawings
✓ Retrieve drawings based on classification
✓ Standardize process routing
✓ Automate process planning
MICLASS system
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Production Flow Analysis (PFA)

Production flow analysis (PFA) is a method for

identifying part families and associated machine
groupings that uses the information contained on
process plans rather than on part drawings.
 Production Flow Analysis (PFA)

The procedure of Production flow analysis (PFA) consists of the

following steps:
1. Data Collection: The minimum data needed in the analysis are
the part number and operation sequence, which is obtained from
process plans.
2. Sortation of process plans: A sortation procedure is used to
group parts with identical process plans.
3. PFA Chart: The processes used for each group are then displayed
in a PFA chart as shown below.
4. Clustering Analysis: From the pattern of data in the PFA chart,
related groupings are identified and rearranged into a new pattern
that brings together groups with similar machine sequences.
 Rank Order Clustering Algorithm

1. Total number of components and components sequences

2. Form the machine component incident matrix using the
component sequences.
3. Assign binary weight and calculate a decimal weight for each
row.
4. Rank the rows in order of decreasing decimal weight values.
5. Repeat step 2 and 3 for each column.
6. Continue preceding steps until there is no change in the position
of each element in the row and the column.
 Example:1

Consider a problem of 5 machines and 6 parts. Try to group them by using

Rank Order Clustering Algorithm/King’s Algorithm.
Example:1
Example:1
Example:1
Example:1
Example:2
Example:2
Example:2
Example:2
Example: 3
Example:3
Example:3
Example:3
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Flexible Manufacturing System

➢ A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a highly automated GT machine

cell, consisting of a group of processing workstations (usually CNC machine
tools), interconnected by an automated material handling and storage system,
and controlled by a distributed computer system.
➢ The reason the FMS is called flexible is that it is capable of processing a variety
of different part styles simultaneously at the various workstations, and the mix
of part styles and quantities of production can be adjusted in response to
changing demand patterns.
➢ The FMS is most suited for the mid-variety, mid-volume production range.
 Flexible Manufacturing System

1. Part variety test: Can the system process different part styles in a nonbatch
mode?
2. Schedule change test: Can the system readily accept changes in production
schedule, and changes in either part mix or production quantities?
3. Error recovery test: Can the system recover gracefully from equipment
malfunctions and breakdowns, so that production is not completely disrupted?
4. New part test: Can new part designs be introduced into the existing product
mix with relative ease?
 Types of FMS

Depending upon kinds of operation :-

• Processing operation: It performs some activities on a given job. Such

activities convert the job from one shape to another continuous up to the final
product. It enhances significance by altering the geometry, features or
appearance of the initial materials.

• Assembly operation: It comprises an assembly of two or more parts to

make a new component which is called an assembly/subassembly. The
subassemblies which are joined permanently use processes like welding,
brazing, soldering , adhesive bonding, rivets, press fitting.
 Types of Flexibility

• Machine Flexibility: It is the capability to adapt a given machine in the system

to a wide range of production operations and part styles. The greater the range of
operations and part styles the greater will be the machine flexibility.

• Production Flexibility: It is the range of part styles that can be produced on

the systems. The range of part styles that can be produced by a manufacturing
system at moderate cost and time is determined by the process envelope.

• Mix Flexibility: It is defined as the ability to change the product mix while
maintaining the same total production quantity that is, producing the same parts
only in different proportions. It is also known as process flexibility. Mix
flexibility provides protection against market variability by accommodating
changes in product mix due to the use of shared resources. However, high mix
variations may result in requirements for a greater number of tools, fixtures, and
other resources.
 Types of Flexibility

Product Flexibility. It refers to ability to change over to a new set of products

economically and quickly in response to the changing market requirements. The
change over time includes the time for designing, planning, tooling, and fixturing of
new products introduced in the manufacturing line-up.

Routing Flexibility: It can define as capacity to produce parts on alternative

workstation in case of equipment breakdowns, tool failure, and other interruptions
at any particular station. It helps in increasing throughput, in the presence of
external changes such as product mix, engineering changes, or new product
introductions.

Volume Flexibility: It is the ability of the system to vary the production volumes
of different products to accommodate changes in demand while remaining
profitable. It can also be termed as capacity flexibility.

Expansion Flexibility: It is defined as the ease with which the system can be
expanded to foster total production volume.
 Types of FMS
Based on number of machines:-
• A single machine cell (SMC) consists of one CNC machining center
combined with a parts storage system for unattended operation.
• Completed parts are periodically unloaded from the parts storage unit, and raw
workparts are loaded into it.
• The cell can be designed to operate in either a batch mode or a flexible mode or
in combinations of the two.
• When operated in a batch mode, the machine processes parts of a single style in
specified lot sizes and is then changed over to process a batch of the next part
style.
• When operated in a flexible mode, the system satisfies three of the four
f1exibili1y tests. It is capable of (1) processing different part styles, (2)
responding to changes in production schedule, and (4) accepting new part
introductions. Criterion (3), error recovery, cannot be satisfied because if the
single machine breaks down, production stops.
Single Machine Cell
 Types of FMS

• A flexible manufacturing cell (FMC) consists of two or three processing

workstations (typically CNC machining centres or turning centres) plus a part
handling system.

• The part handling system is connected to a load/unload station. In addition, the

handling system usually includes a limited parts storage capacity.

• A flexible manufacturing cell satisfies the four flexibility tests.

Flexible Manufacturing Cell
 Types of FMS

• A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) has four or more processing

workstations connected mechanically by a common part handling system and
electronically by a distributed computer system.

• An important distinction between an FMS and an FMC the number of machines:

an FMC has two or three machines, while an FMS has four or more.

• A second difference is that the FMS generally includes nonprocessing

workstations that support production but do not directly participate in it.

• These other stations include part/pallet washing stations, coordinate measuring

machines, and so on.

• A third difference is that the computer control system of an FMS is generally

larger and more sophisticated, often including functions not always found in a
cell, such as diagnostics and tool monitoring. These additional functions are
needed more in an FMS than in an FMC because the FMS is more complex.
FMS
Types of FMS
 Types of FMS
Based on the level of flexibility:-

1. Dedicated FMS
• Designed to produce a limited variety of part styles
• The complete universe of parts to be made on the system is known in
advance
• Part family likely based on product commonality rather than geometric
similarity
2. Random-order FMS
• Appropriate for large part families
• New part designs will be introduced
• Production schedule is subject to daily changes
Types of FMS
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 FMS Components

1. Workstations
2. Material handling and storage system
3. Computer control system
4. Human Resources
 Workstations
➢ Load and unload station(s)
• Factory interface with FMS
• Manual or automated
• Includes communication interface with worker to specify parts to load,
fixtures needed, etc.
➢ CNC machine tools in a machining type system
• CNC machining centers
• Milling machine modules
• Turning modules
➢ Assembly machines (Industrial robots)
➢ Other stations and equipment (Inspection station, CMM, Stations for cleaning
parts and/or pallet fixtures. central coolant delivery systems, and centralized chip
removal systems )
 Material Handling and Storage

➢ Functions:
● Random, independent movement of parts between stations

● Capability to handle a variety of part styles

● Standard pallet fixture base
● Work holding fixture can be adapted
● Temporary storage
● Convenient access for loading and unloading
● Compatibility with computer control
 Material Handling Equipment

➢ Primary handling system establishes basic FMS layout

➢ Secondary handling system - functions:
• Transfers work from primary handling system to workstations
• Position and locate part with sufficient accuracy and repeatability for the
operation
• Reorient part to present correct surface for processing
• Buffer storage to maximize machine utilization
 FMS Layouts

➢ The layout of the FMS is established by the material handling system

➢ Five basic types of FMS layouts
• In-line
• Loop
• Ladder
• Open field
• Robot-centered cell
 FMS In-Line Layout

 Straight line flow, well-defined processing sequence

similar for all work units
 Work flow is from left to right through the same
workstations
 No secondary handling system
 FMS In-Line Layout

• Linear transfer system with secondary parts handling system at each

workstation to facilitate flow in two directions.
 FMS Loop Layout

• One direction flow, but variations in processing sequence possible for different
part types
• Secondary handling system at each workstation
 FMS Rectangular Layout

• Rectangular layout allows recirculation of pallets back to the first station in the
sequence after unloading at the final station
 FMS Ladder Layout

• Loop with rungs to allow greater variation

in processing sequence
 FMS Open Field Layout

• Multiple loops and ladders, suitable

for large part families
Robot-Centered Cell

• Suited to the handling of

rotational parts and turning
operations
 Computer Control System

➢ The FMS includes a distributed computer system that is interfaced to the

workstations, material handling system, and other hardware components.
➢ A typical FMS computer system consists of a central computer and
microcomputers controlling the individual machines and other components.
➢ The central computer coordinates the activities of the components to achieve
smooth overall operation of the system.
 Computer Control System: Functions

1. Workstation control: Individual stations require controls, usually

computerized
2. Distribution of control instructions to workstations: Central intelligence
required to coordinate processing at individual stations
3. Production control: Product mix, machine scheduling, and other planning
functions
4. Traffic control: Management of the primary handling system to move parts
between workstations
5. Shuttle control: Coordination of secondary handling system with primary
handling system
 Computer Control System: Functions

6. Work piece monitoring: Monitoring the status of each part in the system
7. Tool control:
• Tool location: Keeping track of each tool in the system
• Tool life monitoring: Monitoring usage of each cutting tool and
determining when to replace worn tools
8. Performance monitoring and reporting: Availability, utilization, production
piece counts, etc.
9. Diagnostics: Diagnose malfunction causes and recommend repairs
 Human Resources

➢ Loading and unloading parts from the system

➢ Changing and setting cutting tools
➢ Maintenance and repair of equipment
➢ NC part programming
➢ Programming and operating the computer system
➢ Overall management of the system
 Advantages of FMS

• Improved product quality and reduced scrap rate

• Reduction in floor space used
• Reduced throughput time and its variability
• Reduced staff requirement
• Better competitive advantage
• Lower work in process inventories
• High productivity
• Better status monitoring of machines, tools and material handling devices
• Economic benefits in indirect labor due to reduced errors, rework, repairs and
rejections
• Allows changing product volumes and different product mixes
• Reduced product life-cycle time and cost
• Improved supplier relationship
 Strategies for Automation

1. Specialization of operations: Special purpose equipment to perform one

operation with greatest possible efficiency.
2. Combined operations : Reducing number of distinct production machines.
3. Simultaneous Operations : Reducing total processing time.
4. Integration of operations : Linking several workstation into a single integrated
mechanism.
5. Increased flexibility : To achieve max utilization of equipment.
6. Improved material handling and storage : Reducing non-productive time.
7. On-line inspection : Corrections to the process during manufacturing.
8. Process control and optimization.
9. Plant operations and control.
10. Computer integrated manufacturing.
 Computer Aided Design (CAD)

➢ Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use

of computer systems to assist in the
creation, modification, analysis, or
optimization of a design.

➢ Reasons/ Advantages
• To increase the productivity of the
designer
• To improve the quality of design
• To improve communications
• To crate a database for manufacturing
 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

➢ Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is defined as the effective use of

computer technology in manufacturing planning and control.

➢ Manufacturing Planning
• Computer-aided process planning (CAPP)
• Computer-assisted NC part programming
• Computerized machinability data systems
• Development of work standards
• Cost estimating
• Production and inventory planning
• Computer-aided line balancing

➢ Manufacturing Control
• Process monitoring and control
• Quality control
• Shop floor control
• Inventory control
• Just-in-time production systems
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing

➢ Computer integrated manufacturing

includes all of the engineering
functions of CAD/CAM, but it also
includes the firm's business
functions that are related to
manufacturing.

➢ The ideal CIM system applies

computer and communications
technology to all of the operational
functions and information
processing functions in
manufacturing from order receipt,
through design and production, to
product shipment.
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Advantages of FMS

• Improved product quality and reduced scrap rate

• Reduction in floor space used
• Reduced throughput time and its variability
• Reduced staff requirement
• Better competitive advantage
• Lower work in process inventories
• High productivity
• Better status monitoring of machines, tools and material handling devices
• Economic benefits in indirect labor due to reduced errors, rework, repairs and
rejections
• Allows changing product volumes and different product mixes
• Reduced product life-cycle time and cost
• Improved supplier relationship
 Strategies for Automation

1. Specialization of operations: Special purpose equipment to perform one

operation with greatest possible efficiency.
2. Combined operations : Reducing number of distinct production machines.
3. Simultaneous Operations : Reducing total processing time.
4. Integration of operations : Linking several workstation into a single integrated
mechanism.
5. Increased flexibility : To achieve max utilization of equipment.
6. Improved material handling and storage : Reducing non-productive time.
7. On-line inspection : Corrections to the process during manufacturing.
8. Process control and optimization.
9. Plant operations and control.
10. Computer integrated manufacturing.
 Computer Aided Design (CAD)

➢ Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use

of computer systems to assist in the
creation, modification, analysis, or
optimization of a design.

➢ Reasons/ Advantages
• To increase the productivity of the
designer
• To improve the quality of design
• To improve communications
• To crate a database for manufacturing
 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

➢ Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is defined as the effective use of

computer technology in manufacturing planning and control.

➢ Manufacturing Planning
• Computer-aided process planning (CAPP)
• Computer-assisted NC part programming
• Computerized machinability data systems
• Development of work standards
• Cost estimating
• Production and inventory planning
• Computer-aided line balancing

➢ Manufacturing Control
• Process monitoring and control
• Quality control
• Shop floor control
• Inventory control
• Just-in-time production systems
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing

➢ Computer integrated manufacturing

includes all of the engineering
functions of CAD/CAM, but it also
includes the firm's business
functions that are related to
manufacturing.

➢ The ideal CIM system applies

computer and communications
technology to all of the operational
functions and information
processing functions in
manufacturing from order receipt,
through design and production, to
product shipment.
 Industrial Robots

➢ A general purpose, programmable machine possessing certain

anthropomorphic characteristics.

➢ A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move

materials, parts, tools and special devices through variable programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.

➢ Perform 4A tasks in 4D environments.

• Automation, augmentation, assistance and autonomous

• Dangerous, dirty, dull and difficult

 Industrial Robots: Advantages

➢ Hazardous work environments

➢ Repetitive work cycle
➢ Consistency and accuracy
➢ Difficult handling task for humans
➢ Multi shift operations
➢ Reprogrammable, flexible
➢ Interfaced to other computer systems.
Main Components of Industrial Robots

➢ Arms or Manipulators
➢ End effectors
➢ Drive mechanism
➢ Controller
➢ Custom features e.g. sensors, transducers etc.
 Robot Anatomy

Joints and Links

• A robotic joint provides relative

motion between two links of the
robot.
• Each joint, or axis, provides a certain
degree-of-freedom (DOF) of motion.
• Each joint is connected to two links,
an input link and an output link.
• Joint provides controlled relative
movement between the input link and
output link.
• A robotic link is the rigid component
of the robot manipulator.
 Types of Joints

a) Linear joint (type L-joint)

The relative movement between the input link and the output link is a
translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links being parallel.
 Types of Joints

b) Orthogonal joint (type O-joint)

This is also a translational sliding motion, but the input and output links are
perpendicular to each other during the move.
 Types of Joints

c) Rotational joint (type R-joint)

This type provides rotational relative motion, with the axis of rotation
perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.
 Types of Joints

d) Twisting joint (type T-joint)

This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis or rotation is parallel to the
axes of the two links.
 Types of Joints

e) Revolving joint (type V-joint)

In this type, axis of input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint.
However the axis of the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
 Robot Configurations

(a) Polar configuration

It consists of a sliding arm L-joint, actuated relative to the body, which rotates
around both a vertical axis (T-joint), and horizontal axis (R-joint).
 Robot Configurations
(b) Cylindrical configuration
It consists of a vertical column. An arm assembly is moved up or down relative to
the vertical column. The arm can be moved in and out relative to the axis of the
column. Common configuration is to use a T-joint to rotate the column about its
axis. An L-joint is used to move the arm assembly vertically along the column, while
an O-joint is used to achieve radial movement of the arm.
 Robot Configurations

(c) Cartesian co-ordinate robot

It is also known as rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot. It consists of three sliding
joints, two of which are orthogonal O-joints.
 Robot Configurations

(d) Jointed-arm robot

It is similar to the configuration of a human arm. It consists of a vertical column
that swivels about the base using a T-joint. Shoulder joint (R-joint) is located at
the top of the column. The output link is an elbow joint (another R joint).
Jointed-arm robot
 Robot Configurations

(e) SCARA
Its full form is ‘Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm’. It is similar in
construction to the jointed-arm robot, except the shoulder and elbow rotational
axes are vertical. It means that the arm is very rigid in the vertical direction, but
compliant in the horizontal direction.
 Robot Wrist Configuration
✓ Wrist assembly is attached to end of arm and the end effector is attached to wrist
assembly.
✓ Function of wrist assembly is to orient end effector.
✓ Robot wrist assemblies consist of either two or three degrees-of-freedom.
✓ The roll joint is accomplished by use of a T-joint, the pitch joint is achieved by recourse
to an R joint and the yaw joint, a right-and-left motion, is gained by deploying a second
R joint.

Pitch

Roll Yaw
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
 Manipulator

 Manipulator is the mechanical unit which performs the movement function in the
robot.
 The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links.
✓ Joint provide relative motion
✓ Links are rigid members between joints
✓ Various joint types: linear and rotary
✓ Each joint provides a DOF
✓ Most robots possess five or six DOF
 Robot manipulator consists of two parts:
✓ Body-and-arm for positioning of objects in the robot work volume
✓ Wrist assembly for orientation of object
 The robot complexity can be classified according to the total number of DOF they
possess.
 End Effectors

➢ An end effector is usually attached to the robot’s wrist, and it allows the robot to
accomplish a specific task.
➢ The end effectors are generally custom-engineered and fabricated for each
different operation.
➢ There are two general categories of end effectors viz. grippers and tools.
 End Effectors : Grippers

➢ Grippers grasp and manipulate the objects during the work cycle. Typically
objects that grasped are the work parts which need to be loaded or unloaded
from one station to another. Grippers may be custom-designed to suit the
physical specifications of work parts.
End-Effectors: Grippers
 End Effectors : Tools

➢ The robot end effecter may also use tools. Tools are used to perform processing
operations on the workpart.
➢ Examples:
• Spot welding gun
• Arc welding tools
• Spray painting gun
• Drilling spindle
• Grinders, wire brushes
• Heating torches
 Drive systems

➢ Electric drives: Electric motors (servo/stepper)

• High accuracy and repeatability
• Less floor space
• Low cost
• Easy maintenance
➢ Hydraulic drives
• High strength and speed
• Large robots
• More floor space
• For heavy payloads
➢ Pneumatic drives
• Smaller units
• Quick assembly
• Easy maintenance
 Robot Control Systems

(a) Limited Sequence Control: Pick-and-place operations by using mechanical

stops to set the positions.

(b) Playback with Point-to-Point Control : Records work cycle as a sequence

of points, then play back the work cycle during program execution.

(c) Playback with Continuous Path Control: Greater storage capacity and/or
interpolation capability to execute paths (in addition to points).

(d) Intelligent Control : Exhibits behavior that makes it seems to be intelligent

e.g. it may have capacity to interact with its ambient surroundings; decision-making
capability; ability to communicate with humans; ability to carry out computational
analysis during the work cycle; and responsiveness to advanced sensor inputs.
 Sensors in Robotics

There are generally two categories of sensors used in robotics. These are sensors
for internal purposes and for external purposes.

• Internal sensors are used to monitor and control the various joints of the
robot. They form a feedback control loop with the robot controller. Examples of
internal sensors include potentiometers and optical encoders, while
tachometers of various types are deployed to control the speed of the robot
arm.

• External sensors are external to the robot itself, and are used to control the
operations of the robot. External sensors are simple devices, such as limit
switches that determine whether a part has been positioned properly, or
whether a part is ready to be picked up from an unloading bay.
Sensors in Robotics
 Applications

➢ Processing Operations
➢ Materials Handling Applications
➢ Assembly Operations
Processing Operations
Material Handling Applications
Numerical Control (NC) Production Systems

• Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in which the

mechanical actions of a machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a
program containing coded alphanumeric data.

• The alphanumerical data represent relative positions between a workhead and a

workpart as well as other instructions needed to operate the machine.

• Numerical control can be applied to a wide variety of processes. The

applications divide into two categories; (1) machine tool applications, such as
drilling, milling, turning, and other metal working; and (2) non machine tool
applications such as assembly, drafting, and inspection.
Basic Components of an NC System

1. A program of instructions
2. A Machine control unit
3. Processing equipment
Basic Components of an NC System
 Basic Components of an NC System

• The program of instructions is the detailed step by step commands that direct the
actions of the processing equipment.

• In machine tool applications, the program of instructions is called a part program. In

these applications, the individual commands refer to positions of a cutting tool
relative to the work table on which the work part is fixtured.

• Additional instructions are usually included, such as spindle speed, feed rate, cutting
tool selection and other functions.

• The program is coded on a suitable medium for submission to the machine control
unit.

• For many years the common medium was punched tape using a standard format that
could be interpreted by the machine control unit.

• Today, newer storage technologies has been used in modern machine shops.
 Basic Components of an NC System

• The machine control unit (MCU) consists of a microcomputer and related

control hardware that stores the program of instructions and executes it by
converting each command into mechanical actions of the processing equipment.

• The third basic component of an NC system is the processing equipment that

performs useful work. It accomplishes the processing steps to transform the
starting workpiece into a completed pat. Its operation is directed by the MCU,
which in turn is driven by instruction, contained in the part program.
 Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

• Computer numerical control (CNC) is defined as an NC system whose MCU is

based on a dedicated computer.

• In CNC machines, a dedicated computer is used to perform the most of basic NC

machine functions.

• The entire program is entered and stored in computer memory. The machining
cycle for each component is controlled by the program contained in the
computer memory.

• The stored part program listing can be used for future production also.
 Elements of a CNC System

• Input device

• Machine control unit

• Machine tool

• Driving system

• Feedback devices

• Display unit
 Elements of a CNC System
➢ First the part program is inserted into the MCU
of the CNC.
➢ In MCU all the data process takes place and
according to the program prepared, it prepares
all the motion commands and sends it to the
driving system.
➢ The drive system works as the motion
commands are send by MCU. Drive system
controls the motion and velocity of the
machine tool.
➢ Feedback system, records the position and
velocity measurement of the machine tool and
sends a feedback signal to the MCU.
➢ In MCU, the feedback signals are compared
with the reference signals and if there are
errors, it corrects it and sends new signals to
the machine tool for the right operation to
happen.
➢ A display unit is used to see all the commands,
programs and other important data. It acts as
the eye of the machine.
 Distributive numerical control (DNC)

Distributive numerical control is a technology that allows a single computer to be

networked with one or more machines that use computer numerical control
(CNC).
Components:
1. Central computer
2. Bulk memory which stores the NC part programs.
3. Telecommunication lines
4. Machine Tools.
Comparison between NC, CNC and DNC machine tools
Metal Machining and Automation
(ME 3201)

PRESENTED BY

D R . S A N N D H YA R A N I B I S WA S
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA R T M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G
NIT ROURKELA
Email: [email protected]
NC Part Programming: Axis of motion
NC Part Programming: Axis of motion
 Dimension System
Absolute Positioning: In an absolute positioning system all references are made
to the origin of the co ordinate system.
 Dimension System
Incremental Positioning: In an incremental positioning system all references
are made in relation to the previous position.
 Program Structure

➢ Program is the main part on the CNC machine. English letters and numbers are used to
prepare these programs.
➢ These alphabets (letters) are termed as Address.
➢ A Word is formed by making pair of an address and numbers. e.g. X52.6, G00, M30 etc.
➢ When these words are arranged in a line to perform the specific operations, the line is
known as block.
Sequence and format of words:

N3 G2 X+1.4 Y+1.4 Z+1.4 I1.4 J1.4 K1.4 F3.2 S4 T4 M2

destination coordinates parameters for circular

sequence no tool
interpolation
feed rate spindle speed
preparatory function
miscellaneous function
G-Codes (Preparatory Functions)
M-Codes (Miscellaneous Functions)
 Interpolation

➢ The method by which contouring machine tools move from one programmed
point to the next is called interpolation.
➢ There are five methods of interpolation: linear, circular, helical, parabolic, and
cubic.
➢ All contouring controls provide linear interpolation, and most controls are
capable of both linear and circular interpolation.
➢ Helical, parabolic, and cubic interpolation are used by industries that
manufacture parts which have complex shapes, such as aerospace parts and
dies for car bodies.
Linear Interpolation
Circular Interpolation
 Cutter Compensation

Cutter radius compensation is a function of the CNC controller to automatically

shift the tool from the cutter center line to the cutter edge along the
programmed cutter path.
G40 = Cutter Compensation Cancel
G41 = Cutter Compensation Left
G42 = Cutter Compensation Right
 NC Part Programming: Example

A square 2.0 in. x 2.0 in. is to be

milled using a 1/2 in. end milling
cutter. Write an NC part program to 2.000
make the square.

2.000

(6,6)

Part Program Explanation

N0010 G41 S1000 F5 M03 Begin compensation, set feed and speed, spindle on
N0020 G00 X6.000 Y6.000 Move to lower left corner
N0030 G01 Z-1.000 Plunge down the tool
N0040 Y8.000 Cut to upper left corner
N0050 X8.000 Cut to upper right corner
N0060 Y6.000 Cut to lower right corner
N0070 X6.000 Cut to lower left corner
N0080 Z1.000 Lift the tool
N0090 G40 M30 End compensation, stop the machine
NC Part Programming: Example

G90 Absolute Programming

G90 G01 X0 Y0
X50.0
X70.0 Y35.0
X45.0
X0 Y80.0
Y0 M30
G91 Incremental Programming
G91 G01 X0 Y0
X50.0
X20.0 Y35.0
X-25.0
X-45.0 Y45.0
Y-80.0
M30
 NC Part Programming: Example
// Defining statements:
N001 G21 (metric)
N002 G912 (Absolute)
N003 G94 (Feed rate in mm/min)
N004 G28 Z0 (Home Position)
N005 G28 X0 Y0 M19
N006 M06 T01 (Tool selection)
N007 G90 M03 S2000 (Spindle CW)

// Machining statements:
N008 G00 X0 Y0 Z5 (Start Point X & Y Work zero point and 5 mm above
the Z 0 point) {Rapid traverse}
G0 X0 Y0; (MOVING TO ORIGIN)
G00 X75 (Move to P1)
N010 M07 (Coolant ON)
N011 G01 Z-10 F150 (Depth of cut)(Linear interpolation and Feed)
N012 G01 X185 (Move to P2)
G01 Y70 (Move to P3)
N014 G01 X145 (Move to P4)
N015 G02 X115 Y70 R15 (Move to P5)
N016 G01 X75 (P6)
N017 G01 Y0 (P1)
N018 G00 Z5 (Move tool 5 mm above the Work zero for safety)

/ Closing statements:
Tool is of dia 10 mm (i.e. radius = 5) N019 G91 G28 Z0 (Home Position)
N020 G28 X0 Y0
N021 M05 M09 (Spindle off , Coolant off)
N022 M30 (Program Stop and rewind)
NC Part Programming: Example

G90 G01 X0 Y0
X30
G03 X54 R12
G01 X82
G02 X108 R13
G01 X123
X80 Y45
X40
Y75
G03 X35 Y80 R5
G01 X20
G03 X0 Y80 R10
G01 Y0
M30
ALL THE BEST