The CFI Condensed lesson plans are the CFI lesson plans with less

detail, aircraft specific information, and examples.

TERMS AND CONDITIONS

All The Backseat Pilot lessons are for your personal (one user) use, copies may not be provided to others. These lessons may
not be distributed or claimed as your own and may not be used to create products for sharing or selling.

Thank you for your honesty.

The information contained here is neither guaranteed accurate, nor a substitute for current FAA regulations or any official references. The Backseat
Pilot LLC accepts no liability for the content provided, or the consequences of any actions taken on the basis of the information provided.

© 2008 - 2024 The Backseat Pilot LLC

 USING THE CONTENT
NAVIGATION (Microsoft Word)
Navigation Panel: No need to scroll endlessly through the document. Click the View tab, and in the box labeled ‘Show,’
check Navigation Pane. A great technique is to always keep this open. Just click the lesson title in the Navigation pane.
Table of Contents: Hold the Control key & click on the title of the lesson. (Navigation Pane is far more useful).

RISK MANAGEMENT CONTENT

Many sections contain numerous repetitive Risk Management elements. Rather than repeating the
information over and over, you’ll find RM Concepts at the end of the applicable sections (VII – XII). The
lessons that reference these topics are linked to the RM Concepts section.

LINKS
Blue text in the body of a lesson (not the heading/header) is a web link. If you have internet access, holding the Control
key and clicking on the text will take you to the website. For example: The Backseat Pilot

LEGEND
* - The lessons are generally based off the DA20. DA20 specific information is denoted with an *.
Search for * to quickly find and update each area containing DA20 specific material

PDF E-BOOK
IMPORT TO YOUR IPAD
1. Login to your account, click the My Digital Content button, navigate to the desired PDF, and tap on it
2. In the box that appears at the bottom center of the screen, tap Download
3. After the download is complete, tap Open In and choose the desired app (GoodReader, Adobe, Books, etc.)

IMPORT TO FOREFLIGHT
ForeFlight provides 5 different ways to import a document into the app.

NAVIGATION
Any app that supports Headings/Chapters (ForeFlight, GoodReader, Adobe, Books. Etc.) will display easy use navigation.

USE ADOBE ON YOUR COMPUTER

Navigation: Click View, select Navigation Bars, and click Bookmarks.
Table of Contents: The lesson plans listed in the Contents page (below) can be clicked on for easy navigation.

ABBREVIATIONS
CE: Common Error
RM: Risk Management Concept

CONTACT
If you come across any errors, or have any questions please contact us at [email protected], or head to our website and
send us a contact form (they both go to the same inbox).

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 RECENT UPDATES
Most of the recent updates are indicated with a Red bar in the left margin (not shown in the PDF)
To View/Remove the Red Bar in Word, select the Review tab, Track Changes drop down, then Track Changes

DATE LESSON UPDATE

April 2024 All Updated to Instructor ACS standards

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 CONTENTS
I. Fundamentals of Instructing
I.A. Effects of Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process.................................................................................8
I.B. Learning Process.......................................................................................................................................................14
I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques...................................................................21
I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, and Testing..........................................................................................................27
I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment.................................................................................32
I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching (Risk Management & Accident Prevention).............................................................36

II. Technical Subject Areas

II.A. Human Factors.........................................................................................................................................................43
II.B. Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance.................................................................................................................51
II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance...................................................................................................................................55
II.D. Principles of Flight...................................................................................................................................................63
II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers (Additional Info)....................................................................................................71
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems...................................................................................................................74
II.F. Performance and Limitations...................................................................................................................................97
II.G. National Airspace System......................................................................................................................................105
II.H. Navigation Systems and Radar Services.................................................................................................................112
II.I. Navigation and Flight Planning................................................................................................................................119
II.J. 14 CFR and Publications..........................................................................................................................................126
II.K. Endorsements & Logbook Entries..........................................................................................................................130
II.M. Night Operations..................................................................................................................................................135
II.N. Supplemental Oxygen............................................................................................................................................142
II.O. Pressurization........................................................................................................................................................145

III. Preflight Preparation

III.A. Pilot Qualifications................................................................................................................................................150
III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - General Overview.................................................................................................155
III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - FARS.....................................................................................................................160
III.C. Weather Information............................................................................................................................................164

IV. Preflight Lesson on a maneuver to be Performed In Flight

IV.A. Maneuver Lesson.................................................................................................................................................184

V. Preflight Procedures

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 V.A. Preflight Assessment.............................................................................................................................................186
V.B. Flight Deck Management.......................................................................................................................................190
V.C. Engine Starting.......................................................................................................................................................193
V.D. Taxiing, Airport Signs, & Lighting...........................................................................................................................196
V.F. Before Takeoff Check.............................................................................................................................................208

VI. Airport Operations

VI.A. Communications, Light Signals & Runway Lighting Systems.................................................................................212
VI.B. Traffic Patterns.....................................................................................................................................................217

VII. Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds

VII.A. Normal Takeoff & Climb......................................................................................................................................223
VII.B. Normal Approach & Landing................................................................................................................................229
VII.C. Soft-Field Takeoff & Climb...................................................................................................................................238
VII.D. Soft-Field Approach & Landing............................................................................................................................243
VII.E. Short-Field Takeoff & Maximum Performance Climb..........................................................................................247
VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing..........................................................................................................................251
VII.M. Slip to a Landing.................................................................................................................................................256
VII.N. Go-Around / Rejected Landing............................................................................................................................261
VII.O. Power-Off 180o Accuracy Approach & Landing...................................................................................................266
VII. RM Concepts...........................................................................................................................................................271

VIII. Fundamentals of Flight

VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight.....................................................................................................................................281
VIII.B. Level Turns..........................................................................................................................................................285
VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns........................................................................................................................291
VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns...............................................................................................................296
VIII. RM Concepts..........................................................................................................................................................301

IX. Performance Maneuvers

IX.A. Steep Turns...........................................................................................................................................................304
IX.B. Steep Spirals.........................................................................................................................................................310
IX.C. Chandelles.............................................................................................................................................................314
IX.D. Lazy Eights............................................................................................................................................................319
IX.E. Ground Reference Maneuvers..............................................................................................................................324
IX.E. Rectangular Course...........................................................................................................................................325
IX.E. S-Turns...............................................................................................................................................................330

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 IX.E. Turns Around a Point.........................................................................................................................................335
IX.D. Eights on Pylons....................................................................................................................................................340
IX. RM Concepts............................................................................................................................................................345

X. Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins

X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight............................................................................................................................349
X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics.................................................................................................................355
X.C. Power-Off Stalls.....................................................................................................................................................362
X.D. Power-On Stalls.....................................................................................................................................................369
X.E. Accelerated Stalls...................................................................................................................................................376
X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls...........................................................................................................................................384
X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls................................................................................................................................................388
X.H. Secondary Stalls.....................................................................................................................................................392
X.I. Spins........................................................................................................................................................................ 396
X. RM Concepts.............................................................................................................................................................402

XI. Basic Instrument Maneuvers

XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight........................................................................................................................406
XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes................................................................................................................412
XI. RM Concepts............................................................................................................................................................418

XII. Emergency Operations

XII.A. Emergency Descent.............................................................................................................................................421
XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing..........................................................................................................................424
XII.C. Generic.................................................................................................................................................................429
XII.D. Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear............................................................................................................436
XII. RM Concepts...........................................................................................................................................................440

XIII. Postflight Procedures

XIII.A. After Landing, Parking, & Securing......................................................................................................................444

XIV. Appendix
A. Flight Review.............................................................................................................................................................448
B. Plan of Action............................................................................................................................................................450
C. Common Carriage.....................................................................................................................................................452

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I. Fundamentals of Instructing
I.A. Effects of Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9) Chapters 2 & 4

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to human behavior and
effective communication as required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Elements of Human Behavior

2. Learner Emotional Reactions
3. Teaching the Adult Learner
4. Effective Communication
5. Recognizing & Accommodating Human Behavior

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review Material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner will understand the 3 basic elements of the communicative process, recognize the
Standards various barriers to communication, and develop communication skills to convey the desired
information to future learners.
 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Years of thinking people have understood you. Unless you’ve known this stuff, they haven’t.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Basic human needs as well as defense mechanisms and effective communication.

Why
Learning is a change of behavior as a result of experience. To successfully accomplish the task of helping bring about
this change, the instructor must know why people act the way they do.

How:
1. Elements of Human Behavior (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 2)
A. Definitions of Human Behavior
i. The study of human behavior is an attempt to explain how and why human functions the way they do
ii. Scientific World Definition
a. Product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways
 Ex: how people handle fear is a product of individual experiences
iii. Satisfying Needs Definition
a. Human behavior is the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs
 Behavior is driven by simple (food, water) and complex needs (respect and acceptance)
iv. Life Course of Humans Definition
a. As humans grow, behavior changes
 As an individual matures, their mode of actions moves from dependency to self-direction
 Therefore, the age of the learner impacts how the curriculum is designed
v. Personality Types
a. Myers Briggs Type Indicator
 Seeming random variation in human behavior is quite structured due to differences in way
individuals prefer to use their perception & judgment
b. Now used to discover future careers
vi. Instructor and Learner Relationship
a. Instructor must understand their style of teaching and as much as possible adapt to learners
vii. Control of Human Behavior
a. Learners tend to submit to authority as a valid means of control
 The instructor’s challenge is to know what controls are best for existing circumstances
 Create an atmosphere that enables / encourages learners to help themselves toward their goals
b. It is the instructor’s responsibility to discover how to realize the potential in each learner
viii. A working knowledge of behavior can help an instructor better understand a learner
B. Motivation
i. The reason one acts or behaves in a certain way and lies at the heart of goals
a. Probably the dominant force governing progress and ability to learn

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

ii. Positive Motivation

a. Promise or achievement of awards (personal, social, financial, satisfaction of self, recognition)
b. Examples of Positive Motivations
 Secure, pleasant conditions, a safe environment
 Tangible return for efforts
 Group approval/belonging
 Favorable self-image
iii. Maintaining Motivation
a. Reward Success: Praise incremental successes and relate accomplishments to lesson objectives
b. Present New Challenges
iv. Drops in Motivation
a. Natural, especially after the initial excitement wears off
b. Remind students of their goals and reasons for training and that plateaus are normal
C. Human Needs
i. Hierarchy of Human Needs – An organization of human needs into levels of importance
a. Until the needs are satisfied, one can’t focus fully on learning, self-expression, or any other task
 Once a need is satisfied, it no longer provides motivation
ii. Physiological - Biological needs: Food, rest, and protection from the elements
iii. Security - Protection against danger, threats, deprivation affect learner behavior
iv. Belonging - Belong, to associate, and to give and receive friendship and love
v. Esteem - Two types:
a. Internal - Relating to self-esteem: confidence, independence, achievement, competence, knowledge
b. External - Relating to reputation: status, recognition,
appreciation, and respect of associates
vi. Cognitive and Aesthetic
a. This was added years after the initial theory development
b. Cognitive: Need to know and understand
 If a person understands, they can control the situation /
make informed decisions
c. Aesthetic: Emotional needs
 If an instructor does not like a learner, this feeling may
affect the instructor’s ability to teach
vii. Self-Actualization
a. When all other needs are satisfied, only then can self-
actualization be attained
b. Realizing one’s own potential for continued development / Reaching personal goals and potential
viii. Help learners satisfy their own needs in a manner that will create a healthy learning environment
D. Defense Mechanisms
i. Subconscious, almost automatic, ego-protecting reactions to unpleasant situations
a. Used to soften feelings of failure, to alleviate feelings of guilt, and to protect personal worth
ii. Repression - Uncomfortable thoughts are placed in inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind
iii. Denial - Refusal to accept a reality because it is too threatening
iv. Compensation - Disguising the presence of a weak quality by emphasizing a more positive one
a. May develop a less preferred / more attainable goal instead of one more preferred / less attainable
v. Projection - Blame is relegated to others for their own shortcomings, mistakes, and transgressions
vi. Rationalization - Subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable
a. When true rationalization takes place, individuals sincerely believe in their excuses

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

vii. Reaction Formation - Protect from dangerous desires by developing opposite attitudes / behaviors
viii. Fantasy - Daydreaming about how things should be rather than doing something about how they are
ix. Displacement - Unconscious shift in emotion from the original object to a less threatening substitute
2. Learner Emotional Reactions (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 2)
A. Anxiety – “A state of mental uneasiness arising from fear…”
i. Most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction
ii. Anxiety can be countered by reinforcing enjoyment of flying, and by teaching to cope with fear
B. Stress
i. Normal Reactions to Stress
a. People respond rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training
 This is desired, stress should not overwhelm and cause abnormal reactions (below)
ii. Abnormal Reactions to Stress
a. Response may be random, illogical, completely absent, or at least inadequate
b. Abnormal Reactions:
 Over-cooperation, extreme self-control, inappropriate laughter or singing, rapid emotion changes
iii. Flight Instructors Actions Regarding Seriously Abnormal Learners
a. Refrain from instructing the learner and assure they don’t continue training or become certificated
b. Arrange for another instructor to conduct an evaluation flight. After the flight, the instructors should
confer to determine whether they agree that further investigation or action is justified
C. Impatience
i. Seeks only the ultimate objective without considering the means to reach it
ii. Present training one step at a time, with clear goals for each step. Tailor instruction to learner‘s pace
D. Worry or Lack of Interest
i. Those worried or emotionally upset are not ready to learn and derive little benefit from instruction
ii. Divert attention from their worries and troubles to the tasks at hand
iii. Ensure the learner knows exactly how well they have progressed and what deficiencies are present
E. Physical Discomfort, Illness, Fatigue, and Dehydration
i. Slow the rate of learning, and should be mitigated to the extent possible
ii. Fatigue – one of the most treacherous hazards to flight safety. Impairs judgement / decision making
a. Acute Fatigue: Normal occurrence of everyday living
b. Chronic Fatigue: Combination of physiological / psychological problems (financial, home, etc.)
iii. Dehydration and Heatstroke
a. Dehydration: Critical loss of water to the body. Reduces alertness
b. Heatstroke: Inability of the body to control its temperature
c. Carry ample water on any long flight, keep the temperature cool, and wear light clothing
F. Apathy Due to Inadequate Instruction
i. Provide well-planned, appropriate, and accurate instruction
ii. Instruction should be meaningful. Teach to the level of the learner
iii. Once the instructor loses confidence, it is difficult to regain, and learning is diminished
3. Teaching the Adult Learner (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 2)
A. Adult Learner Characteristics
i. Learning is a means to an end (generally have a use for the knowledge/skill)
ii. Seek out learning experiences to cope with specific life changing events (marriage, new job, etc.)
iii. Autonomous & self-directed; need to be independent & exercise control
iv. Draw from foundation of life experience and knowledge for learning
v. Goal & relevancy oriented
vi. Practical, focusing on aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work
vii. Need to be shown respect

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

viii. Need to increase or maintain a sense of self-esteem is a strong secondary motivator

ix. Want to solve problems & apply new knowledge immediately
B. Instructors Should
i. Provide an organized training syllabus with clearly defined objectives
ii. Help students integrate new ideas with what they already know
iii. Clarify and articulate student expectations early
iv. Recognize the student’s need to control pace and start/stop time
v. Use scenario-based training (takes advantage of preference to self-direct)
vi. Provide self-directed learning involving other people as resources, guides, etc. (don’t isolate)
vii. Use books, programmed instruction and computers which are popular with adults
viii. Refrain from “spoon-feeding”
ix. Set a cooperative learning climate
x. Create opportunities for mutual planning
4. Effective Communication (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 4)
A. Doesn’t occur automatically, a communication style must be developed that can convey info to learners
B. Basic Elements
i. Communication takes place when a person transmits ideas / feelings to another
ii. Effectiveness is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received
a. A change in behavior is the goal of communication
iii. 3 elements of communication: The Source, The Symbols, The Receiver
iv. The Source (the sender, speaker, transmitter, or instructor)
a. Effectiveness as a communicator is related to 3 basic factors:
 Ability to select / use language is essential for transmitting information
 Communicators reveal information about themselves – Basically, have a positive attitude!
 Material is accurate, up-to-date, and stimulating
v. The Symbols (words or signs, or simple oral, visual, or tactile codes)
a. Determine the symbols best to start / end and those best for explaining, clarifying, emphasizing
 Determine which medium is best suited for transmission (hearing, seeing, touch)
b. Monitor the feedback from a learner as symbols may need to be modified for clarity
c. Learners need feedback on how they are doing (Negative feedback in private only)
vi. The Receiver (the listener, reader, or learner)
a. Effective communication: Receivers react with understanding / change behavior accordingly
b. Not all learners learn in the same way, using multiple approaches is most effective
C. RM: Barriers to Effective Communication
i. Lack of Common Experience
a. Greatest single barrier to effective communication
b. It is essential that instructors speak the same language as the learners
c. When specific terminology is needed, ensure understanding
ii. Confusion Between the Symbol and the Symbolized Object
a. This results when the meaning or intent of words and / or the context isn’t clear (ex. Sarcasm)
iii. Overuse of Abstractions (Abstractions are words that are general rather than specific)
a. Abstractions may not evoke the same items of experience in the learner’s minds
iv. External Factors
a. Factors outside the instructor’s control that prevent an activity from being carried out properly
b. Physiological interference - physical problem inhibiting understanding (injury, hearing loss, etc.)
c. Environmental interference - caused by external physical conditions (like noise)
d. Psychological interference - product of how the learner / instructor feel
v. Interference

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 I.A. Effects of Human Behavior & Communication on the Learning Process

a. Occurs when the message gets disrupted or truncated. Ensure the learner understands the message
D. Developing Communication Skills
i. Role Playing
a. Practice instructing to develop communication skills, techniques, etc.
ii. Instructional Communication
a. Know the topic well; Do not be afraid to use examples of past experience to illustrate points
b. Determine the level of understanding by some sort of evaluation
iii. Listening
a. Listen to understand rather than refute
iv. Questioning
a. Good questioning can determine how well a learner understands
b. Ask open ended and focused questions
c. Paraphrasing and perception checking can confirm understanding
v. Instructional Enhancement
a. The deeper the knowledge about an area, the better the instructor is at conveying it
5. RM: Recognizing & Accommodating Human Behavior
A. Working knowledge of behavior can help an instructor better understand a student
i. Leads to successful instruction
B. Understand and adjust for different personalities, motivators, learning styles, etc.

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

13
I.B. Learning Process

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9) – Chapter 3

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to the learning process as
required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Learning Theory

2. Perceptions and Insight
3. Acquiring Knowledge
4. Laws of Learning
5. Domains of Learning
6. Characteristics of Learning
7. Acquiring Skill Knowledge
8. Types of Practice
9. Evaluation vs Critique
10. Distraction, Interruptions, Fixation & Inattention
11. Errors
12. Memory & Forgetting
13. Retention of Learning
14. Transfer of Learning

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the learning process and can integrate the knowledge when
Standards instructing learners.
 I.B. Learning Process

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This will explain why you will or will not remember this lesson.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Understanding how people learn and applying that knowledge to the learning environment.

Why
As a flight instructor, the ability to effectively teach learners is imperative. Understanding how people learn and how
to apply that knowledge is the basis for effective teaching.

How:
1. Learning Theory
A. A body of principles used to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes
B. How people learn is explained by 2 concepts: Behaviorism and Cognitive Theory
C. Behaviorism (Positive Reinforcement, rather than no reinforcement or punishment)
i. Encourage progress and learning with rewards
ii. Popularity of behaviorism has waned – learning is much more complex than simple rewards
D. Cognitive Theory (Focuses on what is going on inside the learner’s mind)
i. Learning isn’t just a behavior change, it’s a change in the way a learner thinks / understands / feels
ii. Two Major Branches of the Cognitive Theory
a. The Information Processing Theory
 Learner’s brain has internal structures which select and process incoming material, store and
retrieve it, use it to produce behavior, and receive and process feedback on the results
b. Constructivism
 Learning is the result of matching new information against preexisting information and integrating it
into meaningful connections
 High Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) - also referred to as aeronautical decision making (ADM)
a Training based on problems or scenarios
b Important because a common thread in aviation accidents is the absence of HOTS
c Teaching HOTS
1. To teach effectively involves:
a. Problem-based instruction
b. Authentic / real world problems
c. Active learning / Cooperative learning
d. Customized instruction to meet the individual learner’s needs
d Scenario-Based Training (SBT)
1. The heart of HOTS, and an example of Problem Based Learning
2. Uses “real world” scenarios to address flight-training objectives
3. Other than the first flight or two, the scenario should be planned / led by the learner
E. Behavioral + Cognitive

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 I.B. Learning Process

i. Plan, manage, and conduct aviation training with the best features of each theory
ii. Provides a way to measure the behavioral outcomes and promote cognitive learning
2. Perceptions & Insight
A. Initially learning comes from perceptions (come from the senses); learner gives meaning to the senses
i. New learners are overwhelmed and often focus on meaningless things, thus missing key info
a. It is important to direct perceptions so that the learner obtains relevant information
B. Factors affecting perceptions
i. Physical Organism - Provides the perceptual apparatus (body) for sensing the world around them
ii. Goals and Values - Every experience is affected by the individual’s values and beliefs
a. Understand the learner’s values and tailor teaching to those values
iii. Self-Concept - Self-image has a great influence on perception
a. Positive self-image allows the learner to remain open to new experiences
b. Negative self-image has negative effect on learning
iv. Time and Opportunity - Proper sequence and time are necessary for learning
v. Element of Threat - Threat does not promote effective learning
C. Insight
i. The ‘aha!’ moment when the information ‘clicks’
a. Insight is one of the instructor’s primary responsibilities
b. Learning becomes more meaningful and more permanent
3. Acquiring Knowledge
A. Memorization - First attempt to acquire knowledge
i. Not good for problem solving
B. Understanding - Stage 2 of acquiring knowledge
i. Begins to organize knowledge in useful ways; memorized facts give way to understanding (insight)
C. Concept Learning - Tend to group objects, ideas, people, etc., that share one or more major attributes
i. By grouping information into concepts and schemas, we create manageable categories
4. Laws of Learning (REEPIR)
A. Provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively
B. Readiness
i. The basic needs of the learner need to be met before they’re ready or capable of learning
ii. Learners best acquire new knowledge when they see a clear reason for doing so
iii. Two steps to keep learners in a state or readiness:
a. Communicate a clear set of objectives and relate each new topic to the objectives
b. Introduce topics in a logical order and leave learners with a need to learn the next topic
C. Exercise
i. Connections are strengthened with practice and weakened without it
ii. Most effective when a skill is learned in the context of real-world applications
D. Effect
i. Behaviors that lead to satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated, and vice versa
ii. Teaching should contain elements that affect the learner positively / make them feel satisfaction
E. Primacy
i. What is learned first often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression
F. Intensity
i. A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience
G. Recency
i. Things most recently learned are best remembered
5. Domains of Learning (What is to be learned: Knowledge, Change in Attitude, Physical Skill, or combo)

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 I.B. Learning Process

i. Includes ground school, reading a textbook, etc.

ii. 6 major levels starting from the simplest to the most complex
iii. Highest level may be shown by learning to evaluate a maneuver
B. Affective Domain (Change in Attitude)
i. Emotions toward the educational experience
a. Feelings, values, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes
ii. Not easy to measure
iii. Provides a framework for teaching in 5 levels
C. Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills)
i. Skill based and includes physical movement, coordination, and
use of the motor-skill areas
a. Ex. flying a precision approach, programming a GPS

6. Characteristics of Learning (PRMA)

A. Learning should be purposeful, based on experience, multifaceted, and involve an active process
B. Purposeful
i. Learners learn from any activity that tends to further their goals
C. Result of Experience (Learn by doing)
i. Learner can learn only from personal experiences
ii. Provide learning experiences that are meaningful, varied, and appropriate to individual learners
D. Multifaceted
i. Individuals learn much more than expected if they fully exercise their minds and feelings
a. Verbal, conceptual, perceptual, emotional, and problem-solving elements all at once
E. Active Process (Constantly Engage the Learner)
i. Learners need to react / respond outwardly, inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually
7. Acquiring Skill Knowledge
A. Skill knowledge: Skills that manifests themselves in the doing of something (Ex. riding a bike)
B. Stages
i. Cognitive Stage - Memorizing the steps to a skill (provide clear, step by step examples)
ii. Associative Stage - Practice begins to store the skill
a. The learner can assess progress and make adjustments instead of simply repeating steps
iii. Automatic Response Stage - skill becomes automatic (allows more focus on other aspects of skill)

17
 I.B. Learning Process

C. Consistent practice develops skills

D. Knowledge of Results: The learner must be informed of their progress (both good and bad)
E. Learning Plateaus: Normal and temporary, ensure the learner understands this and is prepared for them
i. Over-practice can bring on a learning plateau
8. Types of Practice
A. 3 types of practice which yield results in acquiring skills
B. Deliberate Practice: Practice specific areas for improvement and receive specific feedback after practice
C. Blocked Practice: Practicing the same drill until it becomes automatic (enhances short-term performance)
D. Random Practice: Mixes up the skills to be acquired throughout the practice session
i. Leads to better retention
9. Evaluation vs. Critique
A. Overview
i. Practical suggestions are more valuable than a grade in the initial stages of skill acquisition
ii. Instructor monitors learner practice and provides feedback
iii. Allowing the learner to critique themselves enhances learner-centered training
B. Overlearning of Knowledge
i. The continued study of a skill after initial proficiency is established
ii. Advantage: Application of knowledge is more streamlined and efficient
iii. Disadvantage:
a. Reduces critical thinking
b. Can impedes further learning or lead to forgetting general knowledge
C. Application of Skill
i. Final and critical question is “Can the learner use the information received?”
a. Learner needs to understand the skill so well it becomes easy/habitual
b. Learner needs to be able to recognize the situations where the skill is appropriate to use
D. Summary of Instructor’s Actions
i. Explain that the key to acquiring & improving skill is continued practice
ii. Monitor practice and provide immediate feedback
iii. Avoid conversation & other distractions when learners are practicing individual skills
iv. Explain that learning plateaus are common and continued practiced = continued improvement
10. Distraction, Interruptions, Fixation & Inattention
A. Distraction: Unexpected event that causes the learner’s attention to be momentarily diverted
i. Learners need to decide whether a distraction warrants further attention/action
B. Interruption: Unexpected event where the learner voluntarily suspends one task to complete a different one
i. Significant source of errors - Learners need to develop procedures for dealing with interruptions
C. Fixation: Occurs when the learner becomes absorbed in one task to the exclusion of other tasks
i. Generally, a sign that the task has not been mastered well enough to be performed with other tasks
D. Inattention: Occurs when a learner fails to pay attention to a task that is important
i. Can be a natural byproduct of fixation
ii. Can occur when learners are not bored, or don’t find a task important
iii. Alert the learner to the problem and develop habits to keep their attention
E. Identifying Fixation & Inattention Problems
i. Follow where learners look
a. Extended time on one instrument could be fixation
b. Extended time neglecting engine instruments could be inattention
11. Errors
A. No matter the experience, errors will always occur
B. Two Kinds of Errors

18
 I.B. Learning Process

i. Slip - A person plans to do one thing but inadvertently does something else
a. Forms of Slips
 Neglect to do something
 Confuse two similar things
 Asked to perform a routine in a slightly different way
 Time pressure
ii. Mistake - A person plans to do the wrong thing and succeeds
a. Error of thought. Sometimes caused by a gap or misconception in learner’s understanding
b. Forms of Mistakes: Incorrect understanding; Incorrectly categorizing a specific situation
C. Reducing Error
i. Learning and practicing
ii. Take time, Work at a comfortable pace
iii. Check for errors
iv. Use reminders (checklists, bugs, notebook, etc.)
v. Develop routines
vi. Raise awareness of conditions and situations where errors are more likely to occur
D. Error Recovery
i. Do not let the error “snowball” and cause additional problems, or grow bigger than it is
ii. Solve the problem, and focus on the tasks at hand / ahead
E. Learning from Error: Ask the learner why the error happened and what could have been done different
12. Memory & Forgetting
A. Memory General
i. Memory includes 3 parts: Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory
ii. The total system operates like a computer
a. Accepts input, information is processed, storage capability, and an output function
B. Sensory Memory (Quick Scan, Precoding)
i. Receives stimuli from environment, quickly processes it based on personal idea of what is important
a. If it is dramatic or impacts more than one sense it is more likely to make an impression
ii. Retains info for a very short time; within seconds the relevant info is passed to short-term memory
C. Short-Term Memory (Coding, Rehearsal, Recoding)
i. Resembles a control tower; responsible for coordinating all incoming and outgoing information
ii. Info is stored for about 30 seconds, then it may rapidly fade or be sent into long-term memory
a. Repetition and sorting or categorization into chucks help with retention
b. Time and capacity limited (time limitation can be overcome by repetition)
iii. The coding process may involve recoding to adjust information to individual experiences
a. Recoding: Relating incoming information to concepts or knowledge already in memory
b. This is when actual learning begins to take place
iv. Three basic operations of Short-term memory
a. Iconic Memory: Brief sensory memory of visual images
b. Acoustic Memory: Sound memory
c. Working Memory: Active process to keep information until it is put to use
v. Developing a logical strategy for coding information is a significant step in the learning process
D. Long-Term Memory (Process, Store, Recall)
i. Relatively permanent storage of unlimited information (Information typically has some significance to it)
ii. For it to be useful, special effort must have been expended during the coding process
a. The more effective the coding, the easier the recall
iii. Affects a person’s perceptions of the world
iv. Make training relevant and meaningful to transfer new information to long-term memory

19
 I.B. Learning Process

E. Memory and Usage

i. Retrieving knowledge or skills is primarily related to how often and how recently the knowledge was used
F. Theories of Forgetting
i. Fading: Suggests that information that is not used for a period of time is forgotten
ii. Interference: Another experience has overshadowed the info, or learning of similar things has intervened
a. Material not well learned suffers most from interference
iii. Retrieval Failure: Inability to retrieve the information
iv. Repression or Suppression: Don’t want to remember feelings associated with a memory
13. Retention of Learning
A. Teach thoroughly and with meaning to make certain that learning is readily available for recall
B. Praise Stimulates Remembering
C. Recall is Promoted by Association
D. Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention
E. Learning with all our Senses is most Effective
F. Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall (3-4 repetitions provide the maximum effect)
14. Transfer of Learning
A. Primary Objective is to promote Positive Transfer
i. Positive Transfer - Learning skill A helps to learn skill B (slow flight and short field landings)
ii. Negative Transfer - Learning skill A hinders learning of skill B (landing an airplane vs a helicopter)
iii. Achieving Positive Transfer
a. Plan for transfer as a primary objective
b. Ensure that learners understand that information can be applied in other situations
c. Maintain high-order learning standards
d. Avoid unnecessary rote learning
e. Provide meaningful learning experiences
f. Use material that helps form valid concepts and generalizations (make relationships clear)
B. Habit Formation - Insist on correct techniques/procedures to provide proper habit patterns
i. Training traditionally has followed the building block concept - Start with the basics and build from there
C. Understanding
i. Ability to remember is greatly affected by the level of understanding
D. Remembering during Training
i. Threat: Lack of frequent usage in the past
a. Engage in regular practice of what was learned, short regularly spaced studying
ii. Threat: Learner lacks a degree of understanding that may assist with recalling the knowledge
E. Remembering after Training
i. Continued practice of knowledge and skill is the only means to retaining what was learned
F. Sources of Knowledge
i. Books, photographs, videos, diagrams, charts, etc.
ii. Encourage the learner to gain experience in the real-world
G. Summary of Instructor’s Actions
i. Discuss differences between short-term and long-term memory
ii. Explain the effect of frequent and recent usage of knowledge on remembering and forgetting
iii. Explain the effect of depth of understanding on remembering and forgetting
iv. Encourage learner use of mnemonic devices while studying
v. Explain the benefits of studying at regularly spaced intervals, and the disadvantages of cramming

Conclusion
Brief review of the main points

20
I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, & Classroom Training Techniques

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9) Chapter 3 & 7

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to the teaching process as
required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Teaching
2. Course of Training
3. Preparation of a Lesson
4. Organization of Material
5. Training Delivery Methods
6. Electronic Learning
7. Instruction Aids and Training Technologies
8. Integrated Flight Instruction
9. Problem Based Instruction
10. Planning Instructional Activity

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the preparation of a lesson, the different presentation methods, how
Standards the learner applies the knowledge, and the importance and use of a review and evaluation.
 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, and Classroom Training Techniques

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This is how one should structure a lesson to properly ensure the necessary knowledge is retained.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The teaching process can be divided into steps - preparation, presentation, application, and review and evaluation.

Why
Effective teaching is necessary to provide a proper learning experience for learners.

How:
1. Teaching
A. Process
i. Organizes material to teach in a way the learner can understand
ii. Four steps: Preparation, Presentation, Application, Review/Evaluation
B. 4 Essential Teaching Skills
i. People skills
a. Effective instructors relate well to people
b. Effective communication requires actively listening to the learner
ii. Subject matter expertise
a. Effective instructors have a sincere interesting in learning & professional growth
iii. Management skills
a. Ability to plan, organize, lead, and supervise (plan, organize & carry out a lesson)
b. Effective time management to achieve goals without over planning
c. Supervision of learners when necessary (i.e., preflight procedures)
iv. Assessment skills (more details in Task D.)
a. Used to verify the learner’s progress
2. Course of Training
A. Complete series of studies leading to a specific goal
B. Includes
i. Curriculum: Courses for various pilot certificates and ratings
ii. Syllabus: Summary/outline of an individual course of study containing multiple lessons
iii. Lesson plan: Detailed plan for how a specific lesson is conducted
a. Objective, organization, teaching aids, instructor/learner actions, evaluation criteria, standards
3. Preparation of a Lesson
A. Lesson must be planned – Objectives, procedures and facilities, goals to be attained, review / evaluation
B. Performance Based Objectives
i. Set measurable, reasonable standards describing the learner’s desired performance
a. Objectives must be clear, measurable, and repeatable
ii. Elements of Performance Based Objectives:

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 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, and Classroom Training Techniques

a. Description - Explains desired outcome as a change in

knowledge, skill, or attitude
 Concrete and measurable terms
b. Conditions - Explain the rules for demonstration of the skill
 Information such as equipment, tools, material, and
limiting parameters should be included
c. Criteria - Standards measuring objective accomplishment
 Should be no question whether the objective is met
iii. ACS provides specific performance criteria to measure actions
iv. Decision Based Objectives
a. Facilitate a higher level of learning and application
4. Organization of Material
A. Intro – Sets the stage for everything to come. Consists of 3
elements:
i. Attention – Story, video clip, etc. to direct attention to the lesson
ii. Motivation – Specific reasons why the info is important
iii. Overview – A clear, concise presentation of objectives and key ideas
B. Development – Main body. The material should be organized logically, options include:
i. Past to present
ii. Simple to complex
iii. Known to unknown
iv. Most frequently used to least
C. Conclusion
i. Retraces important elements and relates them to the objective
5. Training Delivery Methods
A. Lecture
i. Suitable for presenting new material, for summarizing ideas, and for showing relationships
ii. Most effective when combined with instructional aids and training devices
iii. Different Types of Lectures:
a. Illustrated Talk – Relies heavily on visual aids to convey ideas
b. Formal Lecture – Purpose is to inform, persuade, or entertain with little learner participation
c. Teaching Lecture – Delivered in a manner that allows some learner participation
B. Discussion
i. Short lecture followed by instructor-learner & learner-learner discussion
ii. Requires participation & develops higher order thinking skills (HOTS)
C. Guided Discussion
i. Goal is to draw out learner knowledge (encourages active participation)
ii. Instructor acts as a facilitator
iii. Useful in areas where learners can use initiative and imagination in addressing problems
D. Cooperative or Group Learning
i. Organizes learners into small groups who work together to maximize understanding
ii. Instructor
a. Plan what the group is expected to learn and be able to do on their own
b. Use clear & specific objectives to describe the knowledge/abilities to be acquired
iii. Conditions & Controls
a. Small, heterogeneous groups
b. Clear, complete instructions (what to do, in what order, materials)
c. Learner perception of targeted objectives as their own, personal objectives

23
 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, and Classroom Training Techniques

d. Opportunity for learner success

e. Learner access to and comprehension of required info
f. Sufficient time for learning
g. Individual accountability
h. Recognition & reward for group success
i. Time to reflect on how they worked together as a team
E. Demonstration-Performance Method
i. Best used for the mastery of mental or physical skills that require practice
ii. Many aviation lessons can combine the lecture and demonstration-performance methods
iii. Five Phases: Explanation, Demonstration, Learner Performance, Instructor Supervision, Evaluation
F. Drill and Practice Method
i. Connections are strengthened with practice
ii. Learn by practicing and applying what they have been told and shown
G. Be familiar with as many methods as possible
6. Electronic Learning
A. General
i. Any type of education involving an electronic component
ii. Advantages: Time flexible, cost effective, easily updated, accessible from anywhere, self-paced
iii. Limitations: Lack of interaction and personal feedback, limited instruction on certain subjects, cost, system
operation training, not a replacement for the real thing
B. Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) Method
i. Couples the computer with multimedia software to create a training device
ii. Reduces manpower, Learners can move at their own rate
iii. Not practical for an entire training program
C. Simulation, Role-Playing, Video Gaming
i. Allows the learner to learn/practice in a defined environment
ii. Can practice things that would otherwise be dangerous in the plane, like emergency procedures
7. Instruction Aids and Training Technologies
A. Effective instruction aids:
i. Cover key points & concepts
ii. Straightforward & factual
iii. Relatively simple
B. Reasons for instructional aids:
i. Assist in the teaching-learning process
ii. Clarify relationships between objects & concepts
iii. Help learners understand & retain knowledge
iv. Hold learner’s attention
v. Utilize multiple senses
vi. Help solve language barriers
C. Guidelines for Use of Instructional Aids
i. Clearly establish the lesson objective
ii. Gather necessary data
iii. Organize the material into a lesson plan
iv. Select the ideas to be supported with aids
D. Types of Aids
i. Chalk/Marker Board
ii. Print Material
iii. Enhanced Training Materials (training

24
 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, and Classroom Training Techniques

syllabi/records, maneuvers guide, etc.)

iv. Projected Material & Video
v. Computer learning and Interactive Systems
vi. Models, Mockups, Cut-Aways
8. Integrated Flight Instruction (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 9)
A. Learners are taught to perform flight maneuvers both by visual & instrument references
i. Leads to improved airspeed control, navigation, coordination, landings, safety, and overall competency
B. Procedures
i. From the beginning, each flight maneuver is introduced using outside and instrument references
C. See & Avoid
i. Don’t allow the focus on instrument indications to preclude scanning & collision avoidance
9. Problem Based Instruction
A. Lessons involve problems encountered in real life and ask learners to find real-world solutions
i. Starts with a carefully constructed problem to which there is no single solution
ii. Learner gains a deeper understanding of the information and improves ability to recall information
B. Effective Problems
i. Relates to the real world
ii. Open ended, not limited to one answer; Require learners to make decisions and think critically
iii. Connect to previously learned knowledge and new knowledge
iv. Reflect lesson objectives
C. Teaching HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)
i. Basic Approach to Teaching HOTS:
a. Set up the problem
b. Determine learning outcomes for the problem
c. Solve the Problem or Task
d. Reflect on Problem solving process
e. Consider additional solutions through guided discovery
f. Reevaluate solution with additional options
g. Reflect on this solution and why it is the best (Consider what best means)
D. Scenario Based Training
i. Realistic scenarios allowing mental rehearsal / practical applications of knowledge
ii. Good scenario:
a. Is not a test
b. Will not have one right answer, and does not offer an obvious answer
c. Should not promote errors
d. Should promote situational awareness and opportunities for decision making
E. Collaborative Problem Solving
i. Two or more working together to solve a problem
ii. Instructor helps only when needed
F. Case Study Method
i. Written or oral account of a real-world situation used to educate the learner
ii. Learners analyze the situation, come to conclusions, and offer possible solutions
10. Planning Instructional Activity (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 7)
A. Blocks of Learning
i. Constitute the necessary parts of the total objective
ii. By developing blocks, a learner can master the segments (blocks) individually
a. Blocks should represent units of learning which can be measured and evaluated
b. Blocks should be truly integral – extraneous blocks waste money and detract from objectives

25
 I.C. Course Development, Lesson Plans, and Classroom Training Techniques

iii. Any problems can be divided into blocks of learning

B. Training Syllabus
i. Road map showing how to accomplish the overall
objective of a course
ii. Format & Content
a. The syllabus should always be in the form of an
abstract or digest of the course training
 Include blocks of learning to be completed in
the most efficient order
 Well defined objectives and standards for
a The overall course
b Each stage of training
c The separate flight and ground segments
iii. Using a Training Syllabus
a. Must be flexible, and should be used as a guide
 Consider the effects on the learning blocks if
departing from the syllabus
b. Ground Lessons
 Concentrate on the cognitive domain of learning
 Many areas concern safety/ADM/judgment which are related to the affective domain
c. Flight Lessons
 Generally, emphasize the psychomotor domain, but affective is also important
 Should include risk management instruction
iv. Include special emphasis areas that are causal factors in accidents or incidents
C. Lesson Plans
i. Purpose
a. Designed to assure each learner receives the best possible instruction under existing conditions
b. An adequate lesson plan, when properly used, should:
 Assure a wise selection of material and the elimination of unimportant details
 Make certain that due consideration is given to each part of the lesson
 Aid the instructor in presenting the material in a suitable sequence for efficient learning
 Provide an outline for the teaching procedure to be used
 Serve as a means of relating the lesson to the objectives of the course of training
 Give the inexperienced instructor confidence
 Promote uniformity of instruction regardless of the instructor or date on which the less is given
ii. Characteristics
a. Working document that should be revised as changes occur or are needed
b. Unity – should be a unified segment of instruction
c. Content – Each lesson should contain new material, but it should be related to previous lessons
d. Scope – Each lesson should be reasonable in scope (reasonable objectives)
e. Practicality – Plan each lesson in terms of the conditions under which training is to be done
f. Flexibility – A degree of flexibility should be incorporate even though there is an outline
g. Relation to a Course of Training – Plan and teach each lesson so the relation to objectives is clear
h. Instructional Steps – Every lesson falls logically into the four steps of the teaching process

Conclusion
Brief review of the main points

26
I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, and Testing

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9) Chapter 6 & 9

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to the critique and evaluation
as required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Assessment
2. Critique
3. Assessment of Piloting Ability

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner has the ability to properly critique and evaluate learners using the methods and
Standards characteristics described.
 I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, and Testing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The dreaded tests and awful instructor critiques, this is how you do it.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The critique refers to the instructor’s role as a critic, and the evaluation portion discusses creating and conducting
effective evaluations.

Why
The instructor must be able to appraise learner performance and convey this information back to the learner. Also,
throughout a course, and at the end of a course, a learner must be evaluated to measure and document whether or
not the course objectives have been met.

How:
1. Assessment
A. Purpose – To determine how a learner is progressing in the course
i. Provides practical and specific feedback, including direction / guidance on how to raise performance
ii. Provides an opportunity for self-evaluation
B. Characteristics of an Effective Assessment
i. Must be honest, and based on the facts as they were, not as they could have been
ii. Flexible - Fit the tone, technique and content of the assessment to the specific occasion and learner
a. The ongoing challenge for the instructor is deciding what to say, omit, stress, and minimize
iii. Acceptable - Comes from confidence in qualifications, teaching, sincerity, competence / authority
a. Present the critique fairly, with authority, conviction, sincerity, from a position of competence
iv. Comprehensive - Covers strengths AND weaknesses
a. Tailor to the learner – what provides most benefit? A few major points or more minor points?
v. Constructive – Learner should benefit; information should have purpose
a. When identifying a mistake or weakness, give positive guidance for correction
vi. Organized - Follow a logical pattern of organization otherwise it may lose its impact
a. The sequence of the performance itself
b. Work backward from where the demonstration failed (or was successful)
c. Break the whole into parts or build the parts into a whole
vii. Thoughtful - Reflects thoughtfulness toward the need for self-esteem, recognition, and approval
viii. Specific (rather than general) – Should be no doubt what was good / poor, and how to improve
C. Traditional Assessment
i. Written testing, such as multiple choice, matching, fill in the blank, etc.
ii. Characteristics of a good test:
a. Reliability, Validity, Usability, Objectivity, Comprehensiveness, Discrimination
D. Authentic Assessment
i. Perform real-world tasks, and demonstrates a meaningful application of skills and competencies
ii. Open ended questions and set criteria are important characteristics

28
 I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, and Testing

a. Four-step series of open-ended questions:

 Replay: Verbally replay the flight or procedure
 Reconstruct: Identify the things that could have been done differently
 Reflect: Reflect on the events to find insight
 Redirect: Relate the lessons learned to other experiences
b. Can then compare the instructor’s assessment with the learner’s self-assessment
c. Post assessment, progress is recorded on a rubric. Two broad rubrics are used:
 One that assesses proficiency on skill-focused maneuvers/procedures (Maneuver Grades)
 One that assesses proficiency on single-pilot resource management (Risk Management Skills)
iii. Maneuver or Procedure Grades
a. Describe: Learner can describe characteristics and elements but needs help executing the maneuver
b. Explain: Learner can describe the activity, its concepts, principles & procedures but needs help executing
c. Practice: Learner can plan and execute the scenario. Assistance corrects deviation and errors
d. Perform: Learner identifies/corrects errors & can perform the activity without instructor assistance
e. Not Observed: Not accomplished/required
iv. Assessing Risk Management Skills
a. Explain: Can identify, describe & understand risks, but needs prompted to identify risks/make decisions
b. Practice: Can identify, understand, and apply SRM principles; assistance corrects deviation & errors
c. Manage-Decide: Can gather the most important data, identify courses of action, evaluate risk in each
course of action, and make the appropriate decision; instructor intervention not required
E. Choosing an Effective Assessment Method
i. Determine level-of-learning objectives
ii. List indicators of desired behaviors
a. Samples of measurable behavior that give the best indication the objective has been achieved
iii. Establish criterion (performance-based) objectives
a. State the behavior expected, conditions under which it is to be performed, and criteria that must be met
iv. Develop criterion-reference test items
a. Written Test Questions should attempt to measure the behavior described in the criterion objectives
b. Performance Tests for Maneuvers
 Desirable for evaluating training based on ACS/PTS standards
 Instructor’s job is to prepare the learner for the practical tests
F. Oral Assessment
i. Overview
a. Most common means of assessment
b. Questions are generally classified as fact questions (memory or recall) and HOT questions (analyze
situations, solve problems, arrive at conclusions)
c. Desirable results when done properly:
 Reveals the effectiveness of the training methods
 Checks learner retention of what has been learned
 Reviews material already presented to the learner
 Can be used to retain learner interest and stimulate thinking
 Emphasizes the important points of training
 Identifies points that need more emphasis
 Checks comprehension of what has been learned
 Promotes active learner participation, which is important to effective learning
ii. Effective Questions:
a. Apply to the subject of instruction

29
 I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, and Testing

b. Brief and concise, but also clear and definite

c. Adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the learners
d. Center on only one idea (limited to who, what, where, when, why, or how and not a combination)
e. Present a challenge to the learner
iii. Questions to Avoid
a. Yes/No questions, Puzzle, Oversize, Toss-up, Bewilderment, Trick, Irrelevant Questions
2. Critique
A. Purpose
i. An instructor-to-learner assessment
a. Used in conjunction with a traditional or authentic assessment
ii. Covers good/bad performance, the individual parts, relationships of individual parts & overall performance
B. Types
i. Instructor / Learner Critique - Instructor leads discussion where learners offer criticism of a performance
a. This should be controlled carefully and directed with a firm purpose (not a free-for-all)
ii. Learner Led Critique - A learner is asked to lead the assessment; Can generate interest and learning
iii. Small Group Critique - Small groups are assigned a specific area to analyze and present their findings on
a. The combined reports can result in a comprehensive critique
iv. Critique by another Learner - Another learner is requested to present the entire assessment
a. The instructor must maintain firm control over the process
v. Self-Critique - A learner critiques their own personal performance
a. Do not leave controversial issues unresolved, or erroneous impressions uncorrected
vi. Written Critique
a. Instructor can devote more time and thought to it
b. Learners can keep written assessments and refer to them whenever they wish
c. The learner has a record of suggestions, recommendations, and opinions of all other learners
d. Disadvantage is that other members of the class do not benefit
C. Ground Rules
i. Do not extend the critique beyond its scheduled time limit and into time allotted for other activities
ii. Avoid trying to cover too much. Get the main points (4-5 things to correct at most)
iii. Allow time for a summary of the critique to reemphasize the most important things to remember
iv. Avoid absolute statements
v. Avoid controversies with the class and don’t take sides
vi. Never allow yourself to be maneuvered into defending criticism
vii. If part of the critique is written, ensure it is consistent with the oral portion
3. Assessment of Piloting Ability (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, Chapter 9)
A. Overview
i. Essential part of the teaching process to determine how, what, and how well learning is occurring
ii. Provides learner something constructive to work or build on
iii. Learner’s must understand the purpose of the assessment
B. Demonstrated Ability
i. Assessment must be based on established standards of performance adjusted for the learner’s experience
C. Postflight Evaluation
i. Keep the learner informed of progress
ii. Should be written
iii. With SBT, collaborative assessment is used when a scenario is completed
D. Solo Flight
i. Ensure a positive, confidence building experience
a. Be available to answer questions or resolve issues

30
 I.D. Student Evaluation, Assessment, and Testing

b. Have access to a portable radio, if possible, to monitor and, terminate the solo if a situation arises
ii. Debrief
a. Answer questions, ensure correct flight procedures
E. Correction of Errors
i. Safety permitting, it’s often better to let learners progress part way into a mistake and find a way out
ii. Learners may perform a procedure correctly but not fully understand the principles/objectives
a. Vary the procedure slightly, combine it with another operation, or apply the elements to the
performance of another procedure
F. Practical Test Recommendations
i. Serious flight instructor responsibility
ii. Require learner to thoroughly demonstrate the knowledge & skill required for the certificate/rating
a. Failure to ensure the learner meets the requirements is a serious deficiency in instructor performance

Conclusion
Brief review of the main points

31
I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9) Chapter 8

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to flight instructor
characteristics and responsibilities as necessary in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Aviation Instructor Responsibilities

2. Flight Instructor Responsibilities
3. Qualifications & Professionalism
4. Professional Development

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the responsibilities associated with instructing as well as the
Standards characteristics related to being a professional.
 I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
These are the characteristics that will make you a great flight instructor, and the responsibilities of being one.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson discusses the scope of responsibilities for instructors and enumerates methods they can use to enhance
their professional image and conduct.

Why
It is important that aviation instructors not only know how to teach, but they also need to project a knowledgeable
and professional image.

How:
1. Aviation Instructor Responsibilities
A. Helping Learners
i. Learning should be enjoyable and interesting
ii. Standards, and measurement against standards, are key to helping learners
B. Providing Adequate Instruction
i. Carefully and correctly analyze each learner’s personality, thinking, and ability
ii. Assign easier to attain sub-goals for learners experiencing slow progress
a. As confidence and ability are gained, difficulty should be increased until progress is normal
iii. Fast learners may assume correcting errors is unimportant since they make few mistakes
a. For such learners, constantly raise the standard of performance
C. Standards of Performance
i. Do not allow learners to get by with substandard performance – helps no one
D. Emphasize the positive because positive instruction results in positive learning
E. Minimizing Learner Frustration (Encourage, rather than discourage)
i. Motivate Learners
a. More can be gained from wanting to learn than being forced to learn
ii. Keep Learners Informed
a. Learners feel insecure when they don’t know what is expected or what will happen to them
 Provide course overviews, progress updates, adequate notice for exams, assignments, etc.
 Talk about money when necessary
iii. Approach Learners as Individuals
iv. Give Credit When Due
a. Praise/credit from the instructor usually is ample reward and provides an incentive to do better
v. Criticize Constructively
a. If the learner is briefed on the errors AND is told how to correct them, progress can be made
vi. Be Consistent
a. The instructor’s philosophy and actions must be consistent to avoid learner confusion
vii. Admit Errors

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 I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment

a. Respect is earned by acknowledging mistakes; Covering up mistakes destroys confidence

viii. Be Well Prepared - Learners are spending a lot of money and deserve a well-prepared instructor
2. Flight Instructor Responsibilities
A. Physiological Obstacles for Flight Learners
i. Do not ignore negative factors, like fear of small aircraft, strange noises, G-forces / motion sickness
ii. Negative sensations can often be overcome by understanding
B. Ensuring Learner Skill Set (Formerly titled Ensure Student Ability)
i. Flight instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance and restraint with respect to solo ops
a. By far the most important responsibility
ii. Provide instruction for each item in the applicable ACS/PTS, including “special emphasis areas”
iii. Before solo flight, the learner should display consistent ability to handle responsibilities of solo flight
iv. Be current on the latest procedures regarding training, certification, and safety
v. Maintain a current library of information
C. Pilot Supervision & Surveillance
i. Instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance & restraint with respect to solo operations
ii. Does not stop at solo
a. Responsibility to train competent, safe, and smart pilots who will be an asset to the aviation community
3. Qualifications & Professionalism
A. Qualifications
i. Be thoroughly familiar with the functions, characteristics, and use of all flight instruments/avionics/systems
ii. Maintain familiarity with current pilot training techniques and certification requirements
B. Professionalism
i. The instructor is the central figure in aviation training and bear responsibility for all phases of training

C. Sincerity - Be straight forward and honest at all times

i. Do not attempt to hide inadequacy – can lead to loss of confidence and adversely affect learning
D. Acceptance of the Learner - Accept all learners as they are, including all faults and problems
i. Acceptance, rather than ridicule, and support, rather than reproof, will encourage learning
E. Personal Appearance and Habits - Expected to be neat, clean, and appropriately dressed
i. Personal habits have a significant effect (exercising common courtesy is most important)
a. Personal cleanliness is important as well (it can be distracting)
F. Demeanor - Attitude and behavior can contribute much to a professional image

34
 I.E. Elements of Effective Teaching in a Professional Environment

a. Requires development of a calm, thoughtful, and disciplined, but not somber, demeanor
ii. Portray competence in the subject matter and genuine interest in the learner’s well being
G. Proper Language - Speak normally, without inhibitions; positively and descriptively, without profanity
4. Professional Development
A. Be alert for ways to improve your qualifications, effectiveness, and services provided to learners
B. Maintain a steady supply of fresh material to make instruction interesting and up to date
C. Continuing Education - Continually update knowledge and skill
i. Government
a. Seminars, articles, regulations, ACs; Pilot Proficiency Award Program; Gold Seal Flight Certificate
ii. Educational/Training Institutions - Attend classes at community colleges, technical schools, etc.
iii. Commercial Organizations - Training material, and training courses
iv. Industry Organizations - Articles, publications, training programs
D. Sources of Material
i. Maintain access to current flight publications (Regulations, AIM, PTS, ACS, ACs, etc.)
ii. Commercial handbooks, periodicals, technical journals
5. Instructor Ethics & Conduct
A. A formal code of conduct/ethics promotes safety, good judgement, ethical behavior, and personal responsibility
i. Flight Instructors Model Code of Conduct (FIMCC)
B. Remember you are teaching a pilot who should:
i. Make safety the #1 priority
ii. Develop and exercise good judgment in making decisions
iii. Recognize and manage risk effectively
iv. Be accountable for their actions
v. Act with responsibility and courtesy
vi. Adhere to prudent operating practices and personal operating parameters
vii. Adhere to applicable laws and regulations
viii. Seek proficiency in control of the aircraft
ix. Use flight deck technology in a safe and appropriate way
x. Be confident in a wide variety of flight situations
xi. Be respectful of the privilege of flight

Conclusion
Brief review of the main points

35
I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching (Risk Management & Accident Prevention)

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to managing and mitigating
risk.

Elements 1. Principles of Risk Management

2. Risk Management Process
3. Level of Risk
4. Assessing Risk
5. Mitigating Risk
6. Risk Management Tools
7. Teaching Risk Management
8. ADM, CRM, & SRM

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner can recognize potentially hazardous situations and effectively mitigate risk using
Standards the concepts and procedures listed here.
 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
We’re pilots, we like the rush of flight and the sense of danger. All FAA operations in the United States involve risk;
don’t let the risk and danger get out of control.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Risk management is a decision-making process designed to perceive hazards systematically, assess the degree of risk
associated with a hazard, and determine the best course of action.

Why
Flying is inherently dangerous, but there are ways to keep the danger to a minimum. This lesson will describe ways to
recognize and mitigate the risk involved with flying.

How:
1. Principles of Risk Management
A. The goal of risk management is to proactively identify safety-related hazards and mitigate the risks
B. Accept no Unnecessary Risk, only accept the necessary risk
i. Flying is impossible without risk, do not make a situation more dangerous than necessary
C. Make Risk Decisions at the Appropriate Level
i. In single pilot situations, the pilot makes decisions (not ATC, or passengers)
ii. In other situations, it may be beneficial to “go up the ladder” for a decision (CFI, Chief Pilot, etc.)
D. Accept Risk When Benefits Outweigh the Costs
i. Analyze costs and benefits, make an informed decision
E. Integrate Risk Management into Planning at All Levels
i. Safety requires risk management planning in all stages of flight
2. Risk Management Process
A. Step 1: Identify the Hazard
i. Hazards can cause degradation, injury, illness, death, damage to or loss of equipment / property
B. Step 2: Assess the Risk
i. Determine the level of risk associated with the identified hazards
a. Assess in terms of its likelihood (probability) and its severity (consequences)
ii. Develop a method to tangibly measure risk (Risk Assessment Matrix, below)
C. Step 3: Mitigate the Risk
i. Look for ways to reduce, mitigate, or eliminate risk
ii. Use the Cost / Benefit analysis to decide if it is worth
accepting the risk
3. Level of Risk
A. Level of risk for a hazard is measured in terms of:
i. Severity (extent of possible loss)
ii. Probability (likelihood that a hazard will cause a loss)
4. Assessing Risk
A. Establish a review process and develop strategies to

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 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

minimize risk
B. Risk Matrix - Assesses the likelihood of an event occurring and the consequences of that event
i. Likelihood (probability of occurrence): Probable, Occasional, Remote, Improbable
ii. Severity: Catastrophic, Critical, Marginal, Negligible
5. Mitigating Risk
A. After determining the level of risk, analyze options available to reduce the risk
B. Delay or cancel the flight, change the route / destination, bring a CFI or more experienced pilot, etc.
6. Risk Management Tools
A. PAVE Checklist
i. Another way to mitigate risk
ii. Risk is divided into 4 categories
a. Decide whether the risks can be managed safely. If not, the flight should be cancelled
iii. Pilot in Command: Am I ready? (IMSAFE Checklist, proficiency, recency, currency, etc.)
iv. Aircraft: Is the aircraft appropriate for the trip?
a. Maintenance, Landing Distance, Performance Capabilities, Equipment, Fuel load, Altitude, etc.
v. EnVironment: Weather, Terrain, Airports, Airspace, Day/Night, etc.
vi. External Pressures: Influences outside of the flight that create pressure to complete the flight
a. This is the one risk factor that can cause a pilot to ignore all other risk factors
b. Follow your own personal operating procedures (don’t bend the rules for anyone)
B. 5P Checklist
i. Used to evaluate the situation at key decision points during the flight, or when an emergency arises
a. Very helpful portion of Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM)
b. At least 5 times, review the 5 P’s and make a decision for the current situation
 Decision points: Preflight, pre-takeoff, hourly or at the midpoint of flight, pre-descent, and just prior
to the final approach fix or entering the traffic pattern
ii. The 5 P’s:
a. Plan - The mission. It contains planning, weather, route, fuel, publication currency, etc.
 Always changing, adjust with it
b. Plane - Condition, abilities (performance, automation, etc.), equipment, systems, etc.
c. Pilot - IMSAFE
d. Passengers - Passenger’s desires can have an influence on decision making and risk management
 Ensure passengers understand the risk and are involved in decision making process
 Understand what passengers want to do (they may be more risk averse than you)
e. Programming - Plan when and where programming should (and should not) be accomplished
C. Flight Risk Assessment Tools (FRAT)
i. Formal process to remove personal desires and emotion from decision making (numerous FRATs available)
a. Determine an acceptable level of risk for flight based on type of operation, environment, aircraft, etc.
 Create realistic numerical thresholds (min of 3) that trigger additional levels of scrutiny, for example:
a Green (medium): Good to fly, mitigate risk as able
b Yellow (serious): Some risk needs to be reduced before departure
c Red (high): Do not fly until risk is reduced/mitigated
 Hazards are scored based on severity
 When risk exceeds the acceptable level, reevaluate hazards and reduce risk or don’t fly
ii. National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) Flight Risk Assessment Tool
D. IMSAFE Checklist
i. Mitigate risk by determining your own physical and mental readiness for flight
a. Illness – Symptoms?

38
 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

b. Medication – Taking any?

c. Stress – Family, money, relationships, work, etc.
d. Alcohol – Been drinking?
e. Fatigue – Well rested?
f. Emotion – Emotionally upset?
7. Teaching Risk Management (RM)
A. When & How
i. Most beneficial if RM is taught first (lesson 1) and then integrated into the rest of training (ground & flight)
ii. Should be included in all preflight and postflight briefings
iii. Include in recurrent, transition, flight reviews, IPCs, etc.
B. Teaching Techniques by Phase of Instruction
i. Private Pilot
a. Pre-Solo
 Part of every preflight & postflight brief
 Introduce a non-numerical FRAT and demo its use. Learner can conduct basic RM analysis by solo
b. Post-Solo to XC
 Perform risk analysis of planned flight with some help from instructor
 Instructor reviews RM prior to solo flight, and learner debriefs instructor on RM aspects of the flight
c. XC
 Learner masters RM techniques
 Learner completes a full risk analysis for every flight and reviews it with instructor
ii. Instrument
a. Emphasize broad risk management techniques to analyze/evaluate complex weather & other elements
iii. Transition
a. Employ scenarios emphasizing RM & SRM aspects of the new plane
iv. Recurrent, Flight Reviews, IPCs
a. Use RM scenarios that mirror the pilot’s typical operating profile
v. Operational Flights
a. Encourage operational pilots to practice RM on all their flights
 Goal is to provide guidance allowing pilots to think of RM intuitively as part of every flight
b. Scale RM procedures to match the complexity of the flight
vi. Professional Pilots
a. Most professional pilots encounter RM and more (TEM, CRM, etc.) training at their jobs
b. Emphasize RM factors specific to this training, outside of their job
C. RM: Managing Risk during Flight Instruction
i. Overview
a. Same RM techniques as taught to learners apply to the instructor (maintain SA)
ii. Common Risks
a. Identify risks using the PAVE acronym (Pilot, Aircraft, Environment, External Pressures)
iii. Best Practices
a. Follow RM procedures discussed in this lesson
b. Always include the learner in RM
c. Pilot: Be familiar with aircraft & avionics before instructing, IMSAFE, etc.
d. Aircraft: Determine airworthiness, resolve any concerns (include the learner in the process)
e. Environment: Emphasize precise risk assessment & mitigation with learner (terrain, weather, etc.)
f. External: Be conscious of learner’s limitations, concerns & other factors that can affect performance
iv. Takeoff & Landing Considerations

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 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

a. Takeoff
 Majority of teaching should be done prior to contacting tower/advising CTAF of takeoff
 Imperative that the instructor creates realistic training scenarios
b. Landing
 Don’t teach landings mechanically
 Teach when the student can listen and absorb
 Certain landings present unique risks, be aware and be ready
8. RM: Obstacles to Maintaining SA
A. Distraction
i. Minor problem can result in neglecting proper control of the aircraft
ii. Divide attention – flying always comes first
B. Fatigue
i. Two major phenomena: Sleep loss & circadian rhythm disruption
ii. Fatigue is a normal response to many flight operation conditions (noise, vibration, low pressure)
iii. Only effective treatment is sleep
C. Complacency
i. Overconfidence from repeated experience
ii. Reduces effectiveness in the flight deck
iii. Difficult to recognize
a. Be especially alert to complacency in learners with significant experience
b. Advanced avionics can promote complacency and inattention
iv. Exercises to recognize complacency and situational awareness
a. Ask about positions of other aircraft, instrument indications, and location in relation to references
b. Focus the learner’s attention on an imaginary problem
 Point out that SA is not being maintained if the learner diverts too much attention from other tasks
9. ADM, CRM, & SRM
A. Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
i. Systematic approach to the mental process used to determine the best course of action
a. It is estimated that approximately 80% of all aviation accidents are a result of human factors
ii. Decision Making Process
a. Define the Problem
 Recognize a change has occurred or an expected change did not occur
 Critical error: Incorrectly defining the problem
b. Choose a Course of Action
 Evaluate the need to react, determine actions to resolve the situation in the time available
 Consider the expected outcome of each action and associated risks
c. Implement the Decision and Evaluate the Outcome
B. Factors Affecting Decision Making
i. RM: Hazardous Attitudes (pictured below)
a. Attitude affects the quality of decisions
b. Must be able to spot hazardous attitudes and remove them
c. Attitudes & Antidotes
ii. Stress Management
a. A certain amount of stress is normal/good
b. Too much can be very bad – stress is cumulative
c. 3 types of stress that affect performance
 Physical: Associated with the environment (temperature, noise, vibration, lack of oxygen)

40
 I.F. Elements of Effective Teaching

 Physiological: Physical conditions (fatigue, lack of

physical fitness, missed meals)
 Psychological: Social or emotional factors (divorce,
death in the family, sick child)
d. Recognize when stress is affecting a learner
 Distracted or has a difficult time accomplishing the
tasks
 Try to determine the cause (doesn’t have to be
specific, could be a private matter)
 Have them self-assess then set realistic goals -
Delay training, if necessary
 Put the learner and their progress first
C.
Single
Pilot

Resource Management (SRM) / Crew Resource

Management (CRM)
i. What is it?
a. How to gather information, analyze it, and make decisions
b. Includes all groups working with the flight crew involved in decisions to operate a flight safely
ii. Use of Resources
a. Use all available resources (think outside the box)
b. Internal Resources
 Equipment, systems, charts, books, ingenuity, knowledge, skill, other passengers
c. External Resources
 ATC, flight service specialists, guard, etc.
d. Workload Management
 Plan, prioritize, and sequence to prevent overload
 Prepare for high workload situations
 Be able to recognize high workloads
iii. 5 P’s Check, as discussed is a very helpful to (SRM)

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

41
II. Technical Subject Areas
II.A. Human Factors

References:
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25); Chapter 17 pgs. 1-19
Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3) Chapter5 pg. 3
AIM – Chapter 8

Objectives The student exhibits knowledge regarding aeromedical factors as required in the PTS/ACS.

Key Elements 1. IM SAFE – Self Checklist

2. Trust the instruments
3. Carbon Monoxide is 200x more likely to bond with blood than oxygen

1. Hypoxia
Elements 2. Hyperventilation
3. Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
4. Spatial Disorientation
5. Motion Sickness
6. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
7. Fatigue and Stress
8. Dehydration
9. Hypothermia
10. Optical Illusions
11. Nitrogen and Scuba Diving
12. Alcohol and Other Drugs
13. ADM, CRM, & SRM

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to explain different aeromedical factors, and their importance to
Standards flying and possible effects during flight.
 II.A. Human Factors

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Safety in the aircraft requires knowledge of the factors that can lead to negative consequences if we were unaware or
unable to treat them. Hypoxia, for example, can result in symptoms of euphoria and the inability to make any sort of
rational decision, which is obviously not a good thing while you’re trying to fly a plane. (There are many good
hyperbaric chamber/hypoxia videos on you tube)

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Aeromedical factors involve a number of health and physiological factors that can influence a pilot and his or her
ability to fly safely. Some are minor, while others require special attention to ensure safety and survival.

Why
Many of these factors not only affect the health and well-being of the pilot but can quickly lead to in-flight
emergencies.

How:
1. Hypoxia
A. Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough oxygen”
B. Hypoxic Hypoxia
i. A result of insufficient oxygen available to the lungs (ex. blocked airway or drowning)
ii. For Pilots: The reduction in partial pressure of oxygen at high altitude is a common example
C. Hypemic Hypoxia
i. The blood is not able to take up and transport sufficient oxygen to the cells in the body
ii. Causes:
a. Not enough blood volume, Blood diseases, Hemoglobin (the molecule that transports oxygen) is unable
to bind oxygen molecules, Carbon monoxide poisoning
D. Stagnant Hypoxia
i. Results when the blood isn’t moving to the tissues that need it (ex. when your arm “falls asleep”)
ii. This type of hypoxia can result from:
a. G-forces in flight, shock, the heart failing to pump blood effectively, a constricted artery
E. Histotoxic Hypoxia
i. “Histo” refers to tissues or cells, and “Toxic” means poison
ii. Oxygen is being transported to the cells, but they are unable to use it
iii. Causes:
a. Alcohol and other drugs, such as narcotics and poison
F. Symptoms of Hypoxia
i. Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips)
ii. Headache
iii. Decreased reaction time
iv. Impaired judgment
v. Euphoria

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 II.A. Human Factors

vi. Visual Impairment

vii. Drowsiness Altitude Time of Useful Consciousness
viii. Lightheaded or dizzy sensation 45,000 ft. MSL 9 to 15 seconds
ix. Tingling in fingers or toes 40,000 ft. MSL 15 to 20 seconds
x. Numbness 35,000 ft. MSL 30 to 60 seconds
G. Useful Consciousness 30,000 ft. MSL 1 to 2 minutes
i. Max time to make and carry out rational 28,000 ft. MSL 2 ½ minutes to 3 minutes
decisions without supplemental oxygen 25,000 ft. MSL 3 to 5 minutes
H. Treatment 22,000 ft. MSL 5 to 10 minutes
i. Lower altitude and supplemental oxygen 20,000 ft. MSL 30 minutes or more
I. FAA Physiology Training – One day course in OK with
altitude chamber and vertigo demonstrations
2. Hyperventilation
A. Occurs when experiencing emotional stress, fright, or pain, and the breathing rate and depth increase
i. Excessive loss of carbon dioxide from the body, which can lead to unconsciousness
B. Common Symptoms (very similar to hypoxia):
i. Visual Impairment
ii. Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
iii. Tingling sensations
iv. Hot and cold sensations
v. Muscle spasms
vi. Unconsciousness
C. Treatment
i. Breathing normally is both the best prevention and the best cure for hyperventilation
ii. Breath into a paper bag or talking aloud
iii. If unsure, treat for hypoxia (more dangerous situation)
3. Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
A. Middle Ear Problems
i. Explanation
a. Difference in the pressure of the air outside the body and inside the middle ear/nasal sinuses
ii. Symptoms
a. Pain is the primary indicator
b. Temporary reduction in hearing sensitivity
iii. Relation to flying
a. During a climb, the difference in pressure causes the eardrum to bulge outward
b. During a descent, the difference in pressure causes the eardrum to bulge inward
c. Excessive pressure in either situation can result in pain and a ruptured ear drum
iv. Treatment
a. Chew gum, stretch the jaw
b. Valsalva
c. Medicines, nasal sprays, if approved for flight
B. Sinus Problems
i. Explanation
a. Congestion prevents pressure in the sinuses equalizing with the pressure in the cockpit
ii. Symptoms
a. Sinus pain/Upper teeth ache
b. Bloody mucus from the nasal passages
iii. Treatment

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 II.A. Human Factors

a. Slower descent rates can reduce the pain

b. Do not fly with sinus problems
4. Spatial Disorientation
A. Explanation
i. Spatial Disorientation - lack of orientation of the position/attitude/movement of the plane in space
ii. The body uses three systems to ascertain orientation and movement in space
a. Visual: The eye, by far the largest source of information
b. Somatosensory: Nerves that sense
position based on gravity, feeling,
and sound
c. Vestibular System: Motion sensing
system in inner ears
 Reports head position,
orientation, movement
B. Relation to Flight
i. Flying can result in conflicting
information leading to disorientation
ii. Visual System (eyes)
a. VMC - Eyes prevail over false
sensations
b. IMC - Eyes can’t correct for false sensations
iii. Vestibular System (inner ear – pictured, above/right)
a. Senses movement / determines orientation
b. Semicircular Canals
 Detect angular acceleration (turns)
 Only detects turns of a short duration
a After approx. 20 seconds, the feeling of turning
stops (pictured, right)
c. Otolith Organs (pictured, bottom right)
 Detect linear acceleration/gravity
 Forward acceleration can give the illusion of the head
tilting backward (climb)
 Deceleration can give the illusion of the head tilting
forward (descent)
iv. Somatosensory System (nerves)
a. Nerves in the body constantly send info to the brain,
which signals the body’s relation to gravity
b. The brain can’t differentiate between the forces of a turn
or turbulence, and the force of gravity
C. Countering the sensations
i. Recognize the problem, disregard the false sensations, and rely
on the flight instruments
5. Motion Sickness
A. Causes
i. Brain receiving conflicting messages about the body’s state
ii. Anxiety and stress
B. Symptoms
i. General discomfort, Nausea, Dizziness, Paleness, Sweating,

46
 II.A. Human Factors

Vomiting
C. Treatment
i. Open fresh air vents
ii. Focus on objects outside the airplane and avoid unnecessary head movement
iii. Take control of the aircraft and fly smooth, straight, and level
6. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
A. How it Happens – In the Plane
i. Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas produced by all internal combustion engines
ii. Exhaust leak can allow CO to enter the cabin
B. How it Happens – In the Body
i. CO attaches itself to the hemoglobin in the blood, preventing it from carrying oxygen to the cells
C. Effects of CO poisoning
i. Hypemic hypoxia, Headache, Blurred vision, Dizziness, Drowsiness, Loss of muscle power
D. Detecting and Correction
i. CO detector
ii. If a strong odor of exhaust gases is detected, assume CO is present
iii. If suspected:
a. Turn off the heater and open fresh air vents and windows
b. Use supplemental oxygen, if available
c. Land
7. Fatigue and Stress
A. Fatigue
i. Acute Fatigue (short term)
a. Short term, and a normal occurrence in everyday life
b. Skill Fatigue: A special type of acute fatigue affecting piloting skill. Effects include:
 Timing Disruption: Performing a task, but the timing of each element is slightly off
 Concentrating attention on the center of vision and neglecting the periphery
c. Causes: Physical and Psychological stress, mild hypoxia
d. Prevention: Proper diet, Adequate rest and sleep
ii. Chronic Fatigue
a. Fatigue over a long period of time, usually has psychological roots, or underlying disease
b. Causes: Continuous high-stress levels
c. Symptoms
 Weakness, Tiredness, Headaches, Irritability, Breathlessness, Aches and pains
 Heart palpitations, Stomach or intestinal problems
 Emotional Illness (when conditions become serious enough)
d. Prevention: Usually requires treatment by a physician
B. Stress
i. The body’s response to physical and psychological demands placed upon it
ii. Stressors
a. Physical stress (noise or vibration)
b. Physiological stress (fatigue)
c. Psychological stress (difficult work or personal situations)
iii. Two Categories of Stress (Acute and Chronic)
a. Acute Stress (short term)
 Involves an immediate threat that is perceived as danger (fight or flight response)
 Normally, a healthy person can cope with acute stress and prevent stress overload

47
 II.A. Human Factors

 On-going acute stress can develop into chronic stress

b. Chronic Stress (long term)
 Stress that exceeds the ability to cope, and causes performance to fall sharply
 Unrelenting psychological pressures (ex. loneliness, financial worries, relationship problems)
 Not safe to fly. Consult a physician
8. Dehydration
A. Definition: Critical loss of water from the body
B. Causes: Hot flight decks/flight lines, wind, humidity, diuretic drinks (coffee, tea, alcohol, soda)
C. Effects: Fatigue, inability to concentrate, headaches, cramps, tingling, sleepiness, and dizziness
D. Prevention: Primarily water
i. Keep the cockpit well ventilated and protect yourself from the sun
ii. Limit daily caffeine and alcohol intake
9. Hypothermia
A. How it Happens
a. The body loses heat faster than it can be produced (Normal: 98.6o F/37o C, Hypothermia: < 95o F/35o C)
ii. Mechanisms of heat loss
a. Radiated heat: Most heat loss is due to heat radiated from unprotected parts of the body
b. Direct contact: In contact with something very cold, heat is conducted away from the body
 Heat is lost much faster in cold water than cold air and if clothes are wet vs dry
c. Wind: Carries away the thin layer of warm air at the surface of your skin
B. Causes
i. Clothes that aren’t warm enough for the weather, or unable to get out of wet clothes
ii. Too much time in the cold or cold water
C. Symptoms
i. Shivering, Slurred speech or mumbling, Slow, shallow breathing, Weak pulse, Clumsiness, Drowsiness,
Confusion or memory loss, Bright red, cold skin
D. Prevention (COLD)
i. Cover: Wear protective clothing
ii. Overexertion: Avoid activities that result in a lot of sweat
iii. Layers: Loose fitting, layered, lightweight clothing (wool, silk or polypropylene)
a. Tightly woven, water repellent material is best for wind protection
iv. Dry: Stay dry – get out of wet clothing as soon as possible
10. Optical Illusions
A. Runway Width Illusion
i. Reason: A narrower or wider than usual runway
ii. Illusion: Narrow – Appear to be at a higher altitude than you are (appear lower with a wide runway)
iii. Result: Narrow – A lower than normal approach; Wider – A higher than normal approach
B. Runway and Terrain Slope Illusion
i. Reason: A sloping runway, sloping terrain, or both
ii. Illusion: Upslope – Appear to be higher than you are (appear to be lower with a downslope)
iii. Result: Upslope – A lower than normal approach; Downslope – A higher than normal approach
C. Featureless Terrain Illusion
i. Reason: An absence of ground features, as when landing over water, or darkened areas
ii. Illusion: Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is
iii. Result: The pilot who doesn’t recognize this will fly a lower approach
D. Atmospheric Illusions
i. Reason: Rain on the windscreen, Atmospheric Haze, Penetration of fog
ii. Illusion: Rain - Illusion of greater height; Haze –Greater distance; Fog – Pitching up

48
 II.A. Human Factors

iii. Result: Rain & Haze - A lower than normal approach; Fog – steepens the approach, often abruptly
E. Ground Lighting Illusions
i. Reason: Lights along a straight path, such as a road, and even lights on moving trains
ii. Illusions: Can create the illusion of runway and approach lights
iii. Result: The pilot may attempt to land on a path, road, or train
iv. Reason: Bright runway and approach lighting systems
v. Illusion: Can create the illusion of less distance to the runway
vi. Result: The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach
F. Preventing landing Illusions
i. Anticipate them during approaches; Use glide slope or VASI/PAPI systems whenever possible
11. Nitrogen and Scuba Diving
A. Why it’s a Danger
i. Scuba diving results in a significant increase in the amount of nitrogen dissolved in the body
B. Scuba Diving and Flying
i. If not enough time is allowed to eliminate the excess nitrogen, decompression sickness (DCS) can occur
ii. Symptoms: severe pain and impairment, extreme cases can result in death
iii. Wait times:
a. Wait 12 hrs. before flight up to 8,000’ MSL; 24 hrs. for flight above 8,000’
b. Wait 24 hrs. after a dive that requires a controlled ascent before flight up to 8,000’ MSL
12. Alcohol and Other Drugs
A. DON’T drink and fly
i. Alcohol interferes with the brains ability to utilize oxygen (histotoxic hypoxia)
ii. Altitude multiples the effects of alcohol on the brain
iii. FAR 91.17 – 8 hrs. ‘from bottle to throttle’ (8 hrs. and not feeling the effects of alcohol is better)
B. Medications
i. FAR 61.53 prohibits flying if using meds/getting treatment that would prevent obtaining a medical
ii. FAR 91.17 prohibits the use of drugs that affect you in any way contrary to safety
iii. Do not fly while taking any medication(s), unless approved by the FAA
13. ADM, CRM, & SRM
A. RM: Distractions (Task Prioritization, Loss of SA, Disorientation)
i. Human factors can present significant, distractions, disorientation, and an inability to manage tasks
a. IMSAFE:
 Illness – Symptoms?
 Medication – Taking any?
 Stress – Family, money, relationships, work, etc.
 Alcohol – Been drinking?
 Fatigue – Well rested?
 Emotion – Emotionally upset?
ii. In flight, be alert to factors that can affect performance and lead to disorientation, etc.
iii. RM: Combat expectation bias
a. Your expectations can influence behavior
b. Individuals are vulnerable to thinking they see (or hear) what they expect to see (or hear)
iv. RM: Hazardous Attitudes (pictured below)
a. Attitude affects the quality of decisions
b. Must be able to spot hazardous attitudes and remove them
c. Attitudes & Antidotes
v. Stress Management
a. A certain amount of stress is normal/good

49
 II.A. Human Factors

b. Too much can be very bad – stress is cumulative

c. 3 types of stress that affect performance
 Physical: Associated with the environment (temperature, noise, vibration, lack of oxygen)
 Physiological: Physical conditions (fatigue, lack of physical fitness, missed meals)
 Psychological: Social or emotional factors (divorce, death in the family, sick child)
d. Recognize when stress is affecting a learner
 Distracted or has a difficult time
accomplishing the tasks
 Try to determine the cause (doesn’t have to
be specific, could be a private matter)
 Have them self-assess then set realistic goals -
Delay training, if necessary
 Put the learner and their progress first
B. Use all Resources
iv.

Use all available resources (think outside the box)

v. Internal Resources
a. Equipment, systems, charts, books, ingenuity, knowledge, skill, other passengers
vi. External Resources
a. ATC, flight service specialists, guard, etc.
vii. Workload Management
a. Plan, prioritize, and sequence to prevent overload
b. Prepare for high workload situations
c. Be able to recognize high workloads
d. “Attack the closest alligator” – Deal with the most pressing/threatening issue

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

50
II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance

References:
Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3) (Chapter 1 pgs. 10-12)
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25) (Chapter 14 pgs. 28-30, 17 pgs. 7-8
AIM Chapter 8-1-8
Pilot’s Role in Collision Avoidance (AC 90-48)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to proper visual scanning and
collision threat avoidance. The student also will have knowledge regarding in flight and landing
illusions as well as how to avoid trusting them.

Key Elements 1. “See and Avoid”

2. Clearing Procedures
3. Trust Your Instruments

Elements 1. “See and Avoid”

2. Proper Visual Scanning
3. Collision Risks
4. Clearing Procedures
5. Recognizing Hazards
6. Collision Avoidance
7. Conditions that Degrade Vision
8. Illusions

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign Next Study Material

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the importance of maintaining a vigilant traffic scan and consistently
Standards scans for traffic. In the onset of an illusion the student understands the illusion and maintains
safe flight.
II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
AC 90-48C Appendix 1:
How much time do you think you would have to react if two planes were approaching each other at 360 mph from 10
miles out? 100 seconds
How about from 4 miles? 40 seconds
1 mile? 10 seconds
½ Mile? 5 seconds
What if the planes were approaching at 600 MPH? 12 seconds from 2 miles; 3 seconds from ½ mile
You can see that it’s very important that we look out for other traffic.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Visual scanning and collision avoidance is the ability to effectively scan the sky for potential collision threats.

Why
Safety. Visual scanning and collision avoidance is very important in creating safe skies. A diligent visual scan to avoid
collision threats is paramount to the safety of all pilots.

How:
1. “See and Avoid” (FAR 91.113, AC 90-48)
A. Vigilance shall be maintained at all times, by each person operating an aircraft
B. Although often a shared job, the pilot is always responsible to see and avoid traffic
2. Proper Visual Scanning (AIM 8-1-6)
A. Fovea vs Peripheral Viewing
i. Fovea (your center of vision) - sends a clear, sharply focused image to the brain
a. Most effective during daylight, but effectively a blind spot at night
ii. Peripherals – outside of the center of vision, good for detecting motion/collision threats
a. Most effective at night
B. Effective scanning
i. Short, regularly spaced eye movements (10o/1 sec) bringing successive areas of the sky into view
ii. Day – Use the fovea/center of vision; Night – Use peripherals
3. Collision Risks
A. RM: High Traffic Areas (high volume operational environments)
i. Airports (especially uncontrolled), VORs, VFR waypoints, VFR corridors, training areas, airways, etc.
B. Distractions
i. Overconcentration on instruments, maps, tablet, conversation, a problem, or anything other the scan
ii. Poor visibility conditions such as rain, reduced visibility/haze, and the position of the sun
C. Division of Attention
i. 90% outside, 10% inside
4. Clearing Procedures
A. Before Takeoff - Scan the approach/departure areas for traffic

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II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance

B. Climbs / Descents - Use gentle banks left and right to permit scanning
C. Straight and Level - Execute clearing procedures at periodic intervals
D. Traffic Patterns - Scan judiciously; Do not enter the pattern while descending
E. Traffic at VOR Sites - Hight traffic area. Scan judiciously
F. Training Operations – Be vigilant at all times. Use clearing turns prior to each maneuver
G. Blind Spots - Momentarily raise/lower the wing as necessary to clear for traffic before turning
5. Recognizing Hazards (AC 90-48, AIM 8-1-8)
A. RM: Aircraft Speed and Collision Risk
i. Minimum time to spot traffic, identify it,
realize it’s a threat, and respond – 12.5
seconds
B. Recognize High Hazard Areas
i. Aircraft tend to cluster near VORs, and
Class B, C, D, and E surface areas (don’t
depend on ATC)
C. Determining Relative Altitude
i. If the aircraft is above the horizon, it is
probably on a higher flight path, and
vice versa
D. Any aircraft that appears to have no relative motion is likely to be on a collision course
E. Taking Appropriate Action
i. If on a collision course, take immediate action
ii. Safety comes first, but be familiar with Right-of-Way rules (FAR 91.113)
6. Collision Avoidance (AIM 8-1-8)
A. Cockpit Management - Plan ahead/organize to minimize time spent with your eyes inside/head down
B. Visual obstructions in the Cockpit
i. Adjust for blind spots, do not block windows, keep windscreens clean
ii. Keep the windscreen clean
C. Be More Visible
i. Use exterior lights
ii. Keep interior lights low at night to maintain night vision
D. ADS-B
i. Other traffic is displayed on the MFD, often with visual and/or audio alerts
E. ATC Support - Use flight following for radar traffic advisories whenever possible
F. RM: Safety Pilot / Another set of Eyes
7. Conditions that Degrade Vision (AIM 8-1-6)
A. Physical Conditions
i. Medicines/drugs, exhaustion, poor physical conditioning, diet, missing meals, alcohol, tobacco, stressors,
fatigue, lack of oxygen (hypoxia), etc.
ii. CO poisoning, smoking, alcohol/drugs, and a lack of oxygen can decrease night vision
B. Environmental Conditions
i. Dim illumination – Small print and colors become unreadable unless adequate lighting is available
ii. Dark Adaptation – Vision becomes more sensitive to light (30 min to adapt, few second to lose)
iii. Excessive Illumination – Glare results in squinting, watering eyes, even temporary blindness
iv. Visibility Conditions – Smoke, haze, dust, etc.
v. RM: Empty Field Myopia - With nothing to focus on, the eyes focus on a point slightly ahead of the plane
a. Prevention
 Day: Force your eyes to focus farther ahead, maintain your scan

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II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance

 Night: Search out and focus on distant light sources, no matter how dim
8. Vestibular / In Flight / Visual Illusions
A. The Leans: Abrupt correction of a bank entered too slowly to stimulate the senses in the inner ear
i. Illusion: Can create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction
ii. Result: Roll the back into the original attitude (turn), thinking it’s straight and level
B. Coriolis Illusion
i. Reason: Abrupt head movement in a turn that has stopped stimulating the motion sensing system
ii. Illusion: Can create the illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely different axis
iii. Result: The pilot may maneuver into a dangerous attitude in order to stop the perceived rotation
C. Graveyard Spin
i. Reason: Recovery from a spin that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system
ii. Illusion: Can create the illusion of being in a spin in the opposite direction
iii. Result: The disoriented pilot will return the aircraft to its original spin
D. Graveyard Spiral
i. Reason: Loss of altitude during a turn that has stopped stimulating the motion sensing system
ii. Illusion: Can create the illusion of a wings level descent
iii. Result: Pilot may pull back on the controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss of altitude
E. Somatogravic Illusion
i. Reason: A rapid acceleration, or a rapid deceleration
ii. Illusion: Rapid acceleration can create the illusion of a nose up attitude (deceleration = nose down)
iii. Result: May put the aircraft in a nose low/dive attitude (deceleration = nose up/stall attitude)
F. Inversion Illusion
i. Reason: An abrupt change from a climb to straight and level flight
ii. Illusion: Can create the illusion of tumbling backwards
iii. Result: The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose low attitude
G. Elevator Illusion
i. Reason: Abrupt upward/downward vertical acceleration, due to an updraft /downdraft
ii. Illusion: Upward vertical acceleration can create the illusion of being in a climb (downward = decent)
iii. Result: The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose low attitude (downward = nose up)
H. False Horizon
i. Reason: Sloping clouds, obscured horizon, certain patterns of lights
ii. Illusions: Can create the illusion of not being aligned correctly with the horizon
iii. Result: The disoriented pilot will put the aircraft in a dangerous attitude
I. Autokinesis
i. Reason: Darkness
ii. Illusion: A static light when stared at for many seconds will appear to move about
iii. Result: The disoriented pilot may lose control of the aircraft in attempting to align it with the light
J. Preventing Spatial Disorientation
i. Prevented by reference to flight instruments or reliable, fixed points on the ground
ii.

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance

References:
Single Pilot Flight School Procedures During Taxi Operations (AC 91-73)
AIM – Chapter 4-3-18 Taxiing
Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3) – Chapter 1 pgs. 12-13
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25) – Chapter 14 pgs. 31-33
Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to proper incursion avoidance.

Key Elements 1. Read back all clearances

2. Head down activities only when stopped
3. Always have current Airport Diagram (AD)

Elements 1. Runway Incursion

2. Taxi Instructions
3. Plan, Review, and Brief
4. Appropriate Flight Deck Activities
5. Airport Markings, Signs, & Lights
6. Airport Operations & Runway Incursions

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can safely and competently navigate towered and non-towered airports while
Standards effectively avoiding runway incursions.
 II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Runway incursions have led to serious accidents with significant loss of life… (YouTube has many runway incursion
recordings, incorrect taxi instructions, aircraft taxiing the wrong way, etc.)

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Runway incursion avoidance provides practical guidance with the goal of increasing safety and efficiency of aircraft
movement on the airport surface while reducing the risk of runway incursions.

Why
Runway incursions have sometimes led to serious accidents with significant loss of aircraft as well as life. Although
they are not a new problem, with increasing air traffic, runway incursions have been on the rise.

How:
1. Runway Incursion
A. Any occurrence at an airport involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that creates a
collision hazard or results in a loss of separation with an aircraft taking off, landing, or intending to land
B. Approximately 3 runway incursions occur each day at towered airports in the US
i. About 65% of all incursions are caused by pilots (about half of those are caused by GA pilots)
C. Airport/Taxiing Challenges
i. Situational Awareness: Complex layouts, increased traffic
ii. Distractions: Checklists, radio calls, cell phone (texting, phone calls, etc.)
D. Causal Factors
i. Failure to comply with ATC instructions
ii. Lack of airport familiarity
iii. Nonconformance with standard operating procedures (SOPs)
E. Preventive Practices
i. Maintain SA (your position & other aircraft)
ii. Readback all runway crossing and/or hold short instructions
iii. Review airport layouts & know airport signage
iv. Review NOTAMs
v. Request progressive taxi instructions when necessary
vi. Check for traffic before crossing any runway hold line or entering any taxiway
vii. Turn on lights and the rotating beacon or strobes when taxiing
viii. When landing, clear the runway as soon as possible and wait for taxi instructions before moving
ix. Study & use proper phraseology
x. Write down complex taxi instructions
2. Taxi Instructions
A. Approval must be obtained prior to moving onto the movement area while tower is in operation
B. Clearance must be obtained prior to crossing any runway

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 II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance

C. When assigned taxi instructions, ATC will specify:

i. The runway or point to taxi to
ii. Taxi instructions
iii. Hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances if the route will cross a runway
D. When instructions are received from the controller, always read back:
i. The runway assignment
ii. RM: Any clearance to enter a specific runway (entering or crossing runways)
iii. Any instruction to hold short of a specific runway
E. Uncontrolled Field
i. Announce intentions on CTAF
ii. Always have a taxi diagram
iii. Monitor CTAF and maintain SA (your position & other aircraft)
iv. Apply the right-of-way rules, and give way when appropriate, or when safety dictates
3. Plan, Review and Brief
A. Route Planning
i. Have a current copy of the Airport Diagram & review expected routes/closed taxiways
ii. Check for pre-designated, or standard, taxi routes, review these for familiarity
B. Record & Review
i. Write down ATC taxi instructions to prevent mistakes
a. RM: Combats expectation bias
ii. RM: Review the route given by ATC, ask for help in case of confusion
C. Taxi Briefing (***AC 91-73)
i. Ground Procedures
a. Timing and execution of checklists/communications that will not interfere with taxiing
b. Expected route/any abnormalities or unusual procedures
c. Critical locations on the taxi route (hold short, hot spots, etc.)
d. Previous experience/unusual procedures or techniques
e. During low visibility operations, brief the requirements and considerations
ii. Expectations of others (pilots of passengers) in the plane
a. Sterile cockpit procedures - encourage others to speak up if they see a potential conflict
b. Use of airport diagrams (pilots)
c. Cell phones/electronic devices should be off
4. RM: Appropriate Flightdeck Activities (Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of SA, Disorientation)
A. For safety reasons the pilot’s workload should be at a minimum during taxi operations
i. All heads down activities should be done only when the aircraft is stopped
ii. RM: Task prioritization – taxiing comes first, handle all other tasks when safely stopped
B. Sterile cockpit
C. Taxiing Near Other Aircraft
i. Keep eyes outside, taxi slowly and be alert to what’s going on around you and the taxi route
ii. Use a “continuous loop” process to monitor and update their progress and location
iii. Be especially vigilant if another aircraft with a similar call sign is on frequency

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 II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance

5. Airport Markings, Signs, & Lights (for more

detailed info, see V.D. Taxiing, Airport Signs,
and Lighting)
A. General
i. Taxiways should have
centerline/runway holding position
markings whenever intersecting a
runway
ii. Edge markings separate the taxiway
from areas not for aircraft use or
define taxiway edges
B. Taxiway Centerline Markings
i. Normal Centerline
a. Purpose - Provide a visual cue to
permit taxiing along a designated
path
b. Markings - A single continuous
yellow line that is 6” - 12” wide
ii. Enhanced Centerline
a. Purpose - Same as above but at
larger commercial airports to
warn that a runway hold position
marking is being approached
b. Markings - Parallel line of yellow
dashes on both sides of the taxiway centerline
C. Taxiway Edge Markings
i. Purpose - Defines the edge of the taxiway (usually when edge doesn’t match up with
pavement)
ii. Continuous Markings
a. Purpose - Define the taxiway edge from the shoulder/paved surface not
for use by aircraft
b. Markings - Continuous double yellow line
iii. Dashed Markings
a. Purpose - Define the taxiway edge when adjoining pavement is intended
for aircraft (apron)
b. Markings - Broken double yellow line
D. Taxi Shoulder Markings
i. Purpose - Shoulders prevent erosion but they may not support aircraft
ii. Markings - Taxiway edge markings will usually define this area
E. Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs
i. Purpose - When it isn’t possible to offer direction signs at intersections, or to
supplement such signs
ii. Markings - Surface painted location signs with a yellow background and black inscription
F. Surface Painted Location Signs
i. Purpose - Location signs assisting in confirming the taxiway
ii. Markings - Black background with a yellow inscription
G. Geographic Position Markings
i. Purpose - Identifies aircraft location during low visibility operations

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 II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance

ii. Markings - Left of the taxiway centerline in the direction of taxiing

a. A circle with an outer black ring, inner white ring, and a pink circle
 On dark pavement, the white/black ring are reversed
H. Holding Position Markings
i. General
a. Show where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway (hold on the solid side)
b. 4 yellow lines (2 solid / 2 dashed) across the width of the taxiway / runway / approach area
ii. Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiways
a. Purpose - Identify where to stop without a clearance onto the runway
iii. Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways (as shown to the right)
a. Purpose - Installed if normally used for LAHSO or taxiing operations
b. Markings - White inscription/red background next to hold markings
iv. Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area
a. Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS)
 Purpose - Hold aircraft when the ILS critical area is being protected
 Markings - 2 yellow solid lines 2’ apart joined by pairs of solid lines 10’ apart across the taxiway
b. Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
 Purpose - Installed on taxiways where ATC normally holds aircraft short of an intersection
 Markings - Single dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway
c. Surface Painted Holding Position Signs (pictured, right)
 Purpose - Supplements signs located at the holding position
 Markings - Red background/white text, on hold side, before hold lines
I. Other Markings
i. Vehicle Roadway Markings
a. Purpose - Defines a path for vehicle operations on the airport
b. Markings - White solid line delineates each edge and a dashed line separates lanes
ii. VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings
a. Purpose - Allow the pilot to check aircraft instruments with navigational aid signals
b. Markings - Painted circle with an arrow in the middle (arrow is aligned toward the facility)
 Located with a sign on the apron/taxiway; Black text on a yellow background
iii. Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings (pictured, right)
a. Purpose - Delineates movement area (area under control)
b. Markings - 2 yellow lines (one solid and one dashed)
iv. Marking and Lighting of Permanently Closed Runways
a. Purpose – For permanently closed runways and taxiways
b. Markings - Lighting circuits will be disconnected
 Yellow crosses at each end and at 1,000’ intervals
v. Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways
a. Purpose – Indication that a runway is temporarily closed
b. Markings - Yellow crosses at each end
 A visual indication may not be present (check NOTAMs/ATIS)
 Closed taxiways are blockaded (yellow cross may also be used)

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 II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance

J. Airport Signs

i. Mandatory Instruction Signs

a. Purpose - Denote entrance to runway or critical area / area where aircraft are prohibited
b. Markings - Red background with a white text
c. Typical Mandatory Signs and Applications
 Runway Holding Position Sign
 Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign
 ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign
 No Entry Sign
ii. Location Signs
a. Purpose - Identify either a taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located
b. Taxiway Location Sign (pictured, right)
 Purpose - Along taxiways to indicate location
 Markings - Black background with yellow inscription and border
c. Runway Location Sign (pictured, right)
 Purpose - Complement compass / heading info; typically, in areas with multiple runways
 Markings - Black background with yellow text
d. Runway Boundary Sign (pictured, right)
 Purpose - Visual cue depicting when “clear of the runway”
 Markings - Yellow background / black lines
e. ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign (pictured, right)
 Purpose - Depicts where clear of the ILS critical area
 Markings - Yellow background / black lines
iii. Direction Signs
a. Purpose - Identify taxiways out of an intersection
a Designations / arrows are arranged clockwise from the 1st taxiway on the pilot’s left

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 II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance

b. Markings - Yellow background / black text

iv. Destination Signs
a. Purpose - Indicates a destination on the airport
b. Markings - Yellow background/black text
 Runways  Civil Aviation Areas
K. Info
 Aprons  Cargo Areas
rma
 Terminals  International Areas
tion
 Military Areas  FBOs
Signs
a. Purpose - Provide information on things such as:
 Areas the tower can’t see, radio frequencies, noise procedures
b. Markings - Yellow Background / black text
L. Runway Distance Remaining Signs
a. Purpose – Informs the distance remaining on the runway
 Number indicates the thousands of feet of landing runway remaining
b. Markings - Black background / white number
M. Taxiway Lighting
i. Taxiway Edge Lights
a. Steady blue lights outlining the edges of taxiways
ii. Taxiway Centerline lights
a. Steady green lights installed along the centerline of the taxiway
iii. Clearance Bar Lights
a. Three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lights
b. Installed at holding positions on taxiways to increase visibility of the holding position
iv. Runway Guard Lights
a. Pair of elevated flashing yellow lights on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights
across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position marking
b. Installed at taxiway/runway intersections
c. Enhance conspicuity of taxiway/runway intersections
v. Stop Bar Lights
a. A row of red, unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavement lights across the entire taxiway at the runway
holding position, and elevated steady-burning red lights on each side
b. A controlled stop bar operates in conjunction with the taxiway centerline lead-on lights
 Following ATC clearance, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on
c. Used to confirm the ATC clearance to enter or cross the active runway in low visibility
6. Airport Operations & Runway Incursions
A. Hold Lines
i. Show where stop when approaching a runway. Cross the dashed side, stop on the solid side
ii. Always have a clearance to cross any runway
iii. RM: During taxi: (Entering or crossing runways)
a. Approaching from the dashed side, cross (no clearance necessary) and stop fully passed the solid lines
b. If approaching hold lines from the solid side, do not cross without a clearance
c. Always clear both directions and turn on all exterior lights when crossing
B. RM: Landing and Rollout
i. Brief the landing and runway exit/taxi plan (sterile cockpit during taxi)
ii. Exit the runway entirely, do not cross another runway without clearance
C. RM: Night Operations

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 II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance

i. Exterior aircraft lights may be used to make an aircraft on the airport surface easier to see
a. Engines Running: Turn on the rotating beacon whenever an engine is running
b. Taxiing: Prior to taxi, turn on navigation, position, and anti-collision lights
 Strobes should not be used during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of others
c. Crossing a Runway: All exterior lights should be illuminated when crossing a runway
d. Entering the runway for takeoff: Turn on all lights, except for landing lights
e. At night: Line up 3’ off centerline to allow landing aircraft to differentiate you from runway lights
f. Takeoff: Turn on landing lights when cleared for takeoff/starting the takeoff roll if no control tower
ii. Be more cautious at night
a. Taxi slower, allow more time to stop
b. Ensure you remain on the assigned route – lights and signs can be confusing
D. RM: Low Visibility
i. AIM 4-3-19 Taxi During Low Visibility
a. Focus entire attention on the safe operation of the aircraft while it is moving
 Taxi slowly with focus outside
b. Sterile cockpit
c. Notify the controller of difficulties or at the first indication of becoming disoriented
d. Lack of visibility from the tower can prevent visual confirmation of adherence to taxi instructions

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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II.D. Principles of Flight

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the principles of flight. The
student should understand why airplanes are designed in certain ways, as well as the forces
acting on airplanes and the use of those forces in flight.

Key Elements 1. Stability vs. Maneuverability

2. Left Turning Tendency
3. Load Factors

Elements 1. Forces of Flight

2. Airfoil Design
3. Wing Planform
4. Stability and Controllability
5. Turning Tendency
6. Load Factors in Airplane Design
7. Wingtip Vortices

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the principles to flight.

Standards
 II.D. Principles of Flight

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Everything you ever wanted to know about the science of the airplane, which will result in a considerably better
understanding of the airplane and make you a considerably better pilot.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The Principles of Flight are the characteristic forces of flight as well as why and how the airplane performs certain
ways.

Why
To become a pilot, a detailed technical course in the science of aerodynamics is not necessary. However, with the
responsibilities for the safety of passengers, the competent pilot must have a well-founded concept of the forces
which act on the airplane, and the advantageous use of these forces, as well as the operating limitations of the
particular airplane.

How:
1. Forces of Flight
A. Overview
i. Lift – The upward force created by the effect of airflow as it passes over and under the wing
ii. Weight – Opposes lift, and is caused by the downward pull of gravity
iii. Thrust – The forward force which propels the airplane through the air
iv. Drag – Opposes thrust, and is the backward, or retarding force, which limits the speed of the airplane
v. Terminology:
a. Chord Line: The imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an airfoil
b. Relative Wind: The direction of movement of the wind relative to the aircraft’s flight path
c. Angle of Attack: The angle between the chord line and the relative wind
B. Lift
i. The force that opposes weight
ii. Principles of Lift
a. Newton’s three laws of motion:
 1st Law: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain in motion
 2nd Law: Force = Mass x Acceleration (F=ma)
 3rd Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
b. Bernoulli’s Principle: As the velocity of a fluid (air) increases, its internal pressure decreases
C. Airfoils
i. Airfoil: Any surface which provides aerodynamic force when it interacts with a moving stream of air
ii. The wing’s shape is designed to take advantage of Newton’s Laws and Bernoulli’s Principle
a. Greater curvature on the upper portion causes air to accelerate as it passes over the wing (Bernoulli)
b. A downward-backward flow of air also is generated from the top surface of the wing
 The reaction to this downwash results in an upward force on the wing (Newton’s 3rd Law)
c. Newton’s 3rd law is also apparent as the airstream strikes the bottom of the wing when inclined

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 II.D. Principles of Flight

 The air is forced downward and therefore causes an upward force resulting in positive lift
iii. Pilot Control of Lift
a. Lift = ½ pCLv2S (Memory Aid: ½ Pint, Chug a Liter, Vomit twice, Sleep it off)
 P = Rho or a pressure constant
 CL = Coefficient of Lift – A way to measure lift as it relates to the angle of attack
 V = Velocity
 S = Surface Area (Constant)
b. The amount of lift generated is controlled by the pilot and determined by aircraft design factors
 The pilot can change the Angle of Attack (AOA), the airspeed, and the shape of the wing (flaps)

D. Weight
i. Force of gravity which acts vertically through the center of the plane toward the center of earth
ii. When lift = weight, the plane is in equilibrium and doesn’t gain or lose altitude
E. Thrust
i. Forward-acting force which opposes drag and propels the airplane
a. F=MA (Force comes from the engine, mass of air is accelerated opposite the direction of flight)
ii. Thrust starts the airplane moving, it continues to move and gain speed until thrust and drag are equal
F. Drag
i. Rearward, retarding force, caused by disruption of airflow by
the wing, fuselage, or other objects
a. Opposes thrust, and acts rearward and parallel to the
relative wind
ii. Two types of drag
a. Parasite Drag - Caused by surfaces which deflect/interfere
with the smooth airflow of the airplane
 Three Types of Parasite Drag
a Form Drag: Shape of the aircraft/separation of
airflow from the surface of the structure
b Interference Drag: Occurs when varied currents or
air over an airplane meet and interact
c Skin Friction Drag: Caused by the roughness of the
airplane’s surfaces
 Parasite Drag and Airplane Speed – As airspeed
increases, Parasite drag increases
a Varies proportionately to the square of the airspeed
b. Induced Drag – As lift increases, so does induced drag
 Lift is produced at the expense of induced drag
 How it Works
a Vortices create upward flow of air beyond the
wingtip/downwash behind the trailing edge

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 II.D. Principles of Flight

1. This downwash = source of induced drag

b Downwash – The source
1. Tilts the wing’s vertical lift backward (induced drag)
2. The greater the vortices strength/downwash, the more the lift tilts back, and the greater
induced drag
c. Total Drag
 The sum of induced and parasitic drag
 Region of Normal vs Reversed Command
a Normal Command
1. As airspeed decreases, total drag
decreases, to a point (L/DMAX)
2. Higher speeds require higher power
b Region of Reversed Command
1. As airspeed decreases below L/DMAX,
total drag increases
2. Airfoil Design
A. Airfoil: Structure designed to obtain reaction upon its
surface from the air
B. Terminology
i. Camber
ii. Leading edge / Trailing edge
iii. Chord Line
iv. Mean Camber Line
C. General Design Characteristics
i. Air Pressure
a. Negative pressure lifting action above the wing
b. Positive pressure lifting action from below
c. Aircraft weight, speed, purpose dictate shape
 Examples pictured to the right
ii. Low Pressure Above
a. Faster moving air over the upper surface
 Bernoulli’s Principle
b. Downward, backward flow of air creates downwash
 Newton’s 3rd Law
iii. High Pressure Below
a. Positive pressure from below the airfoil
 Newton’s 3rd Law
b. Stagnation Point: Air is virtually stopped at the leading edge
 Slower airflow = increased pressure (Bernoulli’s principle)
iv. Pressure Distribution (pictured, right)
a. At different AOAs, pressures vary between positive / negative
b. Center of Pressure (CP): Average of the pressure variations at a given
AOA
 Aerodynamic forces act through the CP
 Higher AOAs: CP moves forward
 Lower AOAs: CP moves aft
c. CP movement affects aerodynamic balance and controllability

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 II.D. Principles of Flight

D. Note: Production of lift is much more complex than simple differential pressures between the upper / lower
surfaces, but these concepts suffice for this discussion
3. Wing Planform
A. Planform – Wing’s outline from above
i. Characteristics / advantages
ii. Load factors, maneuverability and stability, stall/spin
characteristics, fuel tanks, speed, gear, etc.
B. Taper – Ratio of root chord to tip chord
i. Decreases drag, increases lift
ii. Decreases weight of the wing
C. Aspect Ratio (Wingspan ÷ Ave Chord)
i. High aspect ratio decreases drag
ii. Low Aspect Ratio for extreme maneuverability/strength
D. Sweep – Slant of the wing
i. Usually rearward but can be forward
ii. Helps flying near the speed of sound
iii. Helps lateral stability in slow planes
iv. Tends to stall at wingtips
4. Stability and Controllability
A. Stability (Static and Dynamic)
i. Inherent quality of the airplane to correct for disturbances and return the original flight path
a. Primarily a design characteristic
ii. Static Stability (SS): The initial tendency; aircraft’s initial response when disturbed
a. Positive SS: Initial tendency to return to the original state of equilibrium
b. Negative SS: Initial tendency to continue away from the original state of equilibrium
c. Neutral SS: The initial tendency to remain in a new condition
iii. Dynamic Stability (DS)
a. The aircraft’s response to a disturbance over time
 Positive, Negative, and Neutral – Same as SS, but over time (overall tendency)

iv. Must balance controllability and maneuverability

B. Longitudinal Stability (LS) – About the lateral axis
i. The wing and tail moments need to be balance
a. Ex: If nosed up, the wing / tail moments will change to
bring the nose back down
ii. Static LS is dependent on 3 factors:
a. Location of the wing in relation to the CG
b. Location of the horizontal tail with the CG
c. The area or size of the tail surfaces
C. Lateral Stability - About the Longitudinal Axis

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 II.D. Principles of Flight

i. Dihedral - Angle wings are slanted upward

a. Stabilizing - Balances lift in a sideslip

(picture, right)
ii. Sweepback - angle wings are slanted back
a. Effectively increases dihedral
b. 10o of sweepback = 1o of dihedral
iii. Keel effect
a. Fuselage acts like a keel, returning the
aircraft toward straight and level
iv. Weight Distribution
a. The plane will bank toward a heavier loaded side
D. Directional Stability (DS) - Stability about the vertical axis
i. Affected by the area of the vertical fin and the sides of the fuselage aft of the CG (pictured, above right)
ii. Plane acts like a weathervane, nose points into relative wind
5. Turning Tendency (Torque Effect – Left Turning Tendency)
A. Torque Reaction – Based on Newton’s 3rd Law
i. The engine parts/propeller rotate right, an equal force attempts to rotate the plane left
ii. In flight: left rolling tendency; On ground: left turning
iii. Corrected by offsetting the engine, aileron trim tabs, and/or aileron and rudder use
B. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
i. Corkscrewing propeller air strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer - pushes nose left (shown below)
ii. Strongest at high prop speeds/low forward speeds
C. Gyroscopic Action
i. Precession - Any force takes effect 90o ahead of, and in the direction of rotation
ii. Pitch results in a yawing moment and vice versa
iii. Correct with rudder/elevator
D. Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)
i. At high AOAs, the bite of the down moving blade is greater than the up moving blade
ii. Center of thrust moves to the right of the propeller disc, causing a yaw to the left
iii. Correct with right rudder

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 II.D. Principles of Flight

6. Load Factors (LF) in Airplane Design

A. General
i. The ratio of the total air load acting on the airplane to the gross weight of the airplane (Gs)
ii. Important to for two reasons:
a. Increased load factor increases the stall speed making stalls possible at seemingly safe speeds
b. It is possible for the pilot to impose a dangerous overload on the aircraft structures
B. Airplane Design
i. How strong an airplane should be is determine largely by the use it will be subjected to
ii. Airplanes are designed in accordance with the category system:
a. Normal Category limit load factors are -1.52 Gs to 3.8 Gs
b. Utility Category limit load factors are -1.76 Gs to 4.4 Gs (Mild acrobatics, including spins)
c. Acrobatic Category limit load factors are -3.0 Gs to 6.0 Gs
C. The Vg diagram describes the allowable airspeed/LF combinations for safe flight
i. Each aircraft has its own Vg diagram that is valid at a certain weight and altitude
ii. Areas to note on the Vg diagram:
a. Lines of Maximum Lift Capability (curved lines)
b. Maneuvering Speed
c. Intersection of the Negative Limit Load Factor and Line of Maximum Negative Lift Capability
d. Limit Airspeed (red line)

7. Wingtip Vortices
A. How They Work
i. At positive AOA, pressure differential exists above/below the wing
ii. Air moves from higher to lower pressure, and the path of least resistance is the tips of the wings

69
 II.D. Principles of Flight

iii. Air curls upward around the wingtip and combines with downwash to form
vortices (increases drag)
B. Strength of the Vortices
i. The greater the AOA, the stronger the vortices
ii. Heavy, clean, and slow = strongest vortices
C. Behavior
i. Sink at a rate of several hundred fpm, slowing/diminishing over time
ii. When vortices sink to the ground, they tend to move laterally with the wind
a. Crosswind decreases lateral movement of upwind vortex, but increases
downwind vortex
b. Tailwind can move the vortices of a preceding aircraft forward into the touchdown zone
D. Avoidance
i. Takeoff:
a. Takeoff before the other aircraft’s rotation point; climb above or away from their flight path
b. Takeoff beyond a landing jet’s touchdown point
ii. Enroute:
a. Avoid flying through another aircraft’s flight path
b. Avoid following another aircraft on a similar flight path within 1,000’ below
iii. Landing:
a. Stay above a preceding aircraft’s path, and land past their touch down point
b. Parallel runways – stay at and above the other jet’s flight path for the possibility of drift
c. Crossing runways – cross above the larger jet’s flight path
d. Land prior to a departing aircraft’s takeoff point
E. For more information, see lesson VI.B. Traffic Patterns, Wake Turbulence

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

70
II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers (Additional Info)

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The student should become familiar with the four forces of flight and the forces of flight
maneuvers.

Key Elements 1. Pilot Control of Lift

2. Parasite vs. Induced Drag
3. Ground Effect

Elements 1. Ground Effect

2. Climbs
3. Descents
4. Turns
5. Stalls

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student displays the ability to explain the forces of flight and their interaction and effect on
Standards flight.
II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Everything you ever wanted to know about the science of the airplane which will result in a considerably better
understanding of the airplane and hopefully make you a considerably better pilot.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What:
The four forces of flight are in essence the fundamental principles that govern flight; they are what make an airplane
fly.

Why:
How well a pilot performs in flight depends on the ability to plan and coordinate the use of power and flight controls
to change the forces of thrust, drag, lift, and weight. It is the balance between these forces that the pilot must always
control. The better the understanding of the forces, and means of controlling of them, the greater pilot’s skill.

How:
1. Ground Effect
A. Reduces induced drag
i. The vertical component of the airflow around the wing is restricted by the ground
a. Reduces wingtip vortices and decreases downwash which reduces induced drag
B. Effects on Flight
i. Takeoff: Capable of lift off at lower-than-normal speed
ii. Landing: Airplane seems to float in ground effect
2. Climbs
A. Raising the airplane’s nose momentarily increases AOA and lift
i. Lift at this moment is now greater than weight and starts the airplane climbing
B. Once the flight path is stabilized in a climb, AOA and lift revert to approx. level flight values
C. Without a change in power, airspeed diminishes
i. When inclined upward, a component of weight acts in the same direction, and parallel to, drag
D. The amount of reserve power determines the climb performance
3. Descents
A. When forward pressure is applied, AOA is decreased, and lift is reduced
B. In a steady descent, the airfoil’s AOA again approaches level flight values
C. Airspeed will gradually increase
i. A component of weight is acting forward along the flight path
D. To maintain airspeed, power must be reduced
4. Turns
A. Like any moving object, an airplane requires a sideward force to make it turn (bank)
B. When the airplane banks, lift is divided inward and upward
i. Vertical Component of Lift – Acts vertically and opposite to weight
ii. Horizontal Component of Lift – Acts horizontally (makes the plane turn)
iii. AOA must be increased to maintain altitude

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II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers

C. Airspeed - Increasing AOA results in increased drag. Power is required to maintain airspeed in a turn
D. Rate of Turn - The rate of turns depends on the size of the horizontal component of lift
E. Turn Radius - Increased airspeed = increased turn radius and vice versa
F. Slipping Turns - Rate of turn is too slow for the bank angle, the plane is yawed to the outside of the turn
i. Horizontal component of lift (HCL) is greater than Centrifugal Force (CF)
G. Skidding Turns - Rate of turn is too great for the bank angle and the plane is yawed inside the turn
i. There is excess centrifugal force compared to the HCL
5. Stalls
A. The direct cause of every stall is an excessive angle of attack
B. The stalling speed of a particular airplane is not a fixed value for all flight situations
i. Each plane has a particular AOA where airflow separates from the upper wing, and it stalls (16 o-20o)
C. 3 situations where the critical AOA can be exceeded:
i. Low Speed Flying - As airspeed is decreased, AOA must be increased to hold altitude
ii. High Speed Flying - The wing can be brought to an excessive angle of attack at any speed
a. Ex: High speed dive with a sudden increase in back elevator pressure
iii. Turning Flight - The stalling speed is higher in a level turn than in straight and level flight
a. In a turn, the necessary additional lift is acquired by applying back pressure, increasing AOA

Conclusion:
Brief review of each main point

73
II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the primary and secondary flight controls, and trim.

Key Elements 1. Primary Flight Controls – Airflow and Pressure Distribution

2. Trim relieves control pressures
3. Flaps increase lift and induced drag

Elements 1. Terms 11. FADEC

2. Primary Flight Controls 12. Propeller
3. Secondary Flight Controls 13. Landing Gear & Brakes
4. Trim Systems 14. Fuel Systems
5. Power Plant 15. Electrical Systems
6. Ignition Systems 16. Avionics
7. Induction Systems 17. Flight Instruments
8. Oil Systems 18. Environmental Systems
9. Cooling Systems 19. Deicing & Anti-Icing Systems
10. Exhaust Systems 20.

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can explain the primary and secondary flight controls and their function. The
Standards student will also understand how trim works and can effectively use it.
 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Learning how the flight controls work and why the inputs you make result in the corresponding changes. This is what
is actually going on when you move the control surfaces, adjust trim, or use the flaps.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The airplane’s attitude (rotation around the 3 axes) is controlled by deflection of the primary flight controls. These are
hinged, moveable surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the wings and vertical and horizontal stabilizers. When
deflected, these surfaces change the camber and angle of attack of the wing or stabilizer and thus change its lift and
drag characteristics. Trim controls are used to relieve the control pressures and flaps create a compromise between a
high cruise speed and low landing speed.

Why
Understanding how the airplane functions and the effects each control input will have on the airplane results in an
understanding of how to control the airplane. Understanding how the airplane works results in a much more
proficient pilot.

How:
1. Terms
A. Chord Line – An imaginary straight line drawn through an airfoil from the leading to the trailing edge
B. Camber – The characteristic curve of an airfoil’s upper and lower surfaces
2. Primary Flight Controls
A. Primary flight controls are those required to safely control an airplane during flight
B. Ailerons
i. Control roll about the longitudinal axis
ii. Operated by cables, bell cranks, pulleys and/or push-pull tubes
iii. How they Work
a. One on each wing, move in opposite directions
b. Upward deflection decreases camber / lift, lowering the wing
c. Downward deflection increases camber / lift, raising the wing
iv. Adverse Yaw
a. The down deflected aileron produces more lift, and thus induced
drag –yaws the nose toward the raised wing
b. Rudder is used to counter and maintain coordinated flight
v. 4 Types of Ailerons to counter Adverse Yaw
a. Differential Ailerons
 The upward moving aileron raises higher than the downward moving aileron lowers
 Produces increased drag on the descending wing (raised aileron) to reduce adverse yaw
b. Frise-Type Ailerons
 Raised aileron projects its leading edge into the airflow (reduces adverse yaw)
 Forms a slot so air flows smoothly over the lowered aileron (more effective at high AOA)

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

c. Coupled Ailerons and Rudder

 Ailerons and rudder are linked – rudder automatically deflects with ailerons
d. Flaperons (combine flaps and ailerons)
 Control the bank of the aircraft but can also be lowered together to act as flaps

C. Elevator
i. Controls pitch about the lateral axis
ii. How It Works
a. Pulling back deflects the trailing edge up
 Changes the camber of the horizontal stab, creating a
downward aerodynamic force
 Tail moves down and the nose moves up
b. Pushing forward deflects the trailing edge down
 Changes the camber of the horizontal stab, creating
an upward force
 Tail moves up and the nose moves down
iii. Types of Elevators
a. T-Tail
 Elevator is mounted above most effects of prop downwash/fuselage and wing airflow
a Makes for consistent control movements in most flight
regimes
 At slow speeds, the elevator must be moved a greater
degree to raise the nose a given amount vs a conventional
tail (which has prop downwash assisting in raising the nose)
b. Design Considerations
 Designed stiffer and heavier than conventional
a Longer moment arm creates high loads that can result in
flutter
 Susceptible to a deep stall when slow/high AOA (pictured)
a The wing’s airflow, when fully stalled, creates a wake of
decelerated, turbulent air blanketing the horizontal tail
1. Elevator control is reduced, or possibly eliminated
c. Stabilator - “All-moving tail”
 Essentially a one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a
central hinge point
 Anti-servo tabs decrease sensitivity

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a Stabilators are easier to move, anti-servo tabs add resistance

iv. Safety Systems
a. Systems range from control stops to elevator down springs
 Control stops limit the movement of the elevator control
 Elevator down spring: assists in lowering the nose to prevent a stall caused by an aft CG position
b. Stick pushers are commonly used on transport category jets
D. Rudder
i. Controls yaw about the vertical axis
a. Used to maintain coordination
ii. Often operated through cables, but can be operated by various mechanisms
iii. How it Works
a. When deflected into the airflow, a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction
iv. V-Tail
a. Utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to perform the same functions as a
conventional elevator and rudder
 The fixed surfaces act as both horizontal and vertical stabilizers
b. Drawbacks
 More complex than for a conventional tail
 More susceptible to Dutch roll
 Total reduction in drag is minimal
3. Secondary Flight Controls
A. Improve performance characteristics or relieve excessive control forces
i. Wing Flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers and trim systems
B. Flaps
i. Increase induced drag and lift for any given AOA
ii. Functions
a. Get airborne at lower speeds, reduce takeoff runway required,
improve climb performance
b. Increased drag allows for steeper approaches
c. Reduced landing speeds and landing distance
iii. Plain Flaps
a. Simplest of the types
b. Increase camber results in a significant increase in lift and drag
at a given AOA
iv. Split Flaps
a. Deflect from the lower surface of the airfoil
b. Slightly more lift and drag vs plain flap
c. When fully extended, both plain and split flaps produce high
drag with little additional lift
v. Slotted Flap (most popular)
a. Increase lift significantly more vs plain/split flaps
b. High energy air is ducted to the top, accelerating the boundary
layer/delaying separation
vi. Fowler Flaps
a. Type of slotted flap which changes the camber of the wing and
increases the wing area
b. Slide backward, then downward
c. First portion of extension considerably increases lift but has

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

little effect on drag

d. From there, drag increases with little change in lift
vii. Flap Control
a. Mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic operation
b. Be aware of any flap operating speeds
C. Spoilers - High drag devices on the wings that reduce lift and increase drag
i. Reduce airspeed at a higher-than-normal rate
ii. Increased rate of descent - The aircraft can descend at a faster rate without increasing airspeed
iii. Roll control – One wing’s spoiler is used to reduce lift and create drag (eliminates adverse yaw)
4. Trim Systems
A. Relieves the need for constant pressure on the flight controls
B. How a Trim Tab Works
i. Most common is a single trim tab attached to the trailing edge of
the elevator
a. Can be installed on ailerons, and rudder as well
ii. Operation
a. Often operated manually through a vertically mounted
control wheel (or trim crank)
b. Tim tab moves opposite the elevator surface
c. Note: Bottom pic should say “Tab Down – Elevator Up”
C. Cockpit Operation
i. Establish desired power/pitch/configuration, then trim to relieve
pressures
ii. Re-trim any time power/pitch/configuration is changed
D. Balance Tabs
i. Function like trim tabs, but coupled to the control rod
a. The tab moves opposite flight control deflection
ii. If adjustable by the pilot, it can be used as a trim tab too
E. Servo Tabs (primarily used in large aircraft)
i. Small portion of a flight control that moves the entire flight control
surface
ii. Only the servo tab moves in response the flight controls
iii. Airflow on the servo tab moves the control surface
F. Antiservo Tabs
i. Decrease stabilator sensitivity/act as a trim device
ii. Operation
a. Like a balance tab, but moves in the same direction as the flight
control
G. Ground Adjustable Tabs
i. Metal trim tab on the rudder bent in either direction while on the
ground to apply a trim force
H. Adjustable Stabilizer
i. Some aircraft can adjust the entire stabilizer
ii. Driven by a jackscrew
I. Using Trim Tabs
i. Establish the desired power, pitch attitude, and configuration, then trim to relieve pressures
ii. Any time power, pitch attitude, or configuration is changed, re-trim for the new condition
5. Power Plant – four stroke reciprocating engines

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

A. General
i. Converts chemical energy (fuel) into mechanical energy
a. Occurs in the cylinders through combustion
b. Pistons produce mechanical energy to accomplish work
B. Basic Components and Operation
i. Cylinders
a. Contain intake / exhaust valves, sparks plugs, pistons
 Intake / exhaust valves allow the fuel-air mixture to enter / exit the combustion chamber
 Spark plugs ignite the fuel air mixture
 Pistons move up and down in the cylinder and drive the
crankshaft which drives the propeller
ii. Crankcase
a. Contains crankshaft, and connecting rods
 Pistons connect to the crankshaft via connecting rods
 Crankshaft is connected to the propeller
iii. Accessory Housing
a. Contains magnetos
 Power source for the spark plugs
 More information in 4. Ignition System
iv. Four-stroke Operating Cycle
a. Intake Stroke
 Piston moves to the bottom
 Fuel-air mixture enters combustion chamber
b. Compression Stroke
 Intake valve closes
 Piston moves up, compressing mixture
 Spark plug ignites mixture
c. Power Stroke
 Mixture is ignited, increasing pressure
 Pressure increases, forcing the piston back down
 Turns the crankshaft which drives the propeller
d. Exhaust Stroke
 Exhaust valve opens as piston reaches bottom
 As piston moves back up, exhaust gas is pushed out
C. Two Primary Engine Designs
i. Spark ignition – most popular for many years
ii. Compression ignition is becoming more popular – Reduced costs,
simpler designs, more reliable
a. Compression systems can run on diesel or jet fuel (Diamond
DA42, for example)
iii. Components
a. Main mechanical components of spark and compression systems
are essentially the same
b. Primary difference is the process of igniting the fuel
 Spark Ignition – uses spark plug to ignite mixture
 Compression Ignition – compression of the air raises its
temperature to allow for automatic ignition when fuel is

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injected into the cylinder

D. Horizontally Opposed Cylinder Arrangement
i. Most popular reciprocating engine for smaller aircraft
ii. Cylinder on one side “opposes” a cylinder on the other
iii. Generally air cooled / mounted in a horizontal position
iv. Compact arrangement allows for a more streamlined installation, minimizing aerodynamic drag
v. High power-to-weight ratios
6. Ignition System
A. Provides the spark that ignites the fuel-air mixture in the cylinders
B. Components
i. Magnetos
a. Self-contained, engine driven unit that supplies electrical current to the spark plugs
 A permanent magnet generates the electrical current
 Completely independent of the airplane’s electrical system
b. Normally two magnetos per engine (left and right)
ii. Spark Plugs
a. Deliver electric current from the magnetos to the combustion chamber to ignite the mixture
iii. High-Tension Leads – The wires that connect the magnetos to the spark plugs
iv. Ignition Switch
a. Controls the operation of the magnetos
b. 5 position switch:
 Off, R - Only runs R magneto, L - Only runs L magneto, Both - Runs both magnetos, and Start -
Engages the starter using battery power. The starter rotates the crankshaft
a The ignition system begins to fire when the crankshaft begins to turn

C. Operation
i. Normal Operation
a. The system begins to fire when the starter is engaged, and the crankshaft begins to turn
 Initially powered by the battery
b. Crankshaft rotation activates the magnetos which send power to the spark plugs, producing a spark in
the combustion chamber

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 Combustion in the chamber produces piston movement which rotates the crankshaft
c. Once the engine can move the pistons on its own the starter is no longer necessary
 If the crankshaft is rotating, the magnetos/ignition system continue to operate
 As long as the magnetos/ignition system are operating, the crankshaft continues rotating
ii. Dual Ignition System
a. Two individual magnetos, separate sets of wires, and two separate spark plugs in each cylinder
b. Each magneto operates independently to fire one of the two spark plugs in each cylinder
 Firing two spark plugs improves combustion and provides slightly higher power output
 If one magneto fails, the other is unaffected
a The engine will continue to run but with a slight decrease in power
b The same is true if one of the two spark plugs in a cylinder fails
7. Induction Systems
A. General
i. Air enters through an intake, is filtered, mixed with fuel and delivered to the cylinders
ii. Two types of induction systems
a. Fuel Injection – Mixes fuel/air before entry into cylinders, or injects fuel directly into cylinders
b. Carburetor System – Mixes the fuel and air in the carburetor before it enters the intake manifold
B. Carburetor System (older system)
i. General
a. Mixes the fuel and air in the carburetor before entering the intake manifold
b. Two categories of carburetors – Float-type (most common) and pressure-type (rare)
 Basic difference is delivery of fuel – pressure type delivers fuel under pressure by a pump
ii. Float-type Carburetors

a. Operation
 Fuel is sent from the fuel tank(s) to the carburetor float chamber
 Float chamber stores / meters the fuel that will be mixed with the air and sent to the engine
 At the same time, outside air enters through an air filter
 The filtered air flows into the carburetor and through a venturi
a A low-pressure area is created forcing fuel to flow through the discharge nozzle

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 The fuel / air mix and flow to the combustion chambers based on the throttle valve position
a Increasing power opens the valve, decreasing closes the valve
b. Disadvantages
 Do not function well with abrupt maneuvers
 Discharge of fuel at low pressure leads to incomplete vaporization and difficulty in discharging fuel
into some supercharged systems
 Chief Disadvantage – Icing tendencies
c. Carburetor Icing
 Fuel vaporization / decreased pressure in the venturi can cause a sharp drop in temperature
a If water vapor in the air condenses with temperatures at / below freezing, ice can form
 Carburetor icing restricts the flow of fuel-air mixture and reduces power
a If enough ice builds up, the engine can stop operating
 Most likely to occur at temperatures below 70o F with relative humidity greater than 80%
 Fixed Pitch Propellers: First indication is a decrease in rpm, then possibly engine roughness
 Constant speed propeller: First indication is a decrease in manifold pressure, but not RPM
 Carburetor heat is used to combat carburetor icing
d. Carburetor Heat
 Preheats the air before it reaches the carburetor
 Primarily prevents formation of ice, but can be used to melt ice that has already formed
 Decreases engine power, sometimes up to 15%
C. Fuel Injection System

i. General
a. Fuel is injected directly into the cylinders, or just ahead of the intake valve
b. Advantages of Fuel Injection
 Reduction in evaporation icing, better fuel flow, faster throttle response, precise control of mixture,
better fuel distribution, easier cold weather starts
c. Disadvantages of Fuel Injection
 Difficulty in starting a hot engine, vapor locks during ground operation on hot days, problems

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associated with restarting an engine that quits because of fuel starvation

ii. Components and Operation
a. Engine-driven fuel pump – Provides fuel to the fuel-air control unit after the engine is started
b. Auxiliary fuel pump – Provides fuel to the fuel-air control unit for engine start / emergency use
c. Fuel-air control unit – Meters fuel based on the mixture / throttle settings
d. Fuel manifold (distributor) – Distributes the fuel to the individual fuel discharge nozzles
e. Discharge nozzles – Inject the fuel-air mixture directly into each cylinder intake port
f. Fuel pressure / flow indicators – Provide the pilot information in regard to the fuel system
8. Oil Systems
A. Functions of the Oil System
i. Lubricates the engine’s moving parts
ii. Cools the engine by reducing friction / Removes heat from cylinders
iii. Provides a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons
iv. Carries away contaminants
B. Types of Oil Systems
i. Wet-Sump System
a. Oil is located in a sump that is part of the engine (usually at the base of the engine)
b. Operation
 Oil pump draws oil from the sump and routes it to the engine
 In some engines the rotating crankshaft splashes oil onto portions of the engine
 After oil passes through the engine, it returns to the sump (generally returned by gravity)
ii. Dry-Sump System
a. Oil is stored in a tank, outside of the engine, and circulated through the engine by pumps
b. A greater volume of oil can be
supplied to the engine
(suitable for large
reciprocating engines)
c. Operation
 Oil pump supplies pressure
to pump oil from the
external tank through the
engine
 Scavenge pumps return oil
from various locations in
the engine to the oil tank
C. Indications
i. Oil Pressure Gauge – Provides a
direct indication of the oil system operation
ii. Oil Temperature Gauge – Measures the temperature of the oil
a. High oil temperatures may signal:
 A plugged oil line, Low oil quantity, A blocked oil cooler, A defective temperature gauge
b. Low oil temperatures may signal improper oil viscosity during cold weather operations
9. Cooling Systems
A. General
i. Types of engine cooling
a. Air Cooling (most small aircraft are air cooled)
 Air flows into the engine compartment, is routed over the hottest parts of the engine and expelled

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through the lower, aft portion of the cowling

b. Liquid Cooling
 Cooling liquid (usually water, ethylene glycol, or a combination of the two) is pumped around the
engine to cool the hot components
 Benefits: Less chance of shock cooling, ability to direct coolant to specific, critical areas
 Negatives: Added weight, increased complexity and increased cost
B. Air Cooling
i. Operation
a. Outside air enters the engine compartment where baffles direct it
to the hottest parts of the engine
b. Dependent on air flow, so it is less effective at low speeds
 Conversely, high-speed descents provide excess air and can
shock cool the engine
ii. Monitoring and Controlling Engine Temperature
a. Monitoring Temperature
 Oil temperature gauge gives an indirect and delayed
indication of rising engine temperature
 Cylinder head temperature (CHT) indicates a direct /
immediate cylinder temperature change
b. Controlling Temperature
 Increase airspeed, Enrich the fuel air mixture, Reduce power,
and/or Open cowl flaps
10. Exhaust Systems
A. Operation and Uses
i. Vent burned combustion gases overboard, provide heat for the cabin, defrost the wind screen
ii. Operation
a. Engine Exhaust
 After combustion, exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve and travel
through the exhaust manifold/piping, and muffler to the atmosphere
b. Cabin Heat
 Outside air is ducted through a shroud around the muffler
a Exiting exhaust gases heat the muffler, which in turn heats the air around the muffler
 Heated air is ducted to the cabin for heat and defrost
 Exhaust must be in good condition / free of cracks to ensure gases don’t enter the cabin
B. EGT (Exhaust Gas Temperature) Probe
i. Measures the temperature of the gases at the exhaust manifold
ii. Temperature varies based on the ratio of fuel and air entering the cylinders and can be used for regulating
the fuel-air mixture (highly accurate in indicating the proper mixture setting)
11. FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control)
A. System consisting of a digital computer and ancillary components that control the engine and propeller
B. What it does
i. Optimizes Performance
a. Uses speed, temperature and pressure sensors to monitor the status of each cylinder
b. Calculates ideal pulse for each injector, and adjusts ignition timing / fuel flow as necessary
ii. Simplifies Systems
a. Eliminates pilot controls for magnetos, carburetor heat, mixture, propeller, and engine priming
b. A single throttle is characteristic of FADEC aircraft (pilot sets throttle, computer does the rest)

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C. Safety
i. Two separate and identical digital channels are incorporated for redundancy
ii. Losing FADEC could result in loss of engine power
iii. To prevent a failure from resulting in engine failure a backup electrical source must be available
a. In many aircraft, the FADEC uses power from a separate generator connected to the engine
12. Propeller
A. General
i. Rotating airfoil – Subject to induced drag, stalls, and other aerodynamic principles
ii. Engine power rotates the propeller
a. Rotation generates thrust similar to the manner in which a wing produces lift
b. Amount of thrust depends on the shape of the airfoil, the angle of attack, and RPM
iii. Prop is twisted – the blade angle changes from hub to tip to provide uniform lift from hub to tip
a. The greatest angle of incidence (highest pitch) is at the hub, smallest (lowest pitch) is at the tip
b. A prop that wasn’t twisted would be inefficient
 As airspeed increased, the hub would have a
negative AOA and the tip would be stalled
iv. Installation
a. Mounted on a shaft connected to the engine
 If it directly connected to the crankshaft, the
propeller rpm matches crankshaft rpm
 On some engines, the propeller is geared to the
engine crankshaft
a In this case, the propeller RPM is different than that of the engine
b For example, the Diamond DA42 is geared at a ratio of 1.69:1 (engine to prop ratio)
B. Fixed Pitch Propellers
i. General
a. Fixed blade angle
 Pitch is set by the manufacturer and cannot be changed
 Achieve best efficiency only at a given combination of airspeed and RPM
a Not ideal for cruise or climb; performance suffers a bit in each category
b. Used when low weight, simplicity, and low cost are needed
c. Two types of fixed-pitch propellers: Climb and Cruise
ii. Climb Propeller
a. Lower pitch, and therefore less drag
 Less drag results in higher RPM and more horsepower capability
b. Increases performance during takeoffs and climbs, decreases performance during cruise
iii. Cruise Propeller
a. Higher pitch, and therefore more drag
 More drag results in lower RPM and less horsepower capability
b. Decreases performance during takeoff and climbs, increases performance during cruise
iv. Control and Indications
a. Tachometer – Indicator of power
 Direct indication of the engine / propeller rpm
b. Controlling RPM
 RPM is regulated by the throttle which controls the amount of
fuel-air to the engine
 At a given altitude, the higher the tachometer reading, the

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higher the power output of the engine

C. Adjustable Pitch Propellers (Constant-speed propellers)
i. General
a. A governor adjusts propeller pitch to maintain a specific RPM
b. More efficient because it allows selection of the best RPM for the given phase of flight
ii. How it Works
a. Once an RPM is selected, the governor adjusts the propeller blade to maintain the selected RPM
 An increase in airspeed or decrease in propeller load causes the governor to increase the propeller
blade angle to maintain RPM
 A reduction in airspeed or increase in load causes the propeller blade to decrease
b. As long as the propeller blade angle is within its rpm range, a constant rpm is maintained
 If it reaches a pitch stop, rpm will increase / decrease (like a fixed pitch prop)
iii. Controls and Indications
a. 2 controls - Throttle and Propeller control
 Throttle controls power output
 Propeller control regulates rpm through the governor (rpm is
shown on the tachometer)
b. Manifold Pressure Gauge
 Indicates power, and controlled by the throttle
 At a constant RPM / altitude, power is directly related to the
fuel-air mixture
a Increased throttle = increased fuel/air = increased manifold pressure (and vice versa)
c. Adjusting power and rpm
 Decreasing: Reduce manifold pressure, then RPM (Lower = Left to right; throttle then prop)
a If rpm is reduced first, manifold pressure increases and could exceed engine tolerances
 Increasing: Increase RPM, then manifold pressure (Raise = Right to left; RPM then throttle)
13. Landing Gear and Brakes (Hydraulics)
A. Landing Gear
i. General
a. Two main wheels, one on either side of the fuselage, and a third wheel at the front or rear
 Conventional (tailwheel) – When the third wheel is positioned at the rear
 Tricycle – When the third wheel is positioned at the nose
b. Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear
 Fixed – Always remains extended. Advantages: Simplicity and low maintenance
 Retractable – Streamlines the airplane / reduces drag
ii. Tricycle Landing Gear
a. Advantages:
 Allows more forceful brake application without causing the aircraft to nose over
 Permits better forward visibility during takeoff, landing, and taxiing
 Tends to prevent ground loop since the center of gravity is forward of the main wheels
b. Nosewheel
 Steerable nosewheels are linked to the rudders by cables or rods
 Castering nosewheels are free to swivel
 In either case, steering is done with rudder pedals (and brake application, if needed)
iii. Tailwheel Landing Gear
a. Two main wheels attached to the airframe, ahead of the center of gravity
 Support most of the weight of the structure

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 Tailwheel at the very back of the fuselage provides a third point of support
b. Advantages:
 Ground clearance for a larger propeller
 More desirable for operations on unimproved fields
c. Disadvantages:
 Directional control is more difficult on the ground with the CG behind the main gear
 Diminished forward visibility when the tailwheel is on or near the ground
B. Hydraulics
i. Standard Hydraulic Components:
a. Reservoir
b. Pump
c. Filter
d. Selector Valve and Relief Valve
e. Actuator or servo
ii. Operation
a. Hydraulic fluid is pumped from the reservoir through a filter
to an actuator or servo
 Servo – cylinder with a piston inside used to move a
system or flight control
 Servos can be single- or double-acting
a Fluid can be applied to one or both sides
b. Selector valve allows the fluid direction to be controlled
c. Relief valve provides an outlet for the system in case of excessive fluid pressure
C. Brakes
i. Located on the main wheels
ii. Applied by either a hand control or foot pedal (most common)
a. Foot pedals operate independently and allow for differential braking
b. Differential braking can supplement steering
14. Fuel Systems
A. General
i. Provide uninterrupted, clean fuel from the tanks to the engine
ii. Fuel must be available under all conditions
iii. Two common types of fuel systems
a. Gravity Feed
 Gravity transfers fuel from the tank(s) to the engine(s)
 Many high wing aircraft
b. Fuel-Pump System
 Fuel pumps transfer the fuel (low wing)
 Two fuel pumps per engine
a Engine driven pump – Primary fuel pump
1. Operates when the engine is operating
b Electrically-driven auxiliary pump – For engine start and
backup to the main pump
B. Fuel Tank and Strainer
i. Fuel Tank(s)
a. Normally located in the wings
b. Vented to maintain atmospheric pressure in tank

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c. Include an overflow drain

 Fuel can expand and not damage the tank
ii. Strainer
a. After leaving the fuel tank, fuel passes through a strainer that removes moisture / sediment
 Contaminants are heavier than aviation fuel and settle at the bottom of the strainer
b. Strainer should be drained before each flight
c. Water is the principal fuel contaminant
 In cold weather it can freeze and block fuel lines
 In warm weather it can flow into the carburetor and stop the engine
 If water is present, drain until there is no evidence of water
 Indicated by cloudy fuel, or by the clear separation of water from the fuel
C. Fuel Selectors
i. Allows selection of fuel from various tanks, if installed
a. Common settings include, Left, Right, Both, Off
ii. Both is not an option on all aircraft (swap between L / R)
D. Fuel Primer (assists with engine start)
i. Draws fuel from the tanks to vaporize directly into the cylinders prior
to starting the engine
E. Fuel Gauges
i. Quantity Gauge(s) - Indicate amount of fuel in each tank
a. Certification rules only require accuracy in fuel gauges when they
read “empty”
 Always visually check the fuel level and compare it to the tank quantity indications
ii. Pressure Gauge
a. If a fuel pump is installed, a fuel pressure gauge is included with it
b. Indicates the pressure in the fuel lines
15. Electrical Systems
A. General
i. Most aircraft are equipped with either a 14 or 28-volt direct current (DC) electrical system
ii. A basic electrical system consists of the following:
a. Alternator/generator
b. Battery
c. Master/battery switch
d. Alternator/generator switch
e. Bus bar, fuses, and/or circuit breakers
f. Voltage regulator
g. Ammeter/loadmeter
h. Electrical wiring
B. Power Generation (Alternators / Generators)
i. Supply electric current to the electrical system and maintain a sufficient charge in the battery
ii. Alternators have several advantages over generators
a. Can operate entire electrical system, even at low engine RPM
b. Electrical output is more constant through a wide range of engine speeds
iii. Voltage Regulator (contained in most systems)
a. Controls the rate of charge to the battery by stabilizing generator / alternator output
b. The generator / alternator voltage should be higher than the battery voltage
 The difference in voltage keeps the battery charged

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C. Power Storage
i. Power is stored in batteries, primarily
the main battery
a. Electrical power for engine start,
and limited power in case of
alternator / generator failure
D. Power Distribution (bus bars)
i. A bus bar is used to connect the main
electrical system to the equipment
using electricity
a. Distributes power from the
alternator / generator / battery to
the electrical components
E. Protection
i. Fuses or circuit breakers protect the
circuits and equipment from electrical
overload
a. Circuit breakers can be manually
reset, rather than replaced (like a
fuse), if an overload occurs
F. Indications
i. Ammeter
a. Monitors the performance of the
aircraft electrical system
b. Indications
 Zero in the center, negative to
L, positive to R
a Positive: shows battery charge rate
b Negative: shows battery discharge rate
 Full scale deflection (+ or -) indicates a malfunction
c. Not all aircraft have an ammeter, may just have a warning light to indicate a malfunction
ii. Loadmeter
a. Shows load on alternator/generator (% of load on the system)
b. With all components off it reflects on the amount of charge demanded by the battery
16. Avionics
A. Avionics can vary greatly, especially with the advent and large-scale acceptance of glass displays
i. Electronic instrument displays, GPS’s, autopilots, radios, traditional instruments (vacuum, gyro, etc.)
a. G1000, Avidyne, etc.
ii. Be familiar with the avionics displays and instruments associated with your aircraft and their use
a. Manage automation
b. Do not become distracted with the seemingly unlimited
functionality of glass cockpits
c. Reference the avionics user manual(s)
B. Autopilot
i. Automatic flight control system that keeps an aircraft in level
flight or on a set course
a. Can be directed by the pilot or coupled to a radio
navigation signal

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ii. Reduces physical and mental demands on a pilot and increases safety
iii. Autopilots vary greatly in complexity
a. The simplest systems use gyroscopic attitude indicators and magnetic compasses to control servos
connected to the flight control system
b. The number and location of the servos depends on the complexity of the system
 Ex: A single-axis autopilot controls about the longitudinal axis and a servo actuates the ailerons
 A three-axis autopilot controls the aircraft about the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes
a Three different servos actuate ailerons, elevator, and rudder
 More advanced systems often include a vertical speed and/or indicated airspeed hold mode
 Advanced autopilot systems are coupled to navigational aids through a flight director
a These autopilots work with inertial navigation systems, GPS, and flight computers to control the
aircraft
iv. Most autopilot systems also incorporate a disconnect to disengage the system automatically or manually
a. Allows the pilot to override an autopilot malfunction
C. Because avionics systems differ widely in their operation, refer to the manufacturer’s operating instructions
17. Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static Flight Instruments
i. System that utilizes the static and impact pressure from the motion of the aircraft through the air
a. Airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator

ii. How it Works

a. Static Pressure (still pressure) is measured at a flush static port where air is not disturbed
b. Pitot Pressure (impact pressure) is measured through a pitot tube pointed into the relative wind
c. The Pitot Tube connects to the Airspeed Indicator; the Static Port connects to all 3 instruments
iii. Sensitive Altimeter
a. Measures absolute pressure of the ambient air, displays it as feet above selected pressure level
b. Principle of Operation
 Air pressure tries to compress aneroid wafers while natural springiness tries to expand them
a Compression and expansion move gears/linkages to change the altitude displayed
 Adjustable barometric scale (Kollsman window)
a Allows you to set the reference pressure from which the altitude is measured
b 1” Hg is equal to 1,000’

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c Pressure Alt = 29.92” Hg

d Indicated Alt = local altimeter setting
c. Errors (Mechanical and Inherent)
 Nonstandard Temperature
a Warmer than standard air is less dense, pressure levels
are farther apart
1. True altitude > Indicated altitude
b Colder than standard air is denser, pressure levels are
closer together
1. True altitude < Indicated altitude
 Nonstandard Pressure
a High pressure to Low pressure
1. As pressure decreases, the altimeter registers it as
a climb
2. Pilot descends to maintain altitude
3. True altitude < Indicated altitude
b The opposite applies from Low pressure to High
pressure – True alt > Indicated alt
 REMEMBER: From hot to cold, or from high to low, look out
below!
iv. Vertical Speed Indicator
a. Differential pressure instrument
b. Operation
 Diaphragm and casing are connected to static pressure
a Diaphragm is directly connected
b Case has a delayed connection
 During a climb / descent, the diaphragm expands /
contracts immediately, while pressure in the case remains the same for a short period
 The difference in pressure is displayed as rate of climb
v. Airspeed Indicator
a. Differential pressure gauge indicating the difference between pitot and static pressure
b. Operation
 Diaphragm receives pressure from the pitot tube
 Instrument case receives pressure from static port
 Increasing pitot pressure / decreasing static pressure expands the diaphragm and vice versa
 Gearing indicates changes in airspeed
vi. Electronic Flight Display
a. General
 Same information (airspeed, altitude, VSI) is displayed, but
via new methods
b. Air Data Computer (ADC)
 Information is still received from pitot / static inputs, but
the processing is different
 ADC takes the pitot / static inputs and displays airspeed,
altitude, VSI
a No diaphragms, gearing, linkages
B. Gyroscopic System (Attitude Indicator, Heading Indicator, Turn

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Coordinator)
i. How it Works
a. Heavy, fast spinning wheel/rotor mounted to utilize
characteristics of spin
b. The 2 characteristics of gyroscopes: Rigidity and Precession
 Rigidity: Gyro remains in a fixed position in the plane in
which it is spinning
a Attitude/Heading instruments operate on the principle
of rigidity
 Precession: Any applied force is felt 90o from that point in
the direction of rotation
a Turn indicators/coordinators (rate instruments)
operate on the principle of precession
c. Power Sources
 Electrical Systems
 Pneumatic (vacuum) – Driven by jet of air impinging on buckets in the outside of the wheel
 Venturi Tube Systems
a Air flows through venturi tubes mounted on the outside of the aircraft
1. The constricted part of the tube (low pressure) creates a suction for the instruments
 Wet-Type Vacuum Systems
a Steel vane air pumps are used to evacuate the instrument cases
b The vanes in the pumps are lubricated with oil which is discharged with the air
 Dry-Air Pump Systems
a At high altitudes, more air is needed in the instruments as the air is less dense
1. Air pumps that do not mix oil with the discharge air are used in high flying
b Vanes are made of a special formulation of carbon which do not need lubricating
 Pressure Systems

a 2 dry pumps (one per engine) with a regulator to maintain desired pressure
b Inline filters remove contamination, from there into a manifold check valve
c If either engine / pump fails, the check valve isolates the bad side / uses the good side
d After driving the gyros, air is exhausted from the case
e Gyro pressure gauge measures the pressure drop across the instruments
ii. Attitude Indicator (pictured above)
a. Operation
 Mounted in a horizontal plane
 Double gimbal - allows display of pitch and roll

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 Horizon disk is attached to the gimbals

a Remains in the same plane as the gyro and the plane pitches / rolls about it
 Adjustable mini aircraft appears to be flying relative to the horizon
b. Errors
 Free from most errors, but…
a May be a slight nose-up indication during a rapid acceleration and vice versa
b Possibility of a small bank angle and pitch error after a 180o turn
c Tiny amounts of friction over time can cause precession / tilting – erection mechanism (pull the
knob) returns the gyro to the proper position
iii. Heading Indicator
a. Gyro turns in a vertical plane
 Senses rotation about the plane’s vertical axis
b. Compass is used to set the appropriate heading
 Rigidity causes it to maintain this heading
c. Precession causes heading to drift & Earth rotates 15o per hour
 Precession + rotation means heading should be checked /
reset every 15 min
iv. Turn Indicators
a. General
 Two types: Turn-and-slip, and Turn coordinators
 Both instruments indicate turn direction and quality of turn
(coordination)
a Turn-and-slip shows direction and rate of turn
b Turn coordinator (canted gyro) shows direction and rate of turn and rate of roll
 Backup source of bank information if the attitude indicator fails
b. Operation
 Gyro is powered by air or an electric motor
 Small gyro mounted in a single gimbal
 Yawing produces a force in the horizontal plane
a Precession causes any yawing forces to tilt the gyro to the left or right
b A spring works to maintain the center position
c. Turn-and-Slip Indicator
 Direction and rate of turn is displayed by the turn needle as yawing forces tilt the gyro
d. Turn Coordinator (more common in GA aircraft)
 Very similar to the turn-and-slip but gimbal is canted
a Gyro can sense both rate of roll as well as rate of turn
b A rapid roll rate causes the mini aircraft to bank more steeply than a slow roll rate
 Used to establish and maintain a standard-rate turn (3o per second)
 Align the wing of the mini aircraft with the turn index

v. Electronic Flight Display

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

a. Gyroscopic instruments replaced with AHRS (attitude and heading reference system)
b. AHRS
 Spinning gyros are replaced with solid-state laser systems that do not tumble
 Heading information comes from a magnetometer that senses earth’s lines of magnetic flux
 All the information is processed and then sent to the PFD to be displayed
18. Environmental Systems
A. Heating
i. Many different types of heating systems (Exhaust, Fuel Fired, Combustion, Bleed Air)
ii. Exhaust Heating Systems – Simplest type of heating system, used on most light aircraft
a. Outside air is ducted through a shroud around the muffler
 Muffler is heated by exiting exhaust gases, and in turn heats the air around the muffler
 Heated air is ducted to the cabin for heat and defrost
b. Exhaust must be in good condition / free of cracks to ensure gases don’t enter the cabin
iii. Fuel Fired Heaters – A small mounted or portable space-heating device
a. Fuel is brough to the heater’s combustion chamber
b. A fan blows air into the chamber, and an ignition device ignites the fuel-air mixture
c. Air is ducted around the combustion chamber’s outer surface
d. A second fan blows the warm air into tubing which takes it to the cabin
iv. Combustion Heater Systems – Often used to heat larger, more expensive aircraft
a. Operation
 Burns the aircraft’s fuel in a combustion chamber or tube to develop heat
 Air flowing around the tube is heated and ducted to the cabin
 Exhaust exits through the heater’s exhaust pipe
 System is activated by the thermostat (fuel is turned on/off based on cabin temperature)
b. Very Safe
 Overheat switch – shuts off fuel in the case of a malfunction
 Unlikely for carbon monoxide poisoning to occur
a Low pressure in the combustion tube, high pressure outside the combustion tube
b If there were a leak, high-pressure air would flow into the chamber / exit the exhaust
v. Bleed Air Heating Systems – Used on turbine-engine aircraft
a. Extremely hot, compressed engine bleed air is ducted into a chamber where it is mixed with ambient /
re-circulated air to cool it to a useable temperature, and then is ducted into the cabin
b. Safety Features
 Temperature sensors prevent excessive heat from entering the cabin
 Check valves prevent losing bleed air during engine start and when full power is required
 Engine sensors eliminate the bleed system if the engine becomes inoperative

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

B. Pressurization
i. General
a. Aircraft are flown at high altitudes for two reasons:
 More efficient - Less fuel consumed for a given airspeed
 Bad weather and turbulence may be avoided by flying above the storms
b. Pressurization is necessary to protect occupants from threats of high altitudes
ii. How it Works
a. The cabin, flight and baggage compartments are a sealed unit capable of containing air under a higher
pressure than the outside atmospheric pressure (Differential Pressure)
 Differential Pressure – the difference between the pressure acting on one side of a wall and the
pressure acting on the other side of the wall (cabin pressure vs atmospheric pressure)
b. Atmospheric air is compressed. Different aircraft compress the air in in different ways:
 Turbine aircraft – bleed air from the engine compressor is used to pressurize the cabin
 Older turbine aircraft – superchargers are used to pump air into the sealed fuselage
 Piston aircraft – Air from the turbocharger through a sonic venturi (flow limiter)
c. Compressed air is conditioned / sent to the cabin
d. Air exits the fuselage through an outflow valve
iii. Cabin Pressure Control System
a. Cabin Pressure Regulator – controls cabin pressure
b. Outflow Valve
 Air exits the fuselage through the outflow valve
 Allows for a constant inflow of air, while maintaining the
proper differential pressure
c. Cabin Air Pressure Safety Valve
 Combination of a pressure relief, vacuum relief, and
dump valve
 Pressure relief valve prevents cabin pressure from
exceeding maximum differential pressure
 Vacuum relief valve prevents ambient pressure from
exceeding cabin pressure
 Dump valve dumps the cabin air into the atmosphere
(emergency situations)
iv. Instruments
a. Cabin differential pressure gauge – Indicates the difference
between inside and outside pressure
b. Cabin Altimeter – Shows the altitude inside the airplane
 Differential pressure gauge and cabin altimeter can be combined into one instrument
 Cabin Rate of Climb/Descent – Shows rate the cabin altitude is changing during
19. Deice and Anti-Ice Systems

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 II.E. Flight Controls & Operation of Systems

A. General
i. Anti-ice equipment is designed to prevent the formation of ice
ii. Deice equipment is designed to remove ice once it has formed
iii. Protect numerous parts of the aircraft – leading edge of wing and tail, pitot / static ports, fuel tank vents,
stall warning devices, windshields, propeller blades
B. Airfoil
i. Deicing Boots – Inflatable boots consisting of a rubber sheet bonded to the leading edge of the wing
a. Operation
 Engine-driven pump, or engine bleed air, inflates the rubber boots breaking up the ice
 Single cycle operation, or at automatic, timed intervals
b. Instruments – Suction and pneumatic pressure gauges
ii. Thermal Anti-Ice System – Heat driven system
a. Hot air is directed from the engine compressor to the leading-edge surfaces to prevent ice
b. Should be activated prior to entering icing conditions
iii. Weeping Wing (pictured, bottom right)
a. Antifreeze solution is pumped to the leading edge of the wings and
weeps through small holes
b. Capable of deice and anti-ice
c. Antifreeze chemically breaks down the bond between the ice and
airframe, allowing aerodynamic forces to remove the ice
C. Windscreen
i. Alcohol - Flow of alcohol is directed to the windscreen
a. Used early enough, prevents ice buildup on the windscreen
ii. Electric Heat
a. Wires or other conductive material imbedded in the windscreen
b. Operated by a switch in the cockpit
D. Propeller
i. Alcohol - Used to prevent ice forming on the propeller’s leading edge
a. Released from nozzles, centrifugal force distributes it on props
b. Grooves in propeller boots to help direct the flow of alcohol
ii. Electric Heat – Anti-ice boots with electrical wires to heat the props

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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II.F. Performance & Limitations

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to airplane performance and
limitations as required in the necessary ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Density

2. Density Altitude
3. Airplane Performance

Elements 1. Performance
2. Performance Factors
3. Aerodynamics
4. Performance Charts
5. Weight & Balance
6. Exceeding Limitations

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to calculate the airplane’s performance based on the current or
Standards expected conditions of a flight and decide whether or not the performance will suffice.
II.F. Performance & Limitations

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
How exciting would it be to find out first hand, that the airplane actually doesn’t have the ability to takeoff from a
certain runway and that it also doesn’t have the ability to clear the obstacle at the departure end?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The Performance and Limitations section of the POH contains the operating data for the airplane; that is, the data
pertaining to takeoff, climb, range, endurance, descent, and landing.

Why
The use of the operating data for the airplane is mandatory for safe and efficient operations

How:
1. Performance
A. Ability of an aircraft to accomplish certain things that make it useful for a certain purpose
B. Primary factors most affected by performance are:
i. Takeoff/landing distance, climb rate, ceiling, payload, range, speed, maneuverability, stability, fuel economy
C. Aircraft and powerplant design & characteristics dictate available performance
i. Manufacturer will match aerodynamic configuration with a powerplant for the specific design conditions
D. POH charts and information are used to measure performance based on the specific flight’s conditions
2. Performance Factors
A. Atmospheric Conditions
i. Atmospheric Pressure
a. Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure is approx. 14.7 lbs. per sq. in
b. Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded
c. Air density effects performance: As density increases, performance increases and vice versa
ii. What Changes Air Density (DA)?
a. Barometric Pressure, Temperature, Altitude, and Humidity
 Density varies directly with pressure - As pressure increases, density increases and vice versa
 Density varies inversely with temperature – As temp increases, density decreases and vice versa
 Density varies inversely with altitude - As altitude increases, density decreases and vice versa
 Density varies inversely with humidity – As humidity increases, density decreases and vice versa
iii. How it affects Performance
a. As the air becomes less dense, it reduces:
 Power, since the engine takes in less air
 Thrust, since the propeller is less efficient in thin air (less air is being moved for every rotation)
 Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
B. RM: Pilot Technique & Airplane Configuration
i. Performance is based on specific aircraft configuration, procedures, airspeeds, etc.
ii. Any technique or configuration that differs from POH criteria will change (likely reduce) performance
C. Airport Environment

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i. Airport Runways & Layout

a. Runway Surface (paved, grass, dirt, gravel, etc.)
 Any surface that is not hard and smooth increases ground roll
 Braking Effectiveness
a Soft surfaces slow an aircraft much faster than smooth and slick surfaces
b Wet runways reduce braking effectiveness and can result in hydroplaning
b. Runway Gradient: Amount of change in height over the length of the runway, expressed as a percentage
c. Runways available based on wind conditions
ii. Surrounding Terrain & Factors (Obstacles, towers, buildings, etc.)
a. Can the aircraft clear the obstacles based on the specific conditions?
b. Is a max angle versus max rate of climb required
c. Are there specific noise abatement or climb rate procedures requiring specific performance
D. Loading & Weight and Balance
i. Weight and Flight Performance
a. Added weight reduces aircraft performance
b. Manufacturer’s limit maximum weights to ensure aircraft performance / structural abilities
c. Effects of increased weight
 Higher takeoff speed and longer takeoff run
 Reduced rate and angle of climb & Lower maximum altitude
 Slower cruise speed and reduced range, and increased fuel consumption
 Reduced maneuverability
 Higher stall speed
 Higher approach speed and longer landing roll
 Excessive weight on the nose / tail wheel
d. RM: Effects of Overloading
 Degraded climb performance, may not even be able to takeoff, inability to reach max altitude
 Overheating during climbs, added wear on engine parts
 Overstressing the aircraft
ii. RM: Weight and Structure
a. Structural failures from overloading are often affect progressive, making it difficult to detect or repair
b. Airworthiness requirements prescribe the aircraft can withstand a specific load factor (3.8 Gs - normal)
 Any overload is amplified in the case the aircraft is stressed to these G limits
a For example, a 200 lb. overload imposes a potential structural overload of 740 lbs.
iii. Stability and Controllability
a. Forward Loading
 Problems controlling and raising the nose, especially
at slow airspeeds (takeoff and landing)
 “Heavier” and consequently slower than the same
airplane with a further aft CG
 More controllable in a stall
b. Aft loading
 Very light control forces (easier to overstress)
 “Lighter” and consequently faster than the same
airplane with a more forward CG
 Less controllable in a stall/spin
 Serious effect upon longitudinal stability
c. The CG and Lateral Loading

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 Unbalanced loading can have adverse effects

 Trim, or maintain constant control pressure
a Increases drag, decreases efficiency
3. Aerodynamics
A. Straight-and-Level
i. To maintain straight-and-level, lift must equal weight
and thrust must equal drag
ii. Parasitic drag predominates at high speed, induced drag
at low speed (pictured, top right)
iii. Max level flight speed is obtained when power required
equals max power/thrust available (lower right picture)
iv. Min level flight speed is not defined by thrust/power
requirements since stall occurs first (lower right picture)
B. Climb Performance
i. Kinetic Energy (KE): Energy of speed
a. Directly proportional to the square of airspeed
1 2
b. KE= × m× v
2
 m = mass, v = velocity
ii. Potential Energy (PE): Stored energy, Altitude
a. Directly proportional to the altitude
b. PE=m× g × h
 m = mass, g = gravity, h = height
iii. Power & Thrust
a. Thrust: Force or pressure exerted on an object
(pounds or newtons)
b. Power: Measurement of the rate of performing work or transferring energy (horsepower or kilowatts)
 The motion (KE and PE) a force (thrust) creates when exerted on an object over a period of time
iv. Positive climb performance occurs when an aircraft gains PE by increasing altitude
a. Two factors contribute to gaining altitude:
 Factor One: Aircraft uses excess power above what’s required to maintain level flight
 Factor Two: Aircraft converts airspeed (KE) to altitude (PE)
C. Angle of Climb (AOC)
i. Comparison of altitude gained relative to distance traveled
a. VX is used for max AOC performance
ii. Max AOC occurs at the airspeed and AOA combination resulting in maximum excess thrust
a. Factor One, discussed above
b. This combination differs amongst aircraft types
 Jet: Approximately L/DMAX
 Propeller Plane: Below L/DMAX and just above stall speed

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D. Rate of Climb (ROC)

a. Comparison of altitude gained relative to the time needed to reach that altitude (VY)
ii. ROC performance depends on excess power
a. Airspeed and AOA combination where max excess power exists differs among aircraft types
 Jet: At an airspeed > L/DMAX and an AOA < L/DMAX AOA
 Propeller Plane: Airspeed and AOA combination close to L/DMAX

E. Climb Performance Factors

i. Weight, altitude, and configuration affect excess thrust & power
and therefore climb performance
a. Increased weight/altitude and lowering the flaps/gear
decrease excess thrust & power
ii. Weight
a. Added weight means the aircraft must fly at a higher AOA to
maintain a given altitude & speed
 Increases drag requiring additional thrust
 Additional thrust = less reserve thrust to climb
iii. Altitude (pictured, right)
a. Climb performance diminishes with altitude
 Increases power required & decreases power available
b. As altitudes increases, max AOC/ROC & min/max level flight
speeds converge at the absolute ceiling
 At the absolute ceiling, there is no excess power and

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II.F. Performance & Limitations

only one speed allows level flight

F. Range Performance
i. The ability to convert fuel into flying distance

ii. Range versus Endurance

a. Range involves the consideration of flying distance
b. Endurance involves the consideration of flying time
iii. Maximum Endurance (Time)
a. If max endurance is desired, the flight condition must provide minimum fuel flow (point B in the chart)
b. Point A (low speed, high fuel flow) is takeoff and climb
c. As airspeed increases, power and fuel requirements decrease due to aerodynamic factors up to Point B
d. Beyond Point B, you must pay to go faster (more airspeed requires more power at the cost of fuel)
iv. Maximum Range
a. Costs aside, max range is the flight condition providing max NM per pound of fuel (or specific range)
 Specific Range = NM / pounds of fuel
a Ex: Specific range of 1.89 means for every pound of fuel, the aircraft could fly 1.89 miles
b. Obtained at L/DMAX and varies with gross weight, altitude, and configuration
 As fuel is burned, gross weight changes, and therefore optimum altitude, airspeed, & power changes
 L/DMAX occurs at a specific AOA & lift coefficient, irrespective of weight
a Changes in weight alter the specific airspeed and power required to attain L/D MAX
 To maintain maximum range, optimum conditions must be maintained
c. Headwinds & Tailwinds
 Theories say that speeding up in a headwind & slowing in a tailwind helps achieve max range
 May be true in many cases, but there are many variables to every situation – no catch all rule
d. Reciprocating engine aircraft experience little, if any, variation in specific range up absolute altitude
4. Performance Charts
A. Airplane performance is found in Section 5 of the POH (Performance and Limitations)
B. Using the performance charts, and the accompanying instructions, we can calculate
i. Cruise Performance
ii. Stall Speeds based on airplane configuration
iii. Wind Components (Crosswind and Headwind)
iv. Takeoff Distance and Landing Distance
v. Climb Performance (In cruise and takeoff configurations as well as Balked Landing)
vi. True Airspeed
vii. Maximum Flight Duration (Chart in which the Pressure Altitude is combined with RPM to find % bhp, KTAS,
GPH)

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C. To make use of these charts we need to know the Pressure Altitude (PA)
i. PA: The altitude indicated when the altimeter setting window is set to 29.92
a. PA = 1,000(29.92-Current Altimeter Setting) + Elevation (Altimeter=30.42, Elevation=808, so PA = 308’)
ii. From Pressure Altitude we can compute Density Altitude (DA)
a. DA: PA corrected for non-standard temperature (Directly related to airplane performance)
b. DA = 120(Current Temperature – ISA temperature) + PA (estimate of DA, it’s not exact)
 EX: Temp = 23oC and PA = 308’, so DA = 1,268’
D. Determining the Required Performance is Attainable
i. Use the performance charts and relate them to the airport information (runway lengths, etc.)
a. The charts will provide performance for all phases of flight
ii. Remember, the charts don’t make allowance for pilot proficiency or mechanical deterioration
iii. If conditions change, recalculate performance
E. Inaccuracies
i. Many charts are imprecise, requiring you follow numerous small, detailed lines through various charts
ii. Be as accurate as possible, double check work and always verify the performance information makes sense
F. RM: Calculated versus Actual Performance
i. Calculated performance is based on the POH chart assumptions (configuration, airspeeds, etc.)
a. Anything different leads to different (generally, reduced) actual performance
ii. Be conservative in performance calculations and precise in flying/operating procedures
5. Weight & Balance
A. Terms
i. Reference Datum (RD) - imaginary vertical plane or line from which all measurements of arm are taken
ii. Center of Gravity (CG) – the point at which an airplane would balance if it were suspended at that point
iii. Arm – the horizontal distance in inches from the reference datum line to the CG of an item
iv. Basic Empty Weight –weight of the airplane, optional equipment, unusable fuel, full operating fluids
v. CG Limits – the specified forward and aft points within which the CG must be located during the flight
vi. Maximum Landing Weight – the greatest weight that an aircraft is normally allowed to have at landing
vii. Maximum Ramp Weight – the total permitted weight of a loaded aircraft, including all fuel
viii. Maximum Takeoff Weight – the maximum allowable weight for takeoff
ix. Maximum Zero Fuel Weight – the maximum weight, exclusive of usable fuel
x. Moment – the product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm - expressed in pound-inches
xi. Moment Index – a moment divided by a constant such as 100, 1,000 or 10,000 (simplifies calculations)
xii. Payload – the weight of the occupants, cargo and baggage
xiii. Standard Weights – established weights for numerous items in weight and balance computations
a. Gas – 6lbs; Jet Fuel – 6.8 lbs.; Oil – 7.5 lbs.; Water – 8.35 lbs. (All per gallon)
xiv. Station - a location in the aircraft identified by a number designating its distance from the datum
xv. Unusable Fuel – the fuel in the tanks that cannot be safely used in flight or drained on the ground
xvi. Usable Fuel – the fuel in the tanks that can be used for flight
xvii.Useful Load – the basic empty weight subtracted from the maximum allowable gross weight
B. Weight & Balance Control
i. The pilot is responsible
a. 14 CFR Part 23.2100 requires establishment of ranges of weights and CGs within which aircraft may be
safely operated - The manufacturer provides this information in the POH/AFM
b. Part 91.9 requires the PIC to comply with the operating limitations in the approved AFM
ii. Aircraft owner/operator should ensure up to date information is available to the pilot
C. Determining Weight and Balance
i. CG = Total Moment divided by Total Weight
a. Begin with the empty weight and make a list of everything that will be loaded in the airplane

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b. Calculate the Moment of each item, then calculate the CG – (Total Moment/Total Weight)
ii. Weight Change and/or CG Shift
a. Shifting Weight
¿ ∆ CG
 Formula: Weight ¿ be Shifted =
Total Weight Distance Weight is Shifted
a If you know 3 of the components, you can solve for the 4th
b. Adding or Removing Weight
Weight Added∨Removed ∆ CG
 Formula: =
New Total Weight Distance between the Weight∧old CG
a Solve for the missing component
6. RM: Exceeding Limitations
A. Operating Limitations are in Chapter 2 of the POH
B. Limitations establish the boundaries for which the airplane can be safely operated
C. Adverse Effects
i. Attempting to takeoff or land without enough runway
ii. Attempting to clear an obstacle that the airplane performance will not support
iii. Not having enough fuel to reach the airport of intended landing
iv. Using the wrong type of fuel
v. Exceeding the structural/aerodynamic limits (overweight or outside CG limits)
vi. Exceeding the maximum crosswind component

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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II.G. National Airspace System

References: 14 CFR part 71, 91, AIM, Navigational Charts

Objectives To develop knowledge of the elements related to the National Airspace System.

Key Elements 1. Entry Requirements

2. Communications Requirements
3. Visibility Requirements

Elements 1. Airspace Classes, Operating Rules, Certification, and Equipment Requirements

2. Special VFR
3. Special Use Airspace
4. Other Airspace areas
5. VFR Charts

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student displays the ability to differentiate between the different types of airspace and
Standards their respective weather minimums and requirements.
 II.G. National Airspace System

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Each type of airspace is like a different country. Each type of airspace has its own controllers or rulers, its own rules
for those in their ‘territory,’ and its own benefits or services which are provided to those within its borders. Borders
are drawn and there are requirements and permission necessary to enter certain airspaces (e.g. Passport).

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What:
Airspace is defined as, “the portion of the atmosphere above a particular land area, especially above a nation.” The
atmosphere above the United States is divided into several sectors, or classes and in each different airspace class,
specific rules apply.

Why:
Different airspaces have been defined to efficiently manage the large amount of air traffic that traverses the sky each
day. To fly from place to place a pilot must know the rules and requirements regarding airspace.

How:
1. Airspace Classes, Operating Rules, Certification, and Equipment Requirements (Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical
Knowledge; AIM 3-2-1) Class E
A. Class E Airspace Below 10,000’
i. Definition VFR Minimum MSL - 3 s.m.
a. Controlled airspace that is not designated A, B, C, or D Visibility Above 10,000’
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements MSL - 5 s.m.
a. Transponder Requirements (91.215) Below 10,000’ -
500’ Below
 At or above 10,000’ MSL 1000’ Above
a Excluding airspace below 2,500’ AGL VFR Min Cloud 2,000’ Horiz
b In the contiguous 48 states & D.C. Clearance Above 10,000’ -
 Within 30 miles of class B primary airport, < 10,000’ MSL 1,000’ Below
 Within/above all Class C airspace, up to 10,000’ MSL 1,000’ Above
 Within 10 miles of certain designated airports 1 s.m. Horiz
Min Pilot Student Pilot
a Excluding airspace outside Class D surface area / < 1,200’
Qualifications
AGL As specified:
 Flying into, within, or across the ADIZ Mode C
VFR Entry and
b. ADS-B Requirements (91.225(d)) Equipment
Transponder
 ≥ 10,000’ MSL excluding at and below 2,500’ AGL &
ADS-B
 ≥ 3,000’ MSL over Gulf of Mexico within 12 nm of the coast IFR/IFR
c. Airspeeds Limits (91.117) Separation
 250 knots below 10,000’ MSL ATC VFR advisories
 200 kts below 2,500’ AGL within 4 nm of class C, D apt on request
 200 knots underlying Class B/VFR corridor through B (permitting)
d. Pilot Qualifications: Student Pilot
iii. ATC Services

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 II.G. National Airspace System

a. VFR: No comm requirements, can request traffic advisories Class D

b. IFR: ATC communication is required VFR Minimum 3 Statute Miles
iv. Vertical Limits Visibility
500’ Below
a. Unless designated lower, 14,500’ to 17,999’ MSL over: VFR Min Cloud
1000’ Above
 Contiguous 48 states including up to 12 miles off the coast Clearance
2,000’ Horiz
 The District of Columbia and Alaska Min Pilot Student Pilot
b. Extends from the surface or designated altitude to the Qualifications
overlying/adjacent controlled airspace VFR Entry and Establish Radio
Equipment Communication
v. Segments of Class E Airspace IFR/IFR
a. Class E and the Low Altitude Airway System ATC Services
Separation
 Airways: 1,200’ AGL up to, but not including, 18,000’ MSL
 Normally 8 nm wide (4 nm each side of the centerline) Class C
VFR Minimum 3 Statute Miles
b. Class E and Airports
Visibility
 Extension to a Surface Area 500’ Below
 Controlled airspace for IFR traffic transitioning between VFR Min Cloud
1000’ Above
Clearance
enroute / airport environments 2,000’ Horiz
c. When needed for IFR control purposes Min Pilot Student Pilot
Qualifications
 Enroute Domestic Areas - Provide IFR ATC services where the
Establish Radio
Airway System is inadequate Communication
 Offshore Airspace Areas - Provide controlled airspace beyond 12 VFR Entry and Mode C
miles from the coast Equipment Transponder
B. Class D Airspace
i. Definition ADS-B
a. Normally surface to 2,500’ above field elevation / 4 nm radius IFR/IFR & VFR
Separation
b. Part time control tower (Class E when closed)
ATC Services VFR Traffic
c. Configured to the needs/instrument procedures of the area
advisories
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements (permitting)
a. Pilot Certification - No specific certification required
b. Equipment - Two-way radio Class B
VFR Minimum 3 Statute Miles
C. Class C Airspace
Visibility
i. Definition VFR Min Cloud Clear of Clouds
a. Surface to 4,000’ AFE Clearance
b. Operational control tower and radar approach control Private Pilot
Min Pilot
c. 5 NM core (sfc - 4,000’ AFE), 10 NM shelf (1,200’ - 4,000’ AFE) Student
Qualifications
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements w/Endorsement
a. Pilot Certification - No specific certification required ATC Clearance
b. Equipment - Two-way radio, Mode C transponder VFR Entry and Mode C
 Communication required prior to entry Equipment Transponder
D. Class B Airspace
ADS-B
i. Definition All Aircraft
a. Surface to 10,000’ MSL around nation’s busiest airports ATC Services
Separation
b. Configuration is tailored to the needs of the area
 Upside-down wedding cake
 Designed to contain all instrument procedures
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements
a. For VFR Operations:
 At least a Private Pilot Certificate is required

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 II.G. National Airspace System

 Or student/recreational/sport pilot with endorsement Class G

a AIM 3-2-3b: Solo student, sport, and recreational pilot Day: 1 s.m.
VFR min Vis & Clear of Clouds
operations are not permitted at certain class B airports (ATL,
Clearance Night: 3 s.m.
ORD, DFW, LAX, MIA, JFK, LGA, SFO, etc.) 1,200’ AGL or 500’ Below
 Specific ATC Clearance is required before entering less 1,000’ Above
 Two-way radio, 4096-code Mode C transponder 2,000’ Horiz
 Mode C Veil transponder requirement Below 10,000’
a 30 nm of Class B airport, surface to 10,000’ MSL MSL –
Day: 1 s.m.
b. For IFR operations: VFR Minimum Night: 3 s.m.
 VOR or TACAN receiver Visibility
At/Above
 Radar beacon transponder with auto altitude reporting 10,000 MSL –
E. Class A Airspace 5 s.m.
i. 18,000’ MSL up to/including FL600, including 12 NM off the coast of 48 Below 10,000’ -
contiguous states and Alaska 500’ Below
1000’ Above
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements
VFR Min Cloud 2,000’ Horiz
a. Unless otherwise authorized, all operation is IFR
Clearance Above 10,000’ –
F. Class G Airspace
1,000’ Below
i. Definition: Uncontrolled Airspace (everything that isn’t A-E) 1,000’ Above
ii. Surface to the base of the overlying Class E airspace 1 s.m. Horiz
Min Pilot Student Pilot
Qualifications
VFR Entry and None
Equipment
VFR advisories
ATC Services on request
(permitting)

Class Minimum Pilot

Entry Requirements Equipment
Airspace Certificate
A ATC Clearance IFR Equipped Instrument Rating
Two-way radio
Transponder with altitude
B ATC Clearance Private – with exception
reporting capability
ADS-B
Two-way radio
Two-way radio communications Transponder with altitude
C No specific requirement
prior to entry reporting capability
ADS-B
Two-way radio communications
D Two-way radio No specific requirement
prior to entry
Transponder, as specified
E None for VFR No specific requirement
ADS-B, as specified
G None No specific requirement No specific requirement

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 II.G. National Airspace System

VFR Weather Minimums Summary (Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, FAR 91.155)
BASIC VFR WEATHER MINIMUMS
Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds
CLASS A ………………………………………………………………. Not Applicable Not Applicable
CLASS B ………………………………………………………………. 3 Statute Miles Clear of Clouds
CLASS C …………………………………………………………....... 3 Statute Miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
CLASS D ………………………………………………………………. 3 Statute Miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
CLASS E
Less than 10,000 feet MSL ………………………………. 3 Statute Miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
At or above 10,000 feet MSL …………………………… 5 Statute Miles 1,000 feet below
1,000 feet above
1 mile horizontal
CLASS G
1,200 feet or less above the surface (regardless of
MSL altitude)
Day, except as provided in section 91.155(b) …….. 1 Statute Mile Clear of Clouds
Night, except as provided in section 91.155(b) …… 3 Statute Miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
More than 1,200 feet above the surface but less
than 10,000 feet MSL
Day …………………………………………………………………. 1 Statute Mile 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
Night ………………………………………………………………. 3 Statute Miles 500 feet below
1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
More than 1,200 feet above the surface and at or 5 Statute Miles 1,000 feet below
above 10,000 feet MSL ………………………………………. 1,000 feet above
-Exception – 91.155 (b)(2) 1 mile horizontal

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2. Special VFR (FAR 91.157)

A. Clearance to operate under VFR with less than VFR weather minimums
i. Only in Class B, C, D, or E surface areas, below 10,000’ MSL
ii. Must be requested by the pilot
iii. Special VFR is on the basis of weather conditions at the airport of intended landing/departure
iv. Only approved if IFR traffic are not delayed
B. Special VFR may only be conducted
i. With an ATC clearance
ii. Clear of clouds
iii. With at least 1 statute mile flight visibility
iv. At night (sunset to sunrise):
a. With an instrument rated pilot and aircraft
C. May not takeoff or land under special VFR unless ground visibility is at least 1 statute mile
i. If not reported, flight visibility must be at least 1 statute mile
D. Prohibited at certain airports (mostly large class B airports) shown in Part 91 Appendix D Section 3
3. Special Use Airspace
A. Special Flight Rules Area (SFRA) - Airspace governed by the rules described in Part 93
a. Normal rules do not necessarily apply – must abide by Part 93 rules
B. Prohibited Areas - Published in the Federal Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts
i. Flight is prohibited - Established for security or other reasons associated with the national welfare
C. Restricted Areas - Published in the Federal Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts
i. Hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft, and while not wholly prohibited, are subject to restrictions
D. Warning Areas - Depicted on aeronautical charts
i. Extend from 3 nm outward from the coast, contain potentially hazardous activity
E. MOAs (Military Operation Areas) - Depicted on aeronautical charts
i. Separate military training activity from IFR traffic. No restriction against operating VFR
F. Alert Areas - Depicted on aeronautical charts
i. Advise pilots that a high volume of pilot training or unusual aerial activity is taking place
G. Controlled Firing Areas – Not displayed on charts
i. Activities that could be hazardous to aircraft, suspended when an aircraft is approaching the area
4. Other Airspace Areas
A. Local Airport Advisory (LAA)
i. Area within 10 SM of airport without operating tower, but with an FSS
(provides local advisories)
B. Military Training Routes (MTR)
i. Routes used by military aircraft to maintain proficiency in tactical flying (IR and
VR on sectional)
C. Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs) - www.tfr.faa.gov
i. An FDC NOTAM will be issued to designate a TFR
D. Parachute Jump Areas - Published in the Chart Supplement, and depicted on sectional charts
E. Published VFR Routes - Generally found on VFR terminal area planning charts
i. For transitioning around, under, or through complex airspace
F. Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSA) – Depicted on sectionals/terminal area charts (solid black line)
i. Areas where participating pilots can receive radar services (participation is voluntary)
G. National Security Areas
i. Locations where there is a requirement for increased security and safety of ground facilities
ii. Requested to voluntarily avoid - When necessary, flight can be temporarily prohibited
5. VFR Charts

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A. Chart Symbology
i. Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide (Pgs. 17-19: Airspace, Special Use & Other Airspace)
B. Chart Updates & Currency
i. Terminal Area & Sectional Charts: Updated every 56 days
ii. Wall Planning Chart: Updated annually
iii. Information changes rapidly, it is important to check the effective dates on each chart/publication
iv. To confirm currency, refer to the next scheduled edition date printed on the cover
a. Use the FAAs Dates of Latest Editions to verify you have the most current edition
b. Prior to expiration, check NOTAMs and Safety Alerts and Charting Notices for any changes

Conclusion:
Brief review of each main point

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II.H. Navigation Systems & Radar Services

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the navigation systems and
radar services provided by ATC as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. VOR

2. GPS
3. Radar Services

Elements 1. VOR / VORTAC

2. DME
3. ADF & NDB
4. Satellite Based Navigation
5. Radar Services and Procedures
6. ADS-B Basics
7. EFBs & Automation
8. Distractions

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will understand the operation of different navigation systems as well as their use
Standards in the airplane. The student also will understand and be able to utilize the radar services
provided by ATC.
 II.H. Navigation Systems & Radar Services

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Understanding this will greatly decrease your chances of getting lost and provide more services for use.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson discusses the different navigation systems in use, as well as radar services provided by ATC when in radar
coverage and with established communication.

Why
It is important to understand how the navigation systems function to properly use them. It also is important to know
the services provided by ATC to pilots.

How:
1. VOR / VORTAC (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range)
A. What is it?
i. Omni means all - VHF radio projecting straight line courses (radials) in all directions
ii. Referenced to magnetic north / 108.0 – 117.95 MHz Radius
iii. 3 classes: Terminal, Low, High Class Altitudes
(Miles)
A. Three variations of VORs: T 12,000’ and Below 25
i. VOR – The VOR, by itself (magnetic courses) L Below 18,000’ 40
ii. VOR/DME – DME is installed with the VOR
H Below 14,500’ 40
iii. VORTAC – TACAN (DME) is installed with a VOR
H 14,500 – 17,999’ 100
B. VOR Components
H 18,000’ – FL 450 130
i. VOR Components – Ground and Aircraft
H FL 450 – 60,000’ 100
a. Ground - VOR station; transmits on assigned
frequency
b. Aircraft - Antenna, Receiver, and VOR navigation instrument
 Antenna – Picks up the VOR signal
 Receiver – Processes the signal into navigation information
 VOR Instrument – Displays the navigation information
a OBS (Omnibearing Selector, or course selector)
1. Dial used to select desired radial or determine the radial on
b CDI (Course Deviation Indicator) Needle
1. Indicates position in relation to the selected course/radial
2. Full scale deflection = ≥ 12o off selected course (2o per dot)
c To/From Indicator
1. Shows whether the selected course takes the aircraft To or From the VOR
2. Does not indicate whether the aircraft is currently heading To or From the VOR
d Flags
1. OFF flag indicates an unusable/unreliable signal
B. VOR Basics

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i. RM: TIM (Tune, Identify, Monitor)

a. Loss of signal: If the morse code/identifier stops operating, do not use for navigation
ii. Orientation
a. Rotate the OBS to center the CDI - note the course and the TO or FROM indication
 TO indication displays the course to fly to the VOR
 FROM indication displays the radial you’re currently on
b. Using a second VOR can provide an exact location at the intersection of the two radials
iii. Tracking
a. Tune the VOR frequency and check the identifier to verify the desired VOR is being received
b. Rotate the OBS to center the CDI with a “TO” indication
c. Turn to the heading indicated on the VOR azimuth dial or course selector
d. Adjust for crosswind
e. Upon arriving, and passing the VOR station, the TO indication will change to a FROM indication
f. Reverse Sensing (not applicable to HSI)
 If flying toward a VOR with a FROM indication, or away with TO, the CDI will indicate opposite
C. VOR Checks - FAR 91.171
i. Not mandated for VFR flight
ii. Checkpoints are listed in the Chart Supplement
a. FAA VOR Test Facility, Airborne Checkpoints, Ground Checkpoints, Dual VOR check
b. ± 4o for ground checks, ± 6o for airborne checks
D. VOR MON (Minimum Operating Network)
i. NAS is transitioning to PBN
a. Number of VORs is being reduced (896 to 590 by 2030)
b. Two new, larger service volumes will enable near continuous navigation above 5,000’ AGL
ii. Designed to enable aircraft, having lost GPS, to revert to conventional navigation procedures
iii. New Service Volumes
a. Low: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 18,000’
b. High: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 14,500’

LEGACY SERVICE VOLUMES NEW SERVICE VOLUMES

E. VOR Tips
i. Positively identify the station by its code or voice identification
ii. VOR signals are line-of-sight
iii. Don’t reset the course, correct for drift
iv. When flying TO a station always fly the selected course with a TO indication
v. When flying FROM a station always fly the selected course with a FROM indication
2. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

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A. Function – provides slant range distance from a station

i. With VOR and DME, a pilot can determine bearing as well as distance TO or FROM a station
B. How it Works
i. Aircraft transmits RF pulse to the DME on the ground, the DME responds with its own signal
ii. Time between the sent signal and the reply signal determines distance
iii. Ground speed can be provided on some systems
iv. Operates on UHF frequencies between 962 MHz and 1213 MHz
C. Components
i. Ground Equipment - VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/DME
a. “Paired frequency” - auto selects the UHF DME frequency associated with the VORTAC
ii. Airborne Equipment - Antenna and Receiver
D. RM: Errors
i. DME signals are line-of-sight
ii. Slant Range Distance
a. The mileage readout is the straight-line distance from the aircraft to the ground facility
b. This error is the smallest at low altitudes and long range
 Negligible if 1 mile or more away from the facility for each 1,000’ above facility elevation
3. Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) & Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
A. An NDB is a ground-based radio transmitter that transmits radio energy in all directions
B. The ADF needle in the airplane points to the NDB ground station to determine the relative bearing
C. Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing = Magnetic Bearing
i. Mary Had + Roast Beef= Mary Barfed
D. NDB Components
i. The ground equipment: the NDB (transmits between 190 to 535 KHz)
ii. Aircraft must be in operational range of the NDB - dependent on the strength of the station
E. ADF Components
i. The airborne equipment: 2 antennas, a receiver, and the indicator instrument
ii. Two Antennas – used together to determine NDB direction
iii. Receiver – Processes antenna information and to display on the instrument
iv. Indicator Instrument
a. 3 kinds: Fixed card, Movable Card, or the RMI (1 or 2 needles)
b. Fixed Card ADF (or relative bearing indicator, RBI) (top picture)
 Always indicates 0 at the top; Needle indicates RB to the station
 Pilot must calculate MB based on MH and RB
c. Movable Card ADF (middle picture)
 Automatically rotates to display aircraft heading
 Head = MB to the station; Tail = MB from the station
 Instrument provides MB, pilot doesn’t have to calculate it
d. RMI (bottom picture)
 Automatically rotates to display aircraft heading
 Can have two needles (ADF and/or VOR information)
 ADF needle:
a Head = MB To the station; Tail = MB From the station
 VOR needle:
a Head of needle points the bearing TO the station
b Tail points to the radial the aircraft is currently on/crossing
F. Using the NDB

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i. Orientation (Fixed Card ADF)

a. The ADF needle points TO the station, showing Relative Bearing
b. Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing = Magnetic Bearing
ii. Movable Card/RMI
a. Turn toward the head of the needle indicating the MB to the station
b. Adjust for wind to maintain the desired course
4. Satellite Based Navigation
A. GPS (Global Positioning System)
i. 3 major elements
a. Space Segment
 31 satellites, 5 in view at any time (4 needed for operation)
 UHF: Unaffected by weather, but subject to line-of-sight reference
b. Control Segment
 Master control station, 5 monitoring stations, and 3 ground antennas
a Updates / corrections are uplinked as satellites pass over ground antennas
c. User Segment
 Consists of all components associated with GPS receivers (portable, hand held to installed)
ii. Solving for Location
a. The receiver utilizes the signals of at least 4 satellites to yield Latitude, Longitude, and Altitude
iii. Navigating
a. VFR navigation with GPS can be as simple as selecting a destination and tracking the course
b. Course deviation is linear - no increase in sensitivity when approaching a waypoint
iv. RM: RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)
a. How the GPS verifies the integrity of the signals received from the satellites
b. Requires at least 5 satellites in view (or 4 satellites and a barometric altimeter)
 Some receivers can use a 6th satellite to isolate and remove a corrupt satellite
c. RAIM Messages (generally, two types)
 Not enough satellites available to provide RAIM integrity monitoring
 RAIM has detected a potential error exceeding the limit for the phase of flight
v. GPS for VFR
a. In VFR operations, GPS receivers can vary between full IFR installation to handheld receivers
 Many have no RAIM capability & antenna location is based on convenience instead of performance
 Limitations of the individual installation must be understood
b. Database Currency
 No requirements exist for VFR ops; however, it is always a good idea to keep a current database
 Violations
a It is not FAA policy to initiate enforcement action against a pilot for having an expired database
b However, if involved in an enforcement investigation and there is evidence an out-of-date
database contributed to the situation, that information could be used in any enforcement action
B. WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System)
i. Basically, augmented GPS, to the point it may be used for precision approaches
a. Requires a position accuracy of 25’ or less at least 95% of the time
ii. Designed to improve the accuracy, integrity, and availability of GPS signals
iii. Approach Capabilities
a. Improvement is sufficient to enable approach procedures with GPS/WAAS glidepaths
b. Eliminates cold temperature effects, incorrect altimeter setting / lack of a local altimeter source
c. Can be further enhanced with LAAS

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C. LAAS (Local Area Augmentation System, also referred to as GBAS – Ground Based Augmentation System)
i. Like WAAS, but with more ground augmentation
ii. Receivers around the airport send data to a central location which distributes it to aircraft
a. Aircraft uses the information fine tunes GPS signals
5. Radar Services and Procedures (AIM 4-1-17 & 18)
A. Radar equipped ATC facilities provide radar assistance and navigation services to VFR aircraft, provided:
i. You can communicate with ATC, are within radar coverage, and can be radar identified
B. RM: Limitations
i. Based on controller discretion
ii. Guidance information is advisory and responsibility for safe flying remains with the pilot
iii. Cannot determine if flight into IMC will results from their instructions
C. Other services include:
i. Basic Radar Service – Safety alerts, traffic advisories, limited radar vectoring (workload permitting)
ii. TRSA Service - Radar sequencing and separation for VFR aircraft in a TRSA
iii. Class C services - Separation between IFR/VFR and sequencing of VFR traffic to the airport
iv. Class B services - Separation based on IFR, VFR and/or weight and sequencing VFR arrivals
6. ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast) Basics
A. What is it?
i. Foundation for NextGen, moving from ground radar to satellites
a. More precise tracking: Broadcasts every second vs a radar sweep every 5-12 seconds
ii. ADS-B
a. Automatic: Automatically transmits information
b. Dependent: Position/velocity are derived from GPS/FMS
c. Surveillance: Allows 3D position and identification
d. Broadcast: Transmits the information to anyone with appropriate receiving equipment
iii. ADS-B Out – Broadcasts GPS location, altitude, ground speed, more to ground stations/other aircraft
iv. ADS-B In
a. Pilots can see what controllers see in the air as well as on the ground, and can provide weather
b. FIS-B (Flight Information Service Broadcast – available on 978 MHz UAT equipment)
 Like XM weather, but more information
c. TIS-B (Traffic Information Service Broadcast – available to 1090ES and UAT equipment users)
 Provides traffic information on all transponder-based aircraft in the vicinity of the ADS-B
B. Who Needs it?
i. FAR 91.225 – Effective Jan 1 2020, ADS-B OUT is required in:
a. Class A, B, and C airspace (and above the ceiling of Class B and C airspace up to 10,000’ MSL)
b. Class E airspace at and above 10,000’ MSL, excluding at and below 2,500’ AGL
 At and above 3,000’ MSL over the Gulf of Mexico within 12 nm of the coast
ii. ADS-B IN is voluntary
C. What do I need?
i. Straight from the FAA: Equip ADS-B Installation
ii. FAR 91.227 – ADS-B Out Equipment Performance Requirements Transponder
D. Modes
i. A: Transmits 4-digit code that identifies an aircraft and its position
ii. C: Mode A + ATC can see the aircraft’s altitude
iii. S: Transmits a variety of information to ATC & other aircraft
a. Unique ICAO address (assigned to each aircraft)
b. Heading, speed, other flight related data
c. Integral to TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) and ADS-B

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E. See lesson II.G. National Airspace System for transponder requirements

7. RM: EFBs & Automation (Navigation & Flight Systems)
A. Pilots are responsible for proper use of an EFB and installed avionics
i. Pilots may be evaluated on the use and interpretation of an EFB or installed avionics
B. Although not required, always maintain current EFB charts and publications
C. Understand the abilities and limitations of the system(s) on your aircraft
8. Distractions (Task Prioritization, Loss of SA, Disorientation)
A. Distractions
i. Distractions can be dangerous
a. Navigation systems, especially GPS/moving maps, can consume the pilot’s attention
ii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
B. Situational awareness (SA)
i. Navigation systems and radar services can be huge for situational awareness
ii. Don’t be overdependent on a single system (like the GPS), if the GPS/VOR fails, have a backup
iii. If SA is lost, admit it, and find a way to regain
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between flying/navigating, scanning, and communicating
ii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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II.I. Navigation and Flight Planning

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to navigation and flight
planning as required in the applicable tasks in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Time, Distance, and Fuel Calculations

2. Navigation
3. Lost Procedures

Elements 1. Terms
2. Aeronautical Charts
3. Navigation
4. Flight Planning with a Flight Log
5. Completing the Nav Log
6. VFR Flight Plan
7. Weather Check
8. GPS Navigation
9. Diversion to an Alternate
10. Lost Procedures
11. Flight Following & Intercept Procedures

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Aeronautical Charts (Sectional and Terminal Area Chart)
4. Navigation Log
5. Flight Computer

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can properly and confidently plan and execute a cross country flight to any chosen
Standards destination. The student also understands the procedures for diversions and lost situations.
 II.I. Navigation and Flight Planning

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This is what leads into using everything you have learned so far and flying yourself somewhere!

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Navigation and flight planning is the process of planning and executing cross country flights.

Why
This information will make planning flights easier and more organized, while providing procedures for different
situations that may arise during the flight.

How:
1. Terms
A. Navigation Terminology
i. True North – Points directly to the geographic north pol
ii. Magnetic North – Aligns with Earth’s magnetic field and points directly to the magnetic north pole
iii. Variation – The angular difference between true north and magnetic north; isogonic lines on charts
iv. True Course – The direction of flight as measured on a chart clockwise from true North
v. True Heading – The direction the longitudinal axis of the airplane points with respect to true North
vi. Magnetic Course – True course corrected for magnetic variation
vii. Magnetic Heading – Magnetic Course corrected for wind (direction and speed)
viii. Compass Heading – Aircraft heading read from the compass
ix. Deviation – Compass error due to magnetic disturbances from electrical/metal parts in the plane
B. Atmospheric Terminology
i. Standard Pressure – 29.92” Hg (at sea level)
ii. Standard Temperature – 15o C/59oF (at sea level)
C. Altitude Terminology
i. Indicated Alt –Altitude read directly from the altimeter after it’s set to the current altimeter setting
ii. Pressure Alt – Height above the standard pressure level of 29.92 in Hg - 1,000 ( 29.92− Alt ) + Elev
iii. Density Alt – Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperatures - 120(℃−15 ℃)+ PA
iv. True Altitude – The true vertical distance of the aircraft above sea level
v. Absolute Altitude – The vertical distance of the aircraft above the surface of the earth (AGL)
D. Airspeed Terminology
i. Indicated (IAS) – The speed of an aircraft as shown on the airspeed Indicator
ii. Calibrated (CAS) – Indicated airspeed of an aircraft, corrected for installation and instrument errors
iii. Equivalent (EAS) – CAS corrected for adiabatic compressible flow for the particular altitude
iv. True (TAS)– The speed an aircraft is moving relative to the surrounding air (CAS corrected for DA)
v. Groundspeed (GS) – The speed of the aircraft in relation to the ground (TAS corrected for wind)
2. Aeronautical Charts
A. The roadmap for a pilot flying VFR
i. FAA Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide

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B. Sectional Charts (Most commonly used by pilots) – revised every 56 days

i. Information provided: Airport data, nav aids, airspace, and topography. Revised semiannually
ii. Scale is 1:500,000 (1” = 6.86 NM)
C. VFR Terminal Area Charts – revised every 56 days
i. More detailed map/information. Helpful in busy airspace and flying in or near Class B airspace
ii. Scale is 1:250,000 (1” = 3.43 NM)
D. VFR Wall Planning Chart – revised annually
i. Provides aeronautical and topographic information of the conterminous US
a. Airports, navaids, Class B airspace, Special use airspace
ii. Scale is 1:3,100,000 (1” = 43 NM)
E. Proper and Current Aeronautical Charts
i. Always use current editions and discard obsolete charts and publications
ii. Check Aeronautical Chart Bulletins and NOTAMs for important updates between publication cycles
3. Navigation
A. Pilotage – Navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints
i. Checkpoints used should be prominent features common to the area of flight
a. Easily recognizable and spaced at a comfortable frequency
b. Use features that can create boundaries (rivers, roads, mountain ranges, etc.)
ii. Never place complete reliance on any single checkpoint
a. Turn based on time if the checkpoint is not in sight, do not continue blindly
B. Dead Reckoning – Navigation solely by computations based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction
C. Radio Navigation – Navigation by which a predetermined flight path is followed
i. There are three primary navigation systems available: VOR, NDB, and GPS
ii. For more detailed information, see II.H. Navigation Systems and Radar Services
D. VOR Minimum Operating Network (VOR MON)
i. NAS is transitioning to PBN
a. Number of VORs is being reduced (896 to 590 by 2030)
b. Two new, larger service volumes will still enable near continuous navigation above 5,000’ AGL
ii. Designed to enable aircraft, having lost GPS, to use conventional navigation procedures
a. Can use VOR station to station nav to reach a MON airport and fly a conventional approach
b. MON airport assured within 100 nm
iii. New VOR Service Volumes
a. Low: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 18,000’
b. High: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 14,500’

LEGACY SERVICE VOLUMES NEW MON SERVICE VOLUMES

c. New DME Service Volumes

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E. Ideally, pilotage, dead reckoning, and radio navigation should be used together
F. Magnetic Compass Errors
i. Variation
a. Caused by the difference in the locations of the magnetic and geographic north pole
b. Isogonic Lines: Lines used to connect points with the same magnetic variation
c. Agonic Line: The line along which the two poles are aligned, and there is no variation

ii. Deviation
a. Caused by local magnetic fields within the aircraft
b. Degrees of deviation is shown on a compass correction card
iii. Finding the Compass Course – True Course corrected for Variation and Deviation
a. True Course ± Variation = Magnetic Course; Magnetic Course ± Deviation = Compass Course
b. Remember: East is Least, West is Best
 East: Subtract variation from true course; West: Add variation to true course
iv. Dip Errors (pictured below, left)
a. What’s Going On
 Lines of magnetic flux leave the Earth at the magnetic N pole/enter at magnetic S pole
a At both poles the lines are perpendicular to the surface
b Over the equator the lines are parallel to the surface
 Magnets align with these fields and near the poles they dip/tilt the float and card
b. Northerly and Southerly Turning Errors (basically, the compass pulls toward the North)
 Starting a turn from a Southerly heading (turning to a Northerly direction):
a Compass Leads – initially shows a more aggressive turn in the same direction

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b Undershoot Northerly headings to compensate (30o- N; 20o- 030/330; 10o- 060/300)

 Starting a turn from a Northerly heading (turning to a Southerly direction):
a Compass Lags – initially shows a turn in the opposite direction
b Overshoot Southerly headings to compensate (30o- S; 20o- 150/210; 10o- 120/240)
 Remember: Undershoot North, Overshoot South (no compensation needed for E/W)

c. Acceleration Error (only applicable on East and West headings) (pictured above, right)
 Aft end of the compass tilts up when accelerating and down when decelerating
 On an E or W heading, acceleration appears as a turn to the North, and deceleration a turn South
 Remember: ANDS – Accelerate North, Decelerate South
v. Oscillation Error
a. A combination of all the other errors as well as the movement of the plane
 It results in the compass card swinging back and forth around the heading being flown
b. Use the average indication
4. Flight Planning with a Flight Log
A. The flight log provides the pilot an organized, point by point plan of the flight and other useful info
B. Plotting a Course
i. First, draw the route
a. Consider terrain, airspace, weather, winds, navaids, etc.
ii. Choose cruise altitude (FAR 91.159)
a. Terrain
b. Aircraft performance
c. Glide Distance
d. Weather & Wind
e. Unique Factors
f. Combine all factors with the FAR requirements
C. Checkpoints – Recognizable points along your route of flight used to maintain your
course
i. Top of Climb (TOC) and Top of Descent (TOD)
ii. Find additional checkpoints along the route to bridge the gap between the TOC and TOD
iii. Record your TOC, TOD, and additional checkpoints on your Nav Log
D. Fuel Stops
i. Longer flights will have to incorporate multiple legs for fuel stops (create a separate log for each leg)
ii. FAR 91.151 – fuel reserves (30 min during the day, 45 min during the night)
5. Completing the Nav Log
A. Chooser a power setting
i. Use the chart provided in the POH based on desired speed, fuel burn, altitude, etc.
B. Start by finding the True Airspeed for the trip and record it on your Nav Log

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C. Find and input the distance between each of the checkpoints

D. Next, find the true course for each leg of the flight plan
E. Adjust True Course for wind to get True Heading, and record ground speed
F. Adjust the True Heading to obtain Magnetic Heading
G. If necessary, get your Compass Heading by adjusting for Deviation with the correction card
H. Calculate the estimated time for each leg
i. Based on expected departure time, you can calculate an expected arrival time
a. Convert to UTC

I. Use the Time for each leg to find the fuel burn for each leg
J. Planned Calculations versus Actual Results
i. Planned calculations are never perfect
ii. Recognize deviations and adjust
a. The more familiar with the route, flight planning, & waypoints, the easier to recognize deviations
b. If the time to waypoints is too fast or slow, power and airspeed may be adjusted
 If power/increased fuel burn is a concern, accept the speed and adjust the time to each waypoint
iii. Use tools at your disposal (GPS, tablet, rules of thumb, etc.)
iv. Ignoring the problem only makes it worse
6. VFR Flight Plan
A. Not required but it is a good operating practice since the info can be used for search and rescue
B. Filing can be done on the ground or in the air
i. On the ground: Call the FSS (1 800-WX BRIEF), various apps such as ForeFlight have this ability
ii. After takeoff, contact the FSS by radio and give them the takeoff time to activate the flight plan
iii. Once filed, the flight plan will be held for an hour after the proposed departure time
C. Don’t forget to close the flight plan
D. ICAO Flight Plans
i. As of June 2017, the FSS has transitioned to the ICAO Format for all VFR/IFR civil flights
ii. For more information:
a. A great, short ICAO flight plan instructional video from AOPA
b. ICAO Flight Plan instructions
c. FAA Aircraft Type Designators
d. ICAO Flight Plan Form
e. AIM 5-1-9 – International Flight Plan - IFR Flights
7. Weather Check
A. Obtaining a preflight weather briefing is the first step to determine if the flight can be conducted safely
i. Often done in conjunction with filing the flight plan
ii. See III.C. Weather Information for more details
B. FAR 91.103 requires familiarity with weather reports and forecasts for the flight
C. Go/No Go
i. Good judgment is necessary in deciding whether to take the flight
ii. RM: Use the PAVE risk management checklist
iii. Set limits and don’t bend them
iv. IMSAFE checklist
v. Recent Flight Experience/proficiency
vi. Continual process of decision making before and throughout the flight
8. GPS Navigation

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A. Before flight enter the flight plan waypoints into the GPS
B. Ensure you don’t get complacent with the GPS and lose situational awareness
9. Diversion to an Alternate
A. Diversions can result from weather, malfunctions, poor planning, fuel, fatigue/illness, etc.
B. When planning, check the route for suitable landing areas that can be used in a diversion
C. Take advantage of all shortcuts/rule of thumb computations when computing course/speed/distance
i. Use your thumb to estimate distance
a. Figure out approximately how far from the tip of your thumb (toward the knuckle) 10 nm is
b. Use your thumb to quickly measure the number of 10 nm increments to the alternate
ii. Use a compass rose, airway, or any other reference to determine the approximate new heading
D. Procedure
i. Find your position on the sectional chart
ii. Turn immediately toward the alternate using shortcuts/rule of thumb calculations
iii. Once established on course, note the time
iv. Use the winds aloft nearest the diversion point to calculate a heading and ground speed
v. Calculate a new arrival time and fuel consumption
vi. Determine a suitable altitude
10. Lost Procedures
A. Plan ahead to avoid getting lost / Use flight following
B. If Lost
i. Don’t Panic
ii. The Five C’s – Climb, Communicate, Confess, Comply, Conserve
iii. Check the heading indicator against the magnetic compass in case of error
iv. Use navigational radios (VOR/ADF) to attempt to plot your position (GPS if available)
11. Flight Following & Intercept Procedures (AIM 5-6-13 Interception Procedures)
A. Flight Following
i. Radar equipped ATC facilities can provide radar assistance and navigation services to VFR aircraft by request
ii. RM: Limitations
a. Based on controller discretion (workload permitting)
b. Guidance information is advisory and responsibility for safe flying remains with the pilot
c. Cannot determine if flight into IMC will results from their instructions
d. Can only communicate with participating aircraft
B. In conjunction with the FAA, Air Defense Sectors monitor air traffic and can order an intercept in the interest of
national security or defense – reasons include to:
i. Identify, track, inspect, divert, or establish communications with an aircraft
C. AOPA Intercept Procedures Card

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Cross country flight planning requires a lot of preflight work but the flight itself is worth the time. It also helps to prevent
getting lost and keeps us away from potentially dangerous or bad weather.

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II.J. 14 CFR and Publications

References: 14 CFR Parts 1, 61, 91, NTSB Part 830, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to federal aviation regulations
and publications.

Key Elements 1. Chart Supplement

2. ACs
3. NOTAMs

Elements 1. FARs
2. NTSB Part 830
3. Aviation Publications

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will understand the purpose and content of the FARs as well as useful
Standards publications.
 II.J. 14 CFR and Publications

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Where everything you’ve been looking for and will ever need to know is kept.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) and publications relevant to every pilot.

Why
This will provide a better understanding of these publications and their use in flying.

How:
1. FARS (1, 61, 91, 21, 39, 43, 67)
A. Part 1 – Definitions and Abbreviations
i. Provides general definitions as well as abbreviations and symbols
ii. Contents: General Definitions, Abbreviations and Symbols, Rules of Construction
B. Part 61 – Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors
i. Requirements for issuing pilot, flight instructor, ground instructor certificates and ratings
ii. Privileges and limitations of those certificates and ratings, and authorizations
C. Part 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules
i. Rules governing the operation of aircraft in the US, including the waters within 3 nm of the coast
D. Part 21 – Certification Procedures
i. Requirements for airworthiness certificates and airworthiness approvals
E. Part 39 – Airworthiness Directives
i. Provides a legal framework for the FAA’s system of Airworthiness Directives
F. Part 43 – Maintenance
i. Rules governing maintenance, preventive maintenance, and rebuilding
G. Part 67 – Medical Standards and Certification
i. Medical standards and certification for issuing medical certificates
2. NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board) Part 830
A. Part 830 contains rules pertaining to:
i. Initial notification and reporting of aircraft incidents and accidents
a. Immediately notify the nearest NTSB office for:
 Accident or serious incident (listed in 830.5a)
 Aircraft is overdue and believed to have been involved in an accident
b. Information to be provided described in 830.6
ii. Preservation of aircraft wreckage, mail, cargo, and records involving aircraft accidents
3. Aviation Publications
A. Chart Supplement
i. Links
a. FAA Chart Supplement description
b. Digital Chart Supplements

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ii. Provides the most comprehensive information on a given airport

a. Contains information on airports, heliports, and seaplane bases that are open to the public
b. Also contains information such as:
 Special notices, NWS info, Preferred IFR routes, VFR waypoints, VOR checkpoints, Aeronautical chart
bulletins, LAHSO, Parachute jump areas
iii. Published in 7 books organized by region (NW, SW, NC, SC, EC, NE, SE)
iv. Revised every 56 days
B. Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
i. Official guide to basic flight information and ATC procedures in the US
ii. Contains information such as health and medical facts, flight safety, a pilot/controller glossary, information
on safety, accidents, and reporting of hazards
C. FAA Advisory Circular (AC)
i. An informational document that the FAA wants to distribute to the aviation community
a. Used for information only and are not regulations
ii. May be used to:
a. Provide an acceptable, clearly understood method for complying with a regulation
b. Respond to a request from a government entity (NTSB, Office of the Inspector General, etc.)
c. Expand on standards needed to promote aviation safety, including the safe operation of airports
iii. Commonly used ACs: The Backseat Pilot – Advisory Circulars
D. INFOs & SAFOs
i. InFO (Information for Operators)
a. Information to meet requirements with low urgency or impact on safety
 Ex: Updates to Cold Temperature Airports Program
b. InFO Database
ii. SAFO (Safety Alert for Operators)
a. Designed to share important safety information broadly and quickly, may include recommended actions
 Especially valuable to air carriers and their duty to provide service with the highest degree of safety
 Ex: Recognizing & Mitigating GPS/GNSS Disruptions
b. Training center managers should pay attention to any SAFO bearing directly on their operation and
consider immediate implementation of any applicable actions recommended
c. SAFO Database
E. Notice to Air Mission (NOTAM)
i. Time critical aeronautical information either temporary in nature or not sufficiently known in advance to
permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications
ii. Categories of NOTAMs
a. NOTAM (D)
 Disseminated for navigational facilities and public use airports
 Includes information such as taxiway closures, personnel/equipment near or on runways, and
airport lighting that does not affect instrument approach criteria, such as VASI
 Pointer NOTAM: Points to additional aeronautical information
 (U) NOTAM: Unverified NOTAM from a source other than airport management
 (O) NOTAM: Other information that may be beneficial to aircraft operations
b. FDC NOTAMs
 Issued by the National Flight Data Center, and are regulatory in nature
a Examples include: Interim IFR flight procedures (airways, approach changes), and TFRs
 Center Area NOTAM
a FDC NOTAM issued for a condition not limited to one airport

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b Filed under the ARTCC that controls the airspace

 Security NOTAM: Informs pilots of security activities or requirements – found under KZZZ
c. International NOTAMs
 Published in ICAO format and distributed to multiple countries
d. Military NOTAMs – NOTAMs pertaining to military navigational aids / airports / airspace
F. Domestic and International Notices
i. Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP) was discontinued as of June 2020
ii. Information for the international and domestic notices have been transferred to new websites:
a. Domestic Notices
b. International Notices
G. Airman Certification Standards (ACS) / Practical Test Standards (PTS)
i. PTS/ACS Concept
a. Part 61 specifies the Areas of Operation (knowledge/skill) required to be issued a certificate
 The FARs provide the flexibility that permits the FAA to publish PTS/ACS containing specific Tasks in
which competency must be demonstrated
ii. Current PTSs for Airplanes
a. Sport, Flight Instructor, Flight Instructor Instrument, and Type Rating
iii. Airman Certification Standards (ACS)
a. Essentially an “enhanced” version of the PTS. Updated and modernized certification standards
b. So far, the FAA has released the Private Pilot, Instrument Rating, Commercial, and ATP ACS
H. Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH)
i. The POH is published by the manufacturer and describes the specific airplane and its operation
I. Expired Publications
i. FAR 91.103 requires each PIC to become familiar with all available information concerning that flight
a. Although not specifically required, you should always carry current publications
ii. To confirm currency, refer to the next scheduled edition date printed on the cover
a. Use the FAAs Dates of Latest Editions
b. Prior to expiration, check NOTAMs and Safety Alerts and Charting Notices for any changes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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II.K. Endorsements & Logbook Entries

References: 14 CFR part 61, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors (AC 61-65), Currency Requirements
and Guidance for the Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check (AC 61-98), Flight Instructor Refresher Course (AC
61-83), WINGS Pilot Proficiency Program (AC 61-91), FAA Order 8900.1 (FSIMS)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to logbook entries and
endorsements as required by the CFI ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. AC 61-65

2. Endorsements
3. Required Records

Elements 1. Logbook Entries

2. Student Pilot Certificate Endorsements
3. Preparation of a Practical Test Recommendation
4. Additional Ratings
5. Reapplying for a Practical Test
6. Time Limits
7. Flight Review Endorsements
8. Flight Instructor Records
9. Maintaining your CFI Certificate

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands what is necessary in student’s logbooks, what is necessary for
Standards student pilot certificates and preparing a student for a practical test, as well as the
requirements for flight review endorsements and flight instructor records.
 II.K. Endorsements & Logbook Entries

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Don’t get stuck with your student at a check ride without the proper endorsements! And, don’t get stuck not
retaining the necessary records in the case that the FAA comes knocking!

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Logbook entries and certificate endorsements discusses the necessary entries instructors must make in their
student’s logbooks as well as the endorsements required for different situations.

Why
It is important that the instructor understand the requirements to keep the student’s logbook and training in order,
not only for the student’s well-being, but also to comply with the FARs.

How:
1. Logbook Entries (FAR 61.189)
A. A flight instructor must sign the logbook of each person that instructor has given flight/ground training
B. Logbook entries must include (FAR 61.51):
 Date  Aircraft Identification
 Airplane Make and Model  Type of Experience (Solo, PIC, etc.)
 Total Flight Time  Flight Conditions (Day, Night, Instrument, etc.)
 Location of Departure and Arrival  Name of safety pilot, if required
2. Student Pilot Certificate Endorsements (Including appropriate logbook entries)
A. Student Pilot Endorsements (Examples shown in AC 61-65)
Solo Flight Endorsements XC Endorsements
 Pre-solo Aeronautical Knowledge: 61.87(b)  Solo XC Training: 61.93(c)(1) and (2)
 Pre-solo Flight Training: 61.87(c)  Solo XC Planning: 61.93(c)(3)
 Pre-solo Flight Training at Night: 61.87(c) & (o)  Repeated Solo XCs not > 50 nm from the departure: 61.93(b)(2)
 Solo Flt (1st 90-days): 61.87(n) / Additional 90 days: 61.87(p) Class B Endorsements
 Solo T/O & LDGs at an Airport within 25 nm: 61.93(b)(1)  Solo Flight in Class B Airspace: 61.95(a)
 TSA US Citizenship: 49 CFR 1552.3(h)  Solo Flight, to/from/at a Class B airport: 61.95(b) & 91.131(b)(1)
3. Preparation of a Practical Test Recommendation
A. Endorsements
i. AC 61-65 A.1: Prerequisites for a Practical Test: 61.39(a)(6)(i) & (ii)
ii. AC61-65 A.2: Aeronautical Knowledge Test Deficiencies: 61.39(a)(6)(iii)
a. As required
b. Sometimes combined with the above endorsement (Ex. AC 61-65 A.40: Instrument rating)
iii. Other part 61 endorsement(s) for the category, class, rating, or privilege of certification sought
B. Example Endorsement – Single Engine Private Pilot
i. AC 61-65 A.1: Prerequisite for a Practical Test: § 61.39(a)(6)(i) & (ii)
ii. AC 61.-65 A.2: Aeronautical Knowledge Test Deficiencies: § 61.39(a)(6)(iii)
iii. AC 61-65 A.32: Aeronautical Knowledge Test: §§ 61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), and 61.105
a. Part 61 required endorsement specific to the private pilot required knowledge training

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iv. AC 61-65 A.33: Flight Proficiency/Practical Test: §§ 61.103(f), 61.107(b), and 61.109
a. Part 61 required endorsement specific to the private pilot certificate
C. Endorsement References
Sport Pilot Flight Instructors (w/o Sport Rating)
Knowledge Test - 61.307(a) FOI Knowledge Test - 61.183(d), 61.185(a)(1)
Practical Test - 61.307(b) Practical Test - 61.183(g), 61.187(a) & (b)
Recreational Pilot Spin Training - 61.183(i)(1)
Knowledge Test - 61.35(a)(1), 61.96(b)(3), 61.97(b) CFII Practical Test - 61.183(g), 61.187(a) & (b)(7)
Practical Test - 61.96(b)(5), 61.98(a) & (b), 61.99 Flight Instructors (with Sport Rating)
Private Pilot FOI Knowledge Test - 61.405(a)(1)
Knowledge Test - 61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), 61.105 Sport Pilot Knowledge Test - 61.35(a)(1), 61.405(a)
Practical Test - 61.103(f), 61.107(b), 61.109 Practical Test - 61.409, 61.411
Instrument Rating (CFII is Required) Spin Training - 61.405(b)(1)(ii)
Knowledge Test - 61.35(a)(1), 61.65(a) & (b) Additional Qualifications
Practical Test - 61.65(a)(6) Additional Category/Class Rating (Not ATP) - 61.63(b) or (c)
Commercial Pilot Additional Type Rating Only (Not ATP) - 61.63(d)(2) & (3)
Knowledge Test - 61.35(a)(1), 61.123(c), 61.125 Type Rating & Category/Class Rating - 61.63(d)(2) & (3)
Practical Test - 61.123(e), 61.127, 61.129 Additional Aircraft Rating (ATP) - 61.157(b)(1)
-You may complete the endorsement in the space at the bottom Type Rating Only (ATP) - 61.157(b)(2)
of the computer test report in the case of a knowledge test Practical Test Prerequisites Completion - 61.39(a)(6)
failure. You must sign the block provided for the instructor’s
endorsement on the reverse side of the 8710 for each retake of a
Retesting for Knowledge/Practical - 61.49
practical test. An applicant may retake a practical or knowledge Home Study Curriculum - 61.35(a)(1)
test after receiving additional instruction and an instructor’s Ground Instructor Experience Reqs - 61.217(b)
endorsement.
A. The instructor/student must complete the IACRA rating application online (iacra.faa.gov)
i. Or the instructor/student must complete/sign a Form 8710-1 (rarely used)
B. Except in certain instances, applicant must hold at least a current 3rd class medical: FAR 61.123 (a)(3)(iii)
4. Additional Ratings (FAR 61.63)
A. Category and Class Ratings
i. Additional category and/or class (other than ATP), must have:
a. Instructor recommendations
b. Appropriate endorsements (vary by specific FAR 61 requirements )
ii. Applicant must:
a. Comply with the requirements of FAR 61.63 (described below)
b. Pass the practical test appropriate for the aircraft category, and if applicable, class rating sought
B. Additional Class Requirements – FAR 61.63(c)
i. Endorsement stating competence in knowledge areas and proficient in areas of operation
a. AC 61-65 A.74: Additional aircraft category or class rating (other than ATP)
b. AC 61-65 A.1: Practical test endorsement
c. Other endorsement(s) as required, see example
ii. Pass practical test
iii. No need to meet the time requirements that apply to the class rating (see FAR for exception)
iv. No knowledge test, provided applicant holds a rating at the certificate level
C. Additional Category Requirements – FAR 61.63(b)
i. Complete training and have the applicable aeronautical experience required by FAR part 61
ii. Endorsement stating competence in knowledge areas and proficient in areas of operation
a. AC 61-65 A.74: Additional aircraft category or class rating (other than ATP)
b. AC 61-65 A.1: Practical Test Endorsement

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c. Other endorsement(s), as required

iii. Pass practical test
iv. No additional knowledge test, provided applicant holds a rating at the certificate level
D. Solo Flight Requirements (without the appropriate category/class rating) – FAR 61.31(d)(2)
i. Must have received the FAR required training for the aircraft
ii. AC 61-65 A.72 – Solo PIC when the pilot doesn’t hold appropriate category/class
E. Additional Rating Example
i. Single engine private pilot wants to add multiengine class rating
ii. AC 61-65 A.1: Prerequisite for a Practical Test: 61.39(a)(6)(i) & (ii)
iii. AC 61-65 A.74: Additional Aircraft Category or Class Rating (other than ATP): 61.63(c)
iv. AC 61-65 A.68: To act as Pilot in Command in a Complex Aircraft: 61.31(e)
5. Reapplying for a Practical Test
A. Following a Notice of Disapproval
i. Must have another endorsement in accordance with FAR 61.43(f) & 61.49(a)(2)
a. AC 61-65 A.73: Retesting after failure of a knowledge or practical test: 61.49
ii. Instructor recommendation (8710/IACRA) is required for a retest
iii. Get credit for areas of operation passed for 60 calendar-days from the date discontinued
B. Following a Letter of Discontinuance
i. No additional endorsements are required
ii. Get credit for areas of operation passed for 60 calendar-days after the discontinuation date
6. Time Limits (Two Calendar Months vs 60 Calendar-Days)
A. 60 Calendar-Day Time Limit
i. FAR 61.43(e) – Practical test can be discontinued for 4 reasons:
a. Fail one or more areas of operation
b. Inclement weather
c. Airworthiness
d. Safety of flight concern
ii. FAR 61.43(f) – If discontinued per 61.43(e), applicant gets credit for the areas they passed, but
a. FAR 61.43(f)(1) – the remainder of the test must be completed within 60 calendar days
B. 2 Calendar Month Time Limit
i. FAR 61.39(f) – If all increments of a practical test are not completed on the same date, all remaining
increments must be completed within 2 calendar months
a. Increment may be because the test was discontinued for reasons stated in 61.43(e), or because it was
planned to be conducted in increments
ii. Separate time limit from the 60 calendar-day limit
7. Flight Review Endorsements
A. After a satisfactory completion of a flight review, the instructor must endorse the pilot’s logbook
i. AC 61-65 A.65: Completion of a Flight Review: 61.56(a) & (c)
B. Instrument Proficiency Checks (IPC)
i. CFII is required
ii. AC 61-65 A.67: Completion of an Instrument Proficiency Check: 61.57(d)
C. No logbook entry reflecting unsatisfactory performance is necessary for either flight review
8. Flight Instructor Records (FAR 61.189)
A. Must maintain a record that contains the following:
i. Name of each person endorsed for solo flight privileges, and the date of the endorsement
ii. Name of each person endorsed for a knowledge or practical test, with the kind of test, date, results
B. Must retain the records for at least 3 years
9. Maintaining your CFI Certificate

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A. Duration
i. FAR 61.19(d): A flight instructor certificate expires 24 calendar months from the month in which it was
issued, renewed, or reinstated, as appropriate (Except as specified in FAR 61.197(b))
B. Renewal (FAR 61.197)
i. If the certificate has not expired:
a. Pass a practical test for:
 One of the ratings listed on your flight instructor certificate
 An additional flight instructor rating
b. Submit a signed application with the FAA for one of the following:
 Endorsed 5 or more students for a checkride in the past 24 calendar months with an 80% or better
pass rate on their first attempt
a Gold Seal Instructor Certificate (apply for renewal/gold seal together if desired)
 Served as a company check pilot or check airman, chief flight instructor, Part 121 or 135 instructor,
or in a position involving the regular eval of pilots in the past 24 calendar months
 Completion of an approved instructor refresher course in the past 3 calendar months
a AC 61-83: Flight Instructor Refresher Course
 Passed a military instructor pilot or pilot examiner proficiency check in an aircraft in the past 24
calendar months (considerably more detail to this - reference FAR 61.197(4))
c. WINGS Program
 Requires evaluating/endorsing at least 15 WINGS-accredited flight activities (min of 5 pilots)
 FAAST Team Notice – WINGS CFI Renewal Opportunity
 AC 61-91: WINGS – Pilot Proficiency Programs. See page 5, paragraph 6(e)
ii. Reinstatement of an expired certificate:
a. Submit a signed application with the FAA for one of the following requirements
 An instructor practical test for one of the ratings on the expired certificate per 61.183(h)
 A practical test for an additional flight instructor rating
 Passed a military instructor pilot or pilot examiner proficiency check
 Completed a military instructor pilot/pilot examiner training course and received an additional
rating appropriate to the flight instructor rating sought

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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II.M. Night Operations

References: Airplane Flying Handbook , Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to night operations and will
understand the unique factors inherent to night flight.

Key Elements 1. Off Center Viewing

2. Instrument Indications
3. Maintain Orientation

Elements 1. Eyes at Night

2. Lighting
3. Disorientation and Night Optical Illusions
4. Pilot & the Plane
5. Engine Start & Taxi
6. Takeoff & Climb
7. In-Flight Orientation
8. Traffic Patterns
9. Approach and Landing
10. Go Around
11. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student is comfortable their understanding of the factors involved in night operations and
Standards can confidently and safely pilot an aircraft at night.
 II.M. Night Operations

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
A lot of people prefer night flying to day flying. The air tends to be smoother, the radios tend to be quieter, there’s
less traffic, and it’s more relaxing.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Night operations are the factors dealing with the operation of the airplane at night.

Why
Night flying is very different from day flying - The eyes function differently at night, references available in the day are
no longer available at night, there are many illusions that can affect a pilot at night, and more. Flying at night presents
unique situations which, if ignored, can lead to dangerous situations.

How:
1. E
y
e
s

at Night
A. Rods and Cones
i. Light enters the eye through the cornea, travels through the lens, and
falls on the retina
ii. The retina has light sensitive cells that convert light into electrical
impulses that are sent to the brain
a. Two types of light-sensitive cells:
 Cones - Responsible for color, detail, far away objects;
located in the center of the retina
 Rods – Peripheral vision and provide vision in dim light; located in a ring around the cones
iii. Rods and cones are used differently depending on the ambient light conditions
a. Types of vision: Photopic, Mesopic, Scotopic

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b. Both the cones and rods are used for vision in the day
c. Without normal light, the process of night vision is placed almost entirely on the rods
iv. Rods, Cones, and Night Vision
a. Cones – located in the center of the retina (center of vision)
b. Rods – Make night vision possible
 Concentrated around the cones; used in dim light
a Off center viewing is necessary at night
 Slow to adapt to dark, but quick to lose adaptation
c. Summary: Night vision is based on the rods and off-center viewing is necessary
C. RM: Collision Avoidance
i. Use off center viewing, as looking directly at an object may result in not seeing it
ii. Avoid bright lights before and during a flight to maintain adequate night vision
a. Use red/green light in the cockpit
D. Cockpit lighting should be at a minimum
2. Lighting
A. Taxiway Lighting
i. Taxiway Edge Lights: Steady blue lights outlining the edges of taxiways
ii. Taxiway Centerline lights: Steady green lights installed along the centerline of the taxiway
iii. Clearance Bar Lights: Three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lights
a. Installed at holding positions on taxiways to increase visibility of the holding position
iv. Runway Guard Lights
a. Pair of elevated flashing yellow lights on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in-pavement yellow lights
across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position marking
b. Installed at taxiway/runway intersections
c. Enhance conspicuity of taxiway/runway intersections
v. Stop Bar Lights
a. A row of red, unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavement lights across the entire taxiway at the runway
holding position, and elevated steady-burning red lights on each side
b. A controlled stop bar operates in conjunction with the taxiway centerline lead-on lights
 Following ATC clearance, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on
c. Used to confirm the ATC clearance to enter or cross the active runway in low visibility
B. Runway Lighting
i. Runway Edge Lights: White lights except on instrument runways they’re yellow for the last 2,000’ or half of
the runway, whichever is less
a. Lights marking the end of the runway emit red toward the runway (takeoff) and green outward (landing)
b. Classified based on brightness: High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL), Medium (MIRL), and Low (LIRL)
ii. Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS): If installed, white in-pavement lights every 50’ until the last
3,000’ of the runway at which point they alternate red and white for 2,000’ and are red for the last 1,000’
iii. Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL): If installed, two rows of light bars set symmetrically about the centerline
a. Steady burning white lights starting 100’ beyond the landing threshold and extend to 3,000’ beyond the
threshold or the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less

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 II.M. Night Operations

iv. Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights: Alternate green & yellow lights from the runway centerline to one light
position beyond the holding position or ILS critical area holding position
v. Taxiway Centerline Lead-On Lights: Same as lead-off lights but leading onto the runway
vi. Land and Hold Short Lights: Row of pulsing white lights across the runway at the hold short point
a. Off when LAHSO is not in effect
C. Obstruction Lighting
i. Aviation Red Obstruction Lights: Flashing red beacons and steady-burning red lights
ii. Medium Intensity Flashing White Obstruction Lights: Flashing white obstruction lights
a. Not normally installed on structures less than 200’ AGL
iii. High Intensity White Obstruction Lights: Flashing white lights
iv. Dual Lighting: Combination of flashing red beacons and steady burning red lights
v. Catenary Lighting: Light markers for high voltage transmission line catenary wires
vi. High intensity flashing white lights are being used to identify some supporting structures of overhead
transmission lines located across rivers, chasms, gorges, etc. as well as tall structures (chimneys, towers)
a. Beamed toward the companion structure and identify the area of the wire span
3. RM: Disorientation and Night Optical Illusions
A. Combatting Disorientation / Illusions
i. Verify attitude by reference to the flight instruments (best tactic to combat disorientation / illusions)
ii. Use vertical guidance as much as possible, especially at night (VASI/PAPI, glide slope, etc.)
iii. Go around if unsure of your position
B. Autokinesis
i. Caused by staring at a single point of light on a dark background
ii. The light appears to move on its own
iii. Prevention: Focus on objects at varying distances / avoid fixating
C. Reversible Perspective Illusion
i. At night, an aircraft may appear to be moving away when it is approaching
ii. If the light intensity increases, the aircraft is approaching, if it dims, it is moving away
D. Size-Distance Illusion
i. Light that is getting brighter or dimmer, may be interpreted as approaching or retreating
E. Flicker Vertigo
i. A light flickering between 4 and 20 cycles per second can produce unpleasant, dangerous reactions
a. Examples: nausea, vomiting, and vertigo. Convulsions/unconsciousness are possible, but rare
ii. Proper scanning techniques at night can prevent flicker vertigo
F. Featureless Terrain
i. An absence of ground features can create the illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is
ii. Results in a tendency to fly a lower-than-normal approach
G. Ground Lighting
i. Can be mistaken for airport / runway / approach lights
ii. Bright runway or approach lights can create the illusion the airplane is closer to the runway
iii. Maintain situational awareness - know what to expect to
see, and where to see it
H. False Horizon
i. The natural horizon is not readily apparent
ii. Trust your instruments to maintain orientation
4. Pilot & the Plane
A. Night Currency (FAR 61.57(b))
i. 3 takeoffs/landings (full stop) in the last 90 days to act as PIC from 1 hour after sunset-1 hour before sunrise
ii. RM: Current doesn’t imply proficient

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 II.M. Night Operations

B. Equipment
i. Flashlight - Red and white light (White light is used to preflight, red is used in the cockpit)
ii. Aeronautical Charts, Nav Logs
a. Be cautious of washout (red color on the chart is difficult to distinguish with a red light)
iii. Regardless of equipment, organization eases the burden on the pilot
C. Preflight Inspection (FAR 91.205)
i. Required equipment for VFR flight at night
a. TOMATO FFLAMES (day VFR) and FLAPS (additional night VFR requirements)
 Fuses (if applicable)
 Landing Light
 Anti-Collision Lights
 Position Lights
 Source of Power
b. Instrument required equipment doesn’t hurt (safer is smarter)
ii. Walk Around – Just like a normal walk around but be more vigilant with night equipment
a. Check all aircraft lights, and check the ramp for obstructions
5. Engine Start & Taxi
A. Engine Start
i. Take extra precaution to be sure the propeller area is clear (use lights, announce “clear prop”)
ii. To avoid excessive battery drain, leave all unnecessary electrical equipment off until after engine start
B. Taxiing
i. Turn on the taxi and/or landing light (be sure not to blind other pilots)
ii. Taxi slowly, particularly in congested areas
C. Orientation
i. Airport diagram (always have one out)
ii. Understand the taxiway markings, lights, and signs
iii. RM: Orientation & Situational Awareness
a. Airport diagram (always have one out)
b. Understand the taxiway markings, lights, and signs
c. Taxi slowly to allow time to maintain situational awareness
d. If there is a loss of situational awareness, conflicting information or doubt, stop and ask for clarification
e. RM: Avoid an incursion
 See II.C. Runway Incursion Avoidance
D. The Run-up
i. The before takeoff run-up should be performed with the checklist as usual
ii. Forward movement of the airplane may not be easy to detect at night
6. Takeoff & Climb
A. General
i. The most noticeable difference is the limited availability of outside visual references
a. Flight instruments should be used to a greater degree at night than in the day
ii. Dim the cockpit lighting so the instruments are readable, without hindering night vision
B. Clear final approach for approaching traffic
C. Entering the runway
i. Turn on all lights, except the landing light
ii. Recommended to align 3’ off the centerline to prevent blending in with the runway lights
iii. Verify correct runway
D. Turn on landing light after receiving takeoff clearance or starting the roll at an uncontrolled field
E. Same as a day takeoff except many visual cues aren’t available (compensate with instruments)

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F. Climb
i. Darkness makes it difficult to note whether the airplane is getting closer or farther from the surface
a. Verify with the airspeed indicator, the VSI and the altimeter
ii. Pitch/bank adjustments should be made by referencing the attitude/heading indicators
7. In-Flight Orientation
A. Clouds/Restricted Visibility
i. It is difficult to see clouds at night – be cautious to avoid flying into MVFR/IFR weather conditions
ii. Be conservative, don’t expect to pop out the other side, take action to avoid flying into the clouds
B. Crossing Large Bodies of Water
i. Very easy to become disoriented with little to no horizon, and false
horizons
ii. Rely more heavily on the instruments
iii. In the event of an engine failure, the pilot may not have any option other
than ditching
C. Ground Based Lighting
i. Lighted runways, buildings, etc. may cause illusions when seen from
different altitudes
D. RM: Nav Lights (Collision Hazards): Red on Left Wing, Green on Right Wing,
White on the Tail
E. Navigating at Night
i. Although numerous day references are unavailable, numerous night references can be used instead
a. Anything with bright lights or a lot of lights - City light patterns, highways, airport beacons, etc.
ii. Backup with NAVAIDS/GPS whenever possible
8. Traffic Patterns
A. Identify runway/airport lights as soon as possible
i. It may be difficult to find the airport or runways (especially if they’re buried within a city)
a. Fly towards the beacon until you identify runway lights
b. Compare the runway lights with heading indicator
c. If possible, tune the localizer and/or use the GPS OBS function to view an extended centerline
d. Use any additional means available to help orient yourself and maintain situational awareness
ii. Pilot Controlled Lighting
a. Radio control of lighting is available at some airports by keying the aircraft’s microphone
 Frequency is in Chart Supplement and the standard instrument approach procedures publications
b. 3-step, 2-step, or 1-step brightness operation (turn on for 15 minutes)
 3-step: 7 clicks for bright, 5 for medium, 3 for low
B. Distance may be deceptive at night due to limited light conditions
i. More trust must be put on the instruments (particularly the altimeter and airspeed indicator)
C. RM: Ensure appropriate lights are on for collision avoidance
D. Fly a normal traffic pattern
9. Approach and Landing
A. A stabilized approach should be made in the same manner as during the day
B. Use flight instruments more often (especially altimeter/airspeed indicator)
C. Final Approach
i. If there are no centerline lights, align the airplane between the edge lights
ii. Maintain a stabilized approach (use references as available – VASI, PAPI, glideslope, etc.)
D. Roundout/Touchdown
i. A smooth, controlled roundout and touchdown should be made in the same manner as in the day
ii. Judgment of height, speed, and sink rate may be impaired due to lack of visual references

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 II.M. Night Operations

a. Tendency to round out high

iii. A good rule is to start the roundout when the landing lights reflect on the tire marks on the runway
a. If no landing light/can’t see tire marks, start the roundout when the runway lights at the far end appear
to be rising higher than the nose of the airplane
10. Go Around
A. A prompt decision is even more necessary at night due to the restricted visibility
B. Fly the go around as normal, with a greater emphasis on the instrument crosscheck
11. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Weather Considerations
i. Narrow temperature/dewpoint spread leading to fog
ii. The wind’s effect on the airplane cannot be as easily detected at night as during the day
B. Night Emergencies
i. General
a. Don’t panic, maintain control, attempt to fix the problem/accomplish emergency procedures
b. As the checklist is completed, crosscheck the outside visual references (if any), and the instruments to
ensure a safe flight attitude is maintained
ii. Electrical Failure
a. In the case of a suspected problem, follow the checklist in the POH
 Generally, reduce the electrical load as much as possible
b. If total electrical failure is expected, land at the nearest airport immediately
 Transition to backup instruments if applicable
iii. Engine Failure
a. Don’t Panic - Establish a normal glide and turn toward an airport or suitable landing area
b. Check to determine the cause and correct it immediately, if possible (Engine restart checklist)
c. Maintain positive control of the airplane at all times!
d. Announce the emergency to ATC, UNICOM, and/or guard
 If already on a frequency, talk to them, don’t change unless instructed to
e. Before landing checklist
f. Touchdown at the slowest possible airspeed
g. After landing, turn off all switches and evacuate as quickly as possible
C. Situational Awareness & Task Prioritization
i. Situational Awareness
a. Plan ahead and have navigation backups
ii. Task Prioritization
a. On the ground, clearing takes precedence – take care of all heads down activities while stopped
b. Airborne, divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
c. No one responsibility should take your full attention full more than a short period
d. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
e. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
 “Attack the closest alligator” – Deal with the most pressing problem

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

141
II.N. Supplemental Oxygen

References: 14 CFR Part 91, AC 61-107, Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), AIM, POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to high altitude operations and
be able to explain the necessary elements as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Regulations

2. Aviator’s Oxygen
3. Decompression and Hypoxia

Elements 1. The High-Altitude Flight Environment

2. Regulatory Requirements
3. Physiological Factors
4. Types of Oxygen Systems
5. Aviator’s Breathing Oxygen
6. Care and Storage of High-Pressure Oxygen Bottles

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands and can explain the elements involved with high altitude operations.
Standards
 II.N. Supplemental Oxygen

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
So, you want to fly really high? It’s not just that simple. A lot changes as the altitude increases.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The required equipment, how it functions, the unique hazards and regulations associated with flying at high altitudes.

Why
There are many advantages to flying at high altitudes (jet engines are more efficient, weather and turbulence can be
avoided, etc.). Many modern GA airplanes are being designed to operate in the high-altitude environment, therefore
it is important that pilots be familiar with at least the basic operating principles.

How:
1. The High-Altitude Flight Environment
A. FAR 61.31(g) considers all flight operations conducted above 25,000’ MSL to be high altitude, however many
effects of higher altitudes can be felt well below 25,000’
2. Regulatory Requirements (FAR 91.211)
A. Supplemental oxygen is required for the minimum required flight crew:
i. From 12,500’ MSL up to/including 14,000’ MSL for greater than 30 minutes
ii. At all times above 14,000’ MSL
iii. AND all occupants of the aircraft above 15,000’ MSL cabin pressure altitude
B. Cannot operate a pressurized cabin above:
i. FL 250 without at least 10 minutes of supplemental oxygen plus any oxygen required above, in the case
there is a loss of cabin pressure
ii. FL 350, unless a pilot at the controls is using an oxygen mask
a. Mask must supply oxygen at all times or automatically when cabin pressure exceeds 14,000’
b. Exception: At/below FL410 with two pilots are at the controls and both have quick don masks
c. Above 350, if one pilot leaves the controls, the other will wear their mask
3. Physiological Hazards
A. The human body functions normally from sea level to 12,000’ MSL
i. Above 12,000’ oxygen saturation continues to decrease and affect performance
B. Hypoxia – See II.A. Human Factors - Hypoxia for types, symptoms, and treatment of hypoxia
i. Oxygen deficiency in the blood, tissues, Altitude Time of Useful Consciousness or
cells sufficient to cause impairment of
45,000 ft. MSL 9 to 15 seconds
body functions
40,000 ft. MSL 15 to 20 seconds
ii. The concern is getting enough oxygen to
35,000 ft. MSL 30 to 60 seconds
the brain, since it is particularly
30,000 ft. MSL 1 to 2 minutes
vulnerable to deprivation
28,000 ft. MSL 2 ½ minutes to 3 minutes
iii. Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC)
a. Max time to make and carry out 25,000 ft. MSL 3 to 5 minutes
rational, lifesaving decisions at a 22,000 ft. MSL 5 to 10 minutes
20,000 ft. MSL 30 minutes or more

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 II.N. Supplemental Oxygen

given altitude
b. > 10,000’, symptoms increase in severity, and TUC rapidly decreases
iv. Treatment: Lower altitudes (emergency descent) and supplemental oxygen
C. Vision tends to deteriorate with altitude
i. Lack of oxygen to the rods significantly reduces their sensitivity
D. Hyperventilation – See II.A. Aeromedical Factors – Hyperventilation for symptoms and treatment
i. An increase in the rate and depth of breathing resulting in an excessive loss of carbon dioxide
E. Trapped Gas
i. Gases expand with a decrease in pressure (climb) and compress with increased pressure (descent)
ii. The body has several cavities that contain varying amounts of gas
a. Most cavities can allow the gas to escape, but if the gas gets trapped it can result in pain
b. Problem areas include middle ear, sinuses, teeth, and GI tract
F. Nitrogen Absorption (Decompression Sickness - DCS)
i. Pressure drops sufficiently, nitrogen in the body comes out of solution, forming bubbles in the body
ii. Symptoms include impairment or severe pain, but in extreme cases can result in death
iii. Scuba diving and Nitrogen
a. The increased pressure while scuba diving results in increased nitrogen dissolved in the body
b. Pilots need to provide time for the excess nitrogen to exit the body
 Wait 12 hrs. before flight up to 8,000’ MSL, 24 hrs. for flight above 8,000’
 Wait 24 hrs. after a dive that requires a controlled ascent before flight up to 8,000’ MSL
4. Types of Oxygen Systems
A. Continuous Flow (usually provided for passengers)
i. Mix of oxygen and ambient air
B. Diluter Demand (useable to 40,000’)
i. Supply oxygen only when the user inhales through the mask
ii. Can provide 100% oxygen or mix the cabin air and oxygen
C. Pressure Demand (safe above 40,000’)
i. Oxygen is supplied under pressure at cabin altitudes above 34,000’
5. Aviator’s Breathing Oxygen (Introduction to Aviation Physiology document)
A. Min purity requirement of 99.5%, may not contain more than 0.005 mg of water vapor per liter
B. Use Aviator’s oxygen - Different requirements exist for different types of oxygen and their uses
6. RM: Care and Storage of High-Pressure Oxygen Bottles
A. If required, portable oxygen equipment must be accessible in flight
B. Stored in high pressure containers at 1,800 – 2,200 psi
i. High pressure containers should be marked with the psi tolerance before filling to that pressure
C. Be aware of the danger of fire when using oxygen
D. Thoroughly inspect/test all oxygen equipment before flight. Accomplish periodic inspections/servicing

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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II.O. Pressurization

References: 14 CFR Part 91, AC 61-107, Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), AIM, POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to high altitude operations and
be able to explain the necessary elements as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Regulations

2. Aviator’s Oxygen
3. Decompression and Hypoxia

Elements 1. High-Altitude Flight Environment

2. Physiological Factors
3. Pressurization in Airplanes
4. Rapid Decompression

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands and can explain the elements involved with high altitude operations.
Standards
 II.O. Pressurization

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
So, you want to fly really high? It’s not just that simple. A lot changes as the altitude increases.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The required equipment, how it functions, the unique hazards and regulations associated with flying at high altitudes.

Why
There are many advantages to flying at high altitudes (jet engines are more efficient, weather and turbulence can be
avoided, etc.). Many modern GA airplanes are being designed to operate in the high altitude environment, therefore
it is important that pilots be familiar with at least the basic operating principles.

How:
1. High-Altitude Flight Environment
A. FAR 61.31(g) considers all flight operations conducted above 25,000’ MSL to be high altitude, however many
effects of higher altitudes can be felt well below 25,000’
2. Physiological Hazards
A. The human body functions normally from sea level to 12,000’ MSL
i. Above 12,000’ oxygen saturation continues to decrease and affect performance
B. Hypoxia – See II.A. Human Factors - Hypoxia for types, symptoms, and treatment of hypoxia
i. Oxygen deficiency in the blood, tissues, Altitude Time of Useful Consciousness or
cells sufficient to cause impairment of
45,000 ft. MSL 9 to 15 seconds
body functions
40,000 ft. MSL 15 to 20 seconds
ii. The concern is getting enough oxygen to
35,000 ft. MSL 30 to 60 seconds
the brain, since it is particularly
30,000 ft. MSL 1 to 2 minutes
vulnerable to deprivation
28,000 ft. MSL 2 ½ minutes to 3 minutes
iii. Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC)
a. Max time to make and carry out 25,000 ft. MSL 3 to 5 minutes
rational, lifesaving decisions at a 22,000 ft. MSL 5 to 10 minutes
given altitude 20,000 ft. MSL 30 minutes or more
b. > 10,000’, symptoms increase in severity, and TUC rapidly decreases
iv. Treatment: Lower altitudes (emergency descent) and supplemental oxygen
C. Vision tends to deteriorate with altitude
i. Lack of oxygen to the rods significantly reduces their sensitivity
D. Hyperventilation – See II.A. Aeromedical Factors – Hyperventilation for symptoms and treatment
i. An increase in the rate and depth of breathing resulting in an excessive loss of carbon dioxide
E. Trapped Gas
i. Gases expand with a decrease in pressure (climb) and compress with increased pressure (descent)
ii. The body has several cavities that contain varying amounts of gas
a. Most cavities can allow the gas to escape, but if the gas gets trapped it can result in pain
b. Problem areas include middle ear, sinuses, teeth, and GI tract

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 II.O. Pressurization

F. Nitrogen Absorption (Decompression Sickness - DCS)

i. Pressure drops sufficiently, nitrogen in the body comes out of solution, forming bubbles in the body
ii. Symptoms include impairment or severe pain, but in extreme cases can result in death
iii. Scuba diving and Nitrogen
a. The increased pressure while scuba diving results in increased nitrogen dissolved in the body
b. Pilots need to provide time for the excess nitrogen to exit the body
 Wait 12 hrs. before flight up to 8,000’ MSL, 24 hrs. for flight above 8,000’
 Wait 24 hrs. after a dive that requires a controlled ascent before flight up to 8,000’ MSL
3. Pressurization in Airplanes
A. Compression of air to maintain a cabin altitude lower than the flight altitude
i. Differential Pressure – difference between cabin pressure and atmospheric pressure
B. How it Works
i. The cabin, flight, baggage compartments are a sealed unit that can withstand high pressure
ii. Compressed/Conditioned air is brought into the fuselage
a. Turbine aircraft use engine bleed air
b. Piston aircraft use turbocharger air
iii. Air exits at a controlled rate through an outflow valve
a. Allows the system to maintain constant pressure
C. Cabin pressure control system
i. Pressure regulation, pressure relief, vacuum relief, and the
means for selecting the desired cabin altitude
ii. Safety Valve - Allows for pressure and vacuum relief
D. Instruments
i. Cabin differential pressure - difference between inside and
outside pressure
ii. Cabin Altimeter – shows altitude inside the airplane
iii. Cabin Rate of Climb/Descent – cabin rate of change

iv. Malfunction
a. Reference the POH checklist
b. Be prepared for reduced pressurization or decompression
 Potential need for supplemental oxygen and/or emergency descent
4. Rapid Decompression
A. Decompression is the inability of the pressurization system to maintain its designed pressure differential
B. Two categories of decompression
i. Explosive Decompression – pressure changes faster than the lungs can decompress (< 0.5 seconds)
ii. Rapid Decompression – lungs can decompress faster than the aircraft
C. Indications of a Rapid or Explosive Decompression
i. Noise, may feel dazed. The cabin will fill with fog, dust, flying debris.

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 II.O. Pressurization

ii. Air will rush from the mouth and nose due to the escape of air from the lungs
D. The primary danger of decompression is hypoxia – use oxygen equipment quickly and properly
i. Another potential danger is decompression sickness, as discussed above
E. Supplemental oxygen and a rapid emergency descent are necessary

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

148
III. Preflight Preparation
III.A. Pilot Qualifications

References: 14 CFR parts 23, 43, 61, 67, 91, Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical
Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to certificates and documents.
Knowledge will be gained regarding the necessary requirements for each license, medical
certificate, and recent flight experience.

Elements 1. Medical Certificates & Basic Med

2. Certification & Training Requirements
3. Logbook Entries & Records
4. Privileges and Limitations
5. Pilot Currency
6. Required Documents

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student knows what to expect with each license issued and understands the requirements
Standards in logging time as well as obtaining a medical.
 III.A. Pilot Qualifications

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Understanding what is required with each certificate and document that a pilot may obtain is essential to obtaining
that certificate.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Certificates and Documents cover the knowledge necessary to obtain and maintain the recreational, private, and
commercial license. This also covers medical certificates and required logbook entries.

Why
Each certificate and medical has different rules. The pilot should know what is required to obtain and maintain the
desired certificate as well as the privileges and limitations associated with each certificate. It is also necessary to
know how medical certificates work and what training must be logged.

How:
1. Medical Certificates (FAR 61.23) & Basic Med
A. Medical Certificates
i. What is it?
a. A routine medical exam from an FAA authorized Aviation Medical Examiner (AME)
b. 3 different classes – 1st, 2nd, 3rd class
ii. Who Needs it? (More details / requirements in FAR 61.23)
a. 1st Class: Generally required when exercising PIC privileges of an ATP
b. 2nd Class: Generally required when SIC at an airline or to use your commercial pilot certificate
c. 3rd Class: Required when
 Exercising the privileges of a Private, Recreational, or Student pilot certificate
 Exercising the privileges of a CFI certificate as PIC or required crewmember
 Taking a practical test
 Performing duties as an Examiner
iii. FAR 61.23(b) – A medical is not required when:
a. Exercising privilege of a CFI certificate if not acting as PIC / serving as a required crewmember
b. Exercising the privileges of a ground instructor certificate
c. A military pilot can show evidence of an up-to-date medical examination
 The flight cannot require higher than a 3rd class medical and must be in US airspace
iv. Class and Duration (FAR 61.23(d))
a. First Class
 Under 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 12th month for 1st class activities
b 12th month for 2nd class activities
c 60th month for 3rd class activities (under 40 years old)
 40 or older on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 6th month for 1st class activities

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b 12th month for 2nd class activities

c 24th month for 3rd class activities (over 40 years old)
b. Second Class
 Under 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 12th month for 2nd class activities
b 60th month for 3rd class activities
 40 or older on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 12th month for 2nd class activities
b 24th month for 3rd class activities
c. Third Class
 Under 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 60th month
 40 or older on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
a 24th month
v. How to find an AME - FAA.gov AME Locator
a. FAA Directory of AMEs can be found at FSDOs, FSSs, FAA Offices
vi. Once you have a medical, how is it regulated?
a. FAR 61.53 (Prohibition on operations during medical deficiency) prohibits flying if you:
 Know of any medical condition that would prevent you from obtaining a medical
 Are taking medication/receiving treatment that would prevent you from obtaining a medical
b. Once obtained, it is self-regulating (be safe, and conservative)
vii. Medical Certificate with a Possible Medical Deficiency
a. Even with a medical deficiency, a medical certificate may be able to be issued
b. 15 disqualifying medical conditions (listed here)
 Special Issuance Authorization is required (FAR 67.401)
 With few exceptions, all disqualifying conditions may be considered for special issuance
B. BasicMed & Using a Driver’s License – FAR 61.23(c)
i. A way to fly without a holding a medical certificate
a. FAA BasicMed Info; FAA BasicMed FAQ
ii. Applicable when operating under FAR 61.113(i), and exercising the privileges of:
a. A student, recreational or private pilot certificate
b. A flight instructor certificate and acting as PIC or a required crewmember
iii. A person using their driver’s license must:
a. Comply with all medical requirements associated with the license
b. Have held a medical certificate after July 14, 2006
c. Have completed the medical education course in the last 24 months
d. Have received a medical exam in the past 48 months using the directed exam checklist
e. Have not had the most recently held medical certificate revoked, suspended, or withdrawn
f. Be under the care of a physician if diagnosed with a condition that may affect flight abilities
iv. FAR 61.113(i) requires:
a. Aircraft: Authorized for no more than 6 occupants, Max takeoff weight ≤ 6,000 lbs.
b. Flight: In the US, less than 18,000’ and 250 knots, not for compensation/hire
c. Pilot: Has medical exam checklist and certificate of course completion in logbook
2. Certification & Training Requirements
A. Recreational Certificate (FAR 61.99)
i. Eligibility Requirements – FAR 61.96
ii. Aeronautical Knowledge – FAR 61.97

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iii. Flight Proficiency – FAR 61.98

iv. Aeronautical Experience - FAR 61.99
B. Student Pilot Certificate
i. Eligibility - FAR 61.83
ii. Application - FAR 61.85 (FAA Student Pilot Application Requirements)
iii. Solo Requirements – FAR 61.87
iv. Cross Country Requirements – FAR 61.93
C. Private Certificate (FAR 61.109)
i. Eligibility Requirements – FAR 61.103
ii. Aeronautical Knowledge – FAR 61.105
iii. Flight Proficiency – FAR 61.107
iv. Aeronautical Experience - FAR 61.109
D. Commercial Certificate (FAR 61.129)
i. Eligibility Requirements – FAR 61.123
ii. Aeronautical Knowledge – FAR 61.125
iii. Flight Proficiency – FAR 61.127
iv. Aeronautical Experience – FAR 61.129
E. Flight Instructors
i. Eligibility Requirements – FAR 61.183
ii. Aeronautical Knowledge – FAR 61.185
iii. Flight Proficiency – FAR 61.187
3. Logbook Entries & Records
A. Required Logbook Entries (FAR 61.51 & 61.189)
i. 61.189: A flight instructor must sign the logbook of each person they have given flight or ground training
ii. 61.51: Must document training/experience used to meet the requirements for a certificate, rating, or review
iii. Logbook must show:
a. Date, Total flight/lesson time; location of departure/arrival (location for a simulator); type and
identification of aircraft/simulator/training device; name of the safety pilot (if necessary)
b. Type of pilot experience or training
 Solo, PIC, SIC, Flight/ground training received, training in a simulator/flight training device
c. Conditions of Flight
 Day/Night, Actual Instrument, Simulated Instrument in flight or a simulator /FTD
B. Flight Instructor Records (FAR 61.189)
i. Must maintain a record that contains:
a. Name of each person endorsed for solo flight privileges, and the date of the endorsement
b. Name of each person endorsed for a knowledge or practical test, with the kind of test, date, results
c. Must retain the records required for at least 3 years
4. Privileges and Limitations
A. Student - FAR 61.89
B. Sport - FAR 61. 89(c) & 61.315
C. Recreational Certificate - FAR 61.101
D. Private Pilot - FAR 61.113
E. Commercial Privileges and Limitations - FAR 61.133
F. Flight Instructor Privileges - FAR 61.193
G. Flight Instructor Limitations & Qualifications - FAR 61.195
5. Pilot Currency (FAR 61.57)
A. Pilot in Command
i. FAR 61.57(a) – To carry passengers: 3 takeoffs and landings in the last 90 days

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a. Sole manipulator of the flight controls in the same category, class, type aircraft
b. Tailwheel landings must be to a full stop
ii. FAR 61.57(b) – To carry passengers 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise:
a. 3 takeoffs and landings in the last 90 days to a full stop (1 hour after to 1 hour before)
b. Sole manipulator of the flight controls in the same category, class, type aircraft
ii. FAR 61.57(c) & (d) - To act as PIC under IFR within the preceding 6 months:
a. 6 instrument approaches, holding procedures, and intercepting/tracking courses
b. If the pilot has failed to meet the experience requirements (above) for more than 6 calendar months,
currency may only be reestablished through an instrument proficiency check (IPC)
B. Flight Reviews (FAR 61.56)
i. To act as PIC, a flight review/logbook endorsement are required within the last 24 months
ii. FAR 61.56(d) – Not necessary if any of the following have been passed (last 24 months):
a. Proficiency check or practical test for a pilot certificate, rating, or operating privilege
b. A practical test for a flight instructor certificate, an additional rating on a flight instructor certificate,
renewal, or reinstatement of a flight instructor certificate
iii. Not required if one or more phases of a pilot proficiency award program has been completed
iv. A student pilot in training, with a current solo flight endorsement does not need a flight review
B. RM: Proficiency versus Currency
i. Currency is the minimum required by law to legally fly
ii. Proficiency is a level of understanding and ability that creates a safe and competent pilot
iii. Just because you are current does not mean you are proficient
iv. RM: Flying Unfamiliar Aircraft
a. Ensure proficiency in new or unfamiliar aircraft, system, or avionic setup
b. Just because you are certified to fly a specific aircraft, doesn’t mean you’re proficient or safe
6. Required Documents
A. FAR 61.3 Requirement for Certificates, Ratings, and Authorizations
i. Pilot Certificate
ii. Government Issued Photo Identification
iii. Medical Certificate
iv. Flight Instructor Certificate (if exercising privileges)
B. FAR 61.51(i) Presentation of Documents
i. Must present pilot certificate, medical, logbook, or any other record required by part 61 upon request
ii. Student pilot on solo cross-country flights must carry:
a. Pilot logbook with endorsements, student pilot certificate, and any other certificate required by Part 61
iii. Sport pilot must carry their logbook or other evidence of required instructor endorsements on all flights
iv. Recreational pilot must carry their logbook with the required instructor endorsements on all solo flights:
a. > 50 nm from the airport at which the training was received
b. Within airspace requiring communication with ATC
c. Conducted between sunset & sunrise, or
d. In an aircraft for which the pilot doesn’t hold an appropriate category or class rating
v. Instructor with a sport pilot rating must carry:
a. Logbook or other evidence of required instructor endorsements when providing flight training

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Each certificate and medical has different rules. It is therefore important to know what is required to obtain and
maintain the desired certificate as well as the privileges and limitations associated with it. It is also necessary to know
how medical certificates work and what training must be logged.

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III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - General Overview

References: 14 CFR part 23, 39, 43, 91, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), Min Equipment
Requirements for GA Ops under Part 91 (AC 91-67), Sample Type Certificate, Sample MEL

Objectives The student should exhibit knowledge of the elements regarding airworthiness requirements
as necessary based on their respective ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. CFR 91.205 – Required Instruments

2. CFR 91.213(d) – Deferral without MEL
3. Required Inspections

Elements 1. Airworthiness without a MEL

2. Airworthiness with a MEL
3. Obtaining a Special Flight Permit
4. Appropriate Record Keeping
5. Preventive Maintenance

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student can explain, and when necessary, locate, the
Standards elements and documents related to airworthiness requirements.
 III.B. Airworthiness Requirements

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Just as you would never scuba dive without your regulator operating properly or sky dive without the rip cord
functioning, you should never fly an airplane without essential equipment working properly.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Airworthiness requirements are the basis for deciding whether an aircraft is worthy of safe flight. They are what
must be met to ensure an aircraft is safe and therefore legal to fly.

Why:
In order for an airplane to be airworthy certain documents must be on board and current, certain inspections must
be completed, and certain instruments must be functioning, otherwise the airplane is unfit for flight and therefore
un-airworthy or illegal to fly. An un-airworthy aircraft cannot be flown.

How:
1. Airworthiness without a MEL (Required Instruments and Equipment)
A. Widely used due to the simplicity and minimal paperwork
B. When inoperative equipment is found prior to flight, decide whether to:
i. Cancel the flight, have the inoperative equipment fixed prior to flight, or
ii. Continue the flight by deferring the inoperative equipment (FAR 91.213(d))
a. To defer, the item must not be required for flight (broken down below, in part C)
b. The inoperative equipment must be deactivated (or removed) and placarded INOPERATIVE
C. Required Equipment - 91.213(d) – Is the equipment required by any of the following:
i. 14 CFR 91.205: Required Instruments and Equipment for Day and Night VFR Flight
a. Visual-Flight Rules (Day): TOMATO FFLAAMES
 Tachometer for each engine
 Oil pressure gauge for each engine
 Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine
 Airspeed Indicator
 Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine
 Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine
 Fuel gauge indicating the quantity of fuel in each tank
 Flotation gear (if operated for hire over water beyond power-off glide distance from shore)
 Landing gear position indicator
 Altimeter
 Anti-Collision Lights (if certified after March 11, 1996)
 Magnetic compass
 Emergency Locator Transmitter
 Safety belts/Shoulder Harnesses
b. Visual-Flight Rules (Night), The following instruments and equipment are required:
 Everything for VFR day flight, as well as: FLAPS

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a Fuses (if required)

b Landing Light (Electric)
c Anti-Collision Lights
d Position Lights
e Source of electricity for all installed electrical and radio equipment
ii. Kinds of Equipment List and Equipment List
a. Kinds of Equipment List (chapter 2 of the POH)
 Lists the manufacturer required equipment based on the type of flight (Day VFR, IFR, etc.)
b. Equipment List (usually found in the weight and balance data, and / or the POH)
 Specifies the required equipment and all equipment approved for installation in the aircraft
iii. Type Certificate
a. A formal description of the aircraft, engine, or propeller. Lists limitations and information required for
type certification including airspeed limits, weight limits, thrust limitations, etc.
b. Can be found on the FAA TCDS Website
c. The type certificate will specify things like the type of engine, propeller, number of seats, etc.
 Things on the TC cannot be changed without a supplemental type certificate
iv. Airworthiness Directives (AD)
a. Like a recall on a car – Used to notify of unsafe conditions and specify the actions that must be taken
b. Two Categories of ADs:
 Those of an emergency nature requiring immediate compliance prior to further flight
 Those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance within a specific time period
c. Regulatory in nature unless a specific exemption is granted
d. If not complied with by the designated date and time, the aircraft is no longer airworthy
e. Aircraft owner / operator’s (PIC) responsibility to ensure compliance with ADs
f. Compliance Records
 14 CFR part 91.417 requires a record to be maintained showing the status of applicable ADs.
g. Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB)
 Non-regulatory or mandatory info & guidance for safety issues that don’t meet the criteria for an AD
 SAIB Overview: Order 8110.100
 SAIB Database: FAA Dynamic Regulatory System

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D. Required Inspections
i. 14 CFR part 91 places responsibility on the owner/operator for maintaining airworthiness
a. After inspections / repairs, the PIC is responsible for determining if in condition for safe flight
ii. Inspections: Remember AV1ATE
a. Annual Inspection
 Any reciprocating-engine powered or single-engine-turbojet/turbo-propeller powered small aircraft
(less than 12,500 pounds) flown for business or pleasure and not flown for compensation or hire
 Requires an airframe and powerplant mechanic (A&P) with an Inspection Authorization (IA)
 Special Flight Permit available for overdue aircraft – allows for flight to the inspection only
 All applicable ADs must be complied with
 Annual inspection may be substituted for a required 100-hour inspection
b. VOR
 Must have been checked in the preceding 30 days. A record must be kept (IFR Requirement)
c. 100 Hour Inspection
 All aircraft under 12,500 lbs. (except for turbo powered), used to carry passengers for hire or used
for flight instruction for hire
 Accomplished by an A&P mechanic at an FAA certified repair station, or by the manufacturer
 Annual inspection may be substituted for a required 100-hour inspection
 Can exceed 100-hours by no more than 10 hours if enroute to the inspection location
a Excess time used must be included in computing the next 100 hours of time in service
d. Altimeter/Pitot Static Inspection
 FAR 91.411 – Altimeter and related system must be inspected in the last 24 months (IFR)
 FAR 91.411 - The pitot / static system must be checked in the last 24 calendar months (IFR)
e. Transponder Inspection
 FAR 91.413 – Tested and inspected in the last 24 months
f. ELT Inspection
 FAR 91.207(d) – If operations require an ELT, it must be inspected every 12 calendar months
E. Required Documents (ARROW)
i. Airworthiness
ii. Registration
iii. Radio Operators License (if international)
iv. Operating Limitations (POH)
v. Weight and Balance (specific to the aircraft tail number)
F. Airworthiness Certificates
i. Standard
a. White and issued for normal, utility, acrobatic, commuter or transport category aircraft
b. Issued by the FAA after an aircraft is found to meet Part 21 requirements and is safe for operation
c. Remains in effect if the aircraft receives required maintenance and is registered in the US
ii. Special
a. Pink and issued for Primary, Experimental, Restricted, Limited, Provisional and Light-Sport Aircraft
b. In general, aircraft with a special certificate, cannot be operated for hire, in some cases can’t carry
passengers, and may be restricted to operations only over sparsely populated areas or water
c. FAR 91.325 Primary Aircraft Operating Limitations
d. FAR 91.319 Experimental Aircraft Operating Limitations
e. FAR 91.313 Restricted Aircraft Operating Limitations
f. FAR 91.315 Limited Aircraft Operating Limitations
g. FAR 91.317 Provisional Aircraft Operating Limitations

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h. FAR 91.327 Light Sport Aircraft with Special Airworthiness Certificate

2. Airworthiness with an MEL
A. Precise listing of required equipment based on the type of flight (less common in general aviation)
i. Basically, combines FAR 91.205, Kinds of Equipment List, ADs, Type Certificate into one document
ii. A supplemental type certificate & is the authority to operate in a condition other than originally certificated
iii. Must be requested from the FAA
B. Required Equipment
i. If equipment is broken, refer to the MEL to determine whether it is required for the type of flight
ii. If the failed component is not listed as deferrable it must be repaired prior to flight
iii. A special flight permit can be obtained if necessary to make the repairs
C. Required Inspections & Documents – Same as above
3. Obtaining a Special Flight Permit
A. FAR 21.197: Special Flight Permit – authorization to fly an unairworthy aircraft that is safe for a specific flight
i. Ex: To a base where repairs can be made, or delivering an aircraft
B. Obtaining a Special Flight Permit
i. Contact the local FSDO or Designated Airworthiness Representative (DAR)
ii. FAR 21.199: Must submit a statement indicating the purpose, itinerary, crew, aircraft issues, & restrictions
iii. Form 8130-6; FAA Special Flight Permit Regs & Policies
4. Appropriate Record Keeping (FAR 91.417)
A. The 100-Hour / Annual inspection as well as the inspections required for instruments and equipment necessary
for IFR / VFR flight are in the aircraft and engine logbooks
B. Removing/Installing equipment not on the Equipment List
i. The AMT must change the weight and balance record to indicate the new empty weight and center of
gravity; the equipment list is revised to reflect the equipment installed
C. Repairs and Alterations
i. 14 CFR part 43, Appendix A: Major alterations shall be returned to service on FAA Form 337, by a certificated
repair station, an FAA certificated A&P mechanic holding an IA, or a representative of the Administrator
ii. Minor alterations may be approved for return to service with a proper entry in the maintenance records by
an FAA certificated A&P mechanic or an appropriately certificated repair station
5. Preventive Maintenance (AC 43-12)
A. Who can Perform Preventive Maintenance?
i. FAR 43.3(g): The holder of a pilot certificate issued under Part 61 may perform preventive maintenance
ii. Part 43 Appendix A paragraph (c)(30): At least a private pilot who is a registered owner of the aircraft
B. Preventive Maintenance
i. FAR 1.1: Simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts not involving
complex assembly operations
ii. Part 43 Appendix A paragraph (c) Provides an exhaustive list of authorized preventive maintenance
iii. FAR 43.13 Performance Rules: Basically, requires quality work and parts
iv. Conduct a self-analysis as to whether you have the ability to perform the work satisfactorily & safely
v. FAR 43.9(a) Maintenance Record Entries - Any work done requires an entry in the logbook and must include:
a. Description of the work done, Completion date, & Signature, certificate number, and kind of certificate
C. Return to Service
i. FAR 43.7(f): A person holding at least a private pilot certificate may approve an aircraft for return to service
after performing preventive maintenance under the provisions of 43.3(g)
D. Content: AC 43-12 Preventive Maintenance; FAASafety.gov Maintenance Aspects of Owning Your Own Aircraft

Conclusion:
Brief review of each main point

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III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - FARS

References: 14 CFR Part 91

Objectives The student should exhibit knowledge of the elements regarding airworthiness requirements
as necessary based on their respective ACS/PTS.

Elements 1. FAR 91.3 - Responsibility and Authority of the PIC

2. FAR 91.7 - Civil Aircraft Airworthiness
3. FAR 91.9 - Civil Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, and Placard Requirements
4. FAR 91.203 - Civil Aircraft: Certifications Required
5. FAR 91.205 - Instrument and Equipment Requirements
6. FAR 91.213(d) - Inoperative Instruments and Equipment
7. FAR 91.400’s - Maintenance, Preventative Maintenance, and Alterations (Subpart E)
8. FAR 91.207 - Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT)

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student can explain, and when necessary locate, the
Standards elements and documents related to airworthiness requirements.
 III.B. Airworthiness Requirements - FARS

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Just as you would never scuba dive without your regulator operating properly or sky dive without the rip cord
functioning, you should never fly an airplane without essential equipment working properly. Unlike in a car, we do
not have the option to pull over to the side of the road in the case of a problem.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Airworthiness requirements are the basis for deciding whether an aircraft is worthy of safe flight. They are
requirements that must be met to ensure an aircraft is safe and legal to fly.

Why:
For an airplane to be airworthy certain documents must be on board and current, certain inspections must be
completed, and certain instruments must be functioning, otherwise the airplane is unfit for flight and therefore un-
airworthy or illegal to fly. An un-airworthy aircraft cannot be flown. Determining airworthiness can be very complex.
This lesson is designed to provide a basis to make a decision regarding whether or not the airplane is airworthy.

How:
1. FAR 91.3 - Responsibility and Authority of the PIC
A. The PIC is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of the plane
B. In an in-flight emergency, the PIC may deviate from any rule of this part to the extent required
C. Each PIC who deviates from a rule under paragraph (b) of this section shall, upon the request of the
Administrator, send a written report of that deviation to the Administrator
2. FAR 91.7 - Civil Aircraft Airworthiness
A. No person may operate a civil aircraft unless it is in an airworthy condition
i. Airworthiness: Read the Airworthiness Certificate (Best definition of airworthiness)
a. Authority and Basis for Issuance
 States the aircraft must conform to the type certificate
a The aircraft cannot be changed from its type certificate; must be in the condition it left the
factory in
1. The only way the airplane can be changed is with a supplemental type certificate
b. Terms and Conditions
 States that the aircraft must be maintained in accordance with the FARS
B. The PIC of a civil aircraft is responsible for determining whether that aircraft is in condition for safe flight and
shall discontinue the flight when un-airworthy mechanical, electrical, or structural conditions occur
i. This is the only FAR which mentions a visual inspection, i.e., Condition for safe flight
3. FAR 91.9 - Civil Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, and Placard Requirements
A. No person may operate a U.S.-registered civil aircraft:
i. For which an Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual is required by FAR 21.5 of this chapter unless there is
available in the aircraft a current, approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual or the manual provided for
in FAR 121.141(b); and
a. The Weight and Balance is included in the AFM, but is part of the type certificate and therefore required

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ii. For which an Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual is not required by FAR 21.5 of this chapter, unless there is
available in the aircraft a current approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual, approved manual material,
markings, and placards, or any combination thereof
B. FAR 91.9 states that the AFM is required in the airplane for planes registered after 1979
i. The AFM is not required for an airplane before 1979, unless the manufacturer submitted an AFM to the FAA,
then it is required in the airplane
C. FAR 91.9 also states that without the AFM, all placards, markings, etc. must be in the aircraft
4. FAR 91.203 - Civil Aircraft: Certifications Required
A. Except as provided in FAR 91.715, no person may operate a civil aircraft unless it has within it the following:
i. An appropriate and current airworthiness certificate…
a. It must be displayed at the cabin or cockpit entrance so that it is legible to passengers or crew
ii. An effective U.S. registration certificate issued to its owner…
5. FAR 91.205 - Instrument and Equipment Requirements
A. The bare minimum instruments and equipment required for day/night VFR flight and IFR flight
i. VFR – TOMATOFFLAAMES (day) and FLAPS (night)
ii. IFR - GRABCARD
6. FAR 91.213(d) - Inoperative Instruments and Equipment
A. MEL
i. An FAA approved listing of instruments/equipment that may be inoperable and remain airworthy
B. Without an MEL – FAR 91.213(d)
i. Follow the flow provided in AC 91-67 (AC 91-67 has been cancelled)
a. Is it required by the aircraft’s equipment list or the kinds of equipment list?
b. Is it required by the VFR type certificate requirements prescribed in the airworthiness certification
requirements?
c. Is it required by an AD?
d. Is it required by FAR 91.205, 91.207, etc.?
e. If no, the inoperative equipment must be removed or deactivated and placarded as inoperative
 FAR 91.405 - Inoperative equipment must be repaired, replaced, removed at the next required
inspection
f. Finally, the PIC decides whether the equipment creates a hazard for the anticipated flight
7. FAR 91.400’s - Maintenance, Preventative Maintenance, and Alterations (Subpart E)
A. FAR 91.401 - Applicability
i. Rules governing maintenance, preventative maintenance, alterations of US registered civil aircraft
B. FAR 91.405 - Maintenance Required
i. Each owner or operator of an aircraft:
a. Shall have that aircraft inspected as prescribed in subpart E of this part and shall between required
inspections, have discrepancies repaired as prescribed in part 43 of this chapter
b. Shall ensure that maintenance personnel make appropriate entries in the aircraft maintenance records
indicating the aircraft has been approved for return to service
c. Shall have any inoperative instrument/equipment, permitted to be inoperative by FAR 91.213(d)(2) of
this part, repaired, replaced, removed, or inspected at the next required inspection
d. When listed discrepancies include inoperative instruments or equipment, shall ensure that a placard has
been installed as required by FAR 43.11 of this chapter.
C. FAR 91.409 - Inspections
i. Annual Inspection requirement
ii. 100-hour inspection requirement, if for rent or for hire
D. FAR 91.411 - Altimeter system and Altitude Reporting Equipment Tests and Inspections
i. Static Pressure System and Altimeter tests required for IFR flight

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a. Required every 24 calendar months

E. FAR 91.413 - ATC Transponder Tests and Inspections
i. Transponder tests and inspections required
a. Required every 24 calendar months
8. FAR 91.207 - Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT)
A. Inspection requirements
i. Every 12 calendar months
B. The batteries must be replaced (or recharged)
i. When the transmitter has been in use more than 1 cumulative hour
ii. When 50% of their useful life has expired

Conclusion:
Through the FARS mentioned here, we find that the PIC is the final authority as to the safety of the flight. Airworthiness
requires conforming to the type certificate, as well as the required maintenance and inspections. To be airworthy, the
documents required onboard are the airworthiness certificate, the registration, operating limitations (AFM), as well as
the weight and balance (part of the type certificate). We have found the required equipment as well as the process for
determining whether the airplane is airworthy in the case of inoperative equipment. Finally, the FARs provided the
necessary inspections needed to maintain airworthiness.

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III.C. Weather Information

References: 14 CFR Part 91, Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28), Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-
28), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to weather information with the
ability to interpret several weather sources and make a well-educated Go/No Go decision.

Key 1. Information Sources

Elements 2. FSS - 122.2
3. Go/No Go Decision

1. Atmospheric Composition and Stability 12. Importance of a Thorough Weather Briefing

Elements 2. Wind 13. Weather Information Sources
3. Temperature 14. Weather Reports and Charts
4. Moisture & Precipitation a. METAR, TAF, and GFA
5. Weather System Formation b. Model Output Statistics (MOS)
6. Clouds c. Surface Analysis Chart
7. Turbulence d. Ceiling & Visibility Chart
8. Thunderstorms e. Radar Summary Chart
9. Frost & Icing f. Winds and Temperature Aloft Chart
10. Fog & Mist g. Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
11. Obstructions to Visibility h. Convective Outlook Chart
i. Surface Weather Observations
15. In-Flight Weather Advisories
16. Recognizing Weather Hazards
17. Go/No Go Decision
Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives
2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s 1. Discuss lesson objectives

Actions 2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s 1. Participate in discussion

Actions 2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions
Completio The student can effectively interpret the necessary weather information and has the ability to
n make a competent Go/No Go decision based on the information.
Standards
 III.C. Weather Information

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Instead of getting ourselves stuck, in the air, in a thunderstorm or some sort of extreme weather we should have a
good understanding of weather information to know when to and not to fly.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Through a complex system of weather services, government agencies, and independent weather observers, pilots are
given vast information regarding weather patterns, trends, and characteristics in the form of up-to-date weather
reports and forecasts

Why
These reports and forecasts enable pilots to make informed decisions regarding weather and flight safety.

How:
1. Atmospheric Composition and Stability
A. Atmospheric Composition
i. 4 gases make up 99.998% of the atmosphere - Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, and Carbon Dioxide
ii. Atmosphere is divided into 5 concentric layers
a. Troposphere
 Surface up to about 36,000’ high (varies with temperature variations)
 Temperature decreases with height & almost all weather occurs in this region
 Transition layer between the troposphere and they layer above is called the tropopause
b. Stratosphere
 Tropopause up to 31 miles high (Holds 19% of the atmosphere’s gases, but little water)
 Temperature increases with height due to the absorption of UV radiation
 Commercial aircraft often cruise in the lower stratosphere to avoid turbulence/convection
c. Mesosphere
 Stratopause to about 53 miles above the Earth.
 Gases continue to thin leading to a decrease in temperature with height
d. Thermosphere
 Mesopause to 430 miles above the Earth (known as the upper atmosphere)
 Temp increases with height and can reach 2,000 degrees Celsius near the top of the layer
 High energy UV and X-ray radiation from the sun is absorbed
e. Exosphere
 Thermopause to 6,200 miles above the surface (outermost layer of the atmosphere)
 Atoms and molecules escape into space, and where satellites orbit the Earth
iii. Standard Atmosphere (59oF/15oC, 29.92” Hg)
a. Average of conditions throughout the atmosphere for all latitudes, seasons, and altitudes
2. Wind
A. Air in motion relative to the surface. Wind causes the formation/dissipation/redistribution of weather
B. Forces that Affect the Wind

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i. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)

a. Wind flows from areas of high to low pressure. These different pressures create the PGF
b. Whenever a pressure difference develops, the PGF makes the wind blow to equalize the differences
c. Wind speed is proportional to PGF which is proportional to the contour/isobar gradient
ii. Coriolis Force
a. Deflects air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere &
left in the Southern Hemisphere
 At a right angle to wind direction
 Directly proportional to wind speed
a If wind speed doubles, Coriolis doubles
 Coriolis varies with latitude
a Zero at the equator & maximum at each pole
iii. Friction
a. Friction between wind and the surface slows the wind
b. Rougher terrain and stronger winds = greater friction
c. Insignificant above the lowest few thousand feet or so
d. Above the friction layer, only the PGF and Coriolis force
affect the horizontal motion of the air

3. Temperature
A. Temperature
i. Represents the average kinetic energy of the molecules in matter
ii. Heat Transfer
a. Heat transfer is energy transfer because of temperature difference
b. The heat source for the planet is the sun. Energy from the sun is transferred to the Earth’s surface.
There are 3 ways heat is transferred into and through our atmosphere:
 Radiation (ex. Being near a fireplace – the sun radiates heat to the earth)
 Conduction (transfer of energy from one substance to another)
 Convection (transport of heat within a fluid, such as air or water)
a Because air is a poor thermal conductor, convection plays a vital role in the Earth’s
atmospheric heat transfer process
B. Temperature & the Earth/Atmosphere
i. Thermal Response: Water is much more resistant to temperature changes than land
ii. Temperature Variations with Altitude
a. Temperature generally decreases at an average of 2o Celsius per 1,000’
b. But in the troposphere, temperature can remain constant or increase with altitude changes
 Isothermal Layer: An atmospheric layer where temperature remains constant with height
 Temperature Inversion: A layer in which the temperature increases with altitude
4. Moisture & Precipitation
A. Necessary Ingredients
i. Water Vapor

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ii. Sufficient Lifting - condenses the water vapor into clouds

iii. Growth Process - allows cold droplets to grow large and heavy enough to fall as precipitation
a. Two growth processes allow cloud droplets to grow large enough to fall as precipitation
 Collision-Coalescence (warm rain process)
a Collisions between droplets of varying size and fall speeds coalesce to form larger drops
 Ice Crystal Process
a Water vapor directly on ice crystals which eventually become heavy enough to fall
B. Precipitation Types
i. The vertical distribution of temperature often determines the precipitation at the surface
ii. Rain: Deep layer of above freezing air based at the surface
iii. Snow: Occurs when the temperature is below freezing throughout the entire depth of the atmosphere
iv. Ice Pellets: Require a shallow, above freezing layer aloft, and a deep, below freezing layer at the surface
v. Freezing Rain: Deep, above freezing layer aloft and a shallow, below freezing layer at the surface
5. Weather System Formation (including Air Masses and Fronts)
A. Air Masses
i. A large body of air with generally uniform temperature and humidity.
ii. Area from which an air mass originates is called a source region
iii. Classified according to temperature and moisture properties of the source region
a. Temperature Properties
 Arctic: Extremely deep cold air mass; develops mostly in winter over arctic ice/snow
 Polar: A relatively shallow cool to cold air mass which develops over high latitudes
 Tropical: A warm to hot air mass which develops over low latitudes
b. Moisture Properties
 Continental: A dry air mass which develops over land
 Maritime: A moist air mass which develops over water
c. Types of Air Masses (Temperature + Moisture Properties)
 Continental Arctic: Cold, dry
 Continental Polar: Cold, dry
 Continental Tropical: Hot, dry
 Maritime Polar: Cool, moist
 Maritime Tropical: Warm, moist
 Maritime Arctic seldom, if ever, forms
iv. As an air mass moves around the Earth, it can acquire different attributes
B. Fronts
i. A boundary or transition zone between two air masses
a. Most weather occurs along fronts
b. Classified by which type of air mass (cold or warm) is replacing the other
ii. Fronts are usually detectable at the surface in several ways:
a. Significant temperature gradients
b. Converging winds
c. Pressure typically decreases as a front approaches and increases after it passes
iii. Fronts do not only exist at the surface, but also have a vertical structure described here:

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Cold Front Warm Front

Cold fronts have a steep slope, and the warm air is Warm fronts have a gentle slope, so the warm air
forced up abruptly. rising along the frontal surface is gradual.
If the warm rising air is unstable, this often leads to a This favors the development of widespread layered
narrow band of showers and thunderstorms along, or or stratiform cloudiness and precipitation along, and
just ahead of, the front. ahead of, the front if the warm rising air is stable.

Stationary Front Occluded Front

Stationary frontal slopes can vary, but clouds and Cold fronts typically move faster than warm fronts, so
precipitation would still form in the warm rising air in time they catch up to warm fronts. As the two
along the front. fronts merge, an occluded front forms.
The cold air undercuts the retreating cooler air mass
associated with the warm front, further lifting the
already rising warm air
Clouds and precipitation can occur in the areas of
frontal lift along, ahead of, and behind the surface
position of an occluded front

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6. Clouds
A. Vertical Motion & Cloud Formation
i. Air cools as it rises
a. As pressure decreases, the air
parcel expands, which
requires energy, cooling the
air
b. Reaches a point where temp
and dewpoint are equal, and
the particle becomes
saturated
ii. Lifted Condensation Level (LCL):
Level at which a parcel of air
becomes saturated
iii. Lifting above the LCL results in
condensation, cloud formation
and heat release
iv. As the air parcel expands and cools, water vapor content decreases
a. Some water vapor is condensed to droplets or deposited into ice crystals to form a cloud
b. The cloud grows vertically as the parcel continues to rise
v. Opposite occurs as a particle descends
B. Sources of Vertical Motion
i. Orographic Effects: Wind blowing across mountains and valleys causing the air to ascend/descend
ii. Frictional Effects
a. Winds diverge away from high pressure causing air to sink, compress, & war, dissipating clouds
b. Winds converge into low pressure causing air to rise, expand, & cool, favoring clouds & precipitation
iii. Frontal Lift: Cold, denser air wedges under warm, less dense air, forcing it upward
iv. Buoyancy
a. Air near the ground can warm at different rates
b. Temperature differences result in different air densities, allowing warm air to rise and cold to sink
C. Clouds
i. Cloud Forms
a. Cirri-form
 High level clouds above 20,000’ usually composed of ice crystals
 Typically, thin, and white
 Occur in fair weather and point in the direction of air movement
b. Nimbo-form (Nimbus comes from the Latin word meaning rain)
 Typically, between 7,000 and 15,000’ with steady precipitation
 As clouds thicken and precipitation falls, the bases tend to lower
c. Cumuli-form
 White, fluffy cotton balls (show the vertical motion in the atmosphere)
 Flat cloud base indicates the level of condensation/cloud formation
 Height depends on humidity of rising air (more humid = lower base)
 Tops can reach > 60,000’
d. Strati-form (Stratus is Latin for layer or blanket)
 Featureless low layer that can cover the entire sky, like a blanket
 Usually only a few hundred feet AGL
 III.B. Weather Information

 As fog lifts due to heating, it can form a layer of low stratus clouds
ii. Cloud Levels
a. High, Middle, and Low
b. In each level, the clouds may be divided by type

iii. Cloud Types

a. High Clouds

Cirrus Cirrocumulus Cirrostratus

Detached cirriform elements in the A cirriform type appearing as a Appears as a whiteish veil, usually
form of white, delicate filaments thin, white patch, sheet, or layer of fibrous but sometimes smooth,
of white patches, or narrow bands. could without shading, and is that may totally cover the sky, and
composed of very small elements that often produces halo
Many of the ice crystal particles in the form of grains, ripples, etc. phenomena.
are sufficiently large to acquire
appreciable speed of fall; May be composed of highly super May be so thin and transparent as
therefore, the clouds often trail cooled water droplets, as well as to render it nearly indiscernible –
downward in well-defined wisps small ice crystals, or a mix of both. the existence of a halo around the
called mares’ tails. sun or moon may be the only
Pilots can expect some turbulence revealing feature.
Cirrus clouds in themselves have and icing
little effect on aircraft and contain Composed primarily of ice crystals
no significant icing or turbulence. and contain little, if any, icing and
no turbulence.

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 III.B. Weather Information

b. Middle Clouds
Altocumulus Altocumulus Lenticularis Altostratus

White and/or grey in color, that Commonly known as Altocumulus A cloud type in the form of a gray
occurs as a layer or patch with a Standing Lenticular, they are an or bluish sheet or layer of striated,
wave aspect, the elements of orographic cloud. fibrous, or uniform appearance.
which appear as laminae, rounded
masses, rolls, etc. They often form in patches in the It very often totally covers the sky.
shape of almonds or wave clouds. Portions of the layer are thin and it
Small liquid water droplets These formations are caused by can have irregularly shaped and
compose the major part of the wave motions in the atmosphere, spaced gaps and rifts.
composition of altocumulus. This and are frequently seen in
results in sharp outline and small mountainous or hilly areas. The Layers in the cloud:
internal visibility. At very low cloud as a whole is usually  Upper - mostly ice crystals
temperatures ice crystals may stationary or slow moving.  Middle - mixed ice crystals
form. and/or snowflakes and super
The clouds do not necessarily give cooled water droplets
Pilots can expect some turbulence an indication of the intensity of  Lower- mostly super cooled
and small amounts of icing turbulence or strength of updrafts or ordinary water droplets
and downdrafts.
Pilots can expect little to no
turbulence, but light to moderate
icing in the super cooled water.

Nimbostratus
A gray cloud layer, often dark, rendered diffuse by more or less
continuously falling rain, snow, ice pellets, etc. which in most cases
reaches the ground. Not accompanied by lightning, thunder, or hail.

Composed of suspended water droplets, sometimes super cooled, and

failing raindrops/snow crystals or snowflakes. Nimbostratus has no well-
defined base. A false base may occur where snow melts into rain.

It produces very little turbulence, but can pose a serious icing problem if
temperatures are near or below freezing.

c. Low Clouds

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 III.B. Weather Information

Cumulus and Towering Cumulus Stratocumulus Stratus

Individual, detached elements that Predominantly stratiform, in the A cloud type in the form of a gray
are generally dense. They develop form of a gray/whiteish layer or layer with a fairly uniform base.
vertically, appearing as rising patch, which nearly always has The composition is quite uniform,
mounds, the upper parts of which dark parts and is non-fibrous. usually of fairly widely dispersed
often resemble cauliflower. Sunlit Rounded/roll-shaped, and usually water droplets, and at lower
parts are white, while their bases are arranged in orderly groups. temperatures, ice crystals (rare).
are darker and nearly horizontal.
The first stage of a thunderstorm. Composed of small water droplets, Doesn’t often create precipitation,
and sometimes larger droplets, but when it does, it is in the form
If rain occurs, it is usually showery. soft hail, even snowflakes. The of minute particles, such as drizzle,
highest liquid content is in the tops ice crystals, or snow grains.
For cumulus with little vertical (icing potential). Virga may form
development, pilots can expect under the cloud. Precipitation Stratus produces little or no
some turbulence and no significant rarely occurs. turbulence, but temperatures near
icing. For towering cumulus, or below freezing can create
expect very strong turbulence and Pilots can expect some turbulence hazardous icing conditions.
clear icing above the freezing level. and possible icing. Ceiling and
visibility are usually better with
low stratus.

Cumulonimbus
Exceptionally dense and vertically developed cloud, occurring either as
isolated clouds or as a line or wall of clouds. The upper part often is in
the form of an anvil or vast plume. Under the base (often dark) there
frequently exists virga, precipitation, and low, ragged clouds.

Composed of water droplets/ice crystals. Also contains large water

drops, snowflakes, snow pellets, even hail. The water may be super
cooled. Precipitation is often heavy/showery. Lightning is common.

Cumulonimbus contains nearly the entire spectrum of flying hazards,

including extreme turbulence.

7. Turbulence
A. Caused by convective currents, obstructions in the wind flow, and wind shear
B. Convective Turbulence
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 III.B. Weather Information

i. Turbulent vertical motions resulting from convective currents and the rising and sinking of air
ii. Billowy cumuliform clouds indicate convective turbulence
a. When air is too dry for cumuliform clouds, convective currents can still be active
C. Mechanical Turbulence
i. Caused by obstructions to the wind flow, such as trees, buildings, and mountains
ii. Mountain Waves: Stable air passes over a mountain, developing waves above/downwind of mountains
a. Often produce violent down drafts on the immediate leeward side of the mountain barrier
iii. Cap clouds, cirrocumulus standing lenticular, altocumulus standing lenticular and rotor clouds are signs
D. Wind Shear Turbulence
i. Wind shear is the rate of change in wind direction and/or speed per unit distance
a. Often occur across temperature inversion layers, which can generate turbulence
ii. Clear Air Turbulence
a. A higher altitude turbulence phenomenon occurring in cloud-free regions associated with wind
shear, particularly between the core of a jet stream and the surrounding air
8. Thunderstorms
A. Ingredients: Sufficient Water Vapor, Unstable Air, Lifting Mechanism
B. Life Cycle
i. Towering Cumulus: A strong convective updraft
ii. Mature: When precipitation reaches the surface
a. Precipitation descends drags air downward, creating a strong downdraft alongside the updraft
iii. Dissipating: Strong downdraft embedded within the area of precipitation
a. Subsiding air replaces the updraft, cutting off the moisture provided by the updraft
C. Types of Thunderstorms
i. Single Cell
a. Consists of only one cell. Single cell thunderstorms are rare; almost all are multicell
ii. Multicell
a. Consists of a cluster of cells at various stages of their life cycle
b. As the first cell matures, it is carried downwind, and a new cell forms upwind to take its place
 New cells continue to form as long as ingredients exist
c. A line of thunderstorms can extend laterally for hundreds of miles
 Often too high to fly over, too long to fly around and too dangerous to fly under
iii. Supercell
a. Dangerous convective storm consisting of primarily a single, quasi-steady rotating updraft
b. Organized internal structure produces especially dangerous weather (updrafts up to 9,000 fpm)
c. May persist for hours; new cells will continue to form as long as the necessary ingredients exist
D. Hazards
i. Lightning, winds/microburst, turbulence, icing, hail, rapid altimeter changes, static electricity, tornado
9. Frost & Icing
A. Frost
i. On cool, clear nights, cool ground can cause surrounding air to drop below the dewpoint
a. Moisture condenses on the ground, buildings, and other objects as dew (below freezing = frost)
ii. Dew poses no threat to aircraft, but frost poses a definite flight safety hazard
iii. An aircraft must be thoroughly cleaned and free of frost prior to beginning a flight
B. Types of Icing
i. Rime Icing
a. Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the instant freezing of small, super cooled water droplets after
they strike the aircraft
b. Favors colder temperatures, lower liquid water content and small droplets
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 III.B. Weather Information

ii. Clear Icing

a. A glossy, clear ice formed by slow freezing of large super cooled water droplets (smears as it freezes)
b. Exist in warmer temperatures, higher liquid water contents, and larger droplets
c. More hazardous than rime ice
 It tends to disrupt airflow considerably more than rime icing
 It is clear and more difficult to see and therefore can be difficult to recognize
 It is difficult to remove since it can spread beyond the deice/anti-ice capabilities
iii. Mixed Icing
a. A mixture of clear and rime ice - Poses a similar hazard to an aircraft as clear ice
C. Hazards of Icing
i. Structural icing degrades engine performance
ii. Destroys the smooth flow of air over the wing, increasing drag and decreasing the ability to create lift
iii. Actual weight of ice on an aircraft is insignificant when compared to the airflow disruption it causes
D. Freezing Level
i. Be alert for icing anytime the temperature approaches 0o C and visible moisture is present
ii. When carried above the freezing level, water becomes supercooled
a. Supercooled water freezes on impact with an aircraft
b. The abundance of large, supercooled water droplets makes clear icing very rapid between 0 & -15 o C
10. Fog & Mist
A. Fog
i. Tiny water droplets at the surface that reduce visibility to less than 5/8 statute mile
B. Types of Fog
i. Radiation Fog
a. Produced over a land area when radiational cooling reduces the air temperature below its dew point
b. Factors: Shallow surface layer of moist air beneath a dry layer, clear skies, light surface winds
c. Ground fog usually burns off rapidly after sunrise. Other radiation fog generally clears before noon
ii. Mountain/Valley Fog
a. Ground cools overnight and the denser, cooler mountaintop air sinks into valleys and collects there
b. Most common in fall and spring, and densest near sunrise when surface temperatures are lowest
iii. Advection Fog
a. Moist air moves over a colder surface, cooling the air to below its dew point
 Most common along coastal areas, but often moves deep in continental areas.
iv. Upslope Fog
a. Moist, stable air being adiabatically cooled to or below its dewpoint as it moves up sloping terrain
b. Wind speeds of 5-15 knots are most favorable
c. Common along the eastern slopes of the Rockies, and less frequent east of the Appalachians
v. Frontal Fog
a. Formation
 When warm, moist air is lifted over a front, clouds, and precipitation may form
 If the cold air below is near its dewpoint, evaporation may saturate the cold air and form fog
 Result is a continuous zone of condensed water droplets from the ground through the clouds
b. Mostly associated with warm fronts but can occur with others as well.
vi. Steam Fog
a. Very cold air moves across relatively warm water, moisture evaporates to produce saturation
 Rising water vapor meets the cold air & recondenses, rising with air being warmed from below
 Appears as rising streamers that resemble steam
b. Often very shallow; expect convective turbulence flying through it

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 III.B. Weather Information

vii. Freezing Fog

a. Tiny, supercooled liquid water droplets in fog freeze exposed surfaces at/below freezing
C. Mist
i. Tiny water droplets reducing visibility to less than 7 SM, but greater than, or equal to, 5/8 SM
ii. Forms a thin grayish veil covering the landscape
iii. Intermediate between fog and haze
11. Obstructions to Visibility
A. Haze
i. Numerous extremely small particles giving the air an opalescent appearance
ii. Occurs in stable air and is usually only a few thousand feet thick, but may extend upwards of 15,000’
iii. Visibility varies greatly depending on whether you’re facing into or away from the sun
B. Smoke
i. Suspension of small particles in the air produced by fires, industrial burning, etc.
ii. Can reduce visibility to zero and contains many highly toxic compounds, like carbon monoxide (CO)
iii. Must be dispersed by movement of air
C. Volcanic Ash
i. Made up of fine particles of rock powder from a volcano (ash is composed of silica (glass))
ii. Ash may not be visible at night or in IMC, even if visible, it’s hard to distinguish from ordinary clouds
iii. Very hazardous to aircraft
a. Piston aircraft: May not lose power, but severe engine damage is likely
b. Causes abrasive damage
D. Blowing Snow
i. Snow lifted from the surface by the wind to a height of 6’ or more; Reduces visibility to less than 7 SM
ii. Whiteout: Strong winds keep snow suspended up to 50’, obscuring the sky and reducing visibility to zero
iii. Visibility improves rapidly when the wind subsides
E. Dust Storms, Sandstorms, & Haboob
i. Dust Storms
a. Originate over regions when fine-grained soils, rich in clay and silt, are exposed to strong winds
b. Reduce visibility to near zero
c. Creation & Dissipation
 Extreme heating of barren ground + turbulent unstable air mass
a Surface winds 15 knots or greater (35 knots over desert rock fragments)
b Average height is 3,000 to 6,000’, but can reach up to 15,000’
 Strong cooling after sunset settles the dust (temperature inversion)
d. Hazards
 Visibility can drop to zero in a matter of seconds
 Dust can clog intakes, damage systems, and affect human health
 Slant range visibility is greatly reduced compared to report surface visibility
ii. Sandstorms
a. Particles of sand carried aloft by a strong wind
b. Like dust storms but on a more localized level since the sand particles are heavier (10’ to 50’ AGL)
iii. Haboob
a. Dust storm that forms as cold downdrafts from a thunderstorm lift dust and sand into the air
b. Often short lived, but can be intense
12. Importance of a Thorough Weather Briefing
A. FAR 91.103 – As PIC, you are required to become familiar with the weather reports and forecasts
B. Know what to expect and can be alert to changing conditions en route
C. Go / No Go Decision
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 III.B. Weather Information

13. Weather Information Sources

A. General awareness of the overall weather – Internet, Weather Apps, TV, etc.
B. Detailed Briefing (Specific to the flight)
i. FSS (1-800-WX BRIEF or 1800wxbrief.com)
ii. NWS – National Weather Service - Aviationweather.gov
iii. ForeFlight - Briefings are timestamped and stored to comply with FAR 91.103
iv. AIM 7-1-2-C: Pilots can receive a regulatory compliant briefing without contacting flight service
AC 91-92 – Pilot’s Guide to a Preflight Briefing
C. RM: Inflight Weather Sources
i. FSS Frequencies - as published, or 122.2
ii. ForeFlight, or other apps (with data connection)
iii. Satellite Weather - Current weather available to appropriately equipped aircraft
iv. FIS-B (Flight Information Service Broadcast – Part of the ADS-B system)
14. Weather Reports and Charts
i. METAR (Aviation Routine Weather Report)
a. An observation of current surface weather reported in a standard international format
ii. Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)
a. A terminal aerodrome forecast is a report established for the 5 s.m. radius around an airport
b. Valid for a 24-hour period, updated four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z.
iii. Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA) – replaced the Area Forecast (FA)
a. GFA Tool – Aviationweather.gov/gfa
b. Complete picture of the weather for US, Gulf, Caribbean and portions of the Atlantic/Pacific
c. Observational data, forecasts, warnings, T-storms, clouds, precip, icing, turbulence, wind, more
d. Tools
 GFA User’s Guide - Weather.gov
 GFA Tutorial Video – Youtube.com
 Product Description Doc – National Weather Service
B. Model Output Statistics (MOS)
**Note: Not required by the PTS/ACS, but if used during the checkride, the examiner may ask about it
i. What is it?
a. Takes weather models and applies statistics/historical observations to produce a specific forecast
b. Completely automated
c. Temp, chance and type of precipitation/thunderstorms, cloud cover and height, wind speed and
direction at specific points across the country
ii. Uses: Better weather picture for aviation planning purposes
iii. Limitations
a. Not a legal weather source
b. Cannot forecast
 Multiple cloud layers
 Forecast showers or fog in the vicinity
 Precipitation intensity
 Non-convective LLWS
 No significant weather
 Variable winds
c. Precipitation discrimination
d. Currently only in the US
iv. Where to find it

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 III.B. Weather Information

a. ForeFlight – Airport weather tab

b. NWS MOS Text Bulletins
c. Raw MOS data breakdown: JetStream Max: MOS
C. Surface Analysis Chart
i. Depicts surface weather covering contiguous 48 states
a. Pressure, fronts, temps, dewpoints, wind direction/speed, local weather, visual obstructions
D. Ceiling & Visibility Chart (CVA)
i. https://aviationweather.gov/gfa/#cigvis
ii. Use the Ceiling, Visibility, or Flight Category drop down for a large-scale overview of ceiling/visibility info
a. Drop down at top right (icon depicted to the right)
b. Use the legend icon at the bottom right to view color meanings
iii. Combines satellite & surface observations to show ceiling & visibility conditions across the US
a. Used for big picture planning and to avoid hazardous ceiling and visibility conditions
E. Radar Summary Chart
i. Collection of radar weather reports showing areas and characteristics of precipitation
ii. Published hourly at 35 min past the hour
iii. Limitations
a. Will not show areas of clouds and fog with no appreciable precipitation
b. Will not show the heights of the tops and bases of the clouds
iv. Depiction of current precipitation, should be used with current METAR and weather forecasts
F. Winds and Temperatures Aloft Chart (FB)
i. Provide wind and temperature forecasts for specific locations twice a day (0Z/12Z)
ii. Wind
a. Direction = true north; Speed = knots
b. No forecasts within 1,500’ of station elevation
c. First 2 numbers are direction; Second 2 are speed
iii. Temperature (Celsius)
a. No forecasts within 2,500 feet of station elevation
b. Temperatures above 24,000 feet MSL are always negative
G. Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
i. General - Portray forecasts of selected weather conditions over large areas at specified valid times
a. Each chart depicts a “snapshot” of the weather elements expected at the chart’s valid time
ii. Surface Chart

a. Used to obtain an overview of surface weather features over

the next 2 ½ days

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 III.B. Weather Information

b. Depicts: Pressure systems, fronts, precipitation, and squall lines

c. Issued: 2x a day, based on the product

iii. Low Level Chart (FL240 and below)

a. Two charts: 12-hour and a 24-hour prog
b. Big picture overview, more detailed and timely products should be used for flight planning
c. Depicts:
 Flying categories: IFR, MVFR, VFR
 Turbulence intensities and altitudes
 Freezing level in hundreds of feet MSL
d. Issued: 4x per day
e. Sometimes combined with surface prognostic charts for a four-panel display
f. Left side: 12-hour Low Level and Surface; Right Side: 24-hour
Low Level and Surface
iv. M
i d
/
M e
d iu
m

Level Chart (10,000’ MSL to FL450) (depicted below, left)

a. Single 24-hour chart
b. Used by airline dispatchers for flight planning /
weather briefings and flight crew during flight
c. Depicts: Thunderstorms / CB clouds, moderate or
severe turbulence and icing, jet streams, tropopause
heights, tropical cyclones, volcanic eruptions,
sandstorms / dust storms
d. Issued 4x per day

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 III.B. Weather Information

v. High Level Chart (FL250 to FL630) (above, right)

a. Provided for enroute portion of international flights (used by airline dispatchers / flight crew)
b. Depicts: Same as mid, minus non-convective clouds with moderate or severe icing / turbulence
c. Issued: 4x a day
vi. Alaska Charts
a. Graphical overview of forecast weather primarily for lower flight altitudes
b. Depict: Surface pressure systems and fronts, IFR / MVFR weather conditions, freezing levels, low-
level turbulence, and thunderstorms
c. Issued: 2x a day - 0530 / 1330Z (Alaska Standard Time), and 0430 / 1230Z (Alaska Daylight Time)
 Four forecasts (24, 36, 48, and 60 hour) valid at specific times
vii. See Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28) for all chart symbols
H. Convective Outlook Chart
i. Overview
a. Depicts areas forecast to have severe and non-severe (general) convection over 8 days
b. 4 charts: Day 1, Day 2, Day 3, Days 4-8
c. Aviation Weather Convective Outlook Chart
ii. 5 Levels of Risk (Day 1-3 Charts)
a. 5 levels of risk + thunderstorm coverage &
intensity of severe weather
 General (TSTM)
 Marginal (MRGL), Slight (SLGT), Enhanced
(ENH), Moderate (MDT), High (HIGH)
 Days 1 & 2: Also contain individual severe
probabilities for tornados, wind, and/or
hail
 Day 3: Combined probability of all 3
types of severe weather
b. Graphic Probability Requirements
(probabilities are within 25 miles of any
point)
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 III.B. Weather Information

c. Day 4-8 Chart

 Two thresholds of 15% and 30% can be forecast (equivalent to slight and enhanced)
 If no 15% areas forecast, you’ll see:
a Predictability too low, or
b Potential too low
I. Surface Weather Observations
i. Overview
a. Three general types of surface weather observations: Manual, Automated, Augmented
b. Manual: Made by a human weather observer certified by the FAA
c. Automated Observation: Derived from instruments and algorithms without human oversight
 Two main kinds: ASOS and AWOS
d. Augmented Observation: Automated observation with human input/oversight
 Humans report elements beyond system abilities or operationally significant elements
ii. ASOS (Automated Surface Observing System)
a. Continuous min-by-min observations to generate a METAR and other info
b. Transmits a SPECI report whenever it determines a significant change in conditions
c. Limitations
 Cannot distinguish between stratus and cumulonimbus clouds
 Limited in its ability to identify restrictions to visibility
d. Levels of service
 LEVEL A- The highest – typically available at major airports like those in or near Class B
 LEVEL B – Has human observers available 24 hours a day
 LEVEL C – Airports with part-time tower (Human augmentation ends when tower closes)
 LEVEL D – Smaller, nontowered airports meeting the FAA or NWS criteria for the ASOS
iii. AWOS (Automated Weather Observing System)
a. Levels of service:
 AWOS-A: Only reports the altimeter setting
 AWOS-1: Also reports wind speed, direction, gusts, temperature, and dew point
 AWOS-2: Adds visibility information
 AWOS-3: Most capable – also includes cloud/ceiling data (essentially equivalent to ASOS)
b. Difference between ASOS / AWOS is ability to identify significant changes in surface weather
 AWOS transmits 3 reports per hour at fixed intervals; cannot issue a special report
iv. ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service)
a. A continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in busier terminal areas
b. Contains essential info - weather, active runways/approaches, other required info (NOTAMs)
 Data may be entered by hand, come from a METAR, or be taken directly from sensors
c. Generally, updated hourly, or when there is a significant change; given a letter designation
15. In-Flight Weather Advisories
A. Forecasts that detail potentially hazardous weather
B. AIRMET (WA)
i. Issued every 6 hours with intermediate updates as needed
ii. Information of interest to all, but the weather section is specifically dangerous to light aircraft
iii. 3 Types
a. SIERRA: Denotes IFR and mountain obscurement
b. TANGO: Denotes turbulence, strong surface winds, and low-level wind shear
c. ZULU: Denotes icing and freezing levels
C. SIGMET (WS)

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 III.B. Weather Information

i. In flight advisory concerning non-convective weather that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft
ii. Severe icing; extreme turbulence; Clear Air Turbulence (CAT); dust / sandstorms; volcanic ash
iii. Unscheduled forecasts valid for 4 hours (hurricane SIGMET is valid for 6 hours)
D. Convective SIGMENT (WST)
i. Weather advisory issued for hazardous convective weather that affects the safety of every flight
ii. Issued for: Embedded thunderstorms, line of thunderstorms, as well as:
a. Severe Thunderstorms with
 Surface winds greater than 50 knots
 Hail at the surface ≥ ¾ inch in diameter
 Tornadoes
b. Thunderstorms with heavy or greater precip affecting 40% or more of a 3,000 ft2 or greater area
E. PIREPS – Pilot generated report concerning meteorological phenomena encountered in flight
F. Onboard Weather Equipment: Understand the operation and limitations of any onboard equipment
16. Recognizing Weather Hazards
A. Most hazards can be recognized through proper interpretation of aviation weather charts, reports, etc.
i. Use resources in flight to maintain situation awareness (ATC, FSS, PIREPs, onboard weather, etc.)
B. Wind Shear
i. Sudden, drastic change in wind speed and / or direction over a very small area
a. Violent updrafts / downdrafts can be extremely dangerous to all aircraft
b. Microbursts – The most severe type of wind shear; downdrafts up to 6,000 fpm

ii. Indications
a. Visual
 Intense rain shaft at the surface, but virga at cloud base
 Ring of blowing dust
b. Alerting Systems
 LLWAS-NE, TDWR, and ASR-9 WSP systems installed at major airports
 Many airports, especially smaller airports, have no wind shear systems
a Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28)
iii. If possible, avoid it
a. Never conduct low level (traffic pattern) operations near an active thunderstorm
b. LLWAS (Low Level Wind Shear Alerting System)
c. PIREPS
d. If unable to avoid, follow manufacturer’s procedures
 General procedures include: Max power, pitch aggressively for max climb (DO NOT STALL)

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 III.B. Weather Information

17. RM: Go/No Go Decision

A. Consider weather factors, aircraft and equipment to be used, as well as yourself
B. Set limits and don’t bend them
C. Physical / Mental condition - IMSAFE checklist
D. Recent Flight Experience & Proficiency
i. Don’t go beyond your abilities or the aircraft’s abilities
E. Continual process of decision making – Don’t be afraid to discontinue the flight or divert, if necessary

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

182
IV. Preflight Lesson on a maneuver to be Performed In Flight
IV.A. Maneuver Lesson

The evaluator asks the applicant to present a preflight lesson on the selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to
a student and determines the outcome of this Task before the flight portion of the practical test. Previously developed
lesson plans from the instructor applicant's library may be used.

All necessary information for this lesson is found in sections VII through XII

ACS Requirements:
The applicant demonstrates instructional knowledge by describing and explaining:
1. Purpose of the maneuver.
2. Elements of the maneuvers and the associated common errors.
3. Desired outcome(s), including completion standards.

Deliver instruction on the selected maneuver using a lesson plan, teaching methods, and teaching aids, as appropriate.
V. Preflight Procedures
V.A. Preflight Assessment

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to a comprehensive preflight
inspection. The student will understand what to look for during each part of the inspection and
can perform the preflight inspection as required by the checklist and the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Aircraft Specific Checklist

2. Airworthy and Safe
3. Fuel Grade and Contamination
4. *Oil Level (4-6 Quarts)

Elements 1. Big Picture Preflight

2. Preflight Checklist
3. Preflight Overview
4. What to Inspect
5. Detecting Problems
6. Ice and Frost
7. Loading and Securing
8. Determining the Airplane is Safe

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can perform a comprehensive preflight inspection, understanding what to look for
Standards at each part of the inspection. The student will be able to determine whether or not the
airplane is airworthy and in a condition for safe flight.
 V.A. Preflight Inspection

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
We don’t want to find a problem with the airplane while we’re in the air. For that reason, we perform a thorough
preflight on the ground, allowing us to find and fix any problems before getting airborne, where issues are
considerably more difficult to deal with.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The preflight inspection is a thorough check of the airplane to ensure airworthiness and safety prior to flight.

Why
The accomplishment of safe flight begins with a careful preflight inspection. The preflight inspection determines the
airplane is legally airworthy, and that it is in a condition for safe flight.

How:
1. RM: Big Picture Preflight (PAVE Checklist)
A. Pilot
i. IMSAFE
B. Aircraft
i. Required documents/inspection, preflight checklist
ii. Equipment and systems operation
iii. Proper loading (baggage, fuel, people, weight & balance)
iv. Performance capabilities
C. enVironment
i. Current and anticipated weather versus planned weather
ii. Terrain requirements; Day vs night
iii. Departure, route, destination, alternate(s) (weather, terrain, airspace, TFRs, NOTAMs)
iv. Aviation security concerns - Congressional Research Service: Securing General Aviation
a. Threats
 Terrorists seek to exploit GA assets to attack critical infrastructure/high profile targets
 Terrorists may exploit GA to gain knowledge and/or access to the US airspace system
b. Vulnerabilities
 Minimal to nonexistent security at many small GA airports
 Unattended airports
c. Mitigating GA Security Risks
 Airport watch program: Like a neighborhood watch; be alert
a Report suspicious activity (1-866-GA SECURE)
b Call 911 if there is an immediate threat
 Limit airport access when able
 Flights School Specific
a TSA computer-based flight school security awareness training program

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 V.A. Preflight Inspection

b Background checks for prospective employees

c Formal written security procedures for employees and customers
d Display of employee identification
e Limit access to aircraft and their keys to authorized personnel
D. External Pressures
i. Based on the particular flight
ii. Stick to your standards and personal minimums – assess and attempt to mitigate risk
2. Preflight Checklist
A. Ensures the airplane meets airworthiness standards and is in a safe condition prior to flight
B. The POH must be the reference for the preflight inspection (Chapter 4)
i. Always have a checklist on hand as a reference to ensure everything is checked
C. CE: Failure to use, or the improper use, of a checklist
D. CE: Hazards which may result from distractions interrupting an inspection
3. Preflight Overview
A. The preflight logically moves around the airplane to ensure it is in a condition for safe flight
B. Begins while approaching the airplane on the ramp – Note the overall appearance / any issues
4. What to Inspect
A. Inside the Cockpit
i. Airworthiness - Required Documents (AROW)
ii. Logbooks – Ensure tests / inspections complied with (may not be kept in the cockpit)
iii. Items located inside the airplane / items controlled inside the plane (lights, pitot heat, etc.)
B. Exterior of the Airplane
i. Follow the checklist and inspect all exterior portions of the airplane
ii. CE: Inability to recognize discrepancies to determine airworthiness
5. Detecting Problems
A. Visible Structural Damage (follow the POH procedures and inspection requirements)
i. Check for dents, cracks, bending, separating, etc.
ii. Check for leaks / stains as they are signs of potential problems
iii. Look for missing rivets, bolts, etc.
iv. Inspect the propeller for damage including nicks and cracking
B. Flight Controls
i. Move freely / correctly and are properly attached
ii. Check the flap movement and connections
C. Fuel Quantity and Contamination
i. Confirm the fuel quantity indicated on the gauge
ii. Contamination
a. Type, Grade of Fuel – Critical to safe flight (100LL (AVGAS) – Blue with a familiar gasoline scent)
b. Supervise fueling to ensure the right fuel type / grade and ensure the caps are in place
 80 is Red; 100LL is Blue; 100 is Green; Jet Fuel is Clear (kerosene scent)
c. Water and Other Sediment
 Water is heavier than fuel and therefore accumulates in the low points
 Sediment can come from dust / dirt entering the tanks
d. Check the Grade and Remove Water and Other Contamination
 Drain fuel from the sumps. Check for color, smell, water / contamination
 If water or contaminants are found, drain until they have been removed
D. Oil Quantity and Contamination
i. Verify the oil is at an acceptable amount
a. Check the oil when the engine is cold (proper reading, oil is settled at the bottom)

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 V.A. Preflight Inspection

ii. Contamination can be detected by discoloration

a. Oil darkens as operating hours increase; rapidly dark oil may point to cylinder problems
E. CE: Failure to ensure servicing with the proper fuel and oil
F. Leaks (Fuel, Oil, Hydraulic) – verify no leaks under the plane, in the cowling, on the struts, etc.
6. Ice and Frost
A. Small amounts of ice/frost can disrupt the airflow over the wing, increase stall speed, and reduce lift
B. Do not fly unless the ice/frost is removed in accordance with the requirements in the POH
7. Loading and Securing
A. Ensure everything is properly loaded and secured prior to flight (verify the CG matches)
B. Secure everything properly to prevent movement during flight (possible damage, or CG change)
C. CE: Failure to ensure proper loading / securing of baggage, cargo, and equipment
8. Determining the Airplane is Safe
A. During the preflight, note any issues and make an educated go / no go decision
i. If there are questions as to whether the airplane is safe, ask for help (CFI, maintenance, etc.)
B. Follow the recommendations in the POH, as well as those learned from experience
i. Do not let emotion, outside pressure, or any undue influence sway you from safety
C. Remember, FAR 91.3: The PIC is the final authority to the operation of the aircraft

Common Errors:
 Failure to use or the improper use of a checklist
 Hazards which may result from allowing distractions to interrupt a visual inspection
 Inability to recognize discrepancies to determine airworthiness
 Failure to ensure servicing with the proper fuel and oil
 Failure to ensure proper loading and securing of baggage, cargo, and equipment

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
A safe flight begins with a thorough preflight as prescribed in the airplane’s POH. This preflight inspection ensures the
airplane is both airworthy and safe for flight.

189
V.B. Flight Deck Management

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to cockpit management. The
student should maintain an organized cockpit and properly position all controls for correct use.
All equipment should be fully understood to assist in utilizing all possible resources.

Key Elements 1. Good Housekeeper

2. Passenger Briefings
3. Internal and External Resources

Elements 1. Occupant Briefing

2. Arranging & Securing
3. Seat Position & Controls
4. Navigation Data Currency
5. Checklists Usage
6. Resource Utilization
7. Aviate, Navigate, Communicate

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can efficiently and safely complete a flight as described in cockpit management.
Standards
 V.B. Flight Deck Management

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
All pilots need to learn to be good housekeepers. The airplane is your house and you need to be sure it stays clean
and organized.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Cockpit management (single pilot resource management) is a process that combines you, the airplane, and the
environment for safer and more efficient operations.

Why
Understanding the elements behind cockpit management (single pilot resource management) provides for a
considerably more efficient and safer flight.

How:
1. Occupant Briefing
A. Safety Belts
i. FAR 91.107 - Each person must be briefed on operation of their seat belt and shoulder harness
a. Ensure each person has fastened their safety belt/shoulder harness for taxi, takeoff, landing
C. FAASafety passenger briefing discussion and briefing card – Passenger Briefing
D. CE: Failure to provide occupant briefing on emergency procedures and use of safety belts
2. Arranging & Securing
A. Arranging
i. Ensure that all the necessary equipment, documents, checklists, and charts are on board
ii. Materials should be organized in a manner that makes them readily available for use
B. Securing
i. Check for loose items which might be tossed about during flight, or if turbulence is encountered
C. Form the habit of “good housekeeping;” in the long run, it will pay off in safer and more efficient flying
D. CE: Failure to place / secure essential materials and equipment for easy access during flight
3. Seat Position & Controls
A. Seat Belt/Harnesses
i. When seated, the seat belt/harness should be adjusted to a comfortable, snug fit
a. Shoulder harness must be worn at least for taxi, takeoff, and landing
b. The safety belt must be worn all times at the controls
B. Seats
i. On each flight, the pilot should be seated in the same position. Verify the seat is locked in position
a. Adjust for the proper viewing height as directed in the POH
C. Rudder Pedals
i. Adjust the rudder pedals forward or backward
a. Ensure full, comfortable range of motion of the rudders and brakes
D. CE: Failure to properly adjust cockpit items, like safety belts, harnesses, rudder pedals, seat
E. CE: Failure to provide proper adjustment of equipment and controls

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 V.B. Flight Deck Management

4. Navigation Data Currency

A. Charts
i. FAR 91.103 requires each PIC to become familiar with all available information concerning that flight
a. Although it doesn’t specifically require it, you should always carry current charts
ii. Information changes rapidly, out of date charts may be missing crucial information
iii. To confirm currency, refer to the next scheduled edition date printed on the cover
a. Use Dates of Latest Editions & check NOTAMs and Safety Alerts and Charting Notices for changes
B. Database Currency
i. AIM 1-1-1b3(b): Databases must be maintained to the current update for IFR operations
a. No such requirement exists for VFR ops, however it is always a good idea to keep a current database
C. Violations
i. It is not FAA policy to initiate enforcement action against a pilot for having an old chart or no chart, or for
having an expired navigation database
ii. However, if a pilot is involved in an investigation and there’s evidence an out-of-date chart/database (or no
chart) contributed to the situation, that information could be used in any enforcement action
5. Checklist Usage
A. Ensure the proper and orderly use of the manufacturer’s checklist
i. Ensures every item is completed and checked in a logical order
ii. Don’t go on memory, always backup your actions with a checklist
6. Resource Utilization
A. Resources can be found both inside and outside the cockpit. Be aware of all available resources at the pilot’s
disposal, and when necessary, think outside the box to get the information/help you need
i. These resources should be used before, during and after flight
B. Internal Resources
C. Resources can be found both inside and outside the cockpit. Think outside the box if necessary
D. Internal Resources
i. POH, checklists (normal and emergency), charts
ii. Satellite and / or app data, if equipped; documents loaded on a tablet
iii. Equipment - A thorough understanding of the equipment is necessary to fully utilize all resources
iv. Passengers can look for traffic, provide helpful information
v. Ingenuity, knowledge, and skill
E. External Resources
i. Maintenance technicians, and flight service personnel, 1800 WX Brief
ii. Internet research (before flight – weather, NOTAMs, TFRs, airport procedures, etc.)
iii. ATC – traffic advisories, vectors, emergency assistance, may even be able to contact someone
iv. FSS can provide weather, airport conditions
v. Other airplanes can provide PIREPs as well as radio communications
vi. ASOS/AWOS can also provide weather conditions in flight
F. CE: Failure to utilize all resources required to operate a flight safely
7. RM: Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
A. Don’t allow systems/equipment, people, inoperative systems to distract you from flying the airplane
B. Multi-pilot airplanes have crashed due to minor distractions
a. Eastern Airlines 401 (December 29, 1972) - YouTube Video (48 mins)
C. Extremely important in a single pilot aircraft that you divide attention and maintain situation awareness

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

192
V.C. Engine Starting

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Reduction of Electrical System Failures Following Aircraft Engine Starting (AC 91-55), Cold Weather Operation of Aircraft
- Cancelled (AC 91-13), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to engine starting as required
in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Checklist

2. Safety
3. Hand on the Throttle

Elements 1. POH Checklists

2. Safety Precautions
3. Normal Start Checklist
4. Atmospheric Conditions
5. Starting with External Power
6. Hand Propping Safety

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student shows the ability to safely start the engine using the appropriate checklist and
Standards understands different conditions and their effect on starting.
 V.C. Engine Starting

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Starting the engine of an airplane is not as simple as starting the engine of your car. A plane can’t just be turned on
anywhere at any time, the proper precautions and procedures must be followed for safety reasons.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Engine Starting discusses the safety precautions necessary when starting an airplane, the different conditions which
affect starting the engine, as well as different ways to start the engine.

Why
Proper engine starting is necessary for the safety of people and property, as well as to prevent engine damage. There
are certain situations which require special procedures, and some procedures can be dangerous. It is very important
to know the proper engine starting procedures and precautions.

How:
1. POH Checklists
A. Always use Manufacturer Checklists
i. Ensures every item is completed and checked in a logical order
B. RM: Limitations
i. Review associated engine start limitations in the POH
2. Safety Precautions
A. Set the parking brake and/or hold the toe brakes (look outside to verify you’re not moving)
B. RM: Ensure the ramp area surrounding the airplane is clear of persons, equipment, and other hazards
i. Be aware of what is in front of, to the side, and behind the airplane
C. Anti-collision lights should be turned on prior to any start, at night use position lights too
D. Always call “CLEAR” out of the side window and wait for a response from someone who may be nearby
E. When activating the starter, the wheel brakes must be depressed and / or parking bake set (check POH)
F. Engine Controls During Start
i. Always keep one hand on the throttle
a. After the engine is started, set the throttle and other controls as specified in the POH
ii. Monitor oil pressure after engine start
a. In most conditions, oil pressure should reach at least the lower limit within 30 seconds
b. If oil pressure does not rise to the POH values in the specified time, shutdown the engine
iii. Avoid excessive engine RPM and temperatures
a. Monitor the instruments and use the checklist if engine temperature begins to rise abnormally
iv. CE: Improper adjustment of engine controls during start
G. CE: Failure to use safety precautions related to starting, and ensure clearance of the prop
3. Normal Start Checklist
A. Review the normal start checklist in the POH
4. Atmospheric Conditions
A. Cold Weather

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 V.C. Engine Starting

i. May result in congealed engine oil, less effective batteries, and stuck instruments
a. Preheat of the engine(s) (and cabin) before start is desirable (hangar, cowl heaters, etc.)
ii. Cold Engine Start Problems
a. Congealed oil can make the prop more difficult to move (both with the starter and by hand)
b. Tendency to over prime – washes down cylinder walls and may result in scoring of the walls
 Results in poor compression / hard starting; fires have been started by over priming
c. Iced sparkplug
 The engine only fires a few revolutions and then quits. The only remedy is heat
iii. Starting – Follow the POH procedures for a cold start
a. Prime the engine with fuel first (over-priming can result in fire – AC 91-13. Cancelled but useful)
b. After start, follow the POH procedures to allow the engine and oil to warm and circulate
iv. Review Cold Weather Engine Starting checklist(s) and procedures
B. Hot Weather
i. Unless very hot, normal start procedures will generally work (use hot start procedures, if needed)
a. Generally, little to no priming is needed. If the engine doesn’t catch, use minimal priming
 In the case of an over primed engine, follow the flooded start checklist
ii. Vapor lock (fuel injected engines)
a. Fuel delivery lines tend to be on the top of the engine, directly over the cylinder fins
b. Engine + outside heat can boil the fuel out of the lines creating vapor which can prevent starting
 Hot start procedures should be used to purge the lines of vapor
iii. Review Hot Weather Engine Starting checklist(s) and procedures
5. *Starting with External Power (Supplement 1 in POH)
A. RM: Ensure proper use and understanding of the external power unit
i. Follow steps in the owner’s manual
ii. Besides not being able to start the plane, there is the risk of damaging the unit or aircraft systems
B. Follow the procedures prescribed in the POH
C. Be extremely cautious of people and equipment near the propeller during engine start (have a plan)
6. RM: Hand Propping Safety
A. Basic requirements BEFORE attempting a hand prop
i. Do not hand prop unless two people, both familiar with hand propping techniques are available
ii. The person pulling the propeller blades through directs all activity and is in charge of the procedure
iii. The 2nd person is in the plane with brakes set, operating the controls, and following instructions
iv. The ground surface near the prop should be stable and free of debris
v. Both participants should discuss the procedure and agree on voice commands and expected action
B. Engine Starting Set-up
i. Unless otherwise specified, the descending prop blade should be slightly above horizontal
ii. Person doing the propping should face the blade squarely and stand less than an arm’s length away
a. Too far away results in leaning forward into the prop in an unbalanced condition
C. Procedures and Commands for Hand Propping
i. Follow the procedures specified in the POH. Have a plan
D. CE: Failure to use safety precautions related to starting
E. CE: Failure to ensure proper clearance of the propeller

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Always ensure safety when starting the engine.

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V.D. Taxiing, Airport Signs, & Lighting

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to taxiing an airplane as
required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Fast Walk

2. Crosswind Corrections
3. Taxi Diagram

Elements 1. Taxi Instructions

2. Plan, Review, Brief
3. Appropriate Flight Deck Activities
4. Taxiing
5. Wind Corrections
6. Night Operations
7. Low Visibility
8. Runway Incursions
9. Airport Markings
10. Airport Signs
11. Airport Lighting & Visual Aids

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can safely maintain positive control of the airplane with the proper crosswind
Standards corrections. The student understands the elements related to safely and effectively taxiing.
 V.D. Taxiing, Airport Signs, & Lighting

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Taxiing is one of the basic skills required anywhere you fly. At some airports with many taxiways it can be intimidating
and therefore is very important to understand how to safely and efficiently taxi an airplane.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the ground.

Why
Since the airplane is moved by its own power between the parking area and runway, the pilot must thoroughly
understand and be proficient in taxi procedures.

How:
1. Taxi Instructions
A. Communicating with ATC (Big Picture)
i. Always use standard ATC phraseology to facilitate clear and concise communication
ii. When making initial contact, state who you are, where you are on the airport, what you want
iii. Focus on the ATC clearance
a. Don’t perform any nonessential tasks while communicating with ATC
b. RM: Eliminate expectation bias
iv. Read back all clearances and verify the route/clearance on the taxi diagram
B. Controlled Airports (AIM 4-3-18 Taxiing)
i. Clearance is required:
a. To taxi onto the movement area
b. To taxi on a runway, take off, or land when an ATC tower is in operation
c. Prior to crossing any runway (ATC will issue an explicit clearance for all runway crossings)
ii. Prior to entering the movement area, contact Ground control for a taxi clearance
a. Frequencies & Procedures
 Chart Supplement: Airport specific information
 Airport Diagram
 Check NOTAMs for changes, taxiway/runway closures, etc.
b. Taxi Request
 Aircraft identification, location, type of operation (VFR/IFR), first point of intended landing
iii. When assigned a takeoff runway, ground will:
 Specify the runway (or point to taxi to)
 Issue taxi instructions
 State any hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances
iv. After taxi instructions are received, always read back:
a. Runway assignment
b. Any clearance to enter a specific runway
c. Any instruction to hold short of a specific runway or line up and wait

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 Controllers are required to request readback of hold short instructions if not received
C. Uncontrolled Airports
i. Planning
a. Be familiar with the local procedures, runway use, traffic pattern direction and altitude
b. Be alert, communicate intentions on the CTAF and listen for other aircraft
ii. Communication
a. Monitor/communicate on the CTAF from engine start, taxi, and until 10 miles from the airport
b. Announce location and intentions on the CTAF
iii. Maintain situational awareness
2. Plan, Review and Brief
A. Route Planning
i. Current Airport Diagram – Review expected route(s), hot spots, etc.
ii. Review any pre-designated, or standard, taxi routes
B. Record & Review
i. Always write down ATC taxi instructions to prevent mistakes
ii. Review the route given by ATC, ask for help in case of confusion
iii. Benefits
a. Writing down the Taxi Clearance
 Prevents mistakes and forgetfulness
 RM: Combats expectation bias
b. Reviewing the taxi instructions & route
 Increases SA
 Clear up confusions/questions prior to moving
 Operate with your head up/eyes outside to the max extent
C. Taxi Briefing
i. Safety Belts
a. FAR 91.107 - Each person must be briefed on operation of their seat belt and shoulder harness
 Ensure each person has fastened their safety belt/shoulder harness for taxi, takeoff, landing
b. FAASafety passenger briefing discussion and briefing card – Passenger Briefing
c. AC 91-73: Brief ground procedures & expectations of others prior to taxi and landing
3. RM: Appropriate Flight Deck Activities
A. For safety reasons the pilot’s workload should be at a minimum during taxi operations
i. Complete pre-taxi checklists and data entry prior to taxi
B. A sterile cockpit should be implemented from taxi through climb to focus on taxiing/ATC instruction
C. Taxiing Near Other Aircraft
i. Use a “continuous loop” process to monitor and update their progress and location in relation to you
ii. Awareness is enhanced by understanding the clearance issued to pilots, other aircraft, and vehicles
4. Taxiing
A. Basics
i. Steering is accomplished with the rudder pedals and brakes
a. To turn, apply rudder in the desired direction; inside brake can also be applied to tighten the turn
b. Rudder should be held until just short of the point where the turn is to be stopped
 Pressure is then released or opposite pressure is applied to maintain centerline
ii. Brakes are used to stop, slow, or aid in making a turn and should be applied smoothly and evenly
iii. Speed: Taxi at the speed of a fast walk
a. Controlled 1st with power and 2nd with brake pressure - Don’t ride the brakes
b. CE: Improper use of brakes

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c.
iv. Centerline: Describe site picture for specific aircraft
v. When stopping, stop with the nose wheel straight to prevent side loading and to make moving again easier
vi. CE: Hazards of taxiing too fast
B. Taxi Checks
i. Obtain taxi clearance and review and brief the route
ii. Test the brakes for proper operation as soon as the airplane is put in motion
iii. Apply taxi basics and appropriate flight deck activities
iv. Taxi Check
a. Attitude Indicator - No more than 5o of pitch or bank indicated
b. Turn and Slip Indicator - Wings move with the turn/Ball opposite the turn/Inclinometer is full of fluid
c. Magnetic compass and heading indicator are moving toward known headings (no cracks, leaks, bubbles)
5. Wind Corrections
A. Recognizing Wind Direction
i. ATIS, ATC, FSS can provide wind direction
ii. Wind Indicators
a. Windsock or Cone: Wind direction is opposite the direction the sock is pointing
b. Tetrahedron & Wind Tee: Move freely and align with the wind direction
c. Generally, located in a central location near the runway

iii. Use the heading indicator/heading bug to visualize wind in relation to the airplane
B. Quartering headwind: Ailerons turned into the wind and the elevator is held neutral
C. Quartering Tailwind: Flight controls are positioned to dive with the wind (tailwind requires less power)
6. Night Operations
A. Exterior aircraft
lights may be used
to make an aircraft
on the airport
surface easier to
see
i. Engines
Running: Turn
on the rotating
beacon
whenever an
engine is
running

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ii. Taxiing: Prior to commencing taxi, turn on navigation, position, and anti-collision lights
a. Turn on the taxi light when moving, turn it off when stopped/yielding
b. Strobe lights should not be used during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of others
iii. Crossing a Runway: All exterior lights should be illuminated when crossing a runway
iv. Line Up and Wait or Takeoff: Turn on all lights, except for landing lights
a. Line up slightly (3’) off centerline to enable a landing aircraft to differentiate you from the runway lights
v. Takeoff Clearance Received (or when commencing roll at uncontrolled field): Landing lights ON
B. Be more cautious at night
i. Reduced visibility makes taxiing more difficult
ii. Taxi slower
7. Low Visibility (AIM 4-3-19)
A. Focus entire attention on the safe operation of the aircraft while it is moving
i. Taxi slowly with focus outside
ii. Sterile cockpit
iii. Withold checklists and nonessential communication until stopped with the brakes set
B. Notify the controller of difficulties or at the first indication of becoming disoriented
8. RM: Runway Incursions
A. Taxi First: Sterile cockpit, eyes outside, stop in the case of an emergency
i. Sterile cockpit
ii. If a checklist needs to be completed, or attention needs to be diverted from taxiing, wait until stopped
iii. In the case of an emergency, stop the aircraft immediately and proceed as required
B. Maintain Situational Awareness
i. Know where you are and where you’re going – have a taxi diagram
ii. Build a mental picture of other traffic on the airport
C. Communication Matters
i. Read back all runway/taxiway crossing and hold instructions using proper phraseology/good discipline
ii. Write down complex instructions, especially at unfamiliar airports
D. Be Conservative
i. Taxi at a safe speed (fast walk)
E. RM: Route and/or Runway Change
i. Ask for a safe place to stop, if necessary
ii. Copy the new taxi instructions and review the route
iii. Request progressive, if necessary
F. Hold Lines
i. Approaching from the dashed side, cross (no clearance necessary) and stop fully passed the solid lines
ii. Approaching from the solid side, do not cross without a clearance
G. Landing and Rollout
i. Brief the landing/rollout plan
ii. After landing, ensure that the entire aircraft, has crossed the landing runway’s hold short line
iii. If stopped between parallel runways, only cross when cleared to cross
9. Airport Markings
A. Runway Markings
i. There are three types of markings for runways:
a. Visual; Nonprecision Instrument; Precision Instrument

Marking Element Visual Runway Nonprecision Instrument Runway Precision Instrument Runway
Designation X X X
Centerline X X X

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 V.D. Taxiing, Airport Signs, & Lighting

Threshold X1 X X
Aiming Point X2 X X
Touchdown Zone X
Side Stripes X
1
On runways used, or intended to be used, by international commercial transports.
2
On runways 4,000 feet (1200 m) or longer used by jet aircraft.

B. Runway Designators
i. Purpose - To identify / differentiate runways from the approach end
a. To Magnetic North; whole number to the nearest one-tenth of the runway course
b. L, R, C differentiate multiple parallel runways
ii. Markings - Large white numbers
C. Runway Centerline Marking
i. Purpose - Identifies the center of the runway providing alignment guidance for takeoff and landing
ii. Markings - A line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps
D. Runway Aiming Point Markings
i. Purpose - Serves as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft
ii. Markings - Broad white stripe on each side of the centerline, approximately 1,000’ from threshold
E. Runway Touchdown Zone Markers
i. Purpose - Identifies touchdown zone for landing; provide distance info in 500’ increments
ii. Markings - Groups of 1, 2, and 3 rectangular bars in pairs about the runway centerline
F. Runway Side Stripe Markings
i. Purpose - Delineate edges of the runway providing a contrast between the runway and shoulder
ii. Markings - Continuous white stripes located on each side of the runway
G. Runway Shoulder Markings
i. Purpose - Identify pavement areas not intended for aircraft use
ii. Markings - Yellow stripes Runway Width Stripes
H. Runway Threshold Markings (stripes vary with width, chart to right) 60 feet 4
i. Purpose - Identifies beginning of the runway available for landing 75 feet 6
100 feet 8
150 feet 12
201 200 feet 16
 V.D. Taxiing, Airport Signs, & Lighting

ii. Markings - Stripes about the centerline

iii. Displaced Threshold (DT)
a. Explanation
 Landing threshold starts at a point other than the beginning of the runway
 Used for taxiing, takeoff, landing rollout (not to be landed on, reduces landing distance)
b. Markings
 A 10’ wide white threshold bar across the runway at the displaced threshold
 White arrow heads are located across the runway just prior to the threshold bar
 White arrows down the centerline between the start of the runway and displaced threshold
c. Relocated Threshold
 Explanation – Construction / other activities require the threshold to be relocated (NOTAM)
 Markings – Normally a 10’ wide white threshold bar across the runway, but can vary
I. Blast Pad / Stopway Area
i. Blast Pad: Area where a propeller or jet blast can dissipate without creating a hazard
ii. Stopway: Space to decelerate / stop in the event of an aborted takeoff (chevrons)
J. Taxiway Markings
i. General
a. Taxiways should have centerline/runway holding position markings whenever intersecting a runway
b. Edge markings separate the taxiway from areas not for aircraft use or define taxiway edges
ii. Taxiway Centerline Markings
a. Normal Centerline
 Purpose - Provide a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path
 Markings - A single continuous yellow line that is 6” - 12” wide
b. Enhanced Centerline
 Purpose - Same as above but at larger commercial airports to warn that a runway hold
position marking is being approached
 Markings - Parallel line of yellow dashes on both sides of the taxiway centerline
iii. Taxiway Edge Markings
a. Purpose - Defines the edge of the taxiway (usually when edge doesn’t match up with pavement)
b. Continuous Markings
 Purpose - Define the taxiway edge from the shoulder/paved surface not for use by aircraft
 Markings - Continuous double yellow line
c. Dashed Markings
 Purpose - Define the taxiway edge when adjoining pavement is
intended for aircraft (apron)
 Markings - Broken double yellow line
iv. Taxi Shoulder Markings
a. Purpose - Shoulders prevent erosion but they may not support aircraft
b. Markings - Taxiway edge markings will usually define this area
v. Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs
a. Purpose - When it isn’t possible to offer direction signs at intersections, or
to supplement such signs
b. Markings - Surface painted location signs with a yellow background and
black inscription
vi. Surface Painted Location Signs
a. Purpose - Location signs assisting in confirming the taxiway
b. Markings - Black background with a yellow inscription

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vii. Geographic Position Markings

a. Purpose - Identifies aircraft location during low visibility operations
b. Markings - Left of the taxiway centerline in the direction of taxiing
 A circle with an outer black ring, inner white ring, and a pink circle
viii. When on dark pavements the white/black ring are reversed
K. Holding Position Markings

i. General
a. Show where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway (hold on the solid side)
b. 4 yellow lines (2 solid / 2 dashed) across the width of the taxiway / runway / approach area
ii. Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiways
a. Purpose - Identify where to stop without a clearance onto the runway
iii. Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways (as shown to the right)
a. Purpose - Only installed if normally used for LAHSO or taxiing
operations
a Must stop before markings / exit prior to reaching the position
b. Markings - White inscription / red background next to hold markings
iv. Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area
a. Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS)
 Purpose - Hold aircraft when the ILS critical area is being protected
 Markings - 2 yellow solid lines 2’ apart joined by pairs of solid lines 10’ apart across the taxiway
b. Holding Position Markings for Taxiway / Taxiway Intersections
 Purpose - Installed on taxiways where ATC normally holds aircraft short of an intersection
 Markings - Single dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway
c. Surface Painted Holding Position Signs (pictured, right)
 Purpose - Supplements signs located at the holding position
 Markings - Red background / white text, on hold side, before hold lines
L. Other Markings
i. Vehicle Roadway Markings
a. Purpose - Defines a path for vehicle operations on the airport
b. Markings - White solid line delineates each edge and a dashed line separates lanes
ii. VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings

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a. Purpose - Allow the pilot to check aircraft instruments with navigational aid signals
b. Markings - Painted circle with an arrow in the middle (arrow is aligned toward the facility)
 Located with a sign on the apron / taxiway; Black text on a yellow background
iii. Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings (pictured, right)
a. Purpose - Delineates movement area (area under control)
b. Markings - 2 yellow lines (one solid and one dashed)
iv. Marking and Lighting of Permanently Closed Runways
a. Purpose - For runways and taxiways which are permanently closed
b. Markings - The lighting circuits will be disconnected
 Yellow crosses at each end of the runway and at 1,000’ intervals
v. Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways
a. Purpose – Indication that a runway is temporarily closed
b. Markings - Yellow crosses are placed on the runway at each end
 A visual indication may not be present depending on the reason / duration of closure
a Check NOTAMs / ATIS
 Closed taxiways are blockaded (yellow cross may also be used)
10. Airport Signs
A. Mandatory Instruction
i. Purpose - Denote entrance to runway or critical area / area where aircraft are prohibited
ii. Markings - Red background with a white text
iii. Typical Mandatory Signs and Applications
a. Runway Holding Position Sign
b. Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign
c. ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign
d. No Entry Sign
B. Location Signs
i. Purpose - Identify either a taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located
ii. Taxiway Location Sign
a. Purpose - Along taxiways to indicate location
b. Markings - Black background with yellow inscription and border
iii. Runway Location Sign
a. Purpose - Complement compass / heading info; typically, in areas with multiple runways
b. Markings - Black background with yellow text
iv. Runway Boundary Sign
a. Purpose - Visual cue depicting when “clear of the runway”
b. Markings - Yellow background / black lines
v. ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign
a. Purpose - Depicts where clear of the ILS critical area
b. Markings - Yellow background / black lines
C. Direction Signs
i. Purpose - Identify taxiways out of an intersection
 Designations / arrows are arranged clockwise from the 1st taxiway on the pilot’s left
ii. Markings - Yellow background / black text
D. Destination Signs
i. Purpose - Indicates a destination on the airport
a. Destinations commonly shown are
 Runways  Civil Aviation Areas ii.
 Aprons  Cargo Areas
 Terminals  International Areas
 Military Areas  FBOs 204
 V.D. Taxiing, Airport Signs, & Lighting

ii. Markings - Yellow background / black text

E. Information Signs
i. Purpose - Provide information on things such as:
a. Areas the tower can’t see, radio frequencies,
and noise abatement procedures
ii. Markings - Yellow Background / black text
F. Runway Distance Remaining Signs
i. Purpose – Informs the distance remaining on the runway
a. Number indicates the thousands of feet of landing runway remaining
ii. Markings - Black background / white number
G. CE: Failure to comply with airport, runway, taxiway sings and markings
11. Airport Lighting and Visual Aids
A. Approach Light Systems (ALS)
i. Purpose: Assists the transition from instrument conditions to visual conditions for landing
ii. Explanation: A configuration of lights starting at the threshold, extending into the approach area
B. Visual Glideslope Indicators
i. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)
a. Purpose: Provides visual descent guidance during approach
b. Explanation: The lights are visible from 3-5 miles during day and up to 20 or more at night
 Safe obstruction clearance within ± 10o of the centerline and 4 NM from the threshold
c. Configurations
 2, 4, 6, 12, or 16 light units arranged in bars
a Arranged as near, middle, and far bars
(Mid provide another glide path for high
cockpits)
b Usually on left side of the runway
d. Two Bar VASI (most common) – Provide one
visual glide path, normally set at 3o
 Each unit projects light with an upper white segment and a lower red segment
C. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
i. Lights arranged to provide visual descent guidance during the approach to a runway
a. Uses light units like a VASI but in a single row of either 2 or 4 light units
ii. Configuration
a. Tri-Color System
 Above - Amber
 On – Green
 Below - Red
 Range: Day - ½ to 1 mile; Night - Up to 5 miles
b. Pulsating System
 Above - Fast pulsating white
 Slightly Above - Pulsating white
 On - Steady white
 Slightly Below - Steady red
 Below - Pulsating red
 Range: Day, up to 4 miles; Night, up to 10 miles
D. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)
i. Installed to provide rapid / positive identification of the approach end of a runway

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ii. Configuration - Pair of synchronized flashing lights on each side of the runway threshold
E. Runway Edge Light Systems (HIRL, MIRL, LIRL)
i. Outline the edges of runways during dark / restricted visibility conditions
a. Classified according to the intensity or brightness: High Intensity (HIRL); Medium (MIRL); Low (LIRL)
ii. Configuration
a. Runway edge lights - White
 Instrument runways – Yellow for the last 2,000,’ or half the runway, whichever is shorter
b. Lights marking the end of the runway – Red / Green
 Red indicates the end of the runway to a departing aircraft
 Green indicates the threshold to landing aircraft
F. In-runway Lighting
i. Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS)
a. Installed on some precision runways to facilitate landing under adverse conditions
b. Configuration
 Along runway centerline at 50’ intervals
 From the threshold, the lights are white until the last 3,000’ of the runway
a White lights alternate with red for 2,000’, and the last 1,000’ all lights are red
ii. Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL)
a. On some precision runways to indicate touchdown zone in low visibility conditions
b. Configuration
 Rows of (usually 3) lights on both sides of the runway centerline
 Rows begin 100’ beyond the landing threshold and extend to 3,000’ beyond the landing threshold or
the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less
iii. Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights
a. Provide visual guidance to exit the runway
b. Configuration
 Alternate green & yellow lights, beginning with green, from the runway centerline to 1 light position
beyond the runway hold position/ILS critical area hold position
iv. Taxiway Centerline Lead-on Lights
a. Provide visual guidance for entering the runway
b. Configuration
 Color coded with the same pattern as lead-off lights
 Bidirectional (1 side emits light for the lead-on function the other for the lead-off)
v. Land and Hold Short Lights
a. Used to indicate the hold short point on certain runways approved for LAHSO
 When installed, the lights will be on anytime LAHSO is in effect and off when not
b. Configuration - A row of pulsing white lights installed across the runway
G. Control of Lighting Systems
i. Operation of approach light systems and runway lighting is controlled by the tower / FSS
ii. Pilots may request the lights be turned on or off
H. Pilot Control of Airport Lighting
i. Radio control of lighting is available at some airports by keying the microphone
a. 3 clicks for low lights, 5 for medium, and 7 for high (all clicks within 5 seconds – lasts 15 minutes)
ii. Frequency is in Chart Supplement / standard instrument approach procedures publications (usually CTAF)
I. Airport Beacons
i. Used to identify airports as well as differentiate different types of airports
ii. Colors and Combinations of Beacons

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a. White and Green - Land Airport

b. White and Yellow - Water Airport
c. White, White, and Green – Military Airport
d. Green, Yellow, and White - Lighted Heliport
iii. Beacon operation during the day
a. Often indicates the ground visibility is less than 3 miles and / or the ceiling is less than 1,000’
 No regulatory requirement for daylight beacon operation
J. Taxiway Lights
i. Taxiway Edge Lights
a. Purpose - Outline the edges of taxiways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility
b. Configuration - Blue light
ii. Taxiway Centerline Lights
a. Purpose - Facilitate taxiing during low visibility conditions
b. Configuration - Steady green lights along the centerline
iii. Clearance Bar Lights
a. Purpose - Installed to increase the visibility of a holding position in low visibility conditions
 May also be installed to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway during darkness
b. Configuration - Three in pavement steady yellow lights
iv. Runway Guard Lights
a. Purpose - Enhance the visibility of taxiway and runway intersections
b. Configuration - Either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights on either side of the taxiway, or a row of in
pavement yellow lights across the entire taxiway at the runway hold marking
v. Stop Bar Lights
a. Purpose - Confirm ATC clearances to enter/cross an active runway in low visibility conditions
b. Configuration - Row of red, unidirectional, steady in pavement lights across the entire taxiway at the
runway hold position, and elevated steady-burning red lights on either side
 Following ATC clearance, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on
c. Never cross a red illuminated stop bar even if you have received ATC clearance
d. If after crossing, the lead-on lights extinguish, hold position, and contact ATC for instruction
K. CE: Failure to comply with airport, runway, and taxiway lighting

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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V.F. Before Takeoff Check

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the before takeoff check.
The student should perform the check as required in the manufacturer’s POH and as required
in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Read and Do

2. Departure Brief
3. Incursions and Hazards

Elements 1. Engine Warm Up

2. Positioning the Aircraft
3. Division of Attention
4. Checklist
5. Go/No Go Decision
6. Departure Brief
7. Before Entering the Runway
8. Avoiding Incursions
9. Runway Change

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the elements involved in a proper, thorough, and safe before takeoff
Standards check. The student can make a competent decision as to whether the airplane is safe to fly and
is vigilant in maintaining hazard and incursion avoidance.
 V.F. Before Takeoff Check

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Which situation would you rather be in? Discovering there is a problem with the airplane after takeoff and having to
make an emergency landing or discovering there is a problem with the airplane before taxiing onto the runway?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The before takeoff check is the systematic procedure for making a check of the engine, controls, systems,
instruments, and avionics prior to flight.

Why
This final check ensures the airplane is ready for safe flight before taking off.

How:
1. Engine Warm Up
A. Before takeoff check is usually performed after taxiing to a position near the runway (usually a run-up area)
i. Allows time to reach minimum operating temperatures ensuring lubrication and internal engine clearances
2. Positioning the Aircraft
A. A suitable location should be firm and free of debris (smooth, paved, or turf surface if possible)
B. There should not be anything behind the aircraft that might be damaged by the airflow
C. Point the airplane as closely as possible into the wind, and move forward slightly to straighten the nose
D. CE: Improper positioning of the airplane
3. RM: Division of Attention
A. Attention must be divided inside and outside the aircraft
i. Excessive time with your head down (checklists, etc.) can result in unmonitored movement
4. Checklist
A. Prepares the aircraft for takeoff and checks critical flight equipment and systems
B. The before takeoff checklist provided by the manufacturer should be used to ensure a proper check
i. Never go solely off memory
C. Review the Before Takeoff Checklist with the learner
i. Discuss reasons for checking each item and how to detect errors
5. Go/No Go Decision
A. The PIC is responsible for determining whether the airplane is in a condition for safe flight
i. Use the criteria in the POH, as well as pilot judgement, to measure airplane performance
B. This is your chance to catch a problem while safely on the ground rather than in flight
i. If there is a problem, ask yourself, Are we still legal? Can the problem be fixed? Is this safe?
C. If there are any doubts, return to the ramp for further investigation
D. CE: Improper acceptance of marginal engine performance
6. Departure Brief
A. Before takeoff, review the performance speeds, expected takeoff distance, and emergency procedures
i. VR, VX, VY - Announce the speeds
ii. Takeoff on runway XX, we have X,XXX’ of runway, performance shows we need X,XXX’ today

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 V.F. Before Takeoff Check

iii. In the case of an emergency:

a. Lose engine on roll, close the throttle, stop straight ahead, maintain control with rudder / brakes
b. Lose engine after rotation with runway available, land on the remaining runway
c. Lose engine above XXX’ AGL, attempt to turn back to the runway, otherwise land straight ahead
B. CE: Hazards of failure to review takeoff and emergency procedures
i. Don’t try to come up with a plan during an emergency
7. Before Entering the Runway
A. Visually check the area to ensure it is clear of anything that could be a hazard
B. Check the runway, as well as final approach
i. Remember, radio communication is not required at uncontrolled airports
C. RM: Consider Wake Turbulence
i. See lesson VI.B. Traffic Patterns - Wake Turbulence
8. Avoiding Incursions
A. Before moving, clear to the left, right and center
B. Monitor the appropriate frequency
C. Know where other aircraft are in relation to you
D. Repeat all clearances, and do not cross hold short lines without a clearance
E. If any doubt exists, stop, and wait for the traffic to clear
F. Clear final approach before taxiing into the takeoff position
G. CE: Failure to avoid incursions & ensure no conflict with traffic prior to taxiing into takeoff position
9. RM: Runway Change
A. Don’t rush – Find a place to stop and make necessary changes
B. Performance
i. Adjust for changes in runway length, wind direction, runway gradient, terrain, procedures, etc.
ii. Ensure adequate performance and safety
iii. Update navigation equipment (GPS, VOR, etc.)
C. Departure Brief: Note differences and brief the departure for the new runway
D. Taxi Instructions
i. Review the taxi diagram
ii. Request and readback taxi instructions
iii. Confirm the route and begin the taxi

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VI. Airport Operations
VI.A. Communications, Light Signals & Runway Lighting Systems

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to radio communications and
ATC light signals as described in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understanding

2. Who, Where, What
3. Plan Ahead

Elements 1. Procedure and Phraseology for Radio Communications

2. ATC Clearance and Instructions
3. Selection and Use of Appropriate Frequencies
4. Radar Assistance
5. Transponders
6. ATC Light Signals
7. Runway Status Lights

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can properly use the radios through a flight of any kind. The student understands
Standards proper procedures, phraseology, clearances, and light signals.
 VI.A. Communications, Light Signals, & Runway Lighting

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Everyone wants to sound like a real, professional pilot. This lesson will explain how we do that, while making you into
a more professional pilot.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Radio communication is the communication between the pilot and different ATC controllers throughout the phases of
a flight.

Why
Operating in and out of a controlled airport, as well as in a good portion of the airspace system, requires an aircraft
have two-way radio communications. For this reason, a pilot should be knowledgeable of radio procedures. Radio
communications is a critical link in the ATC system. By understanding proper radio communication procedures, the
link can be strong providing safer flying for everyone.

How:
1. Procedure and Phraseology for Radio Communications
A. Understanding is the single most important thought in pilot-controller communications
i. If you don’t understand, clarify the instruction
ii. Acknowledge each radio call with your aircraft call sign
iii. Brevity is important but, if necessary, use whatever words will get your message across
iv. Good phraseology enhances safety and is the mark of a professional pilot – Pilot/Controller Glossary
B. RM: Radio Technique
i. LISTEN and THINK before you transmit
a. Know what you want to say before you say it (write it down if needed)
ii. Be alert to the sound/lack of sounds in the receiver
a. Check your volume, frequency, and make sure the microphone isn’t stuck on transmit
iii. Be sure you are within the performance range of your equipment and the ground station equipment
a. VHF is line of sight
C. Radio calls can be broken down into Who, Where, What:
i. Who you are calling, Who you are, Where you are, What you want
D. Radio calls at non-towered airports can be broken down into a similar format:
i. Who you are calling, Who you are, Where you are, What you are doing
E. CE: Improper procedure and phraseology when using radio communications
2. ATC Clearances and Instructions
A. ATC clearance: authorization for an aircraft to proceed under specified conditions in controlled airspace
i. Not authorization to deviate from any rule, regulation, minimum altitude, or conduct be unsafe
B. When given a clearance:
i. Record and read back the clearance
a. Always read back:
 Taxi instructions (AIM 4-3-18-9)

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 VI.A. Communications, Light Signals, & Runway Lighting

a Runway assignment, Clearance to enter a runway, Hold short / line up and wait
 Clearances containing altitude assignments, vectors, or runway assignments (AIM 4-4-7)
 Land and hold short operation (LAHSO) clearances (AIM 4-3-11-7)
b. Read back altitudes, altitude restrictions, vectors in the same sequence as they are given
c. If uncertain of a clearance, immediately request clarification from ATC (FAR 91.123)
C. It is the responsibility of the pilot to accept or refuse any clearance issued (AIM 4-4-1(b))
i. FAR 91.3(a): The PIC is directly responsible for, and the final authority to, operation of the aircraft
a. If ATC issues a clearance that deviates from a rule / regulation, or would place the aircraft in jeopardy, it
is the pilot’s responsibility to request an amended clearance
b. If a pilot prefers to follow a different course of action than what is in the clearance, the pilot is expected
to inform ATC (you are making a request, not telling the controller what you will do)
D. FAR 91.123: No PIC may deviate from a clearance unless an amended clearance is obtained, an emergency
exists, or it is in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory
i. If deviating, notify ATC as soon as possible
E. RM: Declaring Emergencies (AIM 6-1-2 Emergency Condition)
i. An emergency can either be a distress or urgency condition
a. Distress: Threatened by serious and/or imminent danger and requiring immediate assistance
b. Urgency: Concerned about safety and requiring timely but not immediate assistance
 Potential distress condition
ii. Do not hesitate to declare an emergency when faced with distress conditions
iii. An aircraft is at least in an urgency condition the moment the pilot becomes doubtful about position, fuel
endurance, weather, or any other condition that could adversely affect flight safety
a. This is the time to ask for help
F. CE: Failure to acknowledge or properly comply with, ATC clearances and instructions
3. Selection and Use of Appropriate Frequencies
A. Preflight Planning
i. Look up the primary frequencies you plan to use on the flight
a. Tower, ground, ATIS, clearance delivery, and any other applicable frequencies at the departure, and
arrival airport, as well as any divert airports you may use
b. Can be found in the Chart Supplement, Sectional Charts, ForeFlight, etc.
B. In the case a frequency needs to be found in flight, use available resources
i. Autopilot, ATC, planning documents should be organized and accessible (always fly first!)
ii. Know where to find the information needed (Chart Supp, Sectional, etc.)
C. CE: Use of improper frequencies
i. Understand each frequency’s purpose
ii. If you get no response:
a. Wait a moment, the controller may be busy, then re-try
b. Double check the frequency
c. Return to the last frequency and ask them to repeat
4. Radar Assistance (AIM 4-1-17 & 18)
A. Radar equipped ATC facilities provide radar assistance and navigation services to VFR aircraft, provided:
i. You can communicate with ATC, are within radar coverage, and can be radar identified
B. RM: Limitations
i. Based on controller discretion
ii. Guidance information is advisory and responsibility for safe flying remains with the pilot
iii. Cannot determine if flight into IMC will results from their instructions
C. Services include:
i. Basic Radar Service – Safety alerts, traffic advisories, limited radar vectoring (workload permitting)

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a. Traffic advisories are issued based on radar targets and referenced in terms of the 12-hour clock
ii. TRSA Service - Radar sequencing and separation for VFR aircraft in a TRSA
iii. Class C services - Separation between IFR/VFR and sequencing of VFR traffic to the airport
iv. Class B services - Separation based on IFR, VFR and/or weight and sequencing VFR arrivals
D. Radar Assistance does not relieve the pilot of the responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft
5. Transponders
A. Provides aircraft information to Air Traffic Control and other aircraft
B. Different types/modes of transponders broadcast different information
i. Mode A: Transmits 4-digit code that identifies an aircraft and its position
ii. Mode C: Mode A + ATC can see the aircraft’s altitude
iii. Mode S: Transmits a variety of information to ATC & other aircraft
a. Unique ICAO address (assigned to each aircraft), heading, speed, other flight related data
b. Integral to TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) and ADS-B
C. Transponder Codes
i. When using flight following/radar assistance ATC assigns you a unique transponder code
a. Four numbers from 0-7 (4,096 possible codes)
b. Otherwise, squawk VFR (1200)
c. When combined with radar returns, ATC can see the aircraft on their scope with the transponder info
ii. Standard Codes: VFR: 1200; Hijack: 7500; Lost Communication: 7600; Emergency: 7700
6. ATC Light Signals (AIM 4-3-13)
A. Light Gun Signals and their Meaning
i. In the case of a loss of radio communication, the tower can communicate through light signals:

ii. General Information (AIM 6-4-2, AIM 4-3-13)

a. Squawk 7600 to indicate a loss of two-way radio capability
b. During daylight, acknowledge transmissions / light signals by moving the ailerons or rudder
c. At night, acknowledge by blinking the landing or navigation lights
d. Between sunset and sunrise, to get the attention of the tower turn on a landing light and taxi into a
position, clear of the active runway, so that the light is visible to the tower
 The landing light should remain on until appropriate signals are received from the tower
iii. Disadvantages of Light Signals (AIM 4-3-13)
a. Pilots may not be looking at the control tower at the time a signal is directed toward their aircraft
b. Directions are limited since only approval/disapproval of a pilot’s anticipated actions can be transmitted
B. Lost Communication Procedures
i. Airborne Aircraft

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 VI.A. Communications, Light Signals, & Runway Lighting

a. Receiver Inoperative - Receiving no audio on tower/ATIS frequencies

 Remain outside the airspace until the direction and flow of traffic is determined
 Advise tower of the failure, aircraft type, position, altitude, intention to land
 Enter the pattern, report position, watch for light gun signals from the tower
b. Transmitter Inoperative - Receive no response to calls, but can receive calls
 Follow the previous procedures
 If you can hear ATC, they may ask you to acknowledge their radio calls with an ident
a Light gun signals may not be necessary
 Make all normal radio calls, just in case
c. Receiver and Transmitter Inoperative
 Remain outside of the airspace until the direction and flow of traffic is determined
 Enter the pattern, clearing aggressively, and watch for/acknowledge light gun signals
ii. Trouble Shoot the Situation
a. Check the connections, equipment, receiver/transmitter, volume, try different frequencies, is there an
annunciation showing when you are transmitting (is it working?), etc.
iii. Once on the ground, it is prudent to call the tower and explain the situation
C. Aircraft on the Ground
i. Radio malfunctions should be repaired before flight
a. If this is not possible, call ATC and request VFR departure without two-way radio communication
ii. If radio failure occurs while taxiing, watch for light signals / monitor the tower frequency
D. CE: Failure to understand or properly comply with ATC light signals
7. Runway Status Lights (RWSL)
A. Fully automated system providing a direct indication that it’s unsafe to enter, cross, takeoff, or land on a runway
i. Installed at several major US airports
ii. Processes information from surveillance systems to turn red warning lights on/off
iii. Used in conjunction with ATC – lights and ATC instructions must agree
B. Runway Entrance Lights (REL)
i. In-pavement red lights
ii. Warns aircraft waiting to cross/enter a
runway that there is conflicting traffic
C. Takeoff Hold Lights (THL)
i. In-pavement red lights
ii. Warns aircraft in the takeoff position
that the runway is occupied & takeoff is
unsafe
D. More details: FAA Runway Status Lights

Common Errors:
 Use of improper frequencies
 Improper procedure and phraseology for
radio communications
 Failure to acknowledge or properly comply
with, ATC clearances and instructions
 Failure to understand or properly comply with ATC light signals

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VI.B. Traffic Patterns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Non-Towered Airport Flight Operations (AC 90-66B), Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports without Operating Control
Towers (AC 90-42 - cancelled), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the proper procedures,
rules, and elements of the traffic pattern at both a controlled and uncontrolled field. The
student will be able to demonstrate this knowledge as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Entry Procedures

2. Communication
3. Orientation

Elements 1. The Pattern

2. Controlled Field
3. Uncontrolled Field
4. Runway Orientation
5. Proper Spacing
6. Right-of-Way Rules
7. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the rules and elements to a proper traffic pattern and is comfortable
Standards arriving and departing from a controlled or uncontrolled field.
 VI.B. Traffic Patterns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
To depart or land at an airport we’re going to have to use the traffic pattern, I guess it’s pretty important, huh?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Traffic Patterns involve the rules and procedures involved with flying a proper traffic pattern at a controlled and
uncontrolled airport.

Why
Every flight begins and ends at an airport or other suitable landing area. For that reason, it is essential that the pilot
learn the traffic rules, procedures, and pattern layouts that may be in use at various airports.

How:
1. The Pattern
A. Controlled - The pilot receives a clearance to approach / depart and pertinent pattern information
B. Uncontrolled - It’s up to the pilot to determine traffic direction, and comply with the appropriate rules
C. Standard Traffic Pattern
i. Pattern Altitude: Usually 1,000’ AGL
a. A common altitude is the key factor in minimizing collisions at uncontrolled airports
b. Chart Supplement will usually specify nonstandard pattern altitudes
ii. Standard Traffic Patterns: Left Turns
a. Unless otherwise noted (Chart Supp, Controller,
Airport Markings, etc.)
D. Pattern Legs
i. Upwind - Departure leg, flown parallel and in the
same direction as runway heading
ii. Crosswind –Transition from the upwind leg to the
downwind leg
a. Perpendicular to upwind leg, approx. ½ to 1-mile
from runway
iii. Downwind - Parallel to the landing runway
a. Heading is opposite the landing runway, approx.
½ to 1 mile from the runway
b. Before landing checks, and configuration are
normally accomplished downwind
c. Start descent abeam landing point
d. Turn base 45o from the landing point
 Adjust as necessary (winds, traffic, tower
request, emergency, etc.)
 Stronger wind = closer base leg due to
decreased groundspeed on final

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 VI.B. Traffic Patterns

iv. Base - Perpendicular to the runway, the transition between downwind and final
a. Airplane ground track should be perpendicular to the extended centerline
b. Continue descent, adjusting pitch and power to maintain airspeed and glidepath
v. Turn to Final
a. Lead the turn to final to be established on the extended centerline of the runway
b. Turn to final should be no closer than ¼ mile, at the appropriate altitude (3o glide slope)
vi. Final - Final descent of the approach, aligned with the landing runway
a. Crab into the wind to maintain runway centerline
b. Adjust pitch and power to maintain airspeed, glidepath, and aim point
c. Double check the Before Landing Checklist is complete and cleared to land
E. Departing the Pattern
i. Climb out on the upwind leg
ii. Remaining in the pattern: turn crosswind past the end of the runway, within 300’ of pattern alt
iii. If departing, continue straight out, or exit with a 45o turn to the left (or right, for a right pattern)
F. Maintaining Ground Track (on any leg in the pattern)
i. Goal is to fly a rectangular pattern
regardless of wind direction or speed
a. Crab into the wind
ii. Visual references are helpful
a. Upwind: Glance behind to ensure
maintaining runway centerline
b. Crosswind: Use the runway as a
reference; note and correct for
any drift to or from the runway
c. Downwind: Intersect a point on
the plane with the runway
centerline (Ex. fuel cap / rivet line)
iii. CE: Poor altitude or airspeed control
a. Maintain a constant crosscheck (90% outside, 10% inside), stay ahead of the airplane
b. Use small, controlled inputs to fly the airplane
iv. CE: Improper correction for wind drift
a. Use the heading bug, or make a mental note of the wind direction to help
2. Controlled Field
A. Generally, ATIS will inform the pilot of the runway(s) in use
B. The pilot receives a clearance to approach / depart as well as pertinent information about the pattern
C. ATC will specify pattern entry and departure procedures (Where / how to enter and depart)
D. During the pattern the controller may make adjustments (speed, legs lengths, turns for spacing, etc.)
E. CE: Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules
3. Uncontrolled Field
A. Communication – 2 ways depending on the airport
i. Communicating with an FSS that provides advisories (are not air traffic controllers)
a. Provide wind info, runway in use, altimeter setting, known traffic, NOTAMs, etc.
b. Initiate contact approximately 10 miles out with altitude, aircraft type, location
c. Departing: transmit tail number, type of flight, destination, services desired, etc.
ii. Self-announced broadcast on CTAF
a. Announce your position and intentions on the CTAF frequency
b. Monitor other aircraft calls on CTAF and coordinate as necessary to avoid hazards
B. Arriving

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 VI.B. Traffic Patterns

i. Observe other aircraft already in the pattern and conform to the traffic pattern in use
a. If no other aircraft, use ground indicators and wind direction to determine the runway to use
 Check indicators 500’ – 1,000’ above pattern altitude
 Should also be researched before flight in the Chart Supplement / on sectional charts

b. Always enter the pattern at pattern altitude

 Descending into the pattern can be dangerous
 Avoids descending onto another aircraft and easier to visually acquire other traffic
ii. Downwind Entry
a. Enter at a 45o to midfield downwind
iii. Midfield Entry (pictured below, left)
a. Cross midfield at least 500’ above pattern altitude
b. When well clear of the pattern (approximately 2 miles), descend to pattern altitude
c. Enter level, at pattern altitude, at a 45o angle to the downwind leg, abeam the runway midpoint
 Entry while descending creates collision hazards and should be avoided
 Another method of entry is a midfield entry from the upwind leg side
iv. Alternate Midfield Entry (pictured, right)
a. Enter at pattern altitude at midfield
crosswind and turn downwind
b. Should not be used when the pattern
is congested
C. Departing
i. Generally, depart on the upwind or a 45o
off the upwind
ii. Monitor the radio for traffic in the local
area, and announce your intentions
iii. Clear aggressively prior to takeoff and on
departure (aircraft may not be using
radios)
D. CE: Failure to comply with traffic pattern
instructions, procedures, and rules
4. Runway Orientation
A. Plan to enter visualizing your position in relation to the runway on the heading indicator
B. Confirm the runway number with the heading indicator during all pattern legs
i. Downwind – reciprocal of the landing runway
ii. Base - 90o off (in the direction of the pattern)
iii. Final – Same as the runway number
5. RM: Proper Spacing
A. Be aware of other aircraft in the pattern, as well as aircraft entering and exiting the pattern

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 VI.B. Traffic Patterns

i. Listen to radio calls to build a mental image of the traffic around you
a. At an uncontrolled field, announce your intentions
b. At a controlled field, follow the controller’s instructions / request permission to make a change
ii. Maintain proper airspeed to blend in with the other traffic
iii. On downwind with another aircraft on final, delay the base turn until abeam / past the other aircraft
iv. Adjust upwind to accommodate aircraft on downwind
B. The pilot is always responsible for seeing and avoiding whether at a controlled or uncontrolled field
C. CE: Inadequate spacing from other traffic
6. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
A. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
B. Converging
i. If aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the other’s right has the right-of-way
ii. Different Categories Converging (basically, least maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way)
a. Balloon, glider, and airship have right-of-way over airplanes
b. An aircraft towing or refueling another aircraft has the right-of-way over all other engine driven aircraft
C. Approaching Head-On: Each aircraft shall alter course to the right
D. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; the overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the right
E. Landing: Aircraft on final approach or landing have the right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or on the surface
a. Shall not take advantage of this to force an aircraft which has already landed off the runway
ii. When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport to land, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a. Shall not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
7. RM: Hazards
A. See VII. RM Concepts - Wind Shear
B. See VII. RM Concepts - Wake Turbulence
C. See VII.RM Concepts - Distractions (Task Prioritization, Loss of SA, Disorientation)

Common Errors:
 Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules
 Improper correction for wind drift
 Inadequate spacing from other traffic
 Poor altitude or airspeed control

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

221
VII. Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds
VII.A. Normal Takeoff & Climb

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives To understand the procedures and requirements for a normal and crosswind takeoff and climb.
The student should be able to competently maintain control of the airplane and safely takeoff
and climb with or without wind as described in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Takeoff into the Wind

2. Left Turning Tendencies
3. *Rotation Speed (VR - 44 knots)

Elements 1. Takeoff & Climb

2. Normal Takeoff
3. Crosswind Takeoff
4. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student is able to walk through a normal or crosswind takeoff
Standards on the ground, providing knowledge of common errors regarding these procedures. The student
also should be able to confidently demonstrate a takeoff and climb with or without a crosswind.
VII.A. Normal Takeoff & Climb

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The takeoff is one of the most basic and exciting parts of flying. Different situations regarding wind and weather,
runway size and length, and the runway surface will provide different challenges for every flight.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed into the wind, or the wind is very light. Also, the takeoff
surface is firm, and of sufficient length to permit the airplane to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off and climb-out
speed, and there are no obstructions along the takeoff path.
While it is preferable to takeoff into the wind, there will be many instances when circumstances dictate otherwise. A
crosswind takeoff is a normal takeoff with the only exception being that the airplane is no longer headed directly into
the wind.

Why
It is essential to every flight you will ever take! A smooth, skillful and safe takeoff is a key element of pilot proficiency.
It is essential for the pilot to be able to perform a safe and smooth takeoff and have the ability to control the aircraft
in varying conditions, starting with the basics. You need to be on your game while maneuvering close to the ground -
takeoffs are, by definition, performed at and near the ground.

How:
1. Takeoff & Climb
A. A normal takeoff:
i. Airplane is headed into the wind, or the wind is very light
ii. Takeoff surface is firm and of sufficient length to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off/climb-out speed
iii. No obstructions on the takeoff path
B. Reasons for taking off into the wind
i. Even motionless, a headwind will provide some airspeed due to wind moving over the wings
ii. Decreases wheel speed necessary to
achieve flying speed
a. Shorter ground roll, less runway
b. Reduces wear/stress on the gear
iii. Tailwind increases required ground roll
a. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of
Tailwind
C. RM: Performance
i. See II.F. Performance & Limitations Sections
2.A. (Performance Factors) & 4
(Performance Charts)
a. Effects of atmospheric conditions
(Pressure/Density altitude)
b. Performance charts

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VII.A. Normal Takeoff & Climb

 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Takeoff Surface Conditions

D. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Runway Selection
i. Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Available Distance, Wind
E. Best Angle versus Best Rate of Climb
i. Best Rate of Climb (VY)
a. Performed at the airspeed producing the most altitude gain in the least time (max feet per minute)
 Airspeed where the most excess power is available over that required for level flight
b. Used in normal takeoff and climb procedures
ii. Best Angle of Climb (VX)
a. Performed at an airspeed that will produce the most altitude gain in a given distance
 Airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over that required for level flight
 VX will result in a steeper climb path, but will take longer to reach altitude than a climb at V Y
a Therefore, VX is used in clearing obstacles after takeoff

iii. Normal Climb (Cruise Climb)

a. Performed at an airspeed recommended by the airplane manufacturer
 Usually faster than the best rate of climb, but provides better cooling, control, and visibility
F. Configuration
i. Reference the POH and Before Takeoff checklist
2. Normal Takeoff
A. Takeoff Roll
i. Taxi onto the Runway
a. Complete the before takeoff checklist prior to taxiing onto the runway
 CE: Improper use of checklist
b. Controlled Airport
 Never taxi onto a runway for takeoff without a specific clearance
 Clear the area prior to crossing the hold short lines
c. Uncontrolled Airport
 Announce intentions on the CTAF to alert other aircraft of your position and intentions
 Use other radio calls to build a mental picture of the traffic in the area and how it may affect you
 Check the runway & final approach are clear
d. Entering any runway, verify the runway assigned matches the runway you are on
e. CE: Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
f. Aligning the aircraft
 Align with the intended takeoff direction, straighten the nosewheel
 Centerline site picture
 Note ground points aligned with the runway to help maintain runway centerline in the climb

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VII.A. Normal Takeoff & Climb

ii. Release the brakes and advance power

a. After releasing brakes, smoothly and continuously advance to takeoff power
 Ensure both feet are on the rudder pedals, and not pressing on the brakes
b. Expect left yaw when power is added – maintain centerline with right rudder
c. CE: Improper use of controls during a normal or crosswind takeoff
iii. Gaining Speed
a. Check the engine instruments for proper operation, and verify airspeed indicator operation
 Announce “gauges green,” “airspeed alive”
 If improper indications, abort the takeoff and stop straight ahead
b. Use rudder to keep the nose of the airplane tracking down the centerline of the runway
 Visual picture - Centerline between outer leg and control stick
 Don’t use the brakes to steer
c. As speed increases, flight controls become more effective
 Progressively smaller rudder pressures are necessary to maintain direction
B. Lift-Off
i. Rotation (VR)
a. As the aircraft reaches VR, gently pull back to establish a climb at VY
 Varies with weight and density altitude
 Wings are kept level with aileron pressure
 Maintain rudder pressure to continue straight and coordinated
b. Visually
 Maintain centerline, pitch, bank with outside references &
quick glances to instruments
a 90% outside, 10% inside
c. CE: Improper liftoff procedures
 Keep the correct pitch attitude constant after rotation/lift-off
 Don’t force the plane into the air
 Maintain right rudder pressure for coordination
ii. Initial Climb
a. Pitch for VY (VY + takeoff power = maximum altitude in minimum time)
 Provides the most altitude in the case of an emergency
b. Visually
 Adjust pitch and bank with reference to the natural horizon, verify with instruments
a Make slight adjustments in relation to the natural horizon
b Glance at the instruments to verify the new attitude is correct, repeat
 Maintain extended centerline to avoid drifting into obstructions / other aircraft
a Identify two points inline and ahead of the runway to use as a tracking reference
 Scan vigilantly
c. CE: Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VY)
C. Climb Checklist
i. Perform the climb checklist when at a safe altitude and under control (technique: 500’ AGL)
ii. CE: Improper use of checklists
a. Wait until the aircraft is at a safe altitude and under control to accomplish any checklists
b. The checklist can be delayed to continue flying the aircraft, always fly first
3. Crosswind Takeoff
i. Basic steps are the same as a normal takeoff
ii. Differences ensure centerline is maintained / smooth takeoff with wind pushing across the runway

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iii. Aileron is applied into the wind, and rudder is used to maintain the centerline (sideslip)
a. Aileron keeps the wings level during the takeoff roll
b. Rudder keeps the nose tracking down the centerline
 Right rudder is used to counter left turning tendencies, but:
a If there is a crosswind from the left, additional right rudder will be required
b If there is a crosswind from the right, less right rudder will be required
c. Once established in the climb, transition from the sideslip to a crab
iv. Improper corrections can result in skipping, sideways movement, and side stress on the landing gear
v. RM: See VII.RM Concepts - Effects of Crosswinds

B. Takeoff Roll
i. Taxi onto the Runway
ii. Taxi onto the Runway
a. Complete the before takeoff checklist prior to taxiing onto the runway
 CE: Improper use of checklist
b. Align with the runway and straighten the nosewheel
 CE: Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures (same as Normal Takeoff)
iii. Hold FULL aileron INTO the wind as the roll is started
a. Puts a downward force on the upwind wing, preventing it from raising
iv. Release the brakes
a. Same as a normal takeoff, but with full aileron into the wind
b. Smoothly and continuously advance the throttle to takeoff
power
c. Apply rudder to counter left turning tendencies & weathervane
d. CE: Improper use of controls during takeoff
v. Gaining Speed
a. As forward speed increases, the ailerons become more
effective, and the crosswind becomes more of a relative
headwind
 Aileron pressure into the wind should gradually be reduced
 Adjust rudder pressure to continue straight down the
centerline
b. CE: Improper use of controls during a normal or crosswind

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takeoff
C. Lift-Off
i. In a significant crosswind, stay on the ground slightly longer to ensure a smooth / definite takeoff
ii. Maintain crosswind corrections during liftoff to prevent drifting / skipping
a. Downwind wing and mainwheel may rise first - this is preferred to side skipping
iii. Once the plane leaves the ground, drift correction needs to be maintained
a. Visually – Maintain centerline and pitch and bank (slip) with outside references and instruments
b. Instrument Indications – Verify the pitch attitude to maintain VY
iv. CE: Inappropriate lift off procedures
a. Avoid removing crosswind corrections resulting in skipping and / or side loading gear
D. Initial Climb
i. Maintain the sideslip until the climb is established, then crab into the wind
a. Sideslip creates excess drag / reduces performance
b. Nose should be turned into the wind to offset the crosswind with the
wings level
c. Rudder should be centered for coordinated flight
ii. Visually
a. Use an outside scan to maintain the pitch and bank
b. Use two points ahead of, and in line with the runway to maintain
extended runway centerline
c. 90% outside, 10% inside
iii. Continue the same as a normal climb
iv. CE: Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VY)
E. *Climb Checklist
i. Climb to 500’ AGL, and perform the ‘Climb Check’
ii. CE: Improper use of checklists
a. Wait until at a safe altitude and under control to accomplish checklists
b. The checklist can be delayed to continue flying the aircraft, if things are busy fly the aircraft first
4. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Rejected Takeoff
B. Engine Failure
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Runway Incursion
F. Collision Hazards
G. Low Altitude Maneuvering
H. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
Normal Takeoff and Climb
 Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
 Improper use of controls during a normal or crosswind takeoff
 Inappropriate lift off procedures
 Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VY)
 Improper use of checklist

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VII.B. Normal Approach & Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Procedures during Taxi Operations (AC 91-73), Aviation Weather
Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should be able to perform a normal approach and landing as prescribed in
ACS/PTS. The approach and landing should be performed satisfactorily with or without a
crosswind, and with the necessary corrections based on the situation.

Key Elements 1. Stabilized Approach

2. Smooth, Controlled Roundout
3. Hold the airplane inches above the ground before touching down
4. Don’t Side Load the Aircraft

Elements 1. Runway Selection

2. Downwind Leg
3. Base Leg
4. Final Approach
5. Roundout
6. Touchdown
7. After-Landing Roll
8. Crosswind Approach
9. Rejected Landing / Go Around
10. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can fly a coordinated, stabilized approach, transitioning into a smooth roundout
Standards and touchdown without side loading the airplane, with or without a crosswind.
 VII.B. Normal Approach & Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The landing is the most difficult, and most fun part of flying. It doesn’t matter how good the flight was if the landing
was bad.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A normal approach and landing involves the use of procedures for what is considered a normal situation; that is,
when engine power is available, the wind is light or final approach is made directly into the wind, the final approach
path has no obstacles, and the landing surface is firm and of ample length to gradually bring the plane to a stop.

Why
It’s really a good skill to have when we decide we want to land the plane. Not only that, but the factors involved and
procedures used also have applications to the other-than-normal approaches and landings.

How:
1. Runway Selection
A. Limitations & Performance
i. Limitations - Chap 2 of the POH
ii. Performance - Chap 5 of the POH
a. See II.F. Performance & Limitations 2.A. (Effects of Atmospheric Conditions) & 4 (Performance Charts)
b. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds
B. RM: See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
i. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Distance, Wind, etc.
ii. Landing Surface/Condition
iii. CE: Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
2. Downwind Leg
A. Parallel to the runway of intended landing, and normally at 1,000’ AGL (pattern altitude can vary)
B. Checklists – Complete the Before Landing Checklist at the midpoint of the downwind leg
C. Abeam the landing threshold
i. Begin descent
a. Reduce power, extend flaps as appropriate, and establish the initial descent airspeed
b. Maintain pattern altitude as the airplane slows to the descent speed
D. Begin the turn to base when at a 45o angle from the runway threshold
i. Shallow to medium bank – recall Rectangular Course procedures to compensate for wind
ii. At the 45o point the airplane has descended approximately 200’ (800’ AGL) (varies with aircraft)
E. CE: Failure to establish approach & landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
3. Base Leg
A. Leg prior to turning final; perpendicular to approach end of the runway
B. One of the more important judgements made by the pilot in any approach
i. Must judge the altitude / distance from which a stable descent results in landing at the desired spot
ii. The distance of the base leg from the runway depends on altitude, wind, and the flaps used

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a. Closer base leg if at a low altitude, flaps are used for

a steeper descent, or a strong wind on final
C. Configuration
i. Establish the desired airspeed and configuration
D. Drift Correction – Maintain a ground track perpendicular to
the runway
i. Common for a crosswind to push the airplane away from
the runway
ii. Crab into the wind to maintain the course
E. The Turn to Final
i. Medium to shallow bank turn should align the airplane with the centerline of the runway
a. No more than 30o of bank (stall speed increases rapidly above 30o of bank)
b. In the case a steep bank is necessary, a go-around is recommended
ii. A descent of about 200’ is also made on the base leg (600’ AGL to start turn to final)
a. Varies based on aircraft, and conditions (terrain, obstructions, flaps, etc.). Adjust as required
b. On a 3o glidepath (which is equal to 300’ per nm), 600’ AGL is a two-mile descent to the runway
4. Final Approach
A. Longitudinal axis of is aligned with the center line and the final descent to the runway is made
B. Configuration – Generally, landing flaps and approach speed
i. Accomplish the Landing Checklist
C. Stable Approach
i. Stable approach: a constant glidepath towards a selected point on the landing runway
ii. CE: Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
a. A stable approach is a safe approach
b. Unstable increases the risk of excessive rates of descent or slow airspeed close to the ground
iii. Controlling the Descent – Power and pitch are adjusted to maintain a stable approach
a. The aircraft is below LDMAX and in the Region of Reverse Command
 Pitch is used to maintain airspeed (too fast, pitch up; too slow, pitch down)
 Power is used to maintain altitude / glidepath (too low, add power; too high, reduce power)
b. A change in either variable (pitch or power) requires a coordinated change in the other
 If the approach is too high, reduce power and lower the nose to maintain airspeed
 If the approach is too low, add power and raise the nose to maintain airspeed
iv. Angle of Descent
a. Aim Point

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 Point the plane would strike the ground if a constant glidepath was maintained (no flare)
a The aim point should remain stationary in the windscreen
b Aim point is not the spot the airplane will touchdown due to flare / float
 Select an aiming point in front of the desired touchdown point (distance varies with aircraft)
 Keep the aim point steady on the windscreen
a If the point moves up on the windscreen, the airplane is getting too low
1. Add power and raise the nose to maintain airspeed
b If the point moves down on the windscreen, the airplane is getting too high
1. Reduce power and lower the nose to maintain airspeed
c Small, proactive corrections will result in a steady, stable approach to the aim point
b. The Runway Image
 A normal glidepath is 3o (300’ per nm descent)
 Too High – The runway will elongate and become narrower (overhead view of the runway)
 Too Low – The runway will shorten and become wider (flat view of the runway)
 On Path – Runway shape (between high and low) remains the same but grows in size

 The runway should maintain the same shape as the pilot continues down the approach path

a Runway appears as a trapezoid – In the descent, it should maintain shape but grow in size
D. CE: Failure to ensure receipt and acknowledgement of landing clearance
i. Ensure the controller gave you landing clearance, it was understood, and was read back
5. Roundout
A. Smooth transition from a normal approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually rounding out the flight path
to one that is parallel with, and within a very few inches of the runway

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B. Estimating Height and Movement

i. Divide attention between a point just over the nose to the desired touchdown zone and back again
a. Visual focus should not be fixed on any one side or to any one spot ahead
ii. Speed and Vision
a. Speed blurs objects at close range
b. The distance at which vision is focused should be proportionate to the speed of the airplane
 As speed is reduced, the distance that the pilot focuses should be brought closer
c. Focusing too close will result in a blurred reference
 Reactions will be too abrupt or too late (overcontrolling, high roundout/stalled landing)
d. When focused too far, ability to judge the closeness of the ground is lost
 Slow reactions (late or little to no flare, nose first landings)
e. If focus is gradually brought closer as speed is reduced the landing process smoothed out
C. Starting the Roundout
i. Started approximately 10’ to 20’ above the ground (varies between aircraft and rate of descent)
ii. Power is reduced to idle and back elevator is applied gradually increasing pitch attitude
a. Angle of attack is increased to allow the plane to settle slowly as airspeed decreases
b. If angle of attack is increased too rapidly, the airplane will climb
D. Decreasing Lift, Increasing Pitch Attitude
i. With the power at idle, airspeed is decreasing. As airspeed decreases, the pilot increases the angle of attack
which momentarily increases lift and decreases the rate of descent
ii. Airspeed will continue to decrease causing lift to decrease again
a. This must be controlled by raising the nose and further increasing the angle of attack
iii. Airspeed is being decreased to touchdown speed, while lift is being controlled with back pressure so that the
airplane will settle gently onto the runway
E. Rate of the Roundout
i. Depends on the height above the ground, the rate of descent, and the pitch attitude
a. High Roundout – Executed slower to allow the plane to descend
b. Low Roundout – Execute faster to obtain the landing attitude before striking the runway
c. High Rate of Descent – Similar to low roundout, pitch attitude must be changed at a higher rate
d. Low Rate of Descent – Similar to high roundout, slow change in pitch is required
e. High Pitch Attitude (ex: full flap landing) – Execute more slowly to prevent excessively high pitch
f. Low Pitch Attitude (ex: no flap) – Execute faster to obtain attitude before striking runway
g. Note: Once the roundout has been started, the elevator control should not be pushed forward
 If necessary, relax back pressure or just hold it constant as the airspeed decreases

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ii. CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles

a. Always be prepared to apply immediate power or initiate a go around
6. Touchdown
A. The gentle settling of the airplane onto the landing surface at the minimum controllable airspeed with the
airplane’s longitudinal axis parallel to its direction along the runway

B. Ideal Landing
i. Hold the airplane’s wheels a few inches off the ground as long as possible with the elevators
ii. Increase back pressure to gently allow the main wheels to touchdown, followed by the nose
C. Longitudinal Axis
i. The longitudinal axis should be parallel to the direction the airplane is moving along the runway
a. Failure to do this can impose severe side loads on the landing gear
D. Rudder Control
i. Very little rudder is needed (no left turning tendencies with the engine at idle)
ii. During landing, rudder is primarily used in crosswinds (more below)
E. After Touchdown
i. Maintain back-elevator pressure
a. Hold the nosewheel off the ground as the plane decelerates (assists with aerodynamic braking)
ii. As speed decreases relax elevator pressure to allow the nosewheel to gently settle onto the runway
F. CE: Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
7. After-Landing Roll
A. The deceleration of the airplane to the normal taxi speed, or when the airplane has been brought to a complete
stop when clear of the landing area
B. Directional Control on the Ground
i. Rudder
a. With the nosewheel on the ground, use the rudder to steer the airplane on the ground
b. Rudder effectiveness is dependent on airflow which is dependent on the speed of the plane
ii. Aileron Control
a. During the after-landing roll ailerons are used to keep the wings level
b. As airspeed decreases during the landing roll the ailerons become less effective, therefore increasing
aileron must be applied into a crosswind to keep the upwind wing from rising
iii. Be alert throughout the landing roll
a. Loss of Directional Control
 May lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight turn on the ground (ground loop)
 Could impose a sideward force that could collapse the landing gear
b. Remain vigilant throughout the landing roll and keep positive control of the airplane
 Don’t assume that because the airplane is on the ground your work is done
iv. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown

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C. Braking
i. Slow the airplane, and can also be used to aid in directional control when the rudder is insufficient
ii. Using the Brakes
a. Toe brakes – Slide toes / feet up from the rudder pedals to the brake pedals
 Be careful to maintain any necessary rudder pressure
b. Brake pressure is applied by pushing forward on the toe pedals
c. To turn with the brakes, apply pressure on one brake or uneven pressure on each brake
iii. Effective Braking
a. Put maximum weight on the main wheels after touchdown
b. Nosewheel should be lowered to the runway to maintain directional control
c. After the nose is down, apply back pressure without lifting the nosewheel off the ground
 This enables directional control while keeping weight on the main wheels
d. Firmly, smoothly, and evenly apply the brakes
 Maximum brake effectiveness is just short of the point where skidding occurs
a Maximum braking is not necessary in most landings
 If the brakes are applied so hard that skidding takes place, braking becomes ineffective
 Brake effectiveness is not enhanced by applying, releasing, and reapplying brake pressure
iv. CE: Improper use of brakes
a. Ensure feet are not on the brakes at touchdown, this could result in lost control and blown tires
D. CE: Failure to review airport diagram for runway exit situational awareness to avoid a runway incursion after
landing
E. After Landing Checklist - Perform once safely clear of the runway
8. Crosswind Approach
A. Landing in which the wind is blowing across, rather than parallel to the landing direction
B. The same basic principles apply to a crosswind approach and landing as a normal approach and landing
C. Two methods of accomplishing a crosswind approach and landing
i. Crab Method
a. Easier to maintain during final approach, but requires a high degree of judgment and timing in removing
the crab right before touchdown
b. How it Works
 The pilot establishes a crab into the wind so that the
airplane’s ground track remains aligned with the
centerline of the runway
 Crab is maintained until just prior to touchdown, when
the longitudinal axis of airplane is aligned with the
runway to avoid a sideward touchdown of the
wheels/airplane
c. Not recommended
ii. Sideslip (wing-low) Method (shown to the right)
a. Recommended method
D. Final Approach
i. Sideslip (Wing-Low)
a. Align the airplane’s heading with the centerline of the
runway, noting the rate and direction of drift
b. Promptly apply drift correction
 Lower the upwind wing
c. With wing lowered, the plane turns that direction

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d. To compensate for the turn, opposite rudder is used to keep the longitudinal axis aligned with the
runway
 Sideslipping so the flight path & ground track are aligned with the runway
e. Aileron for drift & Rudder for heading
f. Strong Crosswind
 At some point, there will be insufficient rudder to overcome the turn caused by the steepened bank
 If full rudder cannot prevent a turn, the wind is too strong (crosswind limit)
a Find another runway
b Know crosswind limitations
g. Maintain a stabilized approach
 Same as a normal approach, except with the added sideslip
 Due to the slip, drag is increased and more power is necessary to maintain descent rate
ii. Pitch for airspeed; Power for altitude
E. Roundout
i. Like a normal landing approach, but the crosswind correction is maintained to prevent drifting
a. Don’t level the wings. Keep the upwind wing down throughout the roundout
 Leveling the wings will result in drifting, which will side loading the gear
ii. Gradually increase the aileron and rudder pressure as the
airplane slows
F. Touchdown
i. Touchdown on the upwind main wheel first
a. Maintain the crosswind corrections to prevent drift
b. During gusty or high wind conditions, prompt adjustments
must be made
ii. As momentum decreases, the downwind main wheel will settle
onto the runway, then the nosewheel
a. Nose-wheel steering: Nosewheel will not be aligned with
the runway due to rudder input
 Relax rudder pressure as the nose touches down
iii. After Landing Roll
a. Continue to maintain directional control with rudders and crosswind control with ailerons
b. Increase aileron as the airplane decelerates – full aileron into the wind when coming to a stop
9. Rejected Landing / Go-Around
A. Used whenever landing conditions are not satisfactory
i. Can be executed for numerous reasons
B. Go around anytime safety is compromised or the touchdown point is going to be missed
C. Go Around Flow
i. Generally, apply full power, retract landing flaps, retract gear once a positive rate of climb is established,
climb at VX or VY, and retract the rest of the flaps at a safe altitude or with the climb checklist
D. For more details, see VII.N. Go-Around / Rejected Landing
E. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Rejected Landing & Go-Around
10. RM Hazards & Emergencies
A. Strong/Gusty Winds
i. Increase speed on final approach
a. Approach speed + ½ the gust factor
b. Use flaps as recommended in the POH
B. Obstacles

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i. Trees, Towers, Construction equipment

ii. Be aware of any obstructions in the pattern/on the approach and/or takeoff path – verify performance
C. Traffic
i. Always be aware of, and looking for, other traffic
ii. Build a mental picture of traffic in the area
D. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
E. Wake Turbulence
F. Wind Shear
G. Collision Hazards
H. Low Altitude Maneuvering
I. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
 Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
 Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
 Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles
 Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
 Poor directional control after touchdown
 Improper use of brakes
 Failure to ensure receipt and acknowledgement of landing clearance
 Failure to review airport diagram for runway exit situational awareness to avoid a runway incursion after landing

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VII.C. Soft-Field Takeoff & Climb

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives To develop the understanding of the soft-field takeoff as well as the skills needed to perform
the takeoff from a soft-field. The student should be able to demonstrate the soft-field takeoff
to ACS/PTS standards.

Key Elements 1. Constant back pressure

2. Transfer weight from the wheels to the wings
3. Stay in ground effect until reaching VY or VX

Elements 1. Overview
2. Taxi
3. Takeoff Roll
4. Lift-Off
5. Initial Climb
6. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student can demonstrate the knowledge of, and has shown
Standards proficiency in, soft field takeoffs and climbs, with and without an obstacle, and without the
assistance of a flight instructor. The student must be able to maintain positive control of the
airplane in ground effect until reaching the proper speed for climb out while demonstrating
the proper use of checklists, traffic scan and safety procedures.
 VII.C. Soft-Field Takeoff & Climb

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Have you ever got your car stuck off-roading? Why did it happen? So, what do we do when we have to takeoff an
airplane in off-road conditions?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A takeoff from a “soft” field. Just like it says in the name, we are attempting to takeoff from a soft, often uneven
surface which could produce enough drag to prevent the airplane from reaching normal takeoff speeds.

Why
Soft surfaces or long wet grass can reduce the aircraft's acceleration so much during the takeoff roll that adequate
takeoff speed might not be attained if normal takeoff techniques were employed. As a maneuver, this will greatly
improve your takeoffs, landings, and overall aircraft control.

How:
1. Overview
A. Differences from a Normal Takeoff:
i. Hazards
a. Reduced acceleration (sand, grass, snow, dirt, mud, etc.)
b. Gear and flap damage (uneven terrain, debris. Flap damage is more appliable to low wings)
c. Cartwheeling or flipping (nosewheel hits a hole during takeoff)
ii. To minimize hazards the goal is to get airborne ASAP and accelerate while in ground effect
B. Ground Effect
i. Associated with the reduction of induced drag
ii. When close to the ground, the vertical component of the airflow
around the wing is restricted by the ground
a. Decreases induced drag
iii. Effects on Flight
a. Amount of thrust required to produce lift is reduced (plane can
lift off at lower-than-normal speed)
b. Climbing out of ground effect, the thrust required to sustain flight
increases significantly
c. If you climb before reaching normal takeoff speed, the plane can
sink back to the surface
C. Basics
i. Maintain back pressure during the taxi and takeoff roll
a. Keep as much weight as possible off the nose to prevent it from getting stuck, or digging in
ii. Keep the aircraft moving – stopping may get the airplane stuck or require significant power to move
iii. Do a wheelie down the runway
a. Establish / maintain a nose-high pitch as early as possible; adjust back pressure to maintain
b. Transfer the weight as rapidly as possible from the wheels to the wings

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iv. Accelerate in ground effect until reaching climb speed

a. The airplane will become airborne prior to normal rotation speed, and well before climb speed
b. Do not attempt to climb out of ground effect before reaching a safe climb speed (V X or VY)
D. RM: Performance & Runway Selection
i. See II.F. Performance & Limitations sections 2.A. (Performance Factors) & 4 (Performance Charts)
a. Effects of atmospheric conditions (Pressure/Density altitude)
b. Performance charts
 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Runway Surface Conditions
 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds
ii. RM: Runway Selection
a. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
b. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Available Distance, Wind, etc.
E. Best Angle versus Best Rate of Climb
i. Best Rate of Climb (VY)
a. Performed at the airspeed producing the most altitude gain in the least time (max feet per minute)
 Airspeed where the most excess power is available over that required for level flight
b. Used in normal takeoff and climb procedures
ii. Best Angle of Climb (VX)
a. Performed at an airspeed that will produce the most altitude gain in a given distance
 Airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over that required for level flight
 VX will result in a steeper climb path, but will take longer to reach altitude than a climb at V Y
a Therefore, VX is used in clearing obstacles after takeoff

F. Configuration
i. Reference the POH and Before Takeoff checklist
2. Taxi
A. Keep the elevator fully aft for the entire taxi
i. Keeps weight off the nose wheel keeping it from getting stuck or bogged down
B. More power is necessary due to the increased ground friction/drag
C. Keep turns shallow and don’t stop (helps prevent the plane getting stuck or bogged down)
D. Airport Procedures
i. Make normal traffic calls to alert other aircraft of your position and intentions
a. Use other aircraft’s radio calls to build a mental picture of the traffic in the area
ii. Before taxiing onto the runway visually clear the area
a. Check the final approach and the rest of runway for traffic, and obstructions
b. Be aware of any debris, animals, etc.
iii. CE: Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
3. Takeoff Roll

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A. Continue to maintain back elevator pressure and movement

i. RM: Apply crosswind corrections (same as a normal takeoff) in addition to the back pressure
B. While aligning with the takeoff path, takeoff power is established smoothly and rapidly
i. Don’t stop the plane. Add right rudder to counter left turning tendencies
ii. Anticipate a slow acceleration due to the additional drag
iii. Check “Gauges green,” “Airspeed alive”
C. Back elevator pressure is initially held full aft
D. As the airplane accelerates and the nose lifts off the ground relax the back elevator pressure
i. Full back pressure can result in a tail strike
E. The airplane will leave the ground below the normal rotation speed
F. CE: Improper use of controls during a soft-field takeoff
i. As speed increases back pressure must be reduced to avoid an excessive angle of attack / tail strike
ii. Use rudder and aileron to maintain the center of the runway and counteract any crosswind
4. Lift-Off
A. Once off the ground, gently lower the nose and accelerate to VX or VY in ground effect
i. Remain within ½ wingspan of the ground (ground effect is most effective here)
a. Increase forward pressure as airspeed (and lift) increases to stay in ground effect
b. In some airplanes, to stay in ground effect the nose will have to point down toward the runway
 Initially can be very uncomfortable
ii. Accelerate to VY for a normal climb, VX if an obstacle must be cleared
iii. CE: Improper lift-off procedures
a. Smoothly apply forward pressure to keep the aircraft in ground effect
b. Abrupt / excessive control movements could easily put the aircraft back into the ground
c. An early climb out of ground effect can result in settling on the runway, inability to climb, or stall

5. Initial Climb
A. Climb out as normal after the airplane has accelerated to VX or VY
i. Retract the gear and flaps as normal
B. Soft field runways are often short field runways (VX may be necessary more often than not)
i. If climbing to avoid an obstacle, the climb out is performed at VX until the obstacle is cleared
ii. After clearing the obstacle, pitch is set for VY and power is set to the normal climb setting
iii. Retract gear and flaps as appropriate for obstacle clearance and performance
a. If departing from a wet airstrip, gear should not be retracted immediately, allowing it to air dry
b. If cold, cycle multiple times to avoid freezing
c. If departing from a wet strip with an obstacle, retract the gear when a positive rate of climb is
established to achieve the required performance
 If necessary to prevent freezing, lower and / or cycle the gear once clear of the obstacle
 Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines
iv. CE: Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX or VY)
C. Climb Checklist

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 VII.C. Soft-Field Takeoff & Climb

i. Accomplish the climb checklist at a safe altitude, with the airplane under control
ii. CE: Improper use of checklists

6. RM: Hazards & Emergencies

A. Rejected Takeoff
B. Engine Failure
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Collision Hazards
F. Low Altitude Maneuvering
G. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
 Improper use of controls during a soft-field takeoff
 Improper lift-off procedures
 Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX or VY)
 Improper use of checklists

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VII.D. Soft-Field Approach & Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student has the knowledge and ability to perform a soft field approach and landing as
necessary based on the ACS/PTS with and without a crosswind.

Key Elements 1. Extend the approach in ground effect

2. Transfer weight from wings to wheels
3. Maintain Back Pressure

Elements 1. Objective
2. Limitations & Performance
3. Approach
4. Landing
5. After Landing Roll / Taxi
6. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can demonstrate knowledge of, and has shown proficiency in Soft Field
Standards approaches and landings, without the assistance of a flight instructor. The student can judge
when to begin the flare, when to add power to the flare and can correct for any misjudgments.
Finally, the student understands when to go-around and demonstrates the proper use of
checklists, traffic scan and pertinent safety procedures.
 VII.D. Soft-Field Approach & Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
How awesome would it be, once you get your private pilot license, to take a flying adventure and land in the
wilderness or on a remote island, in the middle of nowhere using a dirt or sand strip?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces, such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass

Why
It is important to learn to land on soft field runways to ensure a safe landing. A normal landing on a runway like this
could result in damage to the gear or the entire plane. By learning to safely set a plane down on different surfaces the
pilot has many more available landing fields at his or her disposal. And, in the case of an emergency landing, this
maneuver will be very important in making a safe landing.

How:
1. Objective
A. Touchdown as smoothly as possible at the slowest possible landing speed
i. Control the airplane so the wings support the weight of the plane as long as practical, minimizing drag and
the stresses imposed on the gear by the landing surface
2. Limitations & Performance
A. Limitations - Chap 2 of the POH
B. Performance - Chap 5 of the POH
i. See II.F. Performance & Limitations 2.A. (Effects of Atmospheric Conditions) & 4 (Performance Charts)
ii. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds
iii. Landing Surface/Condition
iv. RM: Runway Selection
a. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
b. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Available Distance, Wind, etc.
v. CE: Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
vi. CE: Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
3. Approach
A. Procedures
i. Perform the before landing checklist and configure on downwind
a. As in a normal approach, continue to use the appropriate checklists throughout the approach
ii. Select a touchdown and aim point
a. Due to the extended flare / float, aim further in front of the landing point than normal
iii. Plan the turn to base and final based on wind and other applicable factors
iv. Configure as directed by the POH – generally with landing flaps
a. Flaps will aid in touching down at minimum speed and are recommended whenever practical
b. In low-wing airplanes the flaps may suffer damage from mud, stones, slush, etc.
v. CE: Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence

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 VII.D. Soft-Field Approach & Landing

B. Maintain a Stabilized Approach

i. Establish the final approach speed (if it’s a soft and short field, use the short field approach speed)
ii. Establish a glidepath to your aim point, and trim to maintain the approach speed
iii. Like a normal approach, use coordinated changes in pitch and power to remain stabilized
a. CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
iv. CE: Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
C. Maintain Coordination – All turns should be coordinated and no more than 30 o of bank
D. Maintain a Precise Ground Track
i. Crab as necessary to maintain a proper downwind leg, base leg, and final approach
ii. Sideslip into the wind to maintain the extended centerline
E. CE: Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, or trim

4. Landing
A. The major differences between a soft-field and a normal landing:
i. The airplane is held 1 to 2’ above the ground, in ground effect as long as possible
a. The airplane should be flown onto the ground with the weight fully supported by the wings
ii. A small amount of power is used during touchdown to cushion the landing
iii. After main wheel touchdown, hold sufficient back pressure to keep the nose wheel off the surface
B. Touchdown
i. Continue to maintain one hand on the throttle lever
a. At any time the pilot should be able to apply full power and perform a safe takeoff
ii. Increase power slightly just prior to touchdown to cushion landing & slowly transfer weight to the wheels
a. The addition of power will vary based on aircraft and the terrain
 Ex: Tall thick grass (more drag, therefore more power) versus packed dirt (less drag, less power)
C. Touchdown should be made at the lowest possible airspeed in a nose-high pitch attitude
i. Increase back pressure as the airplane slows to touchdown as gently as possible with power
ii. A firm touchdown is not desired and could be hazardous
D. After main wheel touchdown, hold back pressure to keep the nose wheel off the surface (wheelie)
i. Increase back pressure as the plane slows, use power as necessary to assist
ii. Prevents the nosewheel digging into the soft surface, and getting stuck / cartwheeling
E. Maintain directional control with the rudder, while maintaining crosswind correction with the ailerons
i. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown
F. Braking should be avoided to prevent the nose gear from striking the landing surface / digging in
i. CE: Improper use of brakes
G. CE: Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
H. Landing in a Crosswind (like a normal approach)
i. Touchdown in a sideslip, with the upwind wheel first, and the airplane aligned with the centerline
ii. Be cautious with one wheel touching down at a time on a soft field; Go-around if control is in doubt

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 VII.D. Soft-Field Approach & Landing

I. Retract flaps after the plane is under control and the landing roll is complete
i. Concentrate on landing and keeping the weight off the wheels
ii. Retracting the flaps puts more weight onto the wheels
5. After Landing Roll / Taxi
A. Continue to maintain full aft elevator pressure, as well as wind correction
i. CE: Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
B. Maintain directional control through the rudders
i. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown
C. Braking is normally accomplished through surface friction with the ground
a. Often will need to add power to keep moving
ii. CE: Improper use of brakes
D. Maintain enough speed to prevent becoming bogged down
E. Retract the flaps after the landing roll is completed
F. Perform the After-Landing Checklist once parked
6. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Rejected Landing & Go-Around
B. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Collision Hazards
F. Low Altitude Maneuvering
G. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
 Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
 Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
 Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
 Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, or trim
 Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
 Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
 Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
 Closing the throttle too soon after touchdown
 Poor directional control after touchdown
 Improper use of brakes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

246
VII.E. Short-Field Takeoff & Maximum Performance Climb

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to short field takeoffs and
maximum performance climbs. The student will have the ability to demonstrate a short field
takeoff and climb as prescribed in the necessary ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Use the Entire Runway

2. Maximum Performance Climb at VX
3. Focus Outside the Airplane

Elements 1. Best Rate versus Best Angle of Climb

2. Pre-Takeoff
3. Takeoff Roll
4. Lift-Off
5. Maximum Performance Climb
6. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student shows the ability to execute a proper short-field takeoff and climb by using the
Standards entire runway, after rotation pitching immediately for VX until clear of obstacles, then pitching
for VY.
VII.E. Short-Field Takeoff & Maximum Performance Climb

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Maximum Performance Takeoff and Climb… this is the mother of all takeoffs, where we put the airplane at its limits
to obtain the most performance out of the airplane.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Takeoffs and climbs from fields where the takeoff area is short or the available takeoff area is restricted by
obstructions requiring the pilot to operate the airplane at the limit of its takeoff performance capabilities.

Why
Short Field Takeoffs develop the pilot’s ability to operate the airplane at its maximum takeoff performance
capabilities. This develops a better feel for the plane and results in improved takeoffs and airplane control.

How:
1. Best Rate versus Best Angle of Climb
A. Best Rate of Climb (VY)
i. Performed at the airspeed producing the most altitude gain in the least time (max feet per minute)
a. Airspeed where the most excess power is available over that required for level flight
ii. Used in normal takeoff and climb procedures
B. Best Angle of Climb (VX)
i. Performed at an airspeed that will produce the most altitude gain in a given distance
a. Airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over that required for level flight
ii. VX will result in a steeper climb path, but will take longer to reach altitude than a climb at V Y
a. Therefore, VX is used in clearing obstacles after takeoff

2. Pre-Takeoff
A. RM: Performance & Runway Selection
i. See II.F. Performance & Limitations sections 2.A. (Performance Factors) & 4 (Performance Charts)
a. Effects of atmospheric conditions (Pressure/Density altitude)
b. Performance charts
 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Runway Surface Conditions
 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds

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VII.E. Short-Field Takeoff & Maximum Performance Climb

ii. RM: Runway Selection

a. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
b. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Available Distance, Wind, etc.
B. Configure according to the POH
3. Takeoff Roll
A. Start at the very beginning of the takeoff area. The field is short, don’t waste runway
i. Align the airplane with the runway centerline and come to a complete stop
ii. Apply crosswind correction
a. RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of crosswind
B. Smoothly and continuously advance the throttle to maximum power
i. Follow the manufacturer’s procedures (i.e., hold brakes and apply max power)
C. Check the instruments, announce “airspeed alive,” “engine gauges green”
i. Do not hesitate to abort the takeoff if there is a problem
D. Maintain directional control with the rudders
E. The airplane should be allowed to roll with full weight on the main wheels and accelerate to liftoff speed
i. Keep the elevator neutral to minimize drag / maximize acceleration
F. CE: Improper use of controls during a short-field takeoff
4. Lift-Off
A. Smoothly and firmly rotate at VR to the pitch attitude that will result in a VX climb
i. Use outside references / attitude indicator to maintain the correct attitude
B. In the case the airplane lifts off prior to VR, allow the plane to accelerate in ground effect to VX
i. Preferable to forcing the airplane to remain on the ground with forward pressure
a. Could result in “wheel barrowing,” reducing acceleration and performance
ii. Do not intentionally raise the nose prior to VR – results in increased drag and prolonged roll
C. Once airborne, a wings level climb should be maintained at VX until obstacles have been cleared
i. Since the airplane accelerates after liftoff, additional back pressure is required to maintain V X
D. CE: Improper liftoff procedures
5. Maximum Performance Climb
A. Climb at VX until clear of obstacles
i. Maintain visual references, glance at the attitude / airspeed indicators to check pitch and V X
B. Configuration is not changed until clear of obstacles (unless recommended by the manufacturer)
C. Once clear of obstacles pitch for VY
i. Visually – Normal takeoff climb picture
ii. Once stabilized at VY, configure the airplane per the POH, complete the climb checklist as normal
D. CE: Improper initial climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX) to clear obstacle
E. CE: Improper use of checklists – Fly first, checklists when safely climbing / clear of obstacles

6. RM: Hazards & Emergencies

A. Rejected Takeoff

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VII.E. Short-Field Takeoff & Maximum Performance Climb

B. Engine Failure
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Collision Hazards
F. Low Altitude Maneuvering
G. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper runway incursion avoidance
 Improper use of controls during a short-field takeoff
 Improper lift-off procedures
 Improper initial climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX) to clear obstacle
 Improper use of checklist

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
1.

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VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to a short-field approach and
landing. The student will understand the procedures involved and will have the ability to
properly execute them as prescribed in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. 4o Stabilized Approach

2. Region of Reverse Command
3. Minimal Float/Max Effective Braking

Elements 1. Short-Field Considerations

2. Configuration and Trim
3. Short Field Approach
4. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can perform a well-coordinated and stabilized short-field approach and landing as
Standards required in the ACS/PTS.
VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The short-field landing requires the airplane to be flown precisely while close to the ground to safely land in a
confined area.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Short-field approaches and landings require the use of procedures for approaches and landings at fields with a
relatively short landing area or where an approach is made over obstacles limiting the available landing area. This
low-speed type of power-on approach is closely related to flight at minimum controllable airspeeds.

Why
As in short-field takeoffs, a short field approach and landing is one of the most critical of the maximum performance
operations. It requires that the pilot fly the airplane at one of its crucial performance capabilities while close to the
ground to safely land within confined areas. To land within a short-field, the pilot must have precise, positive control
of the rate of descent and airspeed.

How:
1. Short-Field Considerations
A. Airplane Landing Performance and Limitations
i. Performance Section of the POH (Section 5)
a. Do not attempt to land if the landing performance is not adequate
b. Plan Ahead - Do not attempt to land on a short-field from which a takeoff cannot be made
ii. Limitations Section of the POH (Section 2)
iii. CE: Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
B. Obstructions and Hazards
i. The short field approach allows the pilot to land over obstacles limiting available landing area
a. What obstacles are there and how high? What descent angle / landing distance is required?
b. What obstacles could be a concern in the case of a go around
ii. Wind
a. Tailwind? Crosswind? Varying winds due to the wind patterns over/around the obstruction?
b. Often time there is only one direction to takeoff and land
iii. Performance Capabilities: Approach, descent, climb out / go-around performance
C. RM: Runway Selection, Runway Surface/Condition, & Effect of Tailwind
i. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
ii. See VII. RM Concepts - Runway Surface Conditions
iii. See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds
iv. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Runway Length, Wind, etc.
2. Configuration, Coordination, & Trim
A. Configure per the POH
B. Final Approach is often slower than normal to establish a steeper glide path (follow POH speeds)
i. As the airplane slows below L/DMAX, increased drag increases the rate of descent

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VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

C. Coordinated Flight Controls

i. When turning in the pattern, use no more than 30o of bank and keep the turn coordinated
ii. Maintain coordination throughout the approach and landing
D. Trim to maintain approach speed (assists in more stable approach)
3. Short-Field Approach

A. Downwind Leg
i. At the midpoint of the downwind leg, complete the landing checklist
ii. Select the Touchdown and Aim Point
a. The aim point will be closer to the touchdown point than normal
b. Adjust the aim point based on winds (ex. Strong headwind = lower groundspeed and less float)
iii. Establish Go Around Points and Criteria
a. Hazards and obstructions may dictate go around points
 Ex. In a valley surrounded by mountains, the pilot may have to decide to go around at 500’ AGL, any
lower and the pilot is committed to landing since a go around is no longer possible
b. Pilots should set go-around criteria that apply to all approaches (short, normal, soft, etc.)
 Examples will vary by aircraft, but could include:
a 1,000’ – configured for landing, on speed, and trimmed
b 500’ – Airspeed ±5 knots, bank less than 15o, established on the desired approach path
c 250’ – Same as 500’ but with crosswind corrections established
d If at / below these altitudes the criteria is not met, go around
iv. Abeam the landing point, or slightly beyond, configure as required and establish descent
B. Base Leg
i. Technique: Configure for the landing
a. Allows more time to get stabilized (trim for pitch/airspeed)
b. Another option is to configure on final
ii. Adjust the turn to final to roll out on the centerline (use a shallow, coordinated turn)
C. Final Approach
i. Configure, as required
a. Trim to maintain pitch/airspeed
b. CE: Failure to establish approach & landing configuration at appropriate time or sequence
ii. Usually started at least 500’ AGL (can vary based on obstacles / other requirements)
iii. Establish and maintain a 4o glide path
a. If you haven’t already, extend the landing flaps and trim for approach speed
b. VASIs/PAPIs will indicate a high glide path
 VASIs – Both bars White; PAPIs –4 White lights (Indicates above a 3.5o glide slope)

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VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

c. When practicing the approach / landing, an obstacle will be simulated at the approach end
 The airplane should be approximately 100’ AGL at the approach end to ensure clearance
iv. Maintaining a Stabilized Approach
a. The landing is an accuracy approach to a spot landing – a stabilized approach is essential
b. Pitch for Airspeed, Power for Altitude – Like a normal approach, but steeper and more precise
 Below L/DMAX – In the Region of Reverse Command
 Aim Point Adjustments
a A coordinated combination of both pitch and power is required
b If high, reduce power and lower the nose to regain the 4o glidepath
c If low, add power and raise the nose to regain the glidepath
 CE: Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
 CE: Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, and trim
 CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle

v. Wind Correction
a. Headwind
 Lower groundspeed and therefore takes more time to fly the final approach
a More power and a lower rate of descent will be required
 Landing distance is decreased
b. Tailwind

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VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

 Higher groundspeed and therefore less time on final approach

a Use less power and increase the rate of descent
 Landing distance will be increased
c. Ground Track
 Use crosswind landing techniques to maintain a ground track in line with the landing area
 RM: See VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Crosswind
D. Roundout & Flare
i. Must be judged accurately to avoid flying into the ground or stalling and sinking rapidly
ii. Minimum floating should occur. The airplane should settle quickly onto the aiming point
iii. CE: Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
a. Do not try to hold the airplane off the ground and “grease” the landing
E. Touchdown
i. Touchdown should occur at the minimum controllable airspeed with the airplane in the approximate pitch
attitude that will result in a power off stall when the throttle is closed
ii. Upon touchdown / closing the throttle:
a. Apply max effective braking (braking to the point just prior to skidding the tires)
 CE: Improper use of brakes
b. In many aircraft, immediately retract the flaps to decrease lift and transfer weight to the wheels
 Follow the POH
iii. Hold the pitch attitude as long as the elevators remain effective to provide aerodynamic braking
iv. Directional Control
a. Maintain required crosswind corrections on landing, rollout, and taxi
b. Use rudder to maintain the centerline as well as directional control
c. Brake evenly
d. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown
v. CE: Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
4. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Rejected Landing & Go-Around
B. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Collision Hazards
F. Low Altitude Maneuvering
G. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
 Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
 Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
 Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, and trim
 Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
 Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
 Poor directional control after touchdown
 Improper use of brakes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

255
VII.F. Short-Field Approach & Landing

256
VII.M. Slip to a Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to forward slips, as well as
sideslips and can perform either one. The private pilot student should have the ability to
perform the forward slip to a landing as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Maintain Ground Track

2. Steeper the bank angle, Steeper the descent
3. Smooth recovery

Elements 1. What is a Slip?

2. Practical Slip Limit
3. Airspeed Indicator Errors
4. Stalls in a Slip
5. Fuel Flow
6. Performing the Forward Slip
7. Performing the Sideslip
8. Performance & Runway Selection
9. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can perform a slip to a landing, maintaining ground track, and adjusting as
Standards necessary to establish and maintain a stabilized approach.
VII.M. Slip to a Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Today we get to learn how to make the plane drop out of the sky - in a controlled way.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too steep for the rate of turn. The airplane is in essence flying
sideways which increases drag as well as the rate of descent, without increasing the airspeed.

Why
Intentional slips are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed, and/or adjust airplane ground track during
a crosswind. Intentional slips are especially useful in forced landings and in situations where obstacles must be
cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip can also be used as an emergency means of rapidly reducing
airspeed in situations where wing flaps are inoperative or not installed.

How:
1. What is a Slip?
A. A slip is a combination of forward movement and sideward movement
i. The plane is flying sideways resulting in a change in the direction the relative wind strikes the plane
B. Characterized by an increase in drag, along with a decrease in climb, cruise, and glide performance
C. Positive Static Stability
i. Most planes have positive static directional stability (innate tendency to compensate for slips)
ii. Requires deliberate cross-controlled ailerons and rudder throughout the maneuver
D. Two Types of Slips
i. Forward Slip - used to steepen the descent angle without excessively increasing airspeed
a. Especially useful in forced landings and when obstacles must be cleared during the approach
b. One wing is lowered, while yawing the
opposite direction (angled to original path)
c. The amount of slip (& sink rate) is
determined by amount of bank
ii. Sideslip – used in crosswind landings to keep
aligned with the centerline & prevent drift
a. Longitudinal axis remains parallel to the
original flight path
b. Lower one wing into the wind, & use
opposite rudder to keep the longitudinal
axis aligned with the centerline
 Aileron corrects for wind; rudder keeps
centerline alignment
c. Touchdown occurs on the upwind wheel, then the downwind wheel, then the nose wheel
2. Practical Slip Limit
A. The amount of slip is limited by the amount of rudder available

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VII.M. Slip to a Landing

B. There’s a point where full rudder is needed to maintain heading even though ailerons can steepen bank
i. Practical Slip Limit: Any additional bank results in a turn even though full opposite rudder is applied
C. If there is a need to descend more rapidly, lowering the nose will increase the descent, and airspeed
i. Increased airspeed increases rudder effectiveness, permitting a steeper slip
ii. Conversely, when the nose is raised, rudder effectiveness decreases, and bank must be reduced
3. RM: Airspeed Indicator Errors
A. Airspeed indicators may have considerable error when in a slip
B. A change in either the static or ram pressure will result in a change in the airspeed
i. Static Error Example – Static port on the left side, and pilot enters a slip to the left
a. Static port now receives some amount of ram air pressure
b. Static pressure increases, and for arguments sake, the ram (pitot) pressure remains the same
c. Results in a lower indicated airspeed than what is being flown
ii. Pitot Error Example
a. Pitot tube is no longer directly into the relative wind; ram air pressure accuracy may be reduced
C. Reference the POH, be aware of any airspeed indicator errors / limitations
D. The pilot must be aware of the potential for errors and recognize a properly performed slip by the:
i. Airplane attitude, sound of the airflow, and feel of the flight controls
4. Stalls in a Slip
A. If improperly flown, a cross-controlled stall can be entered in a slip
i. Can be extremely hazardous close to the ground – some aircraft tend to roll over
B. Displays little of the yawing tendency that causes a skidding stall to develop into a spin
i. Stall characteristics may be improved, the airplane may even tend to roll into a wings level attitude
ii. In a slip, the raised wing has a higher angle of attack than the low wing and will stall first
a. Often the stall of the high wing first will reduce the bank angle, preventing a further stall
C. RM: Tail Stalls with Flaps
i. Not recommended to slip some aircraft with flaps extended, because it can result in a tail stall
a. Generally, having the flaps extended at high AOAs blanks out the relative wind over the horizontal
stabilizer and can result in a tail stall (may not be possible to recover)
ii. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations, and remove the slip at any indication of stall
5. RM: Fuel Flow
A. In uncoordinated flight forces may pull fuel away from the fuel lines
i. Potential to cause fuel starvation and engine stoppage
ii. Risk is greatest when fuel levels are low
B. Remove the slip at any indication of engine coughing or roughness
6. Performing the Forward Slip
A. Setup & Configuration
i. Checklists should be used as normal
ii. The airplane will have to be established higher on final
iii. Reduce power to idle (there is no logic in slipping to lose altitude with power)
a. CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
iv. Extend the flaps as necessary
v. CE: Failure to establish approach & landing configuration at the proper time or sequence
a. Reduce power, lower flaps and gear, use spoilers, and if still necessary to increase descent, then slip
B. Entry
i. The wing on the side toward which the slip is to be made should be lowered with the ailerons
a. Slip into the wind if a crosswind exists
ii. Simultaneously yaw the nose the opposite direction so the airplane is at an angle to the original flight path
a. The amount of yaw is such that the ground track is maintained

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iii. Raise the nose to prevent the airspeed from increasing

C. RM: Stabilized Approach
i. Rate of Descent
a. The amount of slip, and therefore sink rate, is determined by bank (more bank = more sink)
 For maximum descent, use full rudder and adjust the aileron to maintain ground track
ii. Pitch Attitude – smoothly adjust pitch to maintain the desired approach speed
iii. Precise Ground Track
a. Yaw the nose to the extent required to maintain ground track
b. If rudder is constant, the pilot can also adjust bank to maintain desired ground track
iv. Crosscheck should increase during a slip
v. CE: Failure to maintain a stabilized slip
a. Stable is safe. Excessive swings in descent rates, airspeed, or ground track is unsafe
b. Remove the slip and go around if unstable
D. Discontinuing a Forward Slip
i. Level the wings and simultaneously release rudder pressure while readjusting the pitch attitude
a. Recovery should be smooth and controlled; no abrupt movements
ii. RM: Touching down in a side slip could be hazardous to the pilot and aircraft
a. Never land in a forward slip. Can impose severe side loads on the gear
iii. CE: Improper procedure during transition from the slip to touchdown
a. Be smooth and controlled, establish a normal landing picture. Go around if unstable
b. Ensure the slip has been removed with time to reestablish a safe landing picture
7. Performing the Sideslip
A. Entering
i. Checklists should be used as normal
ii. Configuration – normal landing configuration, unless specified otherwise
a. Maintain power setting
 Not intended to increase sink as in a forward slip, therefore power is maintained
 CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
b. Extend flaps as necessary
c. CE: Failure to establish approach & landing configuration at the proper time or sequence
iii. Entry
a. Lower the upwind wing into the wind and apply just enough opposite rudder to prevent a turn
 Aileron is used to keep the aircraft centered on the runway centerline
 Rudder is used to keep the nose of the aircraft aligned with the runway
b. The amount of slip is determined by the strength of the crosswind
 The stronger the crosswind, steeper the bank angle required to stay centered
 As bank increases, additional opposite rudder is required to stay aligned with the centerline
c. The nose of the airplane should be raised slightly to prevent airspeed from increasing
d. Crosswind Limits
 At some amount of crosswind, full rudder is required to maintain centerline alignment
 Any additional crosswind will exceed the airplane’s ability to safely land
 This is why there are crosswind limits in the aircraft POH
iv. Forward Slip to a Sideslip
a. The pilot will have to transition from a forward slip to a sideslip
 Situation where a high rate of descent is required, and landing will be performed with a crosswind
b. The forward slip should be performed into the wind
c. On a normal glidepath, remove the forward slip, maintain airspeed/glidepath, and establish a sideslip

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VII.M. Slip to a Landing

B. Stabilized Approach
i. Select an aim point; use pitch and power to maintain a stable approach to the aim point
ii. Precise Ground Track (while maintaining aim point / glidepath)
a. Establish bank to counter the crosswind (centerline control)
b. Establish rudder to align the airplane with the runway centerline
c. As conditions vary (gusts, etc.) adjust aileron and rudder
iii. CE: Failure to maintain a stabilized slip
a. Excessive swings in descent, airspeed, and ground track can be hazardous; go around if unstable
C. Landing in a Sideslip
i. Maintain the slip during landing
a. Removing the sideslip over the runway will result in drifting
 Can result in a severe side load, or even being pushed off the runway entirely
ii. The plane will touchdown on the upwind main first, then the downwind main, then the nosewheel
iii. CE: Improper procedure during transition from the slip to touchdown
a. Unlike the forward slip, it is essential to maintain the sideslip during landing
iv. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown
a. Directional control must be maintained to counter the crosswind after landing
b. Keep the aileron into the wind. As airspeed decreases, increase aileron deflection into the wind until
reaching full deflection at a normal taxi speed
v. CE: Improper use of brakes
a. Brake evenly – when landing with more pressure on one rudder, uneven pressure is common
vi. CE: Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
8. Performance & Runway Selection
A. Ensure required landing performance
B. RM: Runway Selection
i. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection & VII. RM Concepts - Effects of Tailwinds
ii. Combination of Pilot Capability, Performance & Limitations, Runway Length, Wind, etc.
9. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Rejected Landing & Go-Around
B. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
C. Wake Turbulence
D. Wind Shear
E. Collision Hazards
F. Low Altitude Maneuvering
G. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
 Failure to establish and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in proper sequence
 Failure to maintain a stabilized slip
 Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
 Improper procedure during transition from the slip to touchdown
 Poor directional control after touchdown
 Improper use of brakes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VII.N. Go-Around / Rejected Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to a Go-Around/Rejected
Landing. The student will understand the importance of a prompt decision and can quickly and
safely configure the airplane and adjust its attitude to accomplish a go-around. The student will
perform the maneuver to the standards prescribed in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Power

2. Attitude
3. Configuration

Elements 1. Situations When a Go-Around may be Necessary

2. Promptly Deciding to Go-Around
3. Cardinal Principles
4. Climb Out
5. Communication
6. Performance Factors
7. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student shows the ability to recognize when a go-around is needed and promptly
Standards configures the airplane and adjusts its attitude to safely execute the rejected landing.
VII.N. Go Around / Rejected Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
There will be times when we have to discontinue a landing and set up for another one. This may be a result of a
dangerous situation or may just be necessary to re-establish an approach. Either way, we definitely want to know
what we’re doing as we’re getting closer and closer to the ground.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A go-around is the discontinuance of a landing approach to make another attempt to land under more favorable
conditions (it is an alternative to any approach or landing). The go-around is a normal maneuver that may at times be
used in an emergency. It is warranted whenever landing conditions are not satisfactory and the landing should be
abandoned or attempted again.

Why
The need to discontinue a landing may arise at any point in the landing process and the ability to safely discontinue
the landing is essential, especially due to the proximity of the ground.

How:
1. Situations When a Go-Around may be Necessary
A. Unstable Approach
B. Air traffic control requirements / requests
C. Hazards on the runway (other aircraft, vehicles, animals, etc.)
D. Wind Shear / Wake Turbulence
E. Mechanical Failure
F. Whenever safety dictates a go-around
G. CE: Failure to recognize a situation where a go-around/rejected landing is necessary
2. RM: Promptly Deciding to Go-Around
A. Not inherently dangerous, but becomes dangerous when unnecessarily delayed or executed improperly
B. Delaying a go-around tends to stem from two sources:
i. Landing Expectancy – Belief that conditions are not as threatening as they are and it will end safely
ii. Pride – Mistaken belief that the act of going around is an admission of failure
C. Delayed Recognition of the Need to Go-Around
i. Set and maintain standard operating procedures (SOPs) & altitude gates
a. Outside of SOP at the altitude gate = go-around. Examples will vary by aircraft, but could include:
 500’ – Configured, airspeed ±5 knots, bank < 15o, on the desired approach path
 250’ – Same as 500’ but with crosswind corrections established
ii. Specific, measurable criteria allow for a logical easy decision (no emotion or questions)
D. Important to make a prompt decision
i. The earlier a situation that warrants a go-around is recognized, the safer the maneuver will be
ii. If there’s a question as to go-around or not, it’s usually safer / smarter to execute the go around
iii. Don’t allow a situation to magnify. Don’t hesitate. Stick to your decision. Safety first, always!
E. CE: Hazards of delaying a decision to perform a go-around/rejected landing

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VII.N. Go Around / Rejected Landing

3. Cardinal Principles – Power, Attitude, Configuration

A. RM: Power – the pilot’s first concern
i. The instant the pilot decides to go-around, apply max takeoff power smoothly / without hesitation
a. CE: Improper power application
ii. Inertia – it takes considerable power, as well as time, to redirect an airplane’s inertia
a. The downward inertia of the airplane must be slowed, stopped, then reversed
b. Newton’s 1st Law - A body in motion wants to stay in motion
iii. Controlling Power – When takeoff power is applied:
a. The nose may rise rapidly (especially if trimmed up for landing)
 Hold forward pressure to maintain a safe attitude
 Trim roughly to relieve some of the control pressures (fine tune later)
 CE: Failure to control pitch attitude
b. The nose will veer left
 Right rudder pressure is necessary to counteract the left turning tendencies
 CE: Failure to compensate for torque effect
B. Attitude
i. Attitude is always critical when close to the ground
ii. An attitude must be established to allow the plane to gain sufficient speed before climbing / turning
iii. Establish power, stop the descent, and when able, pitch to climb at VY (VX, if obstacles)
a. CE: Failure to maintain recommended airspeeds
iv. “Rough trim” the airplane
a. Quick relieving of the control pressures. Trim more precisely once stable
b. CE: Improper trim procedure
v. CE: Failure to control pitch attitude
a. Raising the nose too early / aggressively could result in stall
b. If slow, it may be necessary to lower the nose briefly to gain airspeed
vi. Summary: Increase power to max, stop the descent, and when safe, pitch to climb at V Y (or VX)
C. RM: Configuration
i. Cleaning Up the Airplane
a. 1st Concern: Landing Flaps
 Reduce drag to assist the airplane in climbing and accelerating
 Retracting the flaps increments allows time for the airplane to accelerate
a A sudden / complete flap retraction could result in a significant loss of lift
nd
b. 2 Concern: Gear (if retractable)
 After a controlled, positive rate of climb is established, the gear can be retracted
c. 3rd Concern: Takeoff Flaps
 At this point, treat the situation like a normal takeoff
 Retract the flaps as you normally would (safe airspeed and altitude)
ii. Flaps Before Gear
a. Reduces the most drag immediately – full flaps tend to produce more drag than landing gear
b. If the airplane inadvertently touches down it is desirable to still have the gear down and locked
iii. CE: Improper wing flaps or landing gear retraction procedure

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4. Climb Out
A. The majority of go-around climb outs will be identical to a normal takeoff climb out
i. Adjust for wind and maintain the runway centerline
B. Maneuver to the side of the runway or landing area when necessary to clear and avoid conflicting traffic
i. Ex: Go around was due to another airplane taking off. Unable to see them if directly overhead
C. Remain clear of obstacles / obstructions / other traffic
D. CE: Failure to maintain proper track during climb-out
E. CE: Failure to remain well clear of obstructions and other traffic
5. Communication
A. Once the airplane is under control, then communicate with the tower or other facility / aircraft
i. Let them know you’re “Going Around”
ii. Aviate, Navigate, then Communicate
B. RM: Go-around with a LAHSO clearance (AIM 4-3-11 b(6))
i. LAHSO clearance does not preclude a go-around
ii. If necessary, execute the go-around and maintain safe separation from aircraft/vehicles and notify ATC
6. Performance Factors
A. Atmospheric Conditions
i. See II.F. Performance & Limitations
a. Pressure/Density altitude
B. Wind
i. Headwinds increase climb performance (more airflow over the wings)
ii. Tailwind decrease climb performance (reduced airflow over the wings)
7. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Runway Incursion
B. Collision Hazards
C. Low Altitude Maneuvering
D. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Failure to recognize a situation where a go-around/rejected landing is necessary
 Hazards of delaying a decision to perform a go-around/rejected landing
 Improper power application
 Failure to control pitch attitude
 Failure to compensate for torque effect
 Improper trim procedure
 Failure to maintain recommended airspeeds

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 Improper wing flaps or landing gear retraction procedure

 Failure to maintain proper track during climb-out
 Failure to remain well clear of obstructions and other traffic

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VII.O. Power-Off 180o Accuracy Approach & Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the power-off 180 o accuracy
approach and landing as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Best Glide Airspeed

2. Wind Correction
3. Stabilized Approach

Elements 1. General
2. Selecting a Touchdown Point
3. The Maneuver
4. Hazards & Emergencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can perform a power-off 180o accuracy approach and landing, landing within 200’
Standards beyond the selected landing point. The student will understand when corrections should be
made and will have the ability to make the necessary corrections to maintain a stabilized
approach to landing.
VII.O. Power-Off 180o Accuracy Approach & Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The power-off 180 is a challenging and very fun maneuver. Personally, it’s one of my favorites…

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
An approach and landing made by gliding with the engine idling through a 180 o pattern, begun abeam a specified
touchdown point on the runway, to a touchdown at or within 200’ beyond that point.

Why
It instills judgment and procedures necessary for accurately flying the plane, without power, to a safe landing.

How:
1. General
A. Executed by gliding at idle power from a given point on the downwind leg to a preselected landing spot
i. The glide path is constantly assessed to land on the selected spot
a. Key positions (points where one can judge whether the glide will safely reach the desired point)
 Downwind key position: Abeam intended point of landing, where power is reduced to idle
 Base key position: On base, 45o from landing point
B. Configuring
i. Normal landing configuration, but flaps are used as necessary to control the glide path of the approach
ii. Trim for best glide airspeed
C. Flying the Power Off Descent
i. Pitch is used to maintain the best glide airspeed
ii. Speeds higher than best glide result in a steeper descent angle, Lower speeds result in rapid settling
D. Attempt to fly a normal pattern, but also keep in mind that:
i. Various factors will change the pattern size (wind, altitude, approach speed, etc.)
ii. Not a mechanical maneuver - altitudes, pattern size, when to configure, etc. will need to be adjusted
iii. Tools at the pilot’s disposal:
a. Drag – Flaps, forward slips, drag devices (if available)
a RM: Forward Slips: Fuel Flow, Tail Stalls, and Airspeed Control
1. See VII.M. Slip to a Landing - Fuel Flow, Tail Stalls, & Airspeed Errors
b. Airspeed – Faster or slower than best glide increases the rate of descent
c. Size of the pattern – Turning base early/late, dogleg to final, S-turns
E. Don’t attempt to increase the rate of turn with rudder; this could lead to a crossed-control stall
F. A stable approach is predictable - Trim to maintain best glide and avoid large swings in pitch/airspeed
G. CE: Improper use of power, wing flaps, or trim
i. Correct for deviations from the glide path without power
a. Configuration (configure early, or delay configuration as necessary), drag (slip), airspeed, etc.
ii. Always trim to relieve control pressures to help in stabilizing the approach
iii. Do what’s necessary if the approach cannot be completed safely
a. In the case of training, add power, go around, and try again

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b. In a real-life power-off scenario, decide on and execute the best course of action based on the situation
2. Selecting a Touchdown Point
A. Select an easily recognizable point (Ex. specific centerline marking, the 500’ or 1,000’ markers, etc.)
i. Ensure there is ample space before and after the point
B. Choose an aiming point prior to the landing spot based on expected flare / float distance
C. RM: Runway Selection
i. See VII. RM Concepts – Runway Selection
ii. Combination of wind, landing surface, obstructions, and limitations
iii. CE: Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
a. Adjust the aim point based on the wind
3. The Maneuver
A. Downwind Leg - 1,000’ AGL
i. Complete the before landing checklist as normal (midpoint)
ii. Abeam the selected touchdown point (downwind key), reduce the throttle to idle
a. Maintain altitude until reaching best glide speed; pitch for best glide speed, trim to maintain
iii. Be aware of, and anticipate how wind will affect the pattern
iv. Turn to the Base Leg
a. Base is positioned as needed based on altitude and wind
 If the headwind on final is strong or the plane is low, base will need to be started early
 If the wind is calm or the plane is high, downwind may need to be extended
b. Turn to base should be a uniform turn with a medium or slightly steeper bank
 Bank and amount of turn will depend on glide angle and the wind speed
c. CE: Failure to consider the effect of wind

B. Base Leg
i. Crab to maintain the base leg (amount of crab can indicate wind on final)
ii. Base Key Position – 45o to the landing point
a. Use this position to further evaluate the descent and make adjustments
 Ex: if very low, turn directly / dogleg to final
b. Flaps are often used at this position (approach flaps; landing flaps only when landing is assured)
 Varies based on the aircraft, and the current situation
 Remember, once flaps are lowered, they should not be raised
c. CE: Failure to identify the key points in the pattern
iii. Tailwind on the base leg

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a. Tailwind on base (crosswind on final), tends to result in being higher than desired, and vice versa
 High groundspeed = less time to descend and vice versa
b. CE: Failure to consider the effect of wind
iv. Aim Point
a. Watch the position of the aim point in relation to the window / windscreen
 Steady position = maintaining glide path
 Moving up = moving below glidepath; Moving down = moving above glidepath
a Moving up: maintain glide, delay configuring; Down: consider drag, s-turns, etc.

C. Turning to Final
i. Intent is to roll out aligned with the runway centerline (adjust for wind)
ii. Keep coordinated, do not use rudder to increase rate of turn to align with the runway
D. Final Approach
i. Verify the landing checklist is complete
ii. Configuration
a. Unless low, lower the approach flaps if not accomplished on the base leg
b. Lower the landing flaps only when landing is assured
iii. Maintain a Stabilized Approach
a. Be proactive in maintaining the aim point
b. Adjustments will vary based on the approach – gauge the situation
 If high (aim point moving down) use flaps, s-turns, slips, airspeed changes, etc.
 If low (aim point moving up), go directly to the runway, delay configuration
c. Consistent, slight adjustments help to maintain a stable approach and lead to on-target landings
 Large, abrupt changes lead to inconsistent descents, airspeeds, unstable approaches
d. CE: Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
iv. CE: Improper use of power, wing flaps, or trim
E. Roundout and Touchdown
i. Although accuracy is important, a safe / properly executed approach and landing is vital
ii. Commercial ACS requires touchdown at proper pitch attitude, on or within 200’ beyond the specified point
with no side drift and the longitudinal axis aligned / over the centerline
iii. Make a safe, normal, power-off landing
a. Don’t force the plane down or stretch the glide as it may result in a hard landing or stall
b. Correct for crosswinds

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c. CE: Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown

d. CE: Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
iv. Flap Technique: If low, flaps can be delayed and used when approaching the runway for added float
F. Directional Control
i. Maintain directional control with rudder; while slowing increase crosswind corrections
ii. CE: Poor directional control after touchdown and Improper use of brakes
a. Use minimum braking, and don’t apply the brakes until firmly on the ground / under control
b. Use equal pressure on both brakes to prevent swerving or loss of control
4. RM: Hazards & Emergencies
A. Performance
i. Crosswind & Tailwind
ii. Landing Surface/Condition
iii. Runway Selection
B. Rejected Landing & Go-Around
C. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
D. Wake Turbulence
E. Wind Shear
F. Collision Hazards
G. Low Altitude Maneuvering
H. Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper sequence
 Failure to identify the key points in the pattern
 Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
 Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
 Improper use of power, wing flaps, or trim
 Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
 Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
 Poor directional control after touchdown
 Improper use of brakes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VII. RM Concepts

1. Effects of Crosswinds
A. General
i. Attempt to push the aircraft across the runway during takeoff & landing
a. Can lead to skipping, sideways movement across the runway, and severe side stresses on the gear
ii. Recognizing a Crosswind
a. Weather reports (ATIS, ASOS, AWOS) and/or windsock and wind indicators
iii. Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Component
a. The POH specifies the maximum demonstrated crosswind component for the aircraft
B. Takeoff
i. Control Inputs
a. Ailerons keep the wings level
 Hold full aileron into the crosswind as the roll is started, decrease pressure as airspeed builds
b. Rudder keeps the takeoff path straight or aligned with the centerline
ii. Lift-Off
a. Rotate while maintaining crosswind controls
b. Avoid an early lift-off resulting in side-skipping
c. In a significant crosswind, hold the main gear on the ground
longer for a smooth but definite takeoff
d. Immediately after takeoff hold aileron into the wind so the
aircraft is sideslipping
e. Transition to a crab
C. Landing (sideslip technique)
i. Aileron is used to correct for drift (Lower the upwind wing)
ii. Rudder keeps the airplane straight or aligned with the centerline
iii. Maintain crosswind controls on touchdown
a. Upwind wheel touches down first
iv. Increase aileron as airspeed slows and then transition to taxi
crosswind corrections
v. Taxi (depicted, right) crosswind corrections help prevent the wind
from lifting a wing/nosing over the plane
2. Effects of Tailwinds
A. Increases the distance required for takeoff and landing
B. POH Limitations: Know (and do not exceed) the POH limitation for tailwinds during takeoff and landing
C. Performance Charts: Verify takeoff/landing distance is compatible with the runway based on the conditions
3. Runway Surface/Condition
A. Surface
i. Surfaces vary widely including concrete, asphalt, gravel, dirt, and grass (Chart Supplement)
ii. More friction associated with soft surfaces (grass, dirt, gravel, etc.)
a. Increases takeoff ground roll, decreases landing roll (harder to get moving, easier to stop moving)
B. Gradient
i. Expressed as a percentage – a 3% gradient means runway height changes 3’ for every 100’ of runway length
ii. Upsloping runway increases takeoff roll and decreases landing roll, and vice versa for a down sloping runway
C. Condition (wet, dry, snow, ice, etc.)
i. Braking Effectiveness
a. Take runway conditions into account to determine required stopping distance
VII. RM Concepts

 Water decreases the friction between the tires and the ground, reducing braking effectiveness
ii. Maintain Control
a. Slick runways can result in sliding
b. Hydroplaning
 Grooved runways help to reduce hydroplaning
 Minimum speed for hydroplaning is the square root of the tire pressure by 9
c. On slick runways, land into the wind, do not use abrupt control inputs, anticipate reduced braking
D. Length
i. Never attempt a takeoff or landing on a runway that is not supported by performance data
a. Take all factors into account (aircraft, atmospheric/weather, runway condition, gradient, etc.)
ii. Don’t land on a runway that you can’t takeoff on
E. Performance Charts
i. Typically, performance charts assume paved, level, smooth, and dry runway surfaces
ii. Obtain performance data based on the specific day, runway, runway conditions, aircraft, loading, etc.
4. Runway Selection
A. Pilot Capability
i. Set personal minimums
a. Min runway length/width, crosswinds, etc. based on the aircraft and your comfort/safety level
ii. Training
a. Just because it’s legal doesn’t mean it’s safe
b. Ensure you are trained, proficient, current, and safe to perform the takeoff/landing (i.e., grass field)
B. Airplane Performance
i. FAR 91.103: The pilot shall become familiar with all available information concerning the flight
a. This must include runway lengths and takeoff and landing distance data from the flight manual
ii. Do not attempt to takeoff or land from a runway that is not supported by performance data
a. Use current conditions & the appropriate performance chart
b. Do not exceed any limitations
iii. Factors affecting Takeoff & Landing Distance
a. Weight: Higher weights increase takeoff and landing distance
b. Wind: Stronger headwinds decrease takeoff and landing distance
c. Pressure/Density Altitude: Lower pressure/density altitude decreases takeoff distance
 Higher pressure/density altitude increases landing distance (higher TAS)
d. Runway Slope and Condition:
 An inclined runway will increase takeoff distance and decrease landing distance
 Different types of runways affect takeoff/landing distance
a Soft surfaces have more friction – harder to get moving, easier to stop
e. Runway length versus required distance
C. The most favorable runway meets performance reqs/limitations & is most closely aligned with the wind
i. Also meets personal requirements
ii. Occasionally, you may prefer a runway that is not most closely aligned with the wind
a. Choose the safest option
5. Runway Incursion
A. Be aware of the airplane’s position and be aware of other aircraft and vehicle operations on the airport
B. Readback all runway crossing and/or hold short instructions
C. Review airport layouts
D. Know airport signage
E. Review NOTAMs
F. Request progressive taxi instructions when necessary

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G. Check for traffic before crossing any runway hold line or entering any taxiway
H. Turn on lights and the rotating beacon or strobes when taxiing
I. When landing, clear the runway as soon as possible and wait for taxi instructions before moving
J. Study & use proper phraseology
K. Write down complex taxi instructions
6. Takeoff Briefing
A. Always have a plan before starting the takeoff roll. Brief that plan
B. Sample Structure
i. Prior to rotate speed, plan to keep the aircraft on the ground (assuming the runway length allows this)
ii. From rotation to a certain point (runway length allowing) you may be able to land on the remaining runway
in the case of an engine failure. After this point, it will be unfeasible to land on the runway.
iii. Brief an altitude at and above which, you will turn around to return to the airport for landing
iv. Between the point at which you can no longer land on the runway (a) and the point at which you have the
altitude to return to the airport (b) you will have to land on the most suitable surface outside the airport
C. See the sample briefing in V.F. Before Takeoff Check
7. Rejected Takeoff
A. Circumstances such as engine malfunctions, inadequate acceleration, runways incursion, ATC conflict, or
another emergency can result in a takeoff having to be rejected on the runway
B. Rejected Takeoff Procedures
i. Follow procedures specified in the POH
ii. Generally, power idle, and apply maximum braking while maintaining directional control
C. If required to shut down the engine due to a fire, or any other reason
i. Mixture to the idle cutoff position and magnetos off
8. Engine Failure
A. Time is of the essence
i. Unless prepared in advance, there is a strong chance the pilot makes a poor decision or no decision
a. “We don’t rise to the level of our expectations; we fall to the level of our training”
b. Practice, Plan, then Brief the plan
B. Procedures
i. Maintain aircraft control
ii. During the takeoff roll
a. Reject the takeoff and stop straight ahead
iii. Immediately following takeoff
a. If there is sufficient runway available straight ahead, land on the remaining runway
b. Ensure you know how much runway you need (descent + landing distance)
iv. During the takeoff climb
a. Aircraft will have full power, a high pitch attitude and right rudder
b. When the engine fails, immediately lower the nose (best glide) and release the right rudder
c. Once in control, establish a glide toward a plausible landing area & start emergency procedures
d. Time and altitude permitting:
 Notify ATC, accomplish applicable checklists, and attempt a restart
9. Rejected Landing & Go-Around
A. When to Go-Around
i. When it’s hazardous to continue or if you’re ever in doubt of the safety of the approach
B. A go-around is not inherently dangerous, but becomes dangerous when delayed or flown improperly
i. Delaying often stems from two sources:
 Landing expectancy: Belief that conditions are not as threatening as they are, and the approach will
end with a safe landing

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 Pride: Mistaken belief that a go around is an admission of failure

C. Decision making
i. Maintain a stabilized approach
a. Momentary deviations from speed, glidepath and centerline are acceptable
b. Set altitude gates
 If you don’t meet set criteria at specified altitudes, go-around (no questions asked)
 Ex. Stable and configured for landing at 500’
ii. In an emergency, you may have to choose between a go around or continuing to land
a. Go Around Considerations
 There are situations that can be handled better airborne than on the ground
a Ex: landing gear problems. Go around and attempt to solve the problem airborne
b. Continuing to Land Considerations
 There are situations that can be better handled by landing instead of going around
a For example, emergencies that can affect the airplane’s ability to fly
b Ex: A fire
D. Proper execution: Power, Attitude, Configuration
10. Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
A. Basics
i. Operations that include landing and holding short of an intersecting runway, taxiway, or other point
B. Pilot Responsibilities
i. Preflight Planning
a. Become familiar with all LAHSO information at the destination
b. Landing performance – knowledge of landing data allows for a quick decision
ii. PIC has the final authority to accept or decline any LAHSO clearance
a. Once accepted, a LAHSO clearance must be adhered to, unless otherwise coordinated
 Does not prevent a rejected landing
iii. Full readback of LAHSO clearance is required
C. Situational Awareness
i. Have current airport information (diagram, LAHSO procedures, etc.)
ii. Understand airport markings, signs, and lighting, especially that associated with LAHSO
iii. To conduct LAHSO operations properly, understand the following:
a. Landing distance available
b. Be advised by ATC as to why LAHSO are being conducted
c. Advise if you cannot accept LAHSO
d. Know what signs and markings are at the LAHSO point
e. LAHSO are not authorized for student pilots who are performing a solo flight
f. At many airports, air carriers are not authorized LAHSO if the other aircraft is general aviation
g. Generally, LAHSO are not authorized at night
h. LAHSO are not authorized on wet runways
iv. LAHSO Minimums
a. Basic VFR: 1,000’ ceiling & 3 statute mile visibility

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11. Wind Shear and Wake Turbulence

A. Wind Shear
i. What is it?
a. A sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or direction over a very small area
b. While wind shear can occur at any altitude, low-level wind shear is especially hazardous
ii. Why is it dangerous?
a. Violent updrafts and downdrafts (up to 6,000 fpm) / abrupt changes to horizontal movement
b. Rapid changes in performance (tailwind shears to headwind, or headwind to tailwind)
c. Microbursts
 Most severe type of wind shear
 Characteristics
a 1-2 miles across
b Lifespan of 5-15 mins.
c Strong downdrafts (max of
6,000 fpm)
d Strong turbulence
e Headwind gains / losses of 30-
90 knots
 Indications
a Visual – Intense rain shaft at
the surface, but virga at cloud base; ring of blowing dust
b Alerting Systems
1. LLWAS-NE, TDWR, and ASR-9 WSP systems installed at major airports
2. Many airports, especially smaller airports, have no wind shear systems
c Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28)
iii. Handling Wind Shear
a. If possible, avoid it
 Never conduct traffic pattern operations near an active thunderstorm
 LLWAS (Low Level Wind Shear Alerting System) can warn of windshear
 PIREPS
b. Approach into Wind Shear
 Follow the POH procedures. If none, general techniques include:
a Higher power and faster approach speed (add ½ the gust factor to approach speed)
b Stay as high as feasible until necessary to descend
c Go around at the first sign of an unexpected pitch or airspeed change
1. Important to get FULL power and get the airplane climbing
2. If the aircraft is descending toward the ground, ensure max power, increase pitch attitude as
far as possible without stalling the airplane
a. Intent is to keep the flying as long as possible in hope of exiting the shear
A. Wake Turbulence
i. What is it?
a. Difference between the high and low pressure below / above the wing causes the air to move outward,
upward and around the wingtips, leading to
counter rotating vortices
b. All aircraft generate wake turbulence during flight
 The larger the aircraft, the stronger the vortices
 Vortices are strongest when the pressure

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differential is greatest (heavy, clean, slow)

i. Why is it dangerous?
a. Rolling moments can exceed control authority
and / or damage the aircraft
b. Wake turbulence can be encountered in any
phase of flight (usually strongest at departure)
ii. Vortex Behavior
a. Vortices are generated when an aircraft leaves
the ground until it touches down
b. Remain about a wingspan apart, drift with
wind, above ground effect altitudes (½

wingspan)
c. Sink at a rate of several hundred FPM, slowing
descent and diminishing in strength over time
d. When close to the ground (100-200’), tend to
move laterally at 2-3 knots
e. A crosswind decreases lateral movement of upwind vortex, increases downwind vortex
f. Light quartering tailwind can result in vortices along final approach centerline
i. Avoidance Procedures
a. Landing behind a large aircraft:
 On the same runway
a Stay at or above their approach path and land beyond their touchdown point (Figure A)
 On a parallel runway (< 2,500’ away)
a Consider the possibility of drift, stay at/above their flight path, note touchdown point (Figure B)
 On a crossing runway
a Cross above their flight path (Figure C)
 Departing on the same runway
a Land prior to their rotation point
 Departing a crossing runway: Note their rotation point, if that point is past the intersection, land
prior to the intersection
a If they rotate prior to the intersection, avoid flight below their flight path
b Abandon the approach unless a landing is ensured well before reaching the intersection
 Executing a low approach, missed approach, or touch-and-go
a Wait at least 2 minutes prior to a landing or takeoff
b. Departing after a large aircraft
 On the same runway
a Rotate prior to their rotation point and climb above their climb path until turning clear
 Executing a low approach, missed approach, or touch-and-go
a Wait at least 2 minutes prior to a landing or takeoff

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b Vortex hazard may exist along the runway/in the flight path, particularly in a quartering tailwind
c. Intersection takeoffs on the same runway
 Be alert to adjacent large aircraft operations, particularly upwind of the runway of intended use
 Avoid headings that cross below the larger aircraft’s path
12. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
ii. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 If the aircraft are different categories:
a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
iii. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
a. Anywhere: An altitude allowing an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property
b. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
c. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely
populated areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure
iv. Clearing Procedures
a. Before Takeoff: Scan the runway and final approach for other traffic
b. Climbing: Execute gentle banks to allow scanning above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
v. Scanning
a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
B. Terrain
i. Be aware of terrain that could cause a hazard during the climb or descent into the airfield
a. Study charts and use maximum elevation figures (MEFs) and other data
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Many structures can significantly affect safety when below 500’ AGL and particularly below 200’ AGL
a. Obstacles can be found in the NOTAMs, and the Terminal Procedures (IFR document)
b. < 200’ AGL are unmarked/lighted power lines, antenna towers, etc.
ii. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which can extend 1,500’ horizontally

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iii. Overhead Wires

a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
b. May not be lighted
D. Scan vigilantly during taxi for aircraft and obstacles
i. Ensure proper clearance - If unsure of clearance, stop until you’re sure it is safe to pass
E. Vehicles, Persons, Wildlife, etc.
i. Be alert for anyone/anything that may cause a hazard
ii. Reject the takeoff or delay takeoff, if required
13. Distractions (Task Prioritization, Loss of SA, Disorientation)
A. Distractions
i. Distractions can be dangerous
a. Remove distractions from view or, if a person, explain the situation and ask them to stop
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, especially in the traffic pattern
ii. Maintain SA
a. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
b. Be aware of other traffic. Build a 3d picture based on what you can see, and what you hear on the radio
c. If SA or orientation is lost, admit it and fix it
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
iv. Safety is the number one priority
a. Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
14. Low Altitude Maneuvering
A. A small problem at high altitude can quickly become a big problem at a low altitude
B. Quick, panicked maneuvers, especially when slow, can result in a stall or loss of control close to the ground
C. Low Altitude Stall/Spin
i. A low altitude stall or spin can leave little to no recovery time
a. ALWAYS maintain coordination, and airspeed at low altitudes
b. If you get any indication of a stall at low level, recover, and climb to a safe altitude
ii. Spin
a. A spin is a result of a stall + yaw
b. Prevention
 Maintain coordination
 Do not use abrupt, excessive pressure inputs (especially back elevator pressure)
 Stop whatever you’re doing and recover at the first sign of a stall
c. Recovery (PARE)
 Power - Idle
 Ailerons - Neutral
 Rudder - Full rudder opposite the spin direction
 Elevator - Brisk, positive forward pressure (nose down)
 Once the spin has stopped, neutralize the rudders and raise the nose, being careful not to stall again

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d. Different aircraft respond differently to spins and spin recoveries, follow the POH procedures
D. CFIT (Controlled Flight into Terrain)
i. AC 61-134: General Aviation CFIT Awareness
ii. The solution to combating CFIT accidents starts on the ground
a. Common themes include proper planning, good decision making, and being able to safely operate the
aircraft throughout its entire operating range
iii. Recommendations:
a. Non-instrument rated VFR pilots should not attempt to fly in IMC
b. Know and fly above minimum published safe altitudes
c. If IFR, fly published procedures
d. Verify proper altitude, especially at night or over water, through use of a correctly set altimeter
e. Verify all ATC clearances. Question potentially hazardous clearances
f. Maintain situational awareness both vertically and horizontally
g. Comply with appropriate regulations for your specific operation
h. Don't operate below minimum safe altitudes if uncertain of position or ATC clearance
i. Be extra careful when operating in an area which you are not familiar
j. Use current charts and all available information
k. Use appropriate checklists
l. Know your aircraft and its equipment

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VIII. Fundamentals of Flight
VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The student should develop the ability to maintain straight-and-level flight primarily using
outside visual references. The student should be able to reference the instruments inside the
airplane to ensure straight-and-level flight is continued. The ability to effectively trim the
airplane for straight-and-level flight should also be developed.

Key Elements 1. Control Pressures

2. Outside 90%, Inside 10%
3. Trim the airplane

Elements 1. Flight Controls

2. Control Pressures
3. Trim Technique
4. Integrated Flight Instruction
5. Straight and Level Flight
6. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands how to make adjustments to keep the aircraft in straight-and-level
Standards flight. They can also relieve the control pressures by trimming the aircraft and provides light,
positive, proactive control pressures when aircraft attitude needs to be corrected.
 VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Straight and level flight. As simple as it may sound, it’s the foundation for all maneuvers and where you’ll spend the
large majority of any flight (outside of training).

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Flight in which a constant heading and altitude are maintained. It is accomplished by making immediate and
measured corrections for deviations in direction and altitude from unintentional slight turns, descents, and climbs

Why
It is impossible to emphasize too strongly the necessity for forming correct habits in flying straight-and-level. All
other flight maneuvers are in essence a deviation from this fundamental flight maneuver. It is not uncommon to find
a pilot whose basic flying ability consistently falls just short of minimum expected standards, and upon analyzing the
reasons for the shortcomings we discover that the cause is the inability to fly straight and level properly.

How:
1. Flight Controls
A. Axis of Rotation
i. Pitch - Lateral Axis; Roll - Longitudinal Axis; Yaw - Vertical Axis
B. Pitch – Controlled by the elevators
i. Back pressure deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface up
a. Decreases camber creating a downward force. Tail down, nose up. Pitch occurs about CG
ii. Forward pressure deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface down
a. Increases camber, creating more lift. Tail moves up, nose moves down
C. Roll – Controlled by the ailerons
i. Controls to the right
a. Right aileron deflects up decreasing lift and lowering the right wing
b. Left aileron deflects down increasing lift and raising the left wing
ii. Controls to the left does the opposite
D. Yaw – Controlled by the rudder
i. When rudder is deflected in one direction, a horizontal force is produced in the opposite direction
a. Left rudder pressure deflects the rudder to the left; the tail moves right yawing the nose left
b. Right rudder pressure deflects the rudder to the right; tail moves left yawing the nose right
2. Control Pressures
A. It is important to maintain a light grip on the flight controls (only grip with the fingertips)
B. Control pressures should be light and just enough to produce the desired result
i. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
a. Use smooth, light pressure, not jerky movements
C. Overcoming Tenseness / Over-controlling
i. Signs of over-controlling
a. Jolty, large movements of the flight controls

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b. White knuckles (look for the death grip)

c. Overall nervousness
ii. Prevention
a. Point out over-controlling, help the student stay calm, and demonstrate the pressures desired
b. Technique: put a pencil on top of the middle & ring finger, and under the index & pointer finger
 Less fingers on the controls
 If overcontrolling, the pressure on the middle and ring finger reminds them to relax
3. Trim Technique
A. Most plane are designed to streamline the flight controls with the rest of the plane in straight-and-level flight at
cruise speed, and standard weight and loading
i. Outside of this condition (faster, slower, heavier, lighter, change in balance, etc.) one or more of the control
surfaces will have to be held out of its streamlined position
ii. Trim tabs offset the constant flight control pressure inputs needed from the pilot
B. Trimming the Airplane
i. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust, and repeat
ii. Set pitch and power, and let the airspeed stabilize
iii. Trim to relieve control pressures (with multiple tabs, trim rudder, then elevator, then aileron)
iv. Changes in pitch and power will require the plane to be trimmed again
a. On a longer flight, as CG changes with decreasing fuel trim will
slowly have to be adjusted
v. CE: Faulty trim technique
a. Trying to fly the airplane with trim is a common fault
b. With changing conditions, gusts, fuel burn, etc. it is necessary to
trim often
4. Integrated Flight Instruction
A. Using outside references + flight instruments for flight
B. The Basic Elements
i. 90% outside, 10% inside
ii. Use outside references to fly, validate attitude on the flight instruments
a. If the instruments indicate a correction is necessary, apply it in
reference to the natural horizon
b. Verify the new attitude and performance on the flight instruments
C. CE: Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument
references
5. Straight and Level Flight
A. Overview
i. Straight and level flight is a matter of consciously fixing the relationship
of a reference point on the airplane in relation to the natural horizon
ii. Objective is to detect small deviations from level flight as soon as they
occur, necessitating only small corrections
B. Level Flight
i. Outside
a. Select a reference (Ex. glareshield) and keep it in a fixed position
relative to the horizon
ii. Inside
a. Check the outside reference against the Attitude Indicator,
Altimeter, VSI and Airspeed
iii. Corrections

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 VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

a. Elevators are the control

b. Adjust pitch in relation to the horizon, then verify with the instruments
C. Straight Flight
i. Outside
a. Wingtips should be level and equidistant from the horizon
b. Select two or more outside reference points
directly ahead
 Form an imaginary line between them and
keep the plane headed along the line
ii. Inside
a. Verify the outside references against the
Heading Indicator, Attitude Indicator, Turn
Coordinator, Magnetic Compass
b. CE: Uncoordinated flight controls
iii. Corrections (Control Procedure)
a. Ailerons are the control
b. Adjust bank to put both wings an equal distance from the horizon
D. Power
i. In straight-and-level flight, airspeed remains constant if power is constant
ii. Outside
a. Changes in power and airspeed will require changes in pitch attitude to maintain altitude
iii. Inside
a. Cross check changes in airspeed with the engine RPM and manifold pressure gauges
 Increased power will result in a climb if no changes are made to the pitch attitude
 Decreased power will result in a descent if no pitch changes are made to the pitch attitude
iv. Corrections (Control Procedure)
a. As power is changed, pitch attitude must be adjusted
 Increased power: As airspeed increases, progressively decrease pitch to maintain altitude
a Once stable and level, maintain the new visual reference in relation to the horizon
 Decreased power: As airspeed decreases, progressively increase pitch to maintain altitude
a Once stable and level, maintain the new visual reference in relation to the horizon

6. RM: Hazards
A. See VIII. RM Concepts - Distractions, Task
Prioritization, SA
B. See VIII. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Failure to crosscheck and correctly
interpret outside and instrument
references
 Application of control movements rather
than pressures
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Faulty trim technique

Conclusion:

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 VIII.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

Brief review of the main points

286
VIII.B. Level Turns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to establishing and
maintaining a level turn.

Key Elements 1. Increased Back Pressure (HCL/VCL)

2. Coordination (Adverse Yaw)
3. Control Pressures

Elements 1. Flight Controls

2. How the Turn Works
3. Control Pressures
4. Trim Technique
5. Integrated Flight Instruction
6. Level Turns
7. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Model Airplane

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to turn at varying degrees of bank, maintaining altitude and
Standards airspeed.
VIII.B. Level Turns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Level turns sound boring and simple, but there is a lot more to turning than you might think, and a strong grasp on
this will make many other maneuvers considerably easier.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A level turn is a turn at a specified angle of bank in which altitude and airspeed are maintained.

Why
The ability to understand and fly a level turn is essential to the building of every pilot’s skill set. Level turns are the
building blocks to many more difficult maneuvers and will help the pilot in his or her control of the airplane.

How:
1. Flight Controls
A. All four primary controls are used in coordination when making turns
i. Ailerons - Bank the wings and determine the rate of turn at a given airspeed
ii. Elevator - Moves the nose up or down in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular to the wings
a. It sets the pitch attitude in the turn and “pulls” the nose around the turn
iii. Rudder - Offsets yaw effects developed by the other controls (is not used to turn the airplane)
iv. Throttle - Provides thrust which may be used to maintain airspeed during a turn
2. How the Turn Works
A. Changing the direction of the wing’s lift to either side causes the airplane to be pulled that direction
i. This is done by applying coordinated aileron and rudder to bank the airplane
B. Lift
i. In straight and level flight, the total lift is acting perpendicular to the wings and the Earth
a. As the plane is banked, lift becomes the resultant of two components:
 Vertical Component (VC) - Continues to act perpendicular to Earth and opposes gravity, or weight
 Horizontal Component (HC) - Acts parallel to Earth’s surface, opposes inertia (or Centrifugal Force)
b. The vertical and horizontal components act at right angles to each other (shown in the picture below);
total lift acts perpendicular to the banked wings
 The horizontal component of lift is what actually turns the airplane

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VIII.B. Level Turns

ii. Since a portion of vertical lift has been shifted to horizontal lift, AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
C. Adverse Yaw
i. When ailerons are deflected, lift and drag are increased on the
rising wing, and decreased on the lowering wing
ii. The change in drag between the wings results in yaw in the
opposite the direction of the turn (adverse yaw)
iii. To counter adverse yaw, rudder pressure is applied with aileron
in the direction of the turn
D. Overbanking Tendency
i. As turn radius gets smaller, a significant difference develops
between the speed of the inside wing and the outside wing
a. Outside wing travels a longer path, but in the same amount
of time as the inside wing
 Outside wing generates more lift
 Difference in lift increases bank
b. Shallow bank: the difference in lift is overcome by lateral stability
c. Medium bank: the lift differential matches lateral stability
d. High bank: the difference in lift outweighs lateral stability
 Aircraft continues to bank even with neutral controls
 Aileron pressure is required opposite the turn to
maintain bank angle
E. Rate of Turn
i. Dependent on airspeed & horizontal component of lift (HCL)
a. HCL (directly related to bank angle)
 As bank increases, the HCL increases
 Thus, steeper bank = higher the rate of turn
b. As airspeed increases, rate of turn decreases due to inertia
 The greater the inertia, the more the aircraft desires to
continue straight ahead and therefore the slower the rate of turn
 At a given angle of bank, higher airspeeds = reduced rate of turn, and a larger turn radius
F. Coordination
i. Coordinated rudder and aileron should be used in all turns (counter adverse yaw)
ii. Step on the ball to center it and maintain coordinated flight
iii. Uncoordinated flight results in decreased performance (excess drag)
3. Control Pressures
A. Control pressures should be light and just enough to produce the desired result
i. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
a. Use smooth, light pressure, not jerky movements
B. Overcoming Tenseness / Over-controlling
i. Signs of over-controlling: Jolty, large movements; white knuckles, overall nervousness
ii. Prevention
a. Point out over-controlling, help the student stay calm, demonstrate the pressures desired
b. Technique: put a pencil on top of the middle & ring finger / under the index & pointer finger
 Less fingers on the controls
 If overcontrolling, the pressure on the middle and ring finger reminds them to relax
4. Trim Technique
A. Most plane are designed to streamline the flight controls with the rest of the plane in straight-and-level flight at

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VIII.B. Level Turns

cruise speed, and standard weight and loading

i. Outside of this condition (faster, slower, heavier, lighter, change in balance, etc.) one or more of the control
surfaces will have to be held out of its streamlined position
ii. Trim tabs offset the constant flight control pressure inputs needed from the pilot
B. Trimming the Airplane
i. Set pitch and power, and let the airspeed stabilize
ii. Trim to relieve control pressures (with multiple tabs, trim rudder, then elevator, then aileron)
iii. Changes in pitch and power will require the plane to be trimmed again
a. On a longer flight, as CG changes with decreasing fuel trim will slowly have to be adjusted
iv. CE: Faulty trim technique
a. Trying to fly the airplane with trim is a common fault
b. With changing conditions, gusts, fuel burn, etc. it is necessary to trim often
5. Integrated Flight Instruction
A. Using outside references + flight instruments to establish and maintain flight attitudes and performance
B. The Basic Elements
i. 90% outside, 10% inside
ii. Use outside references to fly, validate the airplane’s attitude on the flight instruments
a. If the instruments indicate a correction is necessary, apply it in reference to the natural horizon
b. Verify the new attitude and performance on the flight instruments
C. CE: Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
6. Level Turns
A. Before turning, clear the area in the direction of the turn and complete the pre maneuver checklist
B. Entering the Turn, Establishing the Bank Angle
i. Outside References
a. Use the top of the engine cowling or glareshield to set bank and pitch attitude
 Crosscheck the turn with the instruments

b. Parallax Error
 The airplane rolls on the longitudinal axis
 With side-by-side seating, each pilot sits to one side of the longitudinal axis
 Left seat: Nose appears to rise in a left turn (pilot lowers) and appears to descend in a right turn
(pilot raises). Vice-versa for the pilot in the right seat

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VIII.B. Level Turns

c. Leaning – The pilot may lean away from the turn to remain upright in relation to the horizon
 Should be avoided and corrected immediately to properly use visual references
ii. Control Inputs
a. Aileron and rudder pressure should be input together
 Use small, smooth flight control inputs
a CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
 The faster and firmer aileron is applied, the faster the roll
 The longer the aileron pressure, the greater the bank
b. Coordination
 The nose should rotate on the horizon without leading or lagging the bank
 If the nose starts to move before the bank starts, rudder is being applied too soon
 If bank starts before the nose, or the nose moves in the opposite direction, the rudder is late
 CE: Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
c. Elevator Pressure
 As bank is established, gently increase back pressure to maintain altitude
a The smaller the bank, the less back pressure required, and vice-versa
d. Power
 As lift is increased to maintain altitude, drag is also increased, reducing airspeed
 Increase power to maintain airspeed (generally necessary above 30o of bank)
iii. Crosscheck – 90% outside, 10% inside
a. Establish the turn with outside references
 Bank – Angle of the engine cowling / glareshield and / or wings relative to the horizon
 Pitch – Height of the engine cowling or another point on the aircraft relative to the horizon
b. Crosscheck with the instruments
C. In the Turn
i. Reference the natural horizon, scan for traffic, and occasionally crosscheck the instruments
ii. Outside References
a. Maintain the relationship between the cowling and/or wings and horizon, while scanning for traffic
iii. Control Inputs
a. Aileron and Rudder (Maintaining Bank)
 Rudder and aileron pressure should be relaxed or adjusted, depending on the bank angle
 CE: Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
b. Elevator Pressure (Maintaining Altitude)
 Back pressure on the elevator should not be relaxed to maintain altitude
 Adjust trim as desired to maintain hands free level flight
c. Power (Maintaining Airspeed)

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 Once set, power should remain the same through the turn
 If the airspeed changes ± 5 knots, adjust to return to the desired speed
iv. Crosscheck and Adjust – 90% outside, 10% inside
a. Backup the outside references with the instruments
b. Adjustments
 If bank angle is too high or low, reestablish the desired bank using the ailerons and rudder
 If climbing / descending, adjust pitch in relation to the horizon, and crosscheck instruments
 Once the necessary adjustments have been made re-trim the airplane
c. CE: Faulty attitude and bank control
 Understand the relationship between bank and pitch
a Increased bank necessitates increased pitch to maintain altitude, and vice versa
d. CE: Failure to cross-check / correctly interpret outside and instrument references
D. Roll Out
i. Like the roll in except control pressures are used in the opposite direction
ii. Since the plane continues to turn with any bank, rollout is started prior to the desired heading
a. General rule: lead the rollout by approximately ½ the bank angle (this is a very slow roll out)
iii. As bank decreases, elevator pressure should be gently relaxed to maintain altitude
a. Horizontal component of lift is decreasing, and the vertical component of lift is increasing
iv. Power should be reduced to maintain the desired airspeed in straight flight
v. Establish straight-and-level with visual references and verify with the instruments
vi. Trim the airplane for level flight
7. RM: Hazards
A. See VIII. RM Concepts - Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA
B. See VIII. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
 Application of control movements rather than pressures
 Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
 Faulty attitude and bank control

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to straight and turning climbs.
The student will demonstrate the ability to perform a constant airspeed climb during straight
flight as well as in a turn. The student will learn the effects of climbs and be able to keep the
airplane coordinated throughout.

Key Elements 1. Increased Thrust

2. Coordination
3. Crosschecking

Elements 1. Flight Controls

2. Forces in the Climb
3. Types of Climbs
4. Control Pressures
5. Trim Technique
6. Integrated Flight Instruction
7. Straight Climb
8. Climbing Turn
9. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review Material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss Lesson Objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign Homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to maintain a constant airspeed climb while maintaining
Standards coordination and making any necessary adjustments. The student has the ability to notice
changes and properly correct for them by using outside references and crosschecking them
with the instruments.
 VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
As simple and boring as a climb sounds, it is part of the basis for your flying future. By understanding and having the
ability to properly and effectively put the airplane into a straight or turning climb you will be able to perform many
future maneuvers much easier.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
In straight and climbing turns the airplane is put into a climb attitude to gain altitude. The pitch and airspeed of the
airplane are maintained together to accomplish the climb.

Why
Climbs and climbing turns are part of the basis for all flying. By developing the skills necessary for basic climbs and
climbing turns the pilot will lay the groundwork for many future maneuvers.

How:
1. Flight Controls
A. All four primary controls are used in coordination when making climbs and climbing turns
i. Ailerons - Bank the wings and determine the rate of turn at a given airspeed
ii. Elevator - Moves the nose up or down in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular to the wings
a. It sets the pitch attitude in the turn and “pulls” the nose around the turn
iii. Rudder - Offsets yaw effects developed by the other controls (is not used to turn the airplane)
iv. Throttle - Provides thrust which may be used to maintain airspeed during a turn
2. Forces in the Climb
A. Forces of Flight
i. Summary
a. In a climb weight isn’t perpendicular to the flightpath, it acts
in a rearward direction (1)
 This causes an increase in total drag requiring an
increase in thrust (2)
b. An airplane can only sustain a climb angle when there is
sufficient thrust to offset increased drag
 Therefore, climb is limited by available, or excess, thrust
B. Propeller Effects
i. Propeller speed is significantly lower and the AOA is significantly greater than in cruise
a. Torque / asymmetrical loading of the propeller results in left roll and yaw
 Right rudder is necessary
3. Types of Climbs
G. Normal Climb (Cruise Climb)
i. Performed at an airspeed recommended by the airplane manufacturer
a. Usually faster than the best rate of climb, but provides better cooling, control, and visibility
H. Best Rate of Climb (VY)

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 VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

i. Airspeed that produces the most altitude gain in the least time (maximum feet per minute)
a. The airspeed where the most excess power is available over that required for level flight
 Power is the energy the engine produces
 As altitude increases, the airspeed for the best rate of climb decreases
I. Best Angle of Climb (VX)
i. Performed at an airspeed that will produce the most altitude gain in a given distance
a. Slower than VY
b. The airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over that required for level flight
 Thrust is what propels the airplane (the displaced air as a result of the spinning propeller)
 As altitude increases, the airspeed for the best angle of climb increases
c. VX will result in a steeper climb path, but will take longer to reach altitude than a climb at V Y

4. Control Pressures
A. Control pressures should be light and just enough to produce the desired result
i. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
a. Use smooth, light pressure, not jerky movements
B. Overcoming Tenseness / Over-controlling
i. Signs of over-controlling: Jolty, large movements; white knuckles, overall nervousness
ii. Prevention
a. Point out over-controlling, help the student stay calm, demonstrate the pressures desired
b. Technique: put a pencil on top of the middle & ring finger / under the index & pointer finger
 Less fingers on the controls
 If overcontrolling, the pressure on the middle and ring finger reminds them to relax
5. Trim Technique
A. Most plane are designed to streamline the flight controls with the rest of the plane in straight-and-level flight at
cruise speed, and standard weight and loading
i. Outside of this condition (faster, slower, heavier, lighter, change in balance, etc.) one or more of the control
surfaces will have to be held out of its streamlined position
ii. Trim tabs offset the constant flight control pressure inputs needed from the pilot
B. Trimming the Airplane
i. Set pitch and power, and let the airspeed stabilize
ii. Trim to relieve control pressures (with multiple tabs, trim rudder, then elevator, then aileron)
iii. Changes in pitch and power will require the plane to be trimmed again
a. On a longer flight, as CG changes with decreasing fuel trim will slowly have to be adjusted
iv. CE: Faulty trim technique
a. Trying to fly the airplane with trim is a common fault
b. With changing conditions, gusts, fuel burn, etc. it is necessary to trim often
6. Integrated Flight Instruction
A. Using outside references + flight instruments to establish and maintain flight attitudes and performance

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 VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

B. The Basic Elements

i. 90% outside, 10% inside
ii. Use outside references to fly, validate the airplane’s attitude on the flight instruments
a. If the instruments indicate a correction is necessary, apply it in reference to the natural horizon
b. Verify the new attitude and performance on the flight instruments
C. CE: Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
7. Straight Climb
A. Entering the Straight Climb
i. Simultaneously establish the pitch attitude (visual references) / power setting for the desired climb
a. Verify performance with the instruments
b. In many airplanes, as power is increased, an increase in slipstream over the horizontal stabilizer will
cause the nose to rise (creates a greater tail down force, lifting the nose)
 Anticipate it and maintain pitch in relation to the horizon
c. As power is increased, increase right rudder pressure to maintain coordination
 More info in lesson II.D. Principles of Flight
d. CE: Improper correction for torque effect
ii. Trim to maintain the climb pitch attitude
B. Maintaining the Straight Climb
i. Airspeed is controlled with elevator pressure
a. If the aircraft is too fast, raise the nose, let the airspeed stabilize, and trim. Opposite for slow
b. Make small adjustments relative to the known pitch attitude
 Crosscheck the change for the desired results on the instruments
c. CE: Failure to cross-check / correctly interpret outside and instrument references
ii. Keep the wings level to maintain heading
a. Use the same procedures as discussed in Straight-and-Level flight to visually maintain a heading
b. If off heading, use a bank angle equal to the degrees off to correct back
C. Returning to Straight-and-Level Flight
i. Initiate the level off at approximately 10% the rate of climb (500 fpm = 50’ before desired altitude)
ii. Smoothly and slowly lower the nose to the level flight attitude to allow the airspeed to increase
a. A loss of altitude will result if the pitch is changed too rapidly
b. Crosscheck the pitch attitude with the instruments
iii. Once in level flight, maintain the climb power setting temporarily to accelerate to cruise speed
a. Reduce rudder as power is reduced to maintain the desired speed
iv. Trim for level flight
8. Climbing Turn
A. Factors to Consider in a Climbing Turn vs a Straight Climb:
i. Turning reduces vertical lift, therefore more back pressure is necessary during a turning climb
ii. Bank Angle
a. Shallower bank angles provide for a more efficient rate of climb
b. In medium / steep banked turns climb performance is degraded, or possibly non-existent
iii. Adverse Yaw
a. CE: Improper correction for torque effect
 Left turn: Less right rudder pressure is required than in a straight climb
 Right turn: More right rudder pressure is required than in a straight climb
B. Entering the Climbing Turn
i. Climbing turns may be established in one of two ways:
a. Enter the climb first and then bank into the turn
b. Enter the climb and turn simultaneously

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 VIII.C. Straight Climbs & Climbing Turns

ii. The procedure

a. In both cases, establish pitch and bank in relation to the natural horizon while increasing power
 Anticipate and add the required right rudder pressure to maintain coordination
b. Crosscheck the attitude with the instruments and correct as required
c. Trim to maintain the pitch attitude / climb airspeed
C. Maintaining the Climbing Turn
i. Maintain a constant bank angle and pitch attitude
ii. To maintain a climbing turn we combine the level turns and straight climb references
a. Pitch is maintained in relation to the horizon as in a straight climb
b. Bank is maintained in relation to the angle of the cowling / glareshield / wings and the horizon
c. Crosscheck with the instruments and make the necessary adjustments
 A change in pitch or bank may require a change in the other
d. CE: Failure to cross-check / correctly interpret outside and instrument references
iii. Trim often to reduce pilot workload
D. Returning to Straight-and-Level Flight
i. Initiate the level off at approximately 10% the rate of climb (500 fpm = 50’ before desired altitude)
ii. Smoothly lower the nose and level the wings to return to the straight-and-level flight site picture
a. Attempt to level the nose and wings simultaneously
b. A loss of altitude will result if the pitch is changed too rapidly
iii. Maintain the climb power setting to accelerate to the cruise airspeed, then reduce the throttle
a. Reduce rudder as power is reduced
iv. Once stable, trim for straight-and-level flight
9. RM: Hazards
A. See VIII. RM Concepts - Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA
B. See VIII. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
 Application of control movements rather than pressures
 Improper correction for torque effect
 Faulty trim technique

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

297
VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to straight and turning
descents and can maintain a constant airspeed descent in both situations.

Key Elements 1. Decreased Drag

2. Coordination
3. Crosschecking

Elements 1. Flight Controls

2. Forces in the Descent
3. Types of Descents
4. Control Pressures
5. Trim Technique
6. Integrated Flight Instruction
7. Straight Descents
8. Turning Descents
9. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review Material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present lecture
3. Ask and answer questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the factors related to descents and can properly perform a descent
Standards while in straight or turning flight.
 VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Straight and turning descents are the final chapter of the fundamentals of flying. This, along with the other
fundamentals, is what everything else in flying builds upon. Getting these maneuvers right will improve all future
maneuvers.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A descent is made when the aircraft is put in a configuration which will result in a loss of altitude.

Why
Descents are a fundamental part of flight, understanding and being properly performing a descent will result in
everything else being considerably easier.

How:
1. Flight Controls
A. All four primary controls are used in coordination when making climbs and climbing turns
i. Ailerons - Bank the wings and determine the rate of turn at a given airspeed
ii. Elevator - Moves the nose up or down in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular to the wings
a. It sets the pitch attitude in the turn and “pulls” the nose around the turn
iii. Rudder - Offsets yaw effects developed by the other controls (is not used to turn the airplane)
iv. Throttle - Provides thrust which may be used to maintain airspeed during a turn
2. Forces in the Descent
A. In a descent, weight isn’t perpendicular to the flightpath (light blue
line in the picture)
i. It acts in a forward direction (#1 in picture)
ii. Effectively adds to thrust (#2 in picture) which means a
decrease in thrust (or increase in drag) is required to maintain
airspeed in the descent
iii. Ignoring drag devices, airspeed will increase if thrust is not
decreased in a descent
3. Types of Descents
A. Partial Power Descent – normal method of descending
i. The airspeed / power setting recommended by the manufacturer should be used
B. Descent at Minimum Safe Airspeed
i. Nose-high, power assisted descent (often used for clearing obstacles in a short field approach)
ii. Steeper than normal descent angle
iii. Excessive power is necessary to accelerate from the low airspeed should it become necessary
C. Emergency Descent
i. Some airplanes have a specific procedure for rapidly losing altitude in the POH
ii. In general, high drag / airspeed procedure requiring a specific configuration / speed, and often turns
D. Glide

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 VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

i. A basic maneuver in which the airplane loses altitude in a controlled descent with little or no power
ii. CE: Failure to clear engine and use carburetor heat, as appropriate
4. Control Pressures
A. Control pressures should be light and just enough to produce the desired result
i. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
a. Use smooth, light pressure, not jerky movements
B. Overcoming Tenseness / Over-controlling
i. Signs of over-controlling: Jolty, large movements; white knuckles, overall nervousness
ii. Prevention
a. Point out over-controlling, help the student stay calm, demonstrate the pressures desired
b. Technique: put a pencil on top of the middle & ring finger / under the index & pointer finger
 Less fingers on the controls
 If overcontrolling, the pressure on the middle and ring finger reminds them to relax
5. Trim Technique
A. Most plane are designed to streamline the flight controls with the rest of the plane in straight-and-level flight at
cruise speed, and standard weight and loading
i. Outside of this condition (faster, slower, heavier, lighter, change in balance, etc.) one or more of the control
surfaces will have to be held out of its streamlined position
ii. Trim tabs offset the constant flight control pressure inputs needed from the pilot
B. Trimming the Airplane
i. Set pitch and power, and let the airspeed stabilize
ii. Trim to relieve control pressures (with multiple tabs, trim rudder, then elevator, then aileron)
iii. Changes in pitch and power will require the plane to be trimmed again
a. On a longer flight, as CG changes with decreasing fuel trim will slowly have to be adjusted
iv. CE: Faulty trim technique
a. Trying to fly the airplane with trim is a common fault
b. With changing conditions, gusts, fuel burn, etc. it is necessary to trim often
6. Integrated Flight Instruction
A. Using outside references + flight instruments to establish and maintain flight attitudes and performance
B. The Basic Elements
i. 90% outside, 10% inside
ii. Use outside references to fly, validate the airplane’s attitude on the flight instruments
a. If the instruments indicate a correction is necessary, apply it in reference to the natural horizon
b. Verify the new attitude and performance on the flight instruments
C. CE: Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
7. Straight Descents
A. Entering the Straight Descent
i. Gently decrease power to the desired setting and maintain altitude to slow to descent speed
a. As power is reduced, the nose often tends to fall
 The decrease in the slipstream over the horizontal stabilizer reduces the tail down force
b. Slowly and gently increase back pressure to maintain altitude as speed reduces
ii. Establish the descent
a. Just prior to the descent airspeed, lower the nose to the descent pitch attitude on the horizon
b. Crosscheck the instruments and adjust pitch as necessary
iii. Once stable in the descent, trim to relieve the control pressures
a. CE: Faulty trim procedure
B. Maintaining the Descent
i. Since the power is fixed, airspeed is controlled by pitch

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a. If the aircraft is too fast, raise the nose, let the airspeed stabilize, and trim. Opposite for slow
ii. Keep the wings level to maintain the straight descent
a. Use the same procedures as discussed in Straight-and-Level flight to visually maintain a heading
b. If off heading, use a bank angle equal to the degrees off to correct back
iii. Maintain Coordination
a. Little, if any, rudder pressure will be required with reduced or idle power
b. Adverse yaw still exists - Maintain coordination during any turns with the turn coordinator
c. CE: Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
iv. Crosscheck for the desired results on the instruments and adjust as necessary
a. CE: Failure to cross-check / correctly interpret outside and instrument references
C. Returning to Straight-and-Level flight
i. Since the power is fixed, airspeed is controlled by pitch
a. If the aircraft is too fast, raise the nose, let the airspeed stabilize, and trim. Opposite for slow
ii. Keep the wings level to maintain the straight descent
a. Use the same procedures as discussed in Straight-and-Level flight to visually maintain a heading
b. If off heading, use a bank angle equal to the degrees off to correct back
iii. Maintain Coordination
a. Little, if any, rudder pressure will be required with reduced or idle power
b. Adverse yaw still exists - Maintain coordination during any turns with the turn coordinator
c. CE: Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
iv. Crosscheck for the desired results on the instruments and adjust as necessary
a. CE: Failure to cross-check / correctly interpret outside and instrument references
8. Turning Descents
A. Entering the Turning Descent
i. Descending turns can be established one of two ways:
a. Enter the descent first and then bank into the turn
b. Enter the descent and turn simultaneously
ii. The procedure
a. Reduce power and maintain altitude as airspeed slows
b. Just prior to reaching the descent airspeed, establish pitch and bank in relation to the horizon
 Crosscheck the instruments and fine tune airplane attitude
 Trim to relieve control pressures
B. Maintaining the Turning Descent
i. Pitch adjustments are made in the same way as in a straight descent
ii. Bank Adjustments
a. Increase or decrease bank to maintain the desired bank angle
b. Adjusting bank can affect airspeed and pitch will need adjusted
 If airspeed increases, increase back pressure
 If airspeed decreases, decrease back pressure
c. Trim to relieve the control pressures
d. CE: Application of control movements rather than pressures
iii. Maintain Coordination
a. Without power, the left turning tendencies are greatly reduced
b. Adverse yaw still exists - Maintain coordination during the turn using the turn coordinator
c. CE: Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
iv. Crosscheck for the desired results on the instruments
a. CE: Failure to cross-check / correctly interpret outside and instrument references
C. Returning to Straight-and-Level Flight

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 VIII.D. Straight Descents & Descending Turns

i. Very similar to the straight descent, except with the addition of rolling the wings level
ii. Lead the level off by 10% of the descent rate
iii. Smoothly increase to the cruise power setting, and begin to raise the nose / level the wings
a. Establish the straight-and-level site picture
b. Ensure attention is divide between pitch, bank, and coordination
 Attempt to level the nose and the wings simultaneously at the level off altitude
iv. Upon reaching cruise airspeed, set cruise power
i. Once stable, trim for straight-and-level flight
9. RM: Hazards
A. See VIII. RM Concepts - Distractions, Task Prioritization, SA
B. See VIII. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
 Application of control movements rather than pressures
 Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
 Faulty trim technique
 Failure to clear engine and use carburetor heat, as appropriate

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

302
VIII. RM Concepts

1. Distractions, SA & Disorientation & Task Management

A. Distractions
i. They’re dangerous
a. Remove distractions from view or, if a person, explain the situation and ask them to stop
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
ii. Maintain SA
a. Starts with preflight planning
b. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
c. Divide attention between inside and outside references
d. If SA is lost, admit it and fix the problem
iii. Disorientation can be caused by, or lead to, an upset
a. Push: Apply forward pressure to unload the plane
b. Roll: Roll aggressively to the nearest horizon
c. Thrust: Adjust as required
d. Stabilize: Return to a safe flight condition
iv. Lack of Visual References
a. Reference II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance and II.M. Night Operations
b. Trust the instruments
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
iv. Proper task management can help prevent distractions, loss of SA, and disorientation
v. Safety is the number one priority – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
2. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Scanning
a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
b. Divide attention between flying and scanning for aircraft
ii. Clearing Procedures
a. Climb/Descent: Execute gentle banks to scan above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
b. Prior to any turn: Clear in the direction of the turn
c. Pre-Maneuver: Clearing turns – clear above/below, in front/behind
iii. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
iv. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 VIII. RM Concepts

 If the aircraft are different categories:

a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
B. Terrain
i. Study terminal charts and IFR/VFR chart altitudes, use Max Elevation Figures (MEFs)
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which can extend 1,500’ horizontally from the structure
ii. Overhead Wires (may not be lighted)
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
D. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
i. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property
ii. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
iii. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely populated
areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure

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IX. Performance Maneuvers
IX.A. Steep Turns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to steep turns (load factors,
torque, adverse yaw, and the overbanking tendency). The student should have the ability to
perform a steep turn as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Overbanking Tendency

2. Coordination
3. Increased back pressure and thrust
4. Maintain altitude with elevators and/or bank angle

Elements 1. Maximum Performance Turn

2. The Science Behind It
3. Performing the Steep Turn
4. Division of Attention
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the characteristics behind the factors involved in the steep turn and
Standards can properly perform them in both directions maintaining altitude and airspeed.
 IX.A. Steep Turns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Steep turns - the first really fun maneuver! Steep banks, you feel some Gs and you’re staring at the ground out the
side window!

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The steep turn maneuver consists of a constant altitude turn in either direction, using a bank angle between 45 o to
60o (45o - Private, or 50o - Commercial). This will cause an overbanking tendency during which maximum turning
performance is attained and relatively high load factors are imposed.

Why
Steep turns develop smoothness, coordination, orientation to outsides references, division of attention between
control inputs and the constant need to scan for traffic, and control techniques necessary for the execution of
maximum performance turns. The pilot also understands the effects of the over banking tendency and how to
counteract it.

How:
1. Maximum Performance Turn
A. An airplane’s maximum turning performance is its fastest rate of turn and shortest radius of turn
i. This changes with both airspeed and angle of bank
a. The higher the airspeed, the bigger the radius
b. The higher the bank angle, the smaller the radius
B. In addition to other factors, the maximum bank angle is determined by the limiting load factor which can be
maintained without stalling or exceeding the airplane’s structural limitations
a. In most small airplanes the max bank is approx. 50o to 60o
2. The Science Behind It
A. What makes an airplane turn?
i. As an aircraft banks lift is divided into a horizontal as well as a vertical component
a. The horizontal component of lift pulls the aircraft through the turn
b. The vertical component of lift must be increased to maintain altitude

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 IX.A. Steep Turns

B. Bank Angle, Load Factor and Stall Speed

i. Basics
a. Load factor is the result of two forces: Centrifugal force & Weight
b. Assuming level flight, as bank angle increases, the load factor and stall speed also increase
 The opposite also applies – decreasing bank angle decreases load factor and stall speed
ii. Load Factors
a. As bank increases beyond 45o, the loads on the aircraft increase rapidly
 60o bank = load factor of 2 Gs
 70o bank = approximately 3 Gs
iii. Stall Speed
a. Stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
b. Ex. In a 3G turn, a plane that normally stalls at 50 KIAS will stall at about 85 knots

C.

Adverse Yaw
i. When banking, lift and drag are increased on the raised wing, and decreased on the lowered wing
ii. The difference in drag between the wings results in yaw in the opposite the direction of the turn
iii. To counter adverse yaw, rudder is applied with aileron in the direction of the turn
D. Torque Effect (left rolling tendency)
i. Newton’s 3rd Law – every action has an equal and opposite reaction
a. The internal engine parts and propeller are revolving in one direction (clockwise from the pilot’s
perspective), an equal force is trying to rotate the airplane in the opposite direction (counterclockwise,
or left, from the pilot’s perspective)
b. This force acts around the longitudinal axis, tending to make the airplane roll to the left
 The faster the engine/prop are spinning, the stronger the left turning tendency
ii. Torque Effect in Turns
iii. Newton’s 3rd Law – every action has an equal and opposite reaction
a. The internal engine parts and propeller are revolving in one direction
(clockwise / right), an equal force is trying to rotate the airplane in the
opposite direction (counterclockwise / left)
b. Acts around the longitudinal axis, resulting in a roll to the left
iv. Torque Effect in Turns
a. Torque is based on the speed the engine / propeller are rotating
 The higher the power setting, the greater the turning tendency
b. Trim tabs combat torque effect in cruise in most small planes

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 IX.A. Steep Turns

 Thus, torque effect is generally negligible in a steep turn

 Large power changes could require bank adjustments though
c. Left Turn
 Torque, as a left rolling tendency, encourages a left turn
 Combined with other left turning tendencies can result in a skid
 Increase right rudder / reduce left rudder to counter the skid
d. Right Turn
 Torque, as a left rolling tendency, discourages a right turn
 Combined with other left turning tendencies can result in a slip
 Increase right rudder / reduce left rudder to counter the slip
E. Rate of Turn
i. Degrees per second the aircraft is turning
ii. Rate of turn is affected by both the bank angle and airspeed
a. As bank angle increases, so does the rate of turn
b. As airspeed increases, the rate of turn decreases
F. Radius of Turn
i. Size of circle an aircraft would fly during a turn
ii. Radius of turn is also affected by both the bank angle and airspeed (but opposite to Rate of Turn)
a. As bank angle increases, the radius of turn decreases
b. As airspeed increases, the radius of turn increases
G. Overbanking Tendency
i. As turn radius becomes smaller, a difference develops between the
speed of the inside wing & outside wing
a. Outside wing travels a longer path, but in the same amount of
time as the inside wing
 Outside wing generates more lift
 Difference in lift can increase bank
b. Shallow bank: the difference in lift is overcome by lateral stability
c. Medium bank: the lift differential matches lateral stability
d. High bank: the difference in lift outweighs lateral stability
 Aircraft continues to bank even with neutral flight controls
 Aileron pressure is required in the direction opposite the turn
to maintain bank angle
H. Maneuvering Speed (VA)
i. Maximum speed at which the aircraft will stall prior to exceeding airframe limitations
a. Above VA, full control deflection can result in stresses greater than the aircraft is designed to handle
ii. Weight Changes (Bold Method Video)
a. VA increases with weight - This means the aircraft can maneuver at higher airspeeds when heavy
iii. Perform all maneuvers, steep turns included, at or below VA
3. Performing the Steep Turn
A. Before Starting
i. Select an altitude – No lower than 1,500’ AGL
ii. Pre-maneuver checklist
iii. RM: Clearing turns (especially important due to rapid rate of turn)
iv. Establish the recommended entry airspeed, or a speed that does not exceed VA
v. Ensure the aircraft is in straight-and-level flight, and trimmed
B. Entering the Turn

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i. Note the entry heading and a visual reference to roll out on

ii. Smoothly roll into the desired bank angle – 45o (Private); 50o (Commercial)
a. RM: Coordination - Simultaneously apply rudder to maintain coordination
b. Passing about 30o of bank, add back pressure to maintain altitude, and power for airspeed
 Establish pitch / bank with visual references, crosscheck on the instruments
c. Establish opposite aileron as necessary
d. Trim as necessary
iii. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry
C. During the Turn
i. RM: Do not focus or stare at any one object (RM: Division of attention between control & orientation)
a. Awareness of the horizon relative to the nose/wings is necessary to maintain altitude & orientation
 90% outside, 10% inside
b. CE: Loss of orientation
 Orientation is not just the bank/pitch attitude but where you are and what is around you
 Note the entry heading and find a visual reference to use, continue to scan for traffic
 Glance at the heading indicator and check visual references to know where you are in the turn
ii. Adjustments
a. Altitude ±
 Relax or increase elevator pressure as appropriate
a Small changes. Large changes lead to fast movement and a yo-yo effect
b Power should be adjusted to maintain airspeed
 Changes in bank may also be used to control altitude deviations
a 1o to 3o of bank stays within bank tolerances
b Increasing bank decreases lift; Decreasing bank increases lift
 CE: Improper procedure in correcting altitude deviations
b. Bank
 Adjust bank to maintain the required bank angle, pitch will likely need adjusted as well
a If bank is shallow, increase bank and add back pressure to maintain altitude, and vice versa
iii. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
D. Roll Out
i. General rule: Begin the rollout approximately ½ the bank angle from your entry heading (20 o – 25o)
ii. Time the rollout so the wings reach level flight when on the heading from which the maneuver was started
iii. Gradually reduce back pressure and power as bank is decreased
iv. If elevator was trimmed up, remove the trim during the rollout to prevent a large increase in altitude
v. CE: Loss of orientation (know where you are in the turn)
vi. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
4. RM: Division of Attention (Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization)
A. Dividing Attention
i. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
ii. Orientation does not just include the aircraft attitude, but also where you are and what/who is around you
B. Distractions
i. Distractions can lead to excessive changes in altitude, loss of orientation, and an inability to clear for traffic
ii. Focus on aircraft performance and clear for traffic
C. Situational Awareness & Disorientation
i. High turn rate & G forces make disorientation/loss of SA more common in steep turns than many maneuvers
ii. Note entry heading on the heading indicator as well as by a visual outside reference
iii. If disoriented, stop the maneuver, admit the problem, and take action to regain SA/orientation

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 IX.A. Steep Turns

D. Task Prioritization
i. A lot of things happen quickly during a steep turn, but safely flying the aircraft comes first
5. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper procedure in correcting altitude deviations
 Loss of orientation

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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IX.B. Steep Spirals

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should be able to perform the steep spiral maneuver to ACS/PTS standards
adjusting for varying wind speed and direction as well as changing bank angles.

Key Elements 1. Similar to Turns Around a Point

2. Increased Groundspeed = Increased Bank
3. Decreased Groundspeed = Decreased Bank
4. Keep the reference between the wing root and fuselage

Elements 1. Steep Spirals & Emergency Landings

2. Rules
3. Performing a Steep Spiral
4. Distractions
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the elements involved in a properly flown steep spiral. The student
Standards can apply those elements to a well flown, coordinated steep spiral.
 IX.B. Steep Spirals

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This can be a really cool maneuver, especially when combined with a power off 180 o landing. The ability to maintain
a position over the ground, while descending (as in an emergency landing) makes for a much more confident pilot.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A steep spiral is a constant gliding turn, during which a constant radius around a point on the ground is maintained
similar to the turn around a point maneuver.

Why
The steep spiral improves pilot techniques for airspeed control, wind drift control, planning, orientation, and division
of attention. The steep spiral is not only a valuable flight training maneuver, but it has practical application in
providing a procedure for dissipating altitude while remaining over a selected spot in preparation for landing,
especially for emergency forced landings.

How:
1. Steep Spirals & Emergency Landings
A. Trains the pilot to efficiently manage an engine failure and set themselves up for a successful, controlled landing
B. In the case of an engine failure, proceed directly to an emergency landing airport/area
i. Arriving with too much altitude, the pilot can apply the steep spiral to:
a. Lose altitude while remaining directly over the landing zone
b. Control and plan the descent to enter downwind at the most suitable altitude based on conditions
c. Perform a controlled power-off 180 landing
2. Rules
A. Maintain an equal radius turn around a point – Approximately ¼ mile is a good reference
i. The radius should be such that the steepest bank will not exceed 60o
ii. Bank angle is increased as groundspeed increases, and decreased as groundspeed decreases
B. Enter on the downwind (groundspeed is the highest – Establishes the steepest bank at the start)
C. The spiral should be continued through three 360o spirals
i. Should not continue below 1,500’ AGL unless performing an emergency landing in conjunction
ii. Triple the approximate altitude lost per turn and add
1,500’ to it to plan a minimum entry altitude
D. Clear the engine headed into the wind
i. Minimizes variation in groundspeed / radius
3. Performing a Steep Spiral
A. Before Starting
i. Establish the required altitude
ii. Select a ground reference point
a. Small reference point (house, silo, etc.)
b. Should be in a sparsely populated area that
permits an emergency landing

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iii. Pre-maneuver checklist / clear the area

iv. Enter on the downwind, ¼ mile off the point
B. Entering the Spiral
i. Close the throttle and establish the
recommended airspeed, trim the aircraft
ii. When passing next to the point the aircraft
will block the pilot’s view of the point
a. Technique: Once the point disappears,
wait a few seconds, and start the turn
when past the reference point,
establishing the ¼ radius (early turn puts
you over the point)
iii. Establish the initial bank angle and establish
the proper site picture with the reference
point
a. 45o is a good starting point
iv. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
C. During the Spiral
i. Divide attention between the ground reference point, other references, and the instruments
a. Monitor the altitude lost during each turn to establish the final 360 and plan a pattern entry
ii. Adjust bank based on changing winds during the descent to maintain a uniform radius
iii. RM: Wind Correction
a. The higher the groundspeed, the steeper the bank required, and vice versa
 Higher speeds = bigger radius, therefore bank must be increased with a tailwind
b. As the airplane transitions into a headwind, bank must be decreased
c. Wind direction and speed may change during the descent
d. Adjust for winds to maintain the ground reference point / ¼ mile radius site picture
iv. Airspeed Correction
a. Inconsistent airspeeds vary the turn radius and therefore the bank required
b. Adjust pitch to maintain speed
 Small, smooth, proactive changes
c. Large speed changes may require a change in bank to maintain the radius
d. CE: Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius
v. RM/CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
a. Uncoordinated flight results in additional drag and airspeed changes
 Failure to hold a constant airspeed varies turn radius and the required bank angle
b. Do not use rudder to increase or decrease the rate of turn to adjust the ground track
vi. Divide attention between the reference point and instruments
a. In a real-life scenario: Check the amount of altitude being lost during each turn to establish the last 360
and entry to the downwind/base leg for an emergency landing
vii. CE: Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius
D. Rolling out of the Turn
i. After completing three complete rotations, roll out within 10o of the entry heading
a. CE: Failure to stay orientated to the number of turns and the rollout heading
 Techniques: Count the turns out loud, bug the entry heading
ii. There should be no increase or decrease of airspeed transitioning to the straight glide
a. Be smooth, controlled, and coordinated
b. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during completion

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4. RM: Distractions
A. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
i. Fixation on one thing results in the others being neglected and a poorly performed maneuver
B. Orientation isn’t just aircraft attitude, but also where you are and what or who is around you
C. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety comes first
5. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius
 Failure to stay orientated to the number of turns and the rollout heading

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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IX.C. Chandelles

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should be able to complete a Chandelle taking into account the changing airspeed
and maneuver as prescribed in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Maximum Performance

2. 1st 90o - Constant Bank, Changing Pitch
3. 2nd 90o - Constant Pitch, Changing Bank
4. Coordination

Elements 1. Aerodynamics Recap

2. Maximum Performance
3. Performing the Chandelle
4. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can perform a smooth, well-coordinated chandelle without the instructor’s
Standards guidance. The student also understands the factors influencing control and coordination
throughout the maneuver.
 IX.C. Chandelles

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The Chandelle is a Maximum Performance climbing 180o turn. We’re going to get the airplane to climb as much as we
possibly can, going from VA down to just above the stalling speed.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A maximum performance climbing turn beginning from approximately straight and level flight, and ending at the
completion of a precise 180o turn in a wings level, nose high attitude at the minimum controllable airspeed. The
airplane should gain the most altitude possible for a given degree of bank and power setting without stalling.

Why
This maneuver greatly develops the pilot’s coordination, orientation, planning, and accuracy of control during
maximum performance flight. In real-life scenarios, it provides the pilot the ability to make a maximum performance
climbing turn which can be useful in confined areas

How:
1. Aerodynamics Recap
A. Maneuvering Speed (VA)
i. Maximum speed at which the aircraft will stall prior to exceeding airframe limitations
a. Above VA, full control deflection can result in stresses greater than the aircraft is designed to handle
ii. Weight Changes (Bold Method Video)
a. VA increases with weight - This means the aircraft can maneuver at higher airspeeds when heavy
iii. Perform all maneuvers at or below VA
B. Bank Angle, Load Factor and Stall Speed
i. Basics
a. Load factor is the result of two forces: Centrifugal force & Weight
b. Assuming level flight, as bank angle increases, the load factor and stall speed also increase
 The opposite also applies – decreasing bank angle decreases load factor and stall speed
ii. Load Factors
a. As bank increases beyond 45o, the loads on the aircraft increase rapidly
 60o bank = load factor of 2 Gs
 70o bank = approximately 3 Gs
iii. Stall Speed
a. Stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor

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 IX.C. Chandelles

b. Ex. In a 3G turn, a plane that normally stalls at 50 KIAS will stall at about 85 knots
iv.

Chandelles & Accelerated Stalls

a. The airplane will stall at a higher indicated airspeed when excessive maneuvering loads are imposed
b. Smoothly and positively apply the control pressures to execute the chandelle
 Abrupt, aggressive control inputs could lead to an accelerated stall
C. Overbanking Tendency
i. As turn radius becomes smaller, a difference develops between the speed of the inside wing & outside wing
a. Outside wing travels a longer path, but in the same amount of
time as the inside wing
 Outside wing generates more lift
 Difference in lift can increase bank
b. Shallow bank: the difference in lift is overcome by lateral
stability
c. Medium bank: the lift differential matches lateral stability
d. High bank: the difference in lift outweighs lateral stability
 Aircraft continues to bank even with neutral flight controls
 Aileron pressure is required in the direction opposite the
turn to maintain bank angle
ii. Overbanking Tendency and the Chandelle
a. Opposite aileron is necessary in the slow, nose high turn near
the top of the Chandelle to prevent overbanking
D. RM: Turn Rate & Radius
i. Rate of Turn
a. Degrees per second the aircraft is turning
b. Affected by both the bank angle and airspeed
 As bank angle increases, so does the rate of turn
 As airspeed increases, the rate of turn decreases
ii. Radius of Turn
a. Size of circle an aircraft would fly during a turn
b. Also affected by both the bank angle and airspeed (but opposite to Rate of Turn)
 As bank angle increases, the radius of turn decreases
 As airspeed increases, the radius of turn increases
iii. Confined Area Operations
a. Minimizing radius and maximizing turn rate provides the most confined area for a turn
 Higher bank and slower airspeed

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 IX.C. Chandelles

2. Maximum Performance
A. The plane should gain the most altitude possible for a degree of bank and power setting without stalling
i. However, since numerous variables affect the amount of altitude gained, altitude gained is not a criterion on
the quality of the chandelle
3. Performing the Chandelle
A. Before Starting
i. Select an altitude – no lower than 1,500’ AGL
ii. Pre-maneuver checklist; clear the area of
traffic
iii. Straight-and-level flight at VA, with flaps and
gear (if retractable) in the UP position
iv. Note / bug the heading (rollout will be on the
reciprocal heading)
v. Choose a visual reference point 90o off the
wing in the direction of the turn
B. First 90o – Constant bank, Changing pitch
i. Smoothly enter a coordinated 30o turn
a. Maintain bank until 90o point
b. Correct for any variations / overbanking tendency
ii. With bank established, apply max power, and initiate a climbing turn
a. No other power adjustments are made during the maneuver
b. Smoothly apply back pressure to reach the highest pitch attitude as 90o of the turn is completed
 Intent is to be halfway between entry speed and min controllable airspeed at 90 o point
 Divide attention between visual references, the 90o reference point, and instruments
c. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
 If the pitch is increased too quickly the aircraft will stall before reaching 180 o
 If the pitch is increased too slowly, the aircraft will not come close to the stall speed
 CE: A stall during the maneuver
iii. Maintain Coordination
a. As speed decreases, torque effect becomes more pronounced / controls become less effective
 Right rudder should be gradually increased to control yaw and keep coordinated
b. In a left turn, less right rudder will be necessary than in a right turn
c. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
iv. 90o Point: Airspeed should be about midway between entry speed and minimum controllable speed
a. Bank is at 30o, pitch is at the highest pitch attitude
C. 2 90o – Constant pitch, Changing bank
nd

i. Begin rolling out of the bank at a constant rate while maintaining a constant-pitch attitude
a. Roll out approximately 10o of bank for every 30o of heading change
ii. As airspeed decreases, increased back pressure is required to maintain a constant pitch attitude
a. Left turning tendencies become more prevalent; right rudder is necessary to remain coordinated
b. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
iii. 180o Point: Airspeed is just reaching minimum controllable airspeed
a. Bank has been reduced to wings level, pitch is at the highest pitch attitude
b. CE: Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes
D. The Rollout
i. Time the rollout so that wings are level at the 180o point
ii. Pitch attitude should be held momentarily while at the minimum controllable airspeed
iii. Left Chandelle Rollout – Considerable right rudder is required (adverse yaw / left turning tendencies)

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iv. Right Chandelle Rollout – Less right rudder correction is needed

a. Right rudder should be gradually released, use left rudder if necessary
v. In either case once the wings are level, torque / p-factor are acting alone again
vi. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
vii. CE: Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
E. Finishing the maneuver
i. Gradually reduce pitch to level flight, and accelerate while maintaining altitude
a. Increase right rudder as pitch decreases to counter gyroscopic precession of the propeller
b. Adjust pitch, power, and trim for cruise flight
F. CE: Factors related to failure in achieving maximum performance
i. Maximum performance is degraded if pitch, bank, power or coordination is not established correctly
G. RM: Dividing Attention
i. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Over concentration inside or outside will result in the other being neglected and a poor maneuver
b. Allows the pilot to divide attention between aircraft control and orientation
 Orientation is not just aircraft attitude, but also where you are and what or who is around you
ii. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety comes first
4. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes
 Factors related to failure in achieving maximum performance
 A stall during the maneuver

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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IX.D. Lazy Eights

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should understand the elements and necessary control inputs to perform the lazy
eight maneuver. The student should show the ability to perform a coordinated, well planned
and oriented lazy eight as prescribed in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Transfer of Energy

2. Constantly changing control pressures
3. Symmetry

Elements 1. Relating the Maneuver

2. Performing the Lazy Eight
3. Energy Management
4. Overbanking Tendency
5. Rudder Control
6. Summary
7. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the elements involved in performing a lazy eight and can perform the
Standards lazy eight on their own.
 IX.D. Lazy Eights

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Who wants to be a crop duster when they grow up? This is the maneuver you have to know if you want to crop dust.
And, although challenging, it’s a pretty fun maneuver.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A maneuver consisting of two 180o turns in opposite directions, while making a climb and descent in a symmetrical
pattern during each of the turns. It is designed to develop proper coordination of controls through a wide range of
airspeeds and attitudes so that certain accuracy points are reached with planned attitude and airspeed. It is the only
standard flight training maneuver during which at no time do the forces on the controls remain constant.

Why
The lazy eight develops proper coordination of the controls through a wide range of airspeeds and attitudes. It is a
great trainer because of the constantly varying forces and attitudes required. It also helps develop subconscious feel,
planning, orientation, coordination, and speed sense.

How:
1. Relating the Maneuver
A. The maneuver can be compared to a half pipe and a transfer of energy
i. A transfer of energy as we climb the half pipe and then descend on the other side
a. The energy is used to get to the top, then we ride the ‘pipe’ back down
B. Crop-dusting maneuver
2. Performing the Lazy Eight
A. Before Starting
i. Select an altitude – No lower than 1,500’ AGL
ii. Pre-maneuver checklist; Clear the area of traffic
iii. Straight-and-level flight, at or below VA
iv. Choose visual reference points at 45o,
90o, & 135o in the direction of turn
a. Should be easily identifiable
b. Don’t use points that are too
close, ensure that they are
toward or on the horizon
c. CE: Poor selection of reference
points
B. Starting the Lazy Eight
i. Begin a gradual climbing turn toward
the 45o reference point
a. Intent is to reach maximum
pitch / 15o of bank at the 45o
point

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b. Pitch must be increased faster than bank

 As pitch is increased airspeed decreases and therefore rate of turn increases
a Since bank is also being increased, the rate of turn is further increasing
 Decreasing airspeed means increased torque necessitating right rudder
C. 45o point: Pitch is at the maximum and bank is at 15o
D. 45o to 90o
i. Bank should continue to increase at the same rate to reach 30o at the 90o point
a. Opposite aileron may be required to maintain the bank angle (maintain coordination)
ii. Pitch will decrease from maximum to pass through level flight at the 90o point
a. Decrease at the same rate as the increase in the initial climbing turn
b. As the aircraft continues to slow, additional right rudder pressure is necessary
 Right rudder pressure will be highest at the slowest point (90 o point of the turn)
E. At the 90o point
i. Bank should be at the maximum angle (approximately 30o)
ii. Airspeed should be at its minimum (5 to 10 knots above the stall speed)
iii. Pitch should be passing through level flight
F. 90o to 135o
i. Airplane should be flown into a descending turn
a. Nose should describe the same size loop below the horizon as it did above
ii. Bank is consistently decreased to reach 15o of bank at the 135o turn point
iii. Pitch is decreased to reach the maximum pitch down at 135o of turn
a. Guide the nose down, don’t dive
b. Max pitch down is less than max pitch
 Gravity, thrust, and forward component of lift work together to descend the aircraft
iv. As airspeed increases, right rudder pressure will need to be relaxed
G. 135o point: Pitch is at the minimum and bank is at 15o
H. 135o to 180o
i. Continue to decrease bank to level the wings at the 180o point
ii. Increase pitch to bring the nose back to the horizon
iii. Bank and pitch should reach straight-and-level flight at the 180o point
a. Note the amount of turn remaining and adjust the rate of rollout / pitch
b. As airspeed continues to increase, reduce rudder and aileron pressure
iv. Altitude should be where the maneuver was started
I. 180o point
i. Upon returning to the starting altitude and the 180o point, a climbing turn should be started immediately in
the opposite direction using the same visual references
ii. The second turn should mimic the first as closely as possible
J. CE: Inconsistent airspeed and altitude at key points
K. RM: Dividing Attention
i. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Over concentration inside or outside will result in the other being neglected and a poor maneuver
b. Allows the pilot to divide attention between aircraft control and orientation
 Orientation is not just bank/pitch attitude, but also where you are and what or who is around you
ii. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety first
3. RM: Energy Management
A. Unsymmetrical Eights
i. A lazy eight should consist of two symmetrical 180-degree turns, in opposite directions
ii. A failure to manage energy leads to unsymmetrical turns. Differences between the two turns can include:

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a. Differing pitch attitudes and/or bank angles

b. Differing rate of pitch and/or bank
c. Uncoordinated flight
B. Altitude Changes
i. If excess power is used, the aircraft will have gained altitude at the end of the maneuver
ii. If insufficient power is used, the aircraft will have lost altitude
4. Overbanking Tendency
A. As turn radius becomes smaller, a difference develops between the
speed of the inside wing & outside wing
i. Outside wing travels a longer path, but in the same amount of
time as the inside wing
a. Outside wing generates more lift
b. Difference in lift can increase bank
ii. Shallow bank: difference in lift is overcome by lateral stability
iii. Medium bank: the lift differential matches lateral stability
iv. High bank: the difference in lift outweighs lateral stability
a. Aircraft continues to bank even with neutral flight controls
b. Aileron pressure is required in the direction opposite the
turn to maintain bank angle
B. Overbanking Tendency and the Lazy Eight
i. Use opposite aileron to maintain bank at the When in a nose high turning attitude at a slow airspeed, as at
the top of the maneuver, bank will increase
ii. Use opposite aileron to maintain desired bank angle and prevent overbanking
5. RM: Rudder Control
A. As airspeed decreases, considerable right rudder is gradually applied to counter left turning tendencies
i. Pressure is the greatest at the point of lowest airspeed
B. More right rudder is needed in the right turn – compensates for adverse yaw + left turn tendencies
i. In the left turn, adverse yaw counteracts some of the left turning tendencies
C. Climbing right turn: controls are slightly crossed due to overbanking tendency / left turning tendencies
i. Remain coordinated, this is fine
D. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
6. Summary
A. The maneuver requires constantly changing control pressures
i. Not possible to perform it mechanically
B. CE: Loss of orientation / Excessive deviation from reference points
i. Divide attention between visual references, pitch, bank, airspeed, coordination, reference points
ii. Talk through the maneuver at each 45o point. Know what you’re going to do
C. CE: Unsymmetrical loops resulting from poorly planned pitch and bank attitude changes
i. Use smooth, controlled inputs to obtain constant rate pitch and bank changes
ii. Don’t be aggressive
7. RM: Hazards
A. Accelerated Stalls
i. The aircraft will stall at a higher indicated airspeed when excessive maneuvering loads are imposed on it
a. Pitching and rolling actions tend to be more sudden
ii. Recovery
a. Promptly release back elevator pressure, increase power, return to straight and level, coordinated flight
iii. Accelerated Stalls and Lazy Eights
a. Use smooth, controlled inputs. Avoid aggressive/excessive control inputs, especially close to the ground

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 IX.D. Lazy Eights

b. Fly it as described, lazy

B. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
D. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Poor selection of reference points
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Unsymmetrical loops resulting from poorly planned pitch and bank attitude changes
 Inconsistent airspeed and altitude at key points
 Loss of orientation
 Excessive deviation from reference points

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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IX.E. Ground Reference Maneuvers

The ACS combines Rectangular Course, S-Turns, and Turns Around a Point into a single task. We’ve kept them as
individual lessons.

 Rectangular Course
 S-Turns
 Turns Around a Point
 IX.E. Rectangular Course

IX.E. Rectangular Course

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the rectangular course and
the elements involved in maintaining a proper ground track. The student will have the ability
to perform the maneuver as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Plan Ahead

2. Wind Corrections
3. Coordination

Elements 1. The Basics

2. Performing the Rectangular Course
3. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands how wind can affect the ground track of the airplane and has the
Standards ability to make the necessary corrections to maintain a uniform ground track, especially while
in the traffic pattern.

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 IX.E. Rectangular Course

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This maneuver will make the traffic pattern much more natural and easier…

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A training maneuver in which the ground track of the airplane is equidistant from all sides of a selected rectangular
area on the ground.

Why
This maneuver simulates the conditions encountered in a traffic pattern and therefore prepares the student for traffic
pattern work. It assists in practicing:

How:
1. The Basics
A. The rectangular course replicates a traffic pattern
B. Flown parallel to, and at a uniform distance (½ to ¾ mile) from the boundaries
C. All turns should be started and completed at the field boundaries (see maneuver picture)
i. The closer the aircraft is to the boundaries, the steeper the bank necessary at the turning points
a. Airplane Flying Handbook: Limit bank to 45o for all ground reference maneuvers
b. More sensible to practice at the traffic pattern limit of 30o of bank to establish good habits
D. Turn Rate & Radius Recap
i. Rate of Turn
a. Degrees per second the aircraft is turning
b. Affected by both the bank angle and airspeed
 As bank angle increases, so does the rate of turn
 As airspeed increases, the rate of turn decreases
ii. Radius of Turn
a. Size of circle an aircraft would fly during a turn
b. Also affected by both the bank angle and airspeed (but opposite to Rate of Turn)
 As bank angle increases, the radius of turn decreases
 As airspeed increases, the radius of turn increases
E. Wind Correction
i. Crab – With any crosswind, the airplane will have to be crabbed into the wind
a. Use coordinated flight controls to point the aircraft into the wind; adjust crab for wind strength
ii. Roll Rate – Adjust roll rate to prevent drifting closer or farther from the desired course
a. If wind will push the plane to toward the course, the roll rate should be slow
b. If wind will push the airplane away from the course, the roll rate should he high
iii. Bank Angle –Amount of bank will vary with groundspeed
a. Higher groundspeed (tailwind) requires steeper bank to maintain the track
b. Slower groundspeed (headwind), requires a shallower bank to maintain the track
c. As groundspeed changes during a turn, bank will have to change with it

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 IX.E. Rectangular Course

 If groundspeed decreases through the turn, bank should decrease through the turn
 If groundspeed increases through the turn, bank should increase through the turn
iv. CE: Improper correction for wind drift
a. Stay ahead of the aircraft and know what is coming next
F. Coordination
i. The airplane must remain in coordinated flight at all times
a. Don’t use the rudder to correct for wind drift, turn the plane with coordinated controls
b. Don’t use the rudder to encourage a turn, this could result in a crossed-control situation
ii. CE: Uncoordinated flight control application
G. Airspeed (± 10 knots)
i. Keep airspeed in your crosscheck. Increase or decrease power as necessary
H. RM: Division of Attention
i. The maneuver requires you to divide attention between the leg distance, turns, altitude, and airspeed
ii. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Over concentration inside or outside will result in the other being neglected and a poor maneuver
b. Allows the pilot to divide attention between aircraft control and the orientation
 Orientation is not just the bank/pitch attitude, but also where you are and what/who is around you
iii. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety first
iv. CE: Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed (± 100’ / ± 10 knots)
a. Divide attention between visual references / instruments; be proactive in noticing / fixing deviations
v. CE: Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
a. Leads to poorly executed turns and wind correction
2. Performing the Rectangular Course

A. Selecting a Suitable Altitude

i. Entry altitude: 600’ - 1,000’ AGL (per the ACS)
a. ± 100’ restrictions (800’ AGL is a good balance with room above / below the altitude requirement)
B. Selecting a Suitable Reference Point

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 IX.E. Rectangular Course

i. A square or rectangular field, or an area with suitable ground references on all four sides
a. Similar to a traffic pattern, sides should be 5,000 – 10,000’ in length (one to two miles)
ii. Wind direction must be estimated (METAR, smoke, water, trees, fields, a 360o turn noting ground track)
a. Per the ACS, the maneuver should be entered on a 45o angle to the downwind leg
iii. Clear of populated areas, obstructions, hazards; Allows for an emergency landing, if necessary
iv. CE: Selection of a ground reference without a suitable emergency landing area in gliding distance
C. Prior to Entry
i. Pre-Maneuver Checklist; Clearing turns
ii. Airspeed – Recommended speed, trimmed for hands off, level flight
iii. Orientation - Orient yourself in relation to the wind, plan to enter on a 45o entry to the downwind
D. The Maneuver
i. Enter at a 45o to the downwind
a. Upon reaching ½ to ¾ miles from the field, turn to a downwind heading, parallel to the field
ii. Downwind Leg – With a tailwind, no crab should be needed (crab as necessary for crosswinds)
iii. Turn to Base – High roll rate, Steepest bank transitions to Medium, > 90o turn
a. Roll Rate – High roll rate prevents the tailwind from pushing the aircraft outside the track
b. Bank – Groundspeed decreases through the turn so bank decreases through the turn
 Strongest tailwind / highest groundspeed at the start requires the steepest bank
 Bank decreases to medium as tailwind changes to crosswind / groundspeed decreases
c. Roll Out / Amount of Turn
 Crosswind on base leg will push the aircraft away from the field / outside the track
 To compensate, the turn to base will have to be > 90o; crab into the wind
iv. Base Leg – crab into the wind; divide attention between outside / instruments
v. Turn to Upwind – High roll rate, Medium bank transitions to Shallow, < 90o turn
a. Roll Rate – Wind will push the aircraft outside of the track so the roll rate should be high
b. Bank – Groundspeed decreases through the turn so bank decreases with it
a Average groundspeed (no head or tailwind) at the start requires medium bank
b Bank decreases to shallow as crosswind changes to headwind (lowest groundspeed)
c. Roll Out / Amount of Turn
 Roll out to parallel the upwind leg reference; Direct headwind will not affect drift
 < 90o of turn is required since the aircraft was already crabbed toward the field
 If the wind is not a perfect headwind, crab as necessary to maintain course
vi. Upwind Leg - Maintain track, divide attention between outside / instruments
vii. Turn to Crosswind – Low roll rate, Shallow bank transitions to Medium, < 90o turn
a. Roll Rate – A low roll rate prevents the wind from pushing the aircraft into the course
b. Bank – Groundspeed increases through the turn so bank increases through the turn
 Strongest headwind / slowest groundspeed at the start requires the shallowest bank
 Bank increases to medium as headwind changes to crosswind / groundspeed increases
c. Roll Out / Amount of Turn
 Roll out crabbed into the wind (pointed outside / away from the track); < 90o of turn
viii. Crosswind Leg - Adjust crab to maintain distance; divided attention – 90% outside, 10% inside
ix. Turn to Downwind – Low roll rate, Medium bank transitions to Steepest bank, > 90 o turn
a. Roll Rate – Low roll rate prevents the wind from pushing the aircraft into the course
b. Bank – Groundspeed increases through the turn so bank increases through the turn
 Average groundspeed (no head or tailwind) at the start requires medium bank
 As the tailwind increases (highest groundspeed), increased bank is needed to maintain track
c. Roll Out/Amount of Turn

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 Roll out to parallel the downwind leg reference; Direct headwind will not affect drift
 > 90o of turns is required since the aircraft was crabbed away from the field
 If the wind is not a perfect tailwind, crab as necessary to maintain course
x. Exit on the downwind leg
xi. Anomalies
a. In a perfect scenario, drift is not encountered on the upwind/downwind legs
 Difficult to find a situation where the wind is blowing exactly parallel to the boundaries
3. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper correction for wind drift
 Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
 Selection of a ground reference where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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IX.E. S-Turns

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to S-turns as described in the
ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Wind Correction

2. Coordination
3. Emergency Landing Area

Elements 1. Purpose of S-turns

2. Selecting a Suitable Altitude
3. Selecting a Suitable Reference Line
4. The Basics
5. Performing S-Turns

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will understand the effects of wind on maintaining equilateral radii on each side of
Standards a reference line. The student will be able to make the necessary adjustments throughout the
turns due to the airplane’s changing position in relation to the wind.
 IX.E. S-Turns

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This maneuver will provide a much better understanding of how the wind effects turning the airplane. And, it’s
considered to be easier than the rectangular course you already learned.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A maneuver in which the airplane’s ground track describes semicircles of equal radii on each side of a selected
straight line on the ground

Why
S-turns develop the ability to:
 Maintain a specific relationship between the  Roll out from a turn with the required wind
airplane and the ground correction angle to compensate for any drift caused
 Divide attention between the flightpath, ground- by wind
based references, manipulating the flight controls,  Establish and correct the wind correction angle to
and scanning for outside hazards and instrument maintain the track over the ground
indications  Compensate for drift in quickly changing
 Adjust the bank angle during turns to correct for orientations
groundspeed changes to maintain constant radius  Arrive at specific points on required headings
turns

How:
1. Purpose of S-turns
A. As mentioned above, in Why
2. Selecting a Suitable Altitude
A. Entry altitude should be 600’ - 1,000’ AGL per the ACS
i. ± 100’ restrictions (800’ AGL is a good balance with room above / below the altitude requirement)
3. Selecting a Suitable Reference Line
A. Estimate wind direction (METAR, smoke, water, trees, fields, or a 360o turn noting ground track)
B. Select a ground based straight line reference perpendicular to the wind (Roads, train tracks, fences, etc.)
C. Clear of populated areas, obstructions, hazards; Allows for an emergency landing, if necessary
D. CE: Selection of a ground reference without a suitable emergency landing area in gliding distance
4. The Basics
A. The Maneuver
i. Enter on the downwind, perpendicular to the ground reference line
ii. Cross perpendicular to the reference line, and begin a 180o constant radius turn
iii. Adjust the turn to cross wings level, perpendicular to the reference point on an upwind
iv. Begin an identical constant radius turn in the opposite direction
B. Turn Rate & Radius Recap
i. Rate of Turn

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 IX.E. S-Turns

a. Degrees per second the aircraft is turning

b. Affected by both the bank angle and airspeed
 As bank angle increases, so does the rate of turn
 As airspeed increases, the rate of turn decreases
ii. Radius of Turn
a. Size of circle an aircraft would fly during a turn
b. Also affected by both the bank angle and airspeed (but opposite to Rate of Turn)
 As bank angle increases, the radius of turn decreases
 As airspeed increases, the radius of turn increases
C. Maintaining a Constant Radius – Bank, roll, and crab are adjusted for wind and changing groundspeed
i. Roll Rate is adjusted to prevent drifting in or out of the constant radius course
a. High rate of roll: When wind will push you away from the reference / at a high groundspeed
b. Low rate of roll: When wind will push you toward the reference / at a low groundspeed
ii. Bank Angle
a. Higher groundspeeds require higher bank; lower groundspeeds require lower bank
iii. Wind Correction Angle
a. The aircraft will have to be crabbed into any crosswind to maintain a constant radius
b. Increases from start of the turn to 90o point (strongest crosswind), then decreases to the rollout
 First turn: crab into the turn; Second turn: crab out of the turn
c. The stronger the crosswind, the greater the wind correction angle
D. CE: Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
i. Plan ahead, know what’s coming next. Stay ahead of the aircraft!

5. Performing S-Turns
A. Prior to Entry
i. Pre-Maneuver Checklist; Clear the area
ii. Airspeed – Recommended airspeed, and trimmed for hands off, level flight
iii. Pick a reference line perpendicular to the wind, plan to enter on the downwind
B. The Maneuver
i. Entry
a. The reference line should be approached on the downwind (perpendicular to the line), 800’ AGL
 Minimize your workload – enter on airspeed and altitude, and trimmed for level flight
b. CE: Faulty entry procedure

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 IX.E. S-Turns

 Ensure entry on the downwind (with a tailwind), perpendicular to the reference line
 Set yourself up for success. Give yourself the time and distance necessary
ii. Downwind Side of the Turn (1st Half) - The first turn establishes the radius for the second turn
a. Bank Angle and Roll Rate
 High groundspeed: Roll into the turn must be rapid, and the angle of bank the steepest
a A normal rate of roll will result in being pushed away from the reference line
 As the turn progresses and airspeed decreases, bank angle must be decreased
a Otherwise, the turn would get progressively tighter as groundspeed decreased
 Wind correction angle increases through the first 90o of turn, decreases through the second
a Max crosswind correction angle should occur at the 90o crosswind point
b Correction angle varies with wind strength; crab into the turn
b. Completing the Turn
 Reference the nose / wingtips, and ground reference to adjust the rollout to cross the reference line
wings level, opposite the entry heading, on altitude and airspeed
iii. Upwind Side of the Turn (2nd Half)
a. Crossing the reference line, a turn in the opposite direction should be started
b. Bank Angle and Roll Rate
 Low groundspeed: Roll into the turn must be slow, and the angle of bank the shallowest
a Normal rate will keep you too close to the reference line; won’t complete 180 o turn
 As the turn progresses and airspeed increases, bank angle must increase
 Wind correction increases through the first 90o of turn, and decreases through the second
a Max crosswind correction angle should occur at the 90o crosswind point
b Correction angle varies with wind strength; crab out of the turn
c. Completing the Turn
 Time the rollout to reach straight-and-level flight over / perpendicular to the reference line
 Judge the closure rate and increase bank to cross wings level
iv. CE: An unsymmetrical ground track, and Improper correction for wind drift
a. Stay ahead of the plane – Visualize the wind in relation to the aircraft, know what’s coming next
C. Maintaining a Constant Altitude (± 100’ per the ACS)
i. Trim for level flight prior to starting the maneuver
ii. As bank increases, back elevator pressure will need to be increased to maintain altitude
a. Divide attention, don’t fixate on any one thing
D. Maintaining a Constant Airspeed
i. A constant power setting and a stable altitude go a long way in maintaining a constant airspeed
a. Power may have to be added with increased bank / back pressure and vice versa
ii. CE: Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
a. Divide attention, don’t fixate. Be proactive in noticing and making corrections
E. RM: Division of Attention
i. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Over concentration inside or outside will result in the other being neglected and a poor maneuver
b. Allows the pilot to divide attention between aircraft control and the orientation
 Orientation is not just bank/pitch attitude, but also where you are and what or who is around you
ii. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety first
iii. CE: Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
a. Don’t fixate, divide attention between the turn and wind, flying the aircraft, and your surroundings
b. Be proactive in making corrections
F. Coordination

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i. RM/CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls

ii. As in all phases of flight, it is important to maintain proper coordination
iii. Do not use uncoordinated rudder to fix the radius or rollout of the turn (cross-controlled situation)
6. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Faulty entry procedure
 Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Improper correction for wind drift
 An unsymmetrical ground track
 Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
 Selection of a ground reference line without a suitable emergency landing area in gliding distance

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

336
IX.E. Turns Around a Point

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should exhibit knowledge regarding the performance of a turn around a point.
Knowledge will include the elements listed below. Performance of the maneuver should be to
ACS/PTS standards.

Key Elements 1. Increased Groundspeed = Increased Bank

2. Decreased Groundspeed = Decreased Bank
3. Maintain Coordination

Elements 1. Purpose of Turns Around a Point

2. Selecting a Suitable Altitude
3. Selecting a Suitable Reference Point
4. The Basics
5. Performing Turns Around a Point
6. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student can demonstrate the knowledge of, and has shown
Standards proficiency in turns around a point. The student understands the effect of wind on an aircraft’s
course over the ground primarily during a turn.
 IX.E. Turns Around a Point

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This exercise shows the difference between the aircraft's motion in the air, and its ground track. These are different
because the aircraft is subject to the moving air mass in which it flies. If wind exists, a ground track with constant
radius will require a constantly changing bank angle to correct for wind.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Turns around a point, the airplane is flown in two or more complete circles of uniform radii or distance from a
prominent ground reference point using a maximum bank of approximately 45o while maintaining a constant altitude.

Why
Turns around a point teach the pilot to:
 Maintain a specific relationship between the  Improve competency in managing the quickly
airplane and the ground changing bank angles
 Divide attention between the flightpath, ground  Establish and adjust the wind correction angle to
based references, manipulating the flight controls, maintain the track over the ground
and scanning for outside hazards and instrument  Compensate for drift in quickly changing
indications orientations
 Adjust the bank angle during turns to correct for  Develop further awareness that the radius of a turn
groundspeed changes to maintain constant radius is correlated to the bank angle
turns

How:
1. Purpose of Turns Around a Point
A. As mentioned above, in Why
2. Selecting a Suitable Altitude
A. Entry altitude should be 600’ - 1,000’ AGL per the ACS
i. ± 100’ restrictions (800’ AGL is a good balance with room above / below the altitude requirement)
3. Selecting a Suitable Reference Point
A. Should be prominent and easily distinguishable / small enough for precise reference (Ex. crossroads)
i. Technique: Pick out targets along the flight path at ¼ intervals along the circle
a. Helps to orient with the wind / ensure the airplane is in the right place at the right time
B. Clear of populated areas, obstructions, hazards; Allows for an emergency landing, if necessary
C. CE: Selection of a ground reference without a suitable emergency landing area in gliding distance
4. The Basics
A. The Maneuver
i. Consecutive, constant radius 360o turns, where bank, rate of turn, and wind correction angle are constantly
adjusted due to the wind’s varying affect at different points in the turn
B. Turn Rate & Radius Recap
i. Rate of Turn
a. Degrees per second the aircraft is turning

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 IX.E. Turns Around a Point

b. Affected by both the bank angle and airspeed

 As bank angle increases, so does the rate of turn
 As airspeed increases, the rate of turn decreases
ii. Radius of Turn
a. Size of circle an aircraft would fly during a turn
b. Also affected by both the bank angle and airspeed (but opposite to Rate of Turn)
 As bank angle increases, the radius of turn decreases
 As airspeed increases, the radius of turn increases
C. Wind Correction
i. Roll Rate
a. Adjusted to prevent drifting in / out of the desired radius
b. High rate of roll: When wind will push you away from the reference / at a high groundspeed
c. Low rate of roll: When wind will push you toward the reference / at a low groundspeed
ii. Bank Angle
a. High groundspeeds (tailwind) require high bank; low groundspeeds (headwind) require low bank
iii. Wind Correction Angle
a. The aircraft will have to be crabbed into any crosswind to maintain a constant radius
b. The stronger the crosswind, the greater the wind correction angle
c. Increases from start to 90o point, then decreases to 180o point, and repeats on the other side
 First half of the 360: crab into the turn; Second half: crab out of the turn
iv. If there were no wind, bank would be constant around the turn, with no need to crab
a. The stronger the wind, the more bank will have to be varied throughout the maneuver
D. RM: Division of Attention
i. Divide attention between the reference point, aircraft, what’s coming next, and the surroundings
a. 90% outside, 10% inside; Always keep an eye out for other traffic or threats
ii. CE: Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
5. Performing Turns Around a Point
A. Prior to Entry
i. Pre-Maneuver Checklist; Clear the area
ii. Airspeed: At or below VA - Trimmed for hands off level flight
B. Entry Procedure
i. Enter on the downwind, abeam the point, approximately ¼ to ½ mile radius from the point
ii. Note the entry heading to maintain orientation
iii. CE: Faulty entry procedure
C. The Turn
i. Abeam the Point
a. Coordinated roll in to maintain the desired radius
 Steepest bank angle and high roll rate – bank should not exceed 45o
b. As bank is increases, increase back pressure to maintain altitude
ii. First Half of the Turn (Downwind Half)
a. Steepest bank transitioning to the shallowest bank
b. Decreasing groundspeed – Begins with a tailwind transitioning to a crosswind then a headwind
 Bank should be gradually reduced to maintain a constant radius
a As bank is reduced, back pressure should be relaxed to maintain altitude
 CE: Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
c. Progressively crab inside the turn to establish max wind correction angle at the 90 o point
 Decrease wind correction angle from the 90o point until completing the first half of the turn

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 CE: Improper correction for wind drift

d. Always keep the turn coordinated
 As the bank is reduced, rudder pressure will reduce
 CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
e. At the end of the first half of the turn, bank should be at its lowest, and crab should be removed
 Direct headwind, therefore lowest groundspeed and lowest bank angle / no crab required
iii. Second Half of the Turn (Upwind Half)
a. Opposite of the first half - Slowly move from a shallow to steep bank
b. Increasing groundspeed – Begins with a headwind transitioning to a crosswind then a tailwind
 Bank should be gradually increased to maintain a constant radius
a As bank is increased, back pressure should be increased to maintain altitude
 CE: Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
c. Progressively crab outside the turn to establish max wind correction angle at the 90 o point
 Decrease wind correction angle from the 90o point until completing the first half of the turn
 CE: Improper correction of wind drift
d. Always keep the turn coordinated
 As the bank is reduced, rudder pressure will reduce
 CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls
e. At the end of the second half of the turn, bank should be the highest (same as entry bank angle)
 Direct tailwind, therefore highest groundspeed / bank angle and no crab required
D. Exit
i. Once at least 2 turns have been completed, initiate a smooth rollout on the initial entry heading

6. RM: Hazards
A. See IX. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
B. See IX. RM Concepts - Low Altitude Maneuvering
C. See IX. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Faulty entry procedure
 Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls

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 Improper correction for wind drift

 Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
 Selection of a ground reference point where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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IX.D. Eights on Pylons

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements behind the Eights on Pylons maneuver
and have the ability to perform the maneuver to ACS/PTS standards.

Key 1. Points moves forward: Forward Pressure

Elements 2. Point moves backward: Backward Pressure
3. Small, coordinated corrections

1. What is Pivotal Altitude?

Elements 2. The Basics
3. Calculating Pivotal Altitude
4. Performing Eights on Pylons

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student understands Pivotal Altitude and the accompanying
Standards concepts to Eights on Pylons. The student also will have the ability to properly fly the
maneuver.
 IX.D. Eights on Pylons

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
The eights on pylons maneuver started in WWI. This maneuver was developed to
maintain a constant view of a target, allowing the gunner to destroy a target. A more
practical application now, is keeping the wing out of the way for aerial photography.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Eights on Pylons is an advanced maneuver in which the pilot’s attention is directed at maintaining a pivotal position
on a selected pylon, with minimum attention inside the cockpit.
The maneuver itself involves flying the airplane in a figure eight path around two selected points, or pylons, on the
ground. However, no attempt is made to maintain a uniform distance from the pylon. Instead, the goal is to have an
imaginary line that extends from the pilot’s eyes to the pylon. This line must be imagined to always be parallel to the
airplane’s lateral axis. Along this line, the airplane appears to pivot as it turns around the pylon. In other words, if a
taut string extended from the airplane to the pylon, the string would remain parallel to lateral axis as the airplane
turned around the pylon. At no time should the string be at an angle to the lateral axis.

Why
The objective of this maneuver is to develop the ability to maneuver the airplane accurately while dividing one’s
attention between the flight path and the selected points on the ground. Eights on Pylons are extremely helpful in
teaching, developing, and testing subconscious control of the airplane.

How:
1. What is Pivotal Altitude
i. Altitude which keeps a pylon in the same position relative to the aircraft as the plane turns around it
a. Varies with groundspeed
b. The reference line is parallel with the lateral axis (off wingtip or position on the window)
ii. When turning at the pivotal altitude, the wingtip appears to be fixed to a point on the landscape
a. Above the pivotal altitude, the wingtip appears to move backward
b. Below the pivotal altitude, the wingtip appears to move forward
2. The Basics
A. Pivotal Altitude is Based on Groundspeed
i. As groundspeed increases, pivotal altitude
increases, and vice versa
a. Does not change with bank angle
b. Distance from pylon affects bank angle
ii. Circling the reference point, groundspeed / pivotal
altitude will change with wind
iii. To adjust, the pilot climbs or descends to maintain
the visual reference with the pylon
a. The change in altitude will depend on how
much the wind affects groundspeed

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B. Maintaining the Pivotal Altitude References

i. Pitch
ii. Pitch
a. As groundspeed decreases, the pivotal altitude decreases
 Wing moves backward over the ground / point moves forward in relation to the wing
 Descend to maintain the reference line to the pylon
a We descend to lower pivotal altitude, increase in airspeed moves pivotal altitude up
 General Rule: If the point moves FORWARD, apply FORWARD pressure
b. As groundspeed increases, the pivotal altitude increases as well
 Wing moves forward over the ground / point moves backward in relation to the wing
 Climb to maintain the reference line to the pylon
a We climb to higher pivotal altitude, decrease in airspeed moves pivotal altitude down
 General Rule: If the point moves BACKWARD, apply BACK pressure
c. Corrections and Wind Speed
 Corrections are like tracking a VOR
a Once the correction is made (intercept angle is established), remove the correction when the
pylon is back on the line-of-sight reference (intercepting the radial)
 Changes in pitch / altitude are based on wind speed
a The stronger the wind, the greater the variation in max / min pivotal altitudes
 Too strong of winds becomes unsafe
a Get closer and closer to the ground; and can require very high bank angles
d. CE: Uncoordinated flight controls, & Application of rudder alone to maintain “line-of-sight”
 Use altitude changes, rather than rudder pressure, to hold the reference point on the pylon
iii. Bank – Performed at bank angles ranging from shallow to steep (no more than 40o per the ACS)
a. Distance from the pylon affects bank
 As wind pushes you to / from the pylons, bank is used to maintain the reference line
b. If the pylon moves above the reference point, (i.e., above the wing tip) decrease bank
c. If the pylon moves below the reference point (i.e., below the wing tip), increase bank

iv. RM: Energy Management & Power

a. Pivotal altitude is based on groundspeed

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 Set power prior to entering the maneuver to keep the desired indicated airspeed consistent
 Changes in power lead to changes in airspeed which change pivotal altitude
 The more consistent the power setting, the more consistent the airspeed
v. CE: Use of an improper “line-of-sight” reference
3. Calculating Pivotal Altitude
A. Equation to estimate pivotal altitude
i. For Knots – ¿) + MSL
ii. For MPH – (Groundspeed 2 ÷ 15) + MSL
B. Calculate the highest and lowest pivotal altitudes
i. Highest = TAS + tailwind; Lowest = TAS - headwind
ii. If altitudes are unsafe, do not perform the maneuver
4. Performing Eights on Pylons
A. Selecting the Pylons
i. Two ground points along a line perpendicular to the wind
a. Sufficiently prominent / easy to see in an open area away from hills / obstructions
 Smaller pylons are easier to notice changes in movement
b. About ½ mile apart (3-5 second flight between pylons)
 Allows time for planning, but not unnecessary drone between the pylons
c. At the same elevation
ii. RM/CE - Selection of pylons with no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance

B. Before the Maneuver

i. Pre-maneuver checklist; Clear the area of traffic
ii. Trimmed for straight and level flight, at or below VA
C. Entering the Maneuver
i. Fly to the midpoint of the pylons at a 45o angle to the downwind (note the entry heading)
a. Make the first turn to the left around the left pylon
b. Downwind entry starts at the highest groundspeed / highest pivotal altitude
ii. Roll into a 30o – 40o bank when the pylon is just ahead of the reference
iii. Place wingtip at the base of the pylon
iv. CE: Faulty entry procedure, and Improper planning for turn entries and rollouts
D. First Turn
i. Entry is at the highest groundspeed

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a. As groundspeed decreases through the turn, pivotal altitude decreases

b. With no corrections, the pylon will move forward
c. Forward movement = forward pressure. Descend to maintain reference point
d. Decrease bank to maintain reference as wind pushes the airplane away from the point
ii. Continuing the turn
a. Continuing around, groundspeed and therefore pivotal altitude will begin to increase again
b. Climb to maintain pivotal altitude / visual reference. Backward movement = back pressure
c. Relative wind will push the airplane toward the pylon
 Increase bank angle to maintain the visual reference
E. Transitioning between Pylons
i. Start the rollout to proceed diagonally to a point on the downwind side of the 2 nd pylon
ii. Maintain straight and level flight for 3 to 5 seconds
iii. Crab into the wind to correct for wind drift
a. CE: Improper correction for wind drift between pylons
iv. Initiate a turn in the opposite direction as the pylon aligns with the reference point
v. CE: Improper planning for turn entries and rollouts
F. Second Turn
i. Entry is at the highest groundspeed / highest pivotal altitude
a. As the turn continues, groundspeed, and therefore pivotal altitude, decreases
 With no correction, the pylon will move forward. Forward movement = forward pressure
 Descend to correct for changing groundspeed
ii. Continuing around the turn, groundspeed increases again, increasing pivotal altitude
a. Pylon will move backward in relation to the wingtip; Backward movement = back pressure
b. Increase bank as relative wind pushes the airplane closer to the pylon
G. Exit
i. Roll wings level after completing one rotation around each pylon and exit on the entry heading
H. CE: Poor planning, orientation, and division of attention
i. The entire maneuver is based on planning ahead (pivotal altitude), orienting yourself in relation to the wind
and dividing attention between the aircraft, the reference points and what is coming next
ii. Crosscheck should focus primarily on outside references with glances inside for airspeed, altitude, etc.
a. Over concentration inside or outside will result in the other being neglected and a poor maneuver
b. Allows the pilot to divide attention between aircraft control and the orientation
 Orientation is not just bank/pitch attitude, but also where you are and what or who is around you
iii. In the case of an unsafe situation or orientation stop the maneuver and fix the problem. Safety first

Common Errors:
 Faulty entry procedure
 Poor planning, orientation, and division of attention
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Use of an improper “line-of-sight” reference
 Application of rudder alone to maintain “line-of-sight” on the pylon
 Improper planning for turn entries and rollouts
 Improper correction for wind drift between pylons
 Selection of pylons where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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IX. RM Concepts

1. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, & Task Management

A. Distractions
i. They’re dangerous
a. Remove distractions from view or, if a person, explain the situation and ask them to stop
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
ii. Maintain SA
a. Starts with preflight planning
b. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
c. Divide attention between inside and outside references
d. If SA is lost, admit it and fix the problem
iii. Disorientation can be caused by, or lead to, an upset
a. Push: Apply forward pressure to unload the plane
b. Roll: Roll aggressively to the nearest horizon
c. Thrust: Adjust as required
d. Stabilize: Return to a safe flight condition
iv. Lack of Visual References
a. Reference II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance and II.M. Night Operations
b. Trust the instruments
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
iv. Proper task management can help prevent distractions, loss of SA, and disorientation
v. Safety is the number one priority – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
2. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Scanning
a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
b. Divide attention between flying and scanning for aircraft
ii. Clearing Procedures
a. Climb/Descent: Execute gentle banks to scan above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
b. Prior to any turn: Clear in the direction of the turn
c. Pre-Maneuver: Clearing turns – clear above/below, in front/behind
iii. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
iv. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 IX. RM Concepts

 If the aircraft are different categories:

a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
B. Terrain
i. Study terminal charts and IFR/VFR chart altitudes, use Max Elevation Figures (MEFs)
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which can extend 1,500’ horizontally from the structure
ii. Overhead Wires (may not be lighted)
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
D. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
i. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property
ii. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
iii. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely populated
areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure
3. Low Altitude Maneuvering
A. A small problem at high altitude can quickly become a big problem at a low altitude
B. Be aware of, and avoid, obstructions, towers, etc.
i. Quick, panicked maneuvers, especially when slow, can result in a stall or loss of control close to the ground
C. Low Altitude Stall/Spin
i. A low altitude stall or spin can leave little to no recovery time
a. ALWAYS maintain coordination, and airspeed at low altitudes
b. If you get any indication of a stall at low level, recover, and climb to a safe altitude
ii. Spin
a. A spin is a result of a stall + yaw
b. Prevention
 Maintain coordination
 Do not use abrupt, excessive pressure inputs (especially back elevator pressure)
 Stop whatever you’re doing and recover at the first sign of a stall
c. Recovery (PARE)
 Power - Idle
 Ailerons - Neutral
 Rudder - Full rudder opposite the spin direction
 Elevator - Brisk, positive forward pressure (nose down)
 Once the spin has stopped, neutralize the rudders and raise the nose, being careful not to stall again

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d. Different aircraft respond differently to spins and spin recoveries, follow the POH procedures
D. CFIT (Controlled Flight into Terrain)
i. AC 61-134: General Aviation CFIT Awareness
ii. The solution to combating CFIT accidents starts on the ground
a. Common themes include proper planning, good decision making, and being able to safely operate the
aircraft throughout its entire operating range
iii. Recommendations:
a. Non-instrument rated VFR pilots should not attempt to fly in IMC
b. Know and fly above minimum published safe altitudes
c. If IFR, fly published procedures
d. Verify proper altitude, especially at night or over water, through use of a correctly set altimeter
e. Verify all ATC clearances. Question potentially hazardous clearances
f. Maintain situational awareness both vertically and horizontally
g. Comply with appropriate regulations for your specific operation
h. Don't operate below minimum safe altitudes if uncertain of position or ATC clearance
i. Be extra careful when operating in an area which you are not familiar
j. Use current charts and all available information
k. Use appropriate checklists
l. Know your aircraft and its equipment

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X. Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins
X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives To develop an understanding and proficiency of the flight characteristics and controllability of
an aircraft in slow flight. A “feel” for the airplane at low speeds should be developed to avoid
inadvertent stalls and to operate with precision. The student should perform to ACS standards.

Key Elements 1. Pitch for Airspeed

2. Power for Altitude
3. Stay Coordinated

Elements 1. What is Slow Flight

2. Slow Flight Aerodynamics
a. Airspeed
b. Power & the Region of Reversed Command
c. Yaw Effects
d. Maneuvering Loads & Turns
e. Weight
f. Center of Gravity
g. Environmental Elements
3. Critical Flight Situations
4. Slow Flight and the Senses
5. Performing Slow Flight
6. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands factors affecting flight characteristics and controllability and shows
Standards the ability to control the airplane effectively in different configurations of slow flight.
X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
When the aircraft is flying at just above the stall speed, there is little margin for error. This maneuver will greatly
improve your piloting skills.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Slow flight is flight at a speed which any further increase in angle of attack or load factor, or reduction in power will
cause an immediate stall.

Why
The aircraft performs and is controlled differently at slower airspeeds. Maneuvering during slow flight demonstrates
the flight characteristics and degree of controllability of an aircraft near the critical AOA. In normal operations, the
aircraft would not be flown this close to the critical AOA, but because the aircraft is flown at higher angles of attack
and slower airspeeds in many phases of flight (takeoff, landing, go-around), understanding how the aircraft performs
and is controlled at reduced speeds is essential, especially in the case the aircraft ends up slower than intended.

How:
1. What is Slow Flight
A. Any speed less than cruise speed, however, in training it can be
broken down into two elements
i. Establishment, maintenance of, and maneuvering at
airspeeds and in configurations appropriate to takeoffs,
climbs, descents, landing approaches and go-arounds
(anything less than cruise speeds)
ii. Flight at a speed which any further increase in AOA/load
factor, or power reduction results in a stall warning
a. This description is used for the slow flight maneuver
2. Slow Flight Aerodynamics
A. Airspeed
i. An increase or decrease in airspeed increases or decreases lift, affecting AOA and attitude
ii. In relation to slow flight, the slower the airspeed, the higher the AOA required (closer to critical AOA)
B. Power & the Region of Reversed Command
i. Normal Command
a. Normal Command
 As airspeed decreases, total drag decreases, until reaching a point (L/DMAX)
 Higher speeds require higher power settings, and vice versa
b. Region of Reversed Command
 Airspeeds below L/DMAX, where total drag begins to increase

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

 Slower speeds require higher power settings, and vice versa

C. Yaw Effects
i. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high angles of attack results in increased left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
ii. Torque Reaction – Based on Newton’s 3rd Law
a. The engine parts/propeller rotate right, an equal force attempts to rotate the plane left
b. In flight: left rolling tendency; On ground: left turning
c. Corrected by offsetting the engine, aileron trim tabs, and/or aileron and rudder use
iii. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
a. Corkscrewing propeller air strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer - pushes nose left (shown below)
b. Strongest at high prop speeds/low forward speeds
iv. Gyroscopic Action
a. Precession - Any force takes effect 90o ahead of, and in the direction of rotation
b. Pitch results in a yawing moment and vice versa
c. Correct with rudder/elevator
v. Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)
a. At high AOAs, the bite of the down moving blade is greater than the up moving blade
b. Center of thrust moves to the right of the propeller disc, causing a yaw to the left
c. Correct with right rudder

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

vi. Big Picture

a. Considerable right rudder is required to maintain coordination during slow flight
b. A right turn requires even more right rudder
c. A left turn requires less right rudder (still requires right rudder)
D. Maneuvering Loads & Turns
i. Load factor: Ratio of the total load acting on the plane to the gross weight of the plane
a. Expressed in terms of G’s
b. Increased load factor increases stall speed
ii. Turns
a. Increased load factors are a part of all banked turns
b. Load factor increases rapidly after 45o-50o of bank
iii. Controllability
a. The increased load factor associated with a level turn in slow flight can quickly result in a stall
b. Use gentle, coordinated, low bank turns during slow flight to prevent a potential stall
 Right turn = more right rudder; Left turn = less right rudder (still requires right rudder)

E. Weight
i. The heavier the aircraft, the more lift necessary to maintain altitude
a. As more lift is required, the angle of attack required to maintain level flight is increased
 Brings the aircraft closer to the critical angle of attack
ii. Heavier aircraft is more stable – takes more force to move a heavier object than a lighter one
iii. The increased weight and stability can help in controlling the aircraft
F. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Loaded Aircraft
a. Acts heavier, and consequently slower
 More nose up elevator pressure is required to
maintain altitude
 Tail must produce a greater down load resulting in
greater wing loading
 Added wing loading requires increased lift to maintain
altitude
b. Higher AOA results in more induced drag and a higher stall
speed (like heavy aircraft)
c. Controllability
 More controllable than aft loaded aircraft
 Due to the longer arm from elevator to CG

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

ii. Aft Loaded Aircraft

a. Acts lighter, and consequently faster
 Less nose up pressure required
 Lower nose requires less down load
 Decreased down load reduces wing loading, decreasing lift required to maintain altitude
b. Lower AOA results in less induced drag allowing for a faster cruise speed and a lower stall speed
c. Controllability
 Recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as the CG moves aft
a Shortens the arm from CG to the elevator
G. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence, Microbursts, Atmospheric Conditions
3. Critical Flight Situations
A. In general, takeoffs, climbs, landings, and go-arounds
i. Anything on the backside of the power curve and close to the ground
B. Specific examples:
i. High sink rate during a short field landing
ii. Climbing out of ground effect too early on a soft field takeoff
4. Slow Flight and the Senses
A. Sight: Nose high, more sky than normal, few, if any, ground references (clouds can be used)
B. Hearing: Decrease as airspeed slows, stall warning horn, engine noise as power established
C. Feel: Controls become progressively less responsive, increase in right rudder required, buffet
D. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations
i. Buffet
ii. Stall Horn
iii. Ranges & Limitations
5. Performing Slow Flight
A. Purpose
i. Demonstrate the flight characteristics and controllability of the airplane at its minimum flying speed
ii. RM: Provide the pilot the tools to recognize & recover from inadvertent slow flight preventing loss of control
B. Basics
i. Pitch for Airspeed, Power for Altitude (backside of the power curve)
ii. Right rudder
iii. Use visual references and instrument indications (90% outside, 10% inside)
C. Pre-Maneuver
i. Pre-maneuver checklist; Clear the area
ii. Select an altitude (no lower than 1,500’ AGL)
iii. Configuration
a. Different configurations can be used to develop a feel for different situations
 The ‘dirtier’ (more flaps), the slower we can get
D. Establishing Slow Flight
i. Gently reduce the throttle, maintaining altitude as airspeed is lost
a. CE: Improper trim technique
ii. Lower flaps as airspeed limits are reached
a. CE: Failure to establish specified gear and flap configuration
iii. Note the change in feel and sound
a. Flight controls are less effective with the reduction in airspeed
b. Sound is decreasing with airspeed
iv. Approaching slow flight speed, gently introduce power to maintain altitude and adjust pitch for airspeed

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X.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

a. Set the approximate pitch and power settings for your aircraft and adjust from there
b. Maintain coordination with right rudder
v. CE: Improper entry technique
E. Maneuvering during Slow Flight
i. Pitch for airspeed
a. If fast, pitch up; If slow, pitch down – use very small changes in pitch (1-2o at a time)
b. A change in pitch generally requires a change in power to maintain altitude
c. CE: Failure to establish and maintain the specified airspeed
ii. Power for Altitude
a. If low, increase power; If high, decrease power
b. A change in power generally requires a change in pitch to maintain airspeed
c. CE: Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles
iii. Crosscheck: Divide attention between outside and quick glances to the instruments to ensure performance
iv. Heading: Maintain coordination, keep heading / coordination in crosscheck
v. Level Turns
a. Use smooth, controlled inputs to establish the desired bank (small bank angles)
 Anticipate opposite aileron to maintain bank angle (counter overbanking tendencies)
b. Adjust pitch and power to maintain altitude and airspeed
 Additional power is often necessary; requires a change in pitch to maintain speed
c. Keep coordinated with rudder (adverse yaw, power changes, etc.)
vi. Climbing / Descending Turns
a. Set power for the climb or descent and simultaneously adjust pitch to maintain airspeed
 Adjust right rudder to maintain coordination
b. Establish the desired bank as discussed above
 Same process, but the power is higher/lower for the climb/descent
vii. CE: Excessive variations of altitude & heading when a constant altitude & heading are specified
viii. CE: Uncoordinated use of flight controls / Improper correction for torque effect
F. Returning to Cruise Flight (very similar to a stall recovery)
i. Full power, lower the nose to maintain altitude (trim), clean up the flaps as airspeed increases
ii. Approaching cruise airspeed, reduce power, maintain coordination and retrim the airplane
6. RM: Hazards
A. See X. RM Concepts - Distractions, SA & Disorientation, & Task Management
B. See X. RM Concepts - Collision Hazards

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish specified gear and flap configuration
 Improper entry technique
 Failure to establish and maintain the specified airspeed
 Excessive variations of altitude and heading when a constant altitude and heading are specified
 Uncoordinated use of flight controls & Improper correction for torque effect
 Improper trim technique
 Unintentional stalls
 Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
POH/AFM

Objectives To develop an understanding of flight characteristics and power required at different airspeeds
and configurations appropriate to the make and model of airplane flow, can apply that
knowledge, manage associated risks, and provide effective instruction.

Key Elements 1. Region of Reversed Command

2. Slower Speeds Require Larger Control Movements
3. Stay Coordinated

Elements 1. Various Factors & their Effects on Stalls & Spins

2. Airspeeds
3. Control Inputs, Configuration, & Airspeeds
4. Demonstrating Flight Characteristics

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the demonstration can be performed and described to ACS
Standards standards.
X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A demonstration of the control inputs, power, trim, and aircraft performance in various phases of flight and
configurations.

Why
This demonstration provides the learner with a foundation or baseline for the changing pitch attitudes, power
settings, trim requirements, etc. as airspeed and configuration is varied between the clean and landing
configurations.

How:
1. Various Factors & their Effects of Stalls and Spins
A. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the wing is disrupted, and lift decreases rapidly
i. This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a. The critical AOA varies with aircraft, but is usually around 15-20o in GA aircraft

B. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

i. The point at which the airflow separates and there is a rapid reduction in lift is the stalling angle of attack, or
the critical angle of attack, or CLMAX (the Maximum Coefficient of Lift)
b. CL = Coefficient of Lift – Measurement of lift as it relates to AOA
 Determined by wind tunnel tests; based on airfoil design/AOA
c. Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a stall
and lift drops off rapidly
C. Stall Characteristics
i. Most general aviation aircraft are
designed to stall at the wing root and
progress out to the wing tips
a. Aileron effectiveness is maintained at
the wingtips, maintaining control
ii. Various design can be used to accomplish
this:

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
b. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the leading edge to induce a stall earlier than otherwise
D. There’s More than One Way to Exceed the Critical AOA
i. If at ANY time the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
ii. Low Speed
a. As airspeed decreases, the AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
b. At a slow enough speed, the critical AOA is exceeded
iii. High Speed
a. If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator
 Although the nose is raised, the aircraft continues downward for some amount of time
b. AOA changes from low to very high while the flight path remains the same
c. The aircraft reaches the critical AOA at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
iv. Turns
a. The stall speed of an aircraft is higher in a level turn than in straight-and-level flight
b. In a turn, AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
1. If during the turn the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
B. Power & Airspeed
i. Airspeed
a. An increase or decrease in airspeed increases or decreases lift, affecting AOA and attitude
b. In relation to slow flight, the slower the airspeed, the higher the AOA required (closer to critical AOA)
ii. Power & the Region of Reversed Command
a. Normal Command
 Normal Command
a As airspeed decreases, total drag decreases, until reaching a point (L/DMAX)
b Higher speeds require higher power settings, and vice versa
 Region of Reversed Command
a Airspeeds below L/DMAX, where total drag begins to increase
 Slower speeds require higher power settings, and vice versa

C. Yaw Effects
i. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high angles of attack results in increased left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
ii. Torque Reaction – Based on Newton’s 3rd Law
a. The engine parts/propeller rotate right, an equal force attempts to rotate the plane left
b. In flight: left rolling tendency; On ground: left turning
c. Corrected by offsetting the engine, aileron trim tabs, and/or aileron and rudder use
iii. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
a. Corkscrewing propeller air strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer - pushes nose left (shown below)

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

b. Strongest at high prop speeds/low forward speeds

iv. Gyroscopic Action
a. Precession - Any force takes effect 90o ahead of, and in the direction of rotation
b. Pitch results in a yawing moment and vice versa
c. Correct with rudder/elevator
v. Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)
a. At high AOAs, the bite of the down moving blade is greater than the up moving blade
b. Center of thrust moves to the right of the propeller disc, causing a yaw to the left
c. Correct with right rudder

vi. Big Picture

a. Considerable right rudder is required to maintain coordination during slow flight
b. A right turn requires even more right rudder
 A left turn requires less right rudder (still requires right rudder)
D. Load Factors

i. Load factor: Ratio of the total load acting on the plane to the
gross weight of the plane
a. Expressed in terms of G’s
b. Increased load factor increases stall speed
ii. Turns

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

a. Increased load factors are a part of all banked turns (increases rapidly after 45o-50o of bank)
iii. Controllability
a. The increased load factor associated with a level turn in slow flight can quickly result in a stall
b. Use gentle, coordinated, low bank turns during slow flight to prevent a potential stall
 Right turn = more right rudder; Left turn = less right rudder (still requires right rudder)
E. Weight
i. The heavier the aircraft, the more lift necessary to maintain altitude
a. As more lift is required, the angle of attack required to maintain level flight is increased
 Brings the aircraft closer to the critical angle of attack
ii. Heavier aircraft is more stable – takes more force to move a heavier object than a lighter one
a. The increased weight and stability can help in controlling the aircraft
F. Center of Gravity & Controllability
i. Forward Loaded Aircraft
a. Acts heavier, and consequently slower
 More nose up elevator pressure is required to maintain altitude
 Tail must produce a greater down load resulting in greater wing loading
 Wing loading requires increased lift to maintain altitude
b. Higher AOA results in more induced drag and a higher stall
speed (like a heavy aircraft)
c. Controllability
 More controllable than aft loaded aircraft
 Due to the longer arm from elevator to CG
ii. Aft Loaded Aircraft
a. Acts lighter, and consequently faster
 Less nose up pressure required
 Lower nose requires less down load
 Decreased down load reduces wing loading, decreasing lift
required to maintain altitude
b. Lower AOA results in less induced drag allowing for a faster cruise speed and a lower stall speed
c. Controllability
 Recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as the CG moves aft
a Shortens the arm from CG to the elevator
G. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence, Microbursts, Atmospheric Conditions
2. Airspeeds (Review the following airspeeds in the POH, as applicable)
A. Maneuvering Speed (VA)
i. Calibrated design maneuvering speed
ii. Maximum speed at which the limit load can be imposed without causing structural damage
iii. See II.D. Principles of Flight for more details
B. Flaps Extended/Operating Speeds (VFE/VFO),
i. VFE: Highest speed permissible with the wing flaps in a prescribed extended position
a. Upper limit of the white arc
ii. VFO: Highest speed permissible for extending/retracting flaps
C. Landing Gear
i. Landing Gear Operating Speed (VLO)
a. Maximum speed for extending or retracting landing gear
ii. Landing Gear Extended Speed (VLE)

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

a. Maximum speed at which an aircraft can be safely flown with the landing gear extended
D. Best Glide Speed
i. Airspeed at which the aircraft glides the furthest for the least altitude lost in non-powered flight
ii. See XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing for more info
E. Reference Landing Speed (VREF)
i. Speed flown during the final stages of the approach to landing, generally, 1.3 V S0
F. Stall Speeds
i. VS0: Calibrated power-off stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the aircraft is controllable
in the landing configuration
a. Lower limit of the white arc
ii. VS1: Calibrated power-off stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the aircraft is controllable
in a specific configuration
a. Lower limit of the green arc
G. Maximum Structural Cruising Speed (VNO)
i. Do not exceed, except in smooth air; Upper limit of the green arc
H. Never Exceed Speed (VNE)
i. Operating above this speed is prohibited since it may result in damage or structural failure
ii. Red line on the airspeed indicator (yellow arc indicates the range between V NO and VNE)
I. Address any other applicable speeds
J. RM: Airspeed Limitations & Airspeed Indicator
i. Published speeds and limitations exist for the sake of safety
ii. Operating outside of the published speeds/limitations is dangerous and can negate performance data
3. Control Inputs, Configuration, & Airspeed (generic info provided below, adjust for your aircraft)
A. Level Flight
i. Review Cruise Pitch & Power Settings
ii. As the airspeed slows, back pressure is increased to maintain altitude – trim to relieve pressure
iii. Power is initially reduced, but will have to be increased entering the region of reversed command
B. Turns
i. Review Turn Pitch & Power Settings
ii. Overbanking Tendency: The slower the turn, the more opposite aileron required to maintain bank angle
C. Climbs
i. Review Climb Pitch & Power Settings
ii. Best rate of climb (based on excess power available) is near L/DMAX
a. Below this speed, more power is required to maintain a given speed
b. As more power is required relative to what’s available, the rate of climb decreases
c. Entering the region of reversed command, pitch is adjusted to maintain airspeed & power for altitude
D. Descents
i. Review Descent Pitch and Power Settings
ii. Lower pitch to maintain airspeed as power is reduced
iii. Change in pitch requires an adjustment in trim
E. Critically Slow Airspeeds
i. RM: Stall Indications (Warning Range & Limitations)
a. Decreased noise as the aircraft slows, controls become sluggish/less effective
b. Buffet: Tends to occur prior to the stall horn
c. Stall Horn: Designed to provide warning of an approaching stall and time for stall recovery
 Reference the POH for operational ranges and limitations
ii. RM: Unacknowledged Stall Indications
a. Unacknowledged indications can be the result of various factors

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

 Unfamiliarity with stall indications, distractions, fear (fight/flight reaction), confusion, etc.
b. The farther an aircraft continues into the stall, the more hazardous and the greater loss of altitude
c. Be familiar with and able to recognize all stall indications
 Rod Machado has a great article on The Stall Horn Fallacy of Stall Prevention
iii. Inadvertent Stall
a. By ensuring the student can recognize and recover from at any stage of a stall, they are far better
protected from an inadvertent stall
b. Simply waiting for the stall horn may catch the pilot off guard
F. Flaps
i. Settings: Review flap settings and their characteristics
ii. Generally, as flaps are extended, lift is increased along with drag
a. Increased camber and AOA (chord line gets steeper)
b. Reduce pitch to maintain altitude and increase power to maintain airspeed
G. Gear
i. Gear introduces considerable drag and can affect the pitching moment
ii. Add power to maintain airspeed and adjust pitch to maintain level flight
4. Demonstrating Flight Characteristics (apply the above characteristics to the following procedures)
A. Pre-Maneuver
i. Pre-maneuver checklist, Properly clear the area
ii. Select an altitude (no lower than 1,500’ AGL)
B. Clean Configuration Demo
i. Establish and maintain level flight at maneuvering speed
a. Describe pitch, power, and trim inputs to maintain airspeed/altitude
ii. Slow to and maintain best glide airspeed
a. Note power setting required to maintain best glide speed
b. Describe changes in pitch, trim, control pressures/control feel and coordination requirements
iii. Slow to a speed at which any increase in AOA, load factor, or power reduction would result in a stall (V S1)
a. Describe changes in pitch, trim, control pressures and feel, right rudder requirements
b. Describe power required to maintain level flight (note change in noise, AOA, etc.)
c. Verbally acknowledge stall indications
iv. Without changing power, lower pitch and accelerate until reestablishing level flight
a. Note the new airspeed and altitude lost
v. Return to normal cruise flight
C. Landing Configuration Demo
i. Maintain maneuvering speed at the selected altitude
a. Describe pitch, power, and trim inputs to maintain airspeed/altitude
ii. While maintaining altitude, slow to the limiting airspeeds and fully extend gear and flaps
iii. Once configured, slow to and maintain reference landing speed
a. Note power required and changes in trim and control pressures and control feel
iv. Slow to a speed at which an increase in AOA, load factor, or power reduction would result in a stall (V S0)
a. Maintain this airspeed in level flight
b. Note airspeed and power setting, as well as control inputs and trim
c. Verbally acknowledge stall indications
v. Without changing power, lower pitch and accelerate to until reestablishing level flight
a. Note the new airspeed and altitude lost
vi. Return to normal cruise flight at the heading & altitude specified

Conclusion:

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X.B. Demonstration of Flight Characteristics

Brief review of the main points

364
X.C. Power-Off Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Stall and Spin Awareness Training (AC 61-67), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of power-off stalls regarding aerodynamics, factors
associated with stall speeds, as well as proper recovery techniques. The student will
understand situations in which power off stalls are most common and most dangerous and will
have the ability to perform a power-off stall as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Critical Angle of Attack

2. Reduce the AOA
3. Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure

Elements 1. Aerodynamics
2. Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
3. Power-Off Stall Situations
4. Power-Off Stalls
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will become familiar with the conditions that produce power-off stalls and will
Standards develop the habit of taking prompt preventative and/or corrective action when in a power-off
stall.
X.C. Power-Off Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Stalls can be intimidating/frightening but understanding how they work and practicing them will make you more
comfortable with them, and a safer pilot. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or any power setting.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A stall occurs when the critical AOA is exceeded. When this happens, the smooth airflow over the wing is disrupted
resulting in a loss of lift and increased drag. Power off stalls simulate stalls in the approach and landing configuration.

Why
Stalls in general are practiced to become familiar with an aircraft’s particular stall characteristics and to avoid putting
the aircraft into a potentially dangerous situation. Power-off stalls are essential to safety in the aircraft. It is important
to understand how they happen, how to avoid them, and how to recover from them.

How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the wing is disrupted and lift decreases rapidly
i. This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a. The critical AOA varies with aircraft, but is usually around 15-20o in GA aircraft

B. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

i. The point at which the airflow separates and there is a rapid reduction in lift is the stalling angle of attack, or
the critical angle of attack, or CLMAX (the Maximum Coefficient of Lift)
d. CL = Coefficient of Lift – Measurement of lift as it relates to AOA
 Determined by wind tunnel tests;
based on airfoil design/AOA
e. Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a stall
and lift drops off rapidly
C. Stall Characteristics
i. Most general aviation aircraft are
designed to stall at the wing root and
progress out to the wing tips
a. Aileron effectiveness is maintained at
the wingtips, maintaining control

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

ii. Various design can be used to accomplish this:

a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
b. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the leading edge to induce a stall earlier than otherwise
D. There’s More than One Way to Exceed the Critical AOA
i. If at ANY time the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
ii. Low Speed
a. As airspeed decreases, the AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
b. At a slow enough speed, the critical AOA is exceeded
iii. High Speed
a. If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator
 Although the nose is raised, the aircraft continues downward for some amount of time
b. AOA changes from low to very high while the flight path remains the same
c. The aircraft reaches the critical AOA at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
iv. Turns
a. The stall speed of an aircraft is higher in a level turn than in straight-and-level flight
b. In a turn, AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
i. If during the turn the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
2. Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
A. A stall can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting, depending on the total factors affecting the aircraft
B. Airspeed & Power Settings
i. Low Speed and / or Low Power Setting (same as above)
ii. High Speed and / or High-Power Setting (same as above)
a. Additionally, in low wing planes, high power settings may reduce stall speed and increase lift
 Propeller airflow over the wing roots can provide some lift even if the wing is stalled
C. Yaw Effects
i. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high angles of attack results in increased left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
ii. Torque Reaction – Based on Newton’s 3rd Law
a. The engine parts/propeller rotate right, an equal force attempts to rotate the plane left
b. In flight: left rolling tendency; On ground: left turning
c. Corrected by offsetting the engine, aileron trim tabs, and/or aileron and rudder use
iii. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
a. Corkscrewing propeller air strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer - pushes nose left (shown below)
b. Strongest at high prop speeds/low forward speeds
iv. Gyroscopic Action
a. Precession - Any force takes effect 90o ahead of, and in the direction of rotation
b. Pitch results in a yawing moment and vice versa
c. Correct with rudder/elevator
v. Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)
a. At high AOAs, the bite of the down moving blade is greater than the up moving blade
b. Center of thrust moves to the right of the propeller disc, causing a yaw to the left
c. Correct with right rudder

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

D. Configuration (Gear and Flaps)

i. Flaps - Reduce the stall speed of an aircraft
a. Most flaps increase the camber of the wing and change the chord line, producing more lift
b. Note the differing speeds on the airspeed indicator (green arc vs white arc)
ii. Gear
a. The effects of gear can vary based on the aircraft design and characteristics
b. Gear extension increases drag and if not properly compensated for could lead to a stall
E. Weight - As the weight of the aircraft is increased, the stall speed increases
i. The greater the weight, the greater the lift required, and therefore the higher AOA
a. Closer to the critical angle of attack
ii. A lighter aircraft will stall at a slower airspeed (opposite of a heavy aircraft)
F. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Center of Gravity (CG)
a. Increases stall speed (same effect as a heavier aircraft)
b. The farther forward the CG moves, the higher the AOA must be to compensate for the extra load
imposed by the tail (see picture)
 Aircraft is closer to the critical AOA
c. More controllable due to the longer arm from CG to elevator, improving stall recovery ability
d. Additionally, the farther forward the CG, the greater the tendency for the nose to pitch down
ii. Aft CG
a. Decreases stall speed
b. The farther aft the CG moves, the lower the AOA needed to compensate for the tail down load
 Aircraft is farther from the critical AOA
c. Aircraft is less controllable due to the shorter arm from the CG to the elevator
 Recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as the CG moves aft
 Additionally, the farther aft the CG, the less tendency for the nose to pitch down on its own
G. Load Factor
i. Any increase in the load factor increases the stall speed
a. Stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
ii. Pulling out of a steep descent, steep turns, aggressive control inputs, etc.
H. Bank Angle & Load Factor
i. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all banked turns
ii. Tremendous loads are imposed on an airplane at bank angles above 45o
I. Snow, Ice, and Frost
i. Increase the stall speed
ii.

Disrupt smooth airflow over the wing causing the boundary layer
to separate at an AOA lower than the critical AOA
a. To make matters worse, as ice accumulates weight is
increased

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

 More lift is required due to the added weight, but less lift is available due to the ice
b. As little as .8 millimeters of ice on the upper wing increases drag and reduces lift by 25%
J. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
ii. Microbursts
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
3. RM: Power-Off Stall Situations
A. Approach to landing conditions and configurations
i. Crossed control turns from base to final
ii. Attempting to recover from a high sink rate on final approach using only an increased pitch attitude
iii. Improper airspeed control on final approach and other segments of the traffic pattern
4. Power-Off Stalls
A. Entry
i. Pre-Maneuver Checklist; Clear the area
ii. Select an altitude - Must recover prior to 1,500’ AGL
iii. Landing configuration
a. CE: Failure to establish the specified configuration prior to entry
iv. Note the heading (bug the heading)
B. Getting into the Straight Stall
i. Slow to normal approach speed while maintaining altitude
a. Extend the flaps (landing flaps)
b. Visually - Find a reference off the nose to maintain direction and to assist with pitch attitude
ii. Smoothly lower the nose to the normal approach attitude and maintain approach speed
iii. Once stable, reduce power to idle and smoothly raise the nose to an attitude that will induce a stall
a. Simulate a flare to landing
iv. CE: Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight-ahead stalls
v. CE: Rough and/or uncoordinated use of the flight controls
a. Just like in slow flight, use smooth movements in controlling the airplane, nothing jerky
C. Getting into the Turning Stall
i. Same procedures as a straight-ahead stall, except a specific bank angle is maintained
a. When the power is set and the descent established, establish the desired bank angle
b. Aileron pressure must be continually adjusted to keep the bank constant
 Overbanking tendency
c. Maintain coordination
ii. CE: Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls
a. Increase control pressure as the aircraft slows and controls become less effective
D. Recognizing the Stall
i. Announce the stages of the stall: Stall Warning Horn, Reduced Control Effectiveness, Buffet, Stall
ii. Sight: Attitude of the plane
iii. Sound: Stall warning horn, reduced RPM, slowing airspeed / airflow
iv. Feel – Mushy / less effective controls, leaning back, buffeting and vibrations just before stall
v. Kinesthesia (sensing of movements by feel, “seat of the pants,” your “spidey sense”)
a. Experience based. When properly developed you can recognize when something doesn’t feel right
b. Sinking feeling
c. Aircraft Specific: Note any aircraft specific designs, indicators, characteristics, etc.
vi. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations
a. Buffet, Stall Horn, Ranges & Limitations
E. Recovery

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

i. Basics: Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
a. Disconnect the autopilot (if applicable)
b. Pitch nose down – AOA must be decreased positively and immediately
c. Roll wings level – Regain / maintain directional control with coordinated aileron and rudder
 Reorients the lift vector vertical for a more effective recovery and climb
 Do not attempt to level the wings prior to reducing angle of attack (can aggravate stall)
c. Thrust/power as necessary - Stalls can occur at high/low power & airspeeds, adjust as required
 Generally, in a power-off stall, maximum allowable power should be applied
 Right rudder will be required to maintain coordination/heading
d. Stabilize/establish the desired flight path - Go around and climb at the desired airspeed V Y (VX)
e. Configure – Once in a climb, configure as required (same flap and gear retraction as a go around)
F. Ailerons & Recovery
i. Most general aviation aircraft are designed to stall progressively outward from the wing root
a. Aileron control is maintained at high AOAs, providing more stable stall characteristics
b. During recovery, the return of lift begins at the tips and progresses towards the roots
 Ailerons can be used to level the wings
ii. If the wing is fully stalled (ailerons included), using ailerons can aggravate the stall
a. Attempting to raise the low (stalled) wing increases its AOA, further stalling the wing
G. Rudder and Recovery
i. Primary cause of spins is exceeding the critical AOA with improper rudder (uncoordinated flight)
ii. Maintaining directional control / coordinated flight with rudder is vital in avoiding a spin
H. Common Errors
i. Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall/poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
ii. Failure to achieve a stall (if required by the examiner)
iii. Excessive altitude loss/airspeed/secondary stall during recovery

5. RM: Hazards
A. Stall Warning during Normal Operation
i. Recover
ii. The first thought is not how and why is this happening, the first reaction is to recover/fix the problem
a. When safe, then you can figure out how it happened
B. Secondary Stalls
i. Occurs after recovery from a preceding stall
a. Pilot does not sufficiently reduce AOA or attempts to recover using power only
ii. Perform the stall recovery procedure again
iii. Prevent secondary stalls with proper recovery procedures (Push, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize)
C. Accelerated Stalls
i. Higher G loads increase the stall speed (Ex. Steep turns, aggressive pull up)
ii. Use smooth, controlled inputs
iii. Recover at the first indication

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X.C. Power-Off Stalls

D. Cross-Controlled Stalls
i. Uncoordinated aileron and rudder in opposite directions can lead to a cross-controlled stall
ii. May have little to no warning of the impending stall - Release the crossed-controls and recover
iii. Prevent cross-controlled stalls by maintaining coordination
E. Collision Hazards
F. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish the specified configuration prior to entry
 Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight-ahead stalls
 Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls
 Rough and/or uncoordinated use of the flight controls
 Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
 Failure to achieve a stall
 Improper torque correction
 Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
 Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
 Secondary stall during recovery

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Stall and Spin Awareness Training (AC 61-67), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of stalls regarding aerodynamics, factors associated
with stall speeds, as well as proper recovery techniques. The student will understand situations
in which power on stalls are most common and most dangerous and will have the ability to
perform a power-on stall as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Critical Angle of Attack

2. Reduce the AOA
3. Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure

Elements 1. Aerodynamics
2. Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
3. Power-On Stall Situations
4. Power-On Stalls
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will become familiar with the conditions that produce power-on stalls and will
Standards develop the habit of taking prompt preventative and/or corrective action when in a situation
resulting in a stall.
X.D. Power-On Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Stalls can be intimidating and frightening but understanding how they work and practicing them will make you more
comfortable with them and a much safer pilot. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or any power setting.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A stall occurs when the critical angle of attack is exceeded. When this happens, the smooth airflow over the wing is
disrupted resulting in a loss of lift and increased drag. Power on stalls (also known as departure stalls) are practiced to
simulate stalls in the takeoff and climb-out conditions and configuration.

Why
Stalls in general are practiced to become familiar with an aircraft’s particular stall characteristics and to avoid putting
the aircraft into a potentially dangerous situation. Power-on stalls simulate a stall in the takeoff configuration.

How:
2. Aerodynamics
A. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the wing is disrupted and lift decreases rapidly
i. This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a. The critical AOA varies with aircraft, but is usually around 15-20o in GA aircraft

B. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

i. The point at which the airflow separates and there is a rapid reduction in lift is the stalling angle of attack, or
the critical angle of attack, or CLMAX (the Maximum Coefficient of Lift)
f. CL = Coefficient of Lift – Measurement of lift as it relates to AOA
 Determined by wind tunnel tests;
based on airfoil design/AOA
g. Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a stall
and lift drops off rapidly
C. Stall Characteristics
i. Most general aviation aircraft are
designed to stall at the wing root and
progress out to the wing tips
a. Aileron effectiveness is maintained at
the wingtips, maintaining control

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

ii. Various design can be used to accomplish this:

a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
b. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the leading edge to induce a stall earlier than otherwise
D. There’s More than One Way to Exceed the Critical AOA
i. If at ANY time the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
ii. Low Speed
a. As airspeed decreases, the AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
b. At a slow enough speed, the critical AOA is exceeded
iii. High Speed
a. If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator
 Although the nose is raised, the aircraft continues downward for some amount of time
b. AOA changes from low to very high while the flight path remains the same
c. The aircraft reaches the critical AOA at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
iv. Turns
a. The stall speed of an aircraft is higher in a level turn than in straight-and-level flight
b. In a turn, AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
c. If during the turn the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
2. Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
A. A stall can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting, depending on the total factors affecting the aircraft
B. Airspeed & Power Settings
i. Low Speed and / or Low Power Setting (same as above)
ii. High Speed and / or High-Power Setting (same as above)
c. Additionally, in low wing planes, high power settings may reduce stall speed and increase lift
 Propeller airflow over the wing roots can provide some lift even if the wing is stalled
C. Yaw Effects
i. Increased power at slow airspeeds and high angles of attack results in increased left turning tendencies
c. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination
ii. Torque Reaction – Based on Newton’s 3rd Law
c. The engine parts/propeller rotate right, an equal force attempts to rotate the plane left
d. In flight: left rolling tendency; On ground: left turning
e. Corrected by offsetting the engine, aileron trim tabs, and/or aileron and rudder use
iii. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
c. Corkscrewing propeller air strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer - pushes nose left (shown below)
d. Strongest at high prop speeds/low forward speeds
iv. Gyroscopic Action
c. Precession - Any force takes effect 90o ahead of, and in the direction of rotation
d. Pitch results in a yawing moment and vice versa
e. Correct with rudder/elevator
v. Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)
c. At high AOAs, the bite of the down moving blade is greater than the up moving blade
d. Center of thrust moves to the right of the propeller disc, causing a yaw to the left
e. Correct with right rudder

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

D. Configuration (Gear and Flaps)

i. Flaps - Reduce the stall speed of an aircraft
c. Most flaps increase the camber of the wing and change the chord line, producing more lift
d. Note the differing speeds on the airspeed indicator (green arc vs white arc)
ii. Gear
c. The effects of gear can vary based on the aircraft design and characteristics
d. Gear extension increases drag and if not properly compensated for could lead to a stall
E. Weight - As the weight of the aircraft is increased, the stall speed increases
i. The greater the weight, the greater the lift required, and therefore the higher AOA
c. Closer to the critical angle of attack
ii. A lighter aircraft will stall at a slower airspeed (opposite of a heavy aircraft)
F. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Center of Gravity (CG)
c. Increases stall speed (same effect as a heavier aircraft)
d. The farther forward the CG moves, the higher the AOA must be to compensate for the extra load
imposed by the tail (see picture)
 Aircraft is closer to the critical AOA
e. More controllable due to the longer arm from CG to elevator, improving stall recovery ability
f. Additionally, the farther forward the CG, the greater the tendency for the nose to pitch down
ii. Aft CG
c. Decreases stall speed
d. The farther aft the CG moves, the lower the AOA needed to compensate for the tail down load
 Aircraft is farther from the critical AOA
e. Aircraft is less controllable due to the shorter arm from the CG to the elevator
 Recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as the CG moves aft
 Additionally, the farther aft the CG, the less tendency for the nose to pitch down on its own
G. Load Factor
i. Any increase in the load factor increases the stall speed
c. Stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
ii. Pulling out of a steep descent, steep turns, aggressive control inputs, etc.
H. Bank Angle & Load Factor
i. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all banked turns
ii. Tremendous loads are imposed on an airplane at bank angles above 45o
I. Snow, Ice, and Frost
i. Increase the stall speed
ii.

Disrupt smooth airflow over the wing causing the boundary layer
to separate at an AOA lower than the critical AOA
c. To make matters worse, as ice accumulates weight is
increased

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

 More lift is required due to the added weight, but less lift is available due to the ice
d. As little as .8 millimeters of ice on the upper wing increases drag and reduces lift by 25%
J. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence, Microbursts, Atmospheric Conditions
3. RM: Power-On Stall Situations
A. High power, high pitch situations
i. Takeoff, climb, and go arounds. Most hazardous of these situations are likely:
c. Short field takeoff – high pitch, VX climb – closer to the stall speed
ii. Go Around – changing configuration, pitch, power. Significant nose up trim, and distractions
4. Power-On Stalls
A. Differences - Considerably louder and steeper than a power-off stall
B. Entry
i. Pre-Maneuver Checklist; Clear the area
ii. Select an altitude - Must recover prior to 1,500’ AGL
iii. Takeoff configuration (can be practiced clean as well)
iv. Note the heading (bug the heading)
v. CE: Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
C. Getting into the Straight-Ahead Stall
i. Reduce power to slow to normal lift off speed while maintaining altitude
a. Visually - Nose pitches above the horizon; use a cloud, or other high visual reference
ii. At VR, increase to takeoff power and maintain the specified climb attitude
a. CE: Improper torque correction. Counter left turning tendencies with right rudder
b. As speed decreases / controls lose effectiveness, increase back pressure and right rudder
c. Visual references are primary, but back them up with the instruments
iii. CE: Improper pitch, heading, yaw, bank control during straight ahead / turning stalls
iv. CE: Rough and / or uncoordinated control procedure
a. Just like in slow flight, use smooth movements to control the aircraft, nothing jerky
D. Getting into the Turning Stall
i. Same as a straight stall, except a specific bank is maintained (15-20o - Airplane Flying Handbook)
ii. Apply power / pitch for the climb, and then establish the desired bank angle
iii. Continually adjust aileron pressure to maintain bank
a. Reduced airspeed / control effectiveness
b. Overbanking tendency requires opposite aileron
iv. Maintain coordination
a. Especially important in a turning, power on stall due to the increased chance of a spin
v. CE: Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls
E. Recognizing the Stall
i. Announce the stages of the stall: Stall Warning Horn, Reduced Control Effectiveness, Buffet, Stall
ii. Sight: Nose high attitude (especially high in a power on stall)
iii. Sound: Stall warning horn, reduced RPM due to propeller load, slowing airspeed / airflow
iv. Feel: Mushy / less effective controls, leaning back, buffeting and vibrations just before stall
v. Kinesthesia (sensing of movements by feel, “seat of the pants,” your “spidey sense”)
a. Experience based. When properly developed you can recognize when something doesn’t feel right
vi. Aircraft Specific: Note any aircraft specific designs, indicators, characteristics, etc.
vii. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations
a. Buffet, Stall Horn, Ranges & Limitations
F. Recovery - Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
i. Disconnect the autopilot

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

ii. Pitch nose down – Pitch attitude must be decreased immediately

iii. Roll wings level – Regain / maintain directional control with coordinated aileron and rudder
iv. Thrust/power as necessary – Stalls can occur at high/low power & airspeeds, adjust as required
a. In general, in a power-on stall, verify maximum power is set
v. Stabilize/establish the desired flight path – Establish a climb at the desired airspeed V Y (or VX)
a. Once the stall is broken, do not aggressively lift the nose to reestablish a climb
b. Use smooth, controlled inputs and monitor the performance to ensure it is ready to climb

G. Ailerons and Recovery

i. Most general aviation aircraft are designed to stall progressively outward from the wing root
a. Aileron control is maintained at high AOAs, providing more stable stall characteristics
b. During recovery, the return of lift begins at the tips and progresses towards the roots
 Ailerons can be used to level the wings
ii. If the wing is fully stalled (ailerons included), using ailerons can aggravate the stall
a. Attempting to raise the low (stalled) wing increases its AOA, further stalling the wing
H. Rudder and Recovery
i. Primary cause of spins is exceeding the critical AOA with improper rudder (uncoordinated flight)
ii. Maintaining directional control / coordinated flight with rudder is vital in avoiding a spin
I. Common Errors During Recovery:
i. Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
ii. Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
iii. Secondary stall during recovery
5. RM: Hazards
A. Stall Warning during Normal Operation
i. Recover
ii. The first thought is not how and why is this happening, the first reaction is to recover/fix the problem
a. When safe, then you can figure out how it happened
B. Secondary Stalls
i. Occurs after recovery from a preceding stall
a. Pilot does not sufficiently reduce AOA or attempts to recover using power only
ii. More likely to occur at low altitude, where the natural impulse is to pull up abruptly
iii. Perform the stall recovery procedure again
iv. Prevent secondary stalls with proper recovery procedures (Push, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize)
C. Accelerated Stalls
i. Higher G loads increase the stall speed (Ex. Steep turns, aggressive pull up)
ii. Use smooth, controlled inputs
iii. Recover at the first indication
D. Cross-Controlled Stalls
i. Uncoordinated aileron and rudder in opposite directions can lead to a cross-controlled stall
ii. Often associated with the traffic pattern, and especially hazardous at low altitudes

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X.D. Power-On Stalls

a. Ex. Overshooting final and using rudder to “help the turn” with opposite aileron to maintain 30 o bank
iii. May have little to no warning of the impending stall
iv. Release the crossed-controls and recover
v. Prevent cross-controlled stalls by maintaining coordination
E. Collision Hazards
F. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
 Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight ahead and turning stalls
 Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls
 Rough and/or uncoordinated use of flight controls
 Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
 Failure to achieve a stall
 Improper torque correction
 Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
 Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
 Secondary stall during recovery

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to accelerated stalls and
develop the ability to recognize such stalls immediately, with the capability to take prompt,
effective recovery action.

Key Elements 1. Excessive Maneuvering Loads

2. Unusual Stall Attitudes
3. Normal Recovery

Elements 1. Aerodynamics of an Accelerated Stall

2. Various Factors & their Effect on Stall Speed
3. Accelerated Stall Situations
4. Accelerated Stalls
5. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands situations in which an accelerated stall is possible and has the ability
Standards to recognize and effectively recover from the stall.
X.E. Accelerated Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Stalling during a steep turn, or in a level, possibly even nose low attitude? Didn’t think that could happen?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Stalls entered from flight situations that impose excessive maneuvering loads on the airplane. Situations such as
steeps turns, pull-ups, or other abrupt changes in flightpath.

Why
Stalls which result from abrupt maneuvers tend to be more rapid, or severe, than the unaccelerated stalls, and
because they occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds, and/or at lower than anticipated pitch, they may be
unexpected.

How:
1. Aerodynamics of an Accelerated Stall
A. Why an Aircraft Stalls
i. Basically…
a. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the top of the wing is disrupted and lift decreases rapidly
 This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a The critical AOA varies, but is usually around 15-20o in a general aviation aircraft
b Remember, AOA is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the relative wind
 A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting
ii. More Specifically…
a. Airflow Over the Wing
 A certain amount of lift is generated by the difference in pressure between the top and bottom of
the wing. This lift is dependent on the smooth airflow over the top of the wing (A in graphic below)
 As AOA increases, the airflow over the top of the wing cannot maintain the smooth flow and starts
to burble and separate from the trailing edge (B in graphic below)
 As AOA continues to increase, the separation point moves farther forward along the top of the wing
hindering its ability to create lift, and leading to airflow separation and a stall (C in graphic below)
a Thus, a stall occurs due to a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of the airflow from
the wing’s surface

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

c. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

 The point at which the airflow
separates and there is a rapid
reduction in lift is the stalling AOA,
or the critical AOA, or CLMAX (the Max
Coefficient of Lift)
 CL = Coefficient of Lift – A way to
measure lift as it relates to AOA
a Determined by wind tunnel tests
and based on airfoil design and
AOA
 Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a
stall and lift drops off rapidly
B. Stall Characteristics
i. Most GA aircraft are designed to stall at the wing root first and then progress outward to the wing tips
a. By having the root stall first, aileron effectiveness is maintained at the wingtips, maintaining
controllability of the aircraft
ii. Various design can be used to accomplish this:
a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
 Angle of Incidence – The angle of the chord line of the wing relative to the fuselage
 These aircraft are designed with a higher angle of incidence near the wing root, leading to a lower
angle of incidence at the wing tip
b. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the wing’s leading edge to induce a stall earlier than it would
otherwise stall
C. What is an Accelerated Stall?
i. At the same gross weight, configuration, CG location, power setting, and environmental conditions, a given
plane will stall at the same indicated airspeed provided the plane is at 1G (steady state unaccelerated flight)
ii. However, the plane can also stall at a higher indicated airspeed when subject to a load factor > 1G
a. Ex. Turning, pulling up, or other abrupt changes to the flight path
iii. Stalls encountered when the G-load, or load factor, exceeds 1G are called Accelerated Stalls
D. Increased Load Factor Increases Stall Speed
i. Load factor is the ratio of the total load acting on the aircraft to the gross weight of the aircraft
a. Expressed in terms of Gs
ii. The stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
a. An aircraft with a stall speed of 50 knots can be stalled at 100 knots by inducing a load factor of 4Gs
iii. Anything that puts Gs on the aircraft increases the load factor and therefore the stall speed
a. Pulling out of a steep descent, steep turns, aggressive control inputs, etc.

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

iv. Bank Angle and Load Factor

a. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all turns
b. Tremendous loads are imposed on an airplane as the bank is increased beyond 45o
 At a 60o bank, a load factor of 2 Gs is imposed on the airplane structure
 At approx. 63o of bank the stall speed is increased by approximately ½
c. Example: Entering a turn, increased back pressure is required to maintain altitude
 Another way of saying this is that the wings must produce additional lift to maintain altitude
(increased load factor)
a Remember, in a turn the vertical component of lift is split into a horizontal & vertical component
 The additional lift comes from added back pressure which increases AOA
a The flight path/relative wind remain the same, while pitch is increased leading to a higher AOA
 If at any time during the turn the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft will stall
v. Aggressive Pull ups and Load Factor
a. Recovering too aggressively from a steep descent can quickly and significantly increase load factor, and
AOA can quickly exceed critical AOA
b. Ex. If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive, and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator, gravity and
centrifugal force prevent an immediate change to the flight path
 AOA changes abruptly from quite low to very high, but even though the nose has been raised, the
aircraft continues its trajectory downward for some amount of time (load factor is increased)
 Since AOA is suddenly increased while the flight path remains the same, the aircraft can reach the
critical AOA at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
C. Hazards of Accelerated Stalls
i. Significant load factor increases can be imposed when pulling out of steep dives or in steep turns
a. Can result in structural damage at high airspeeds
b. Stay below VA
ii. Accelerated stalls tend to occur at higher airspeeds and to be more aggressive due to the higher airspeeds
a. Can catch a pilot off guard
b. A prolonged accelerated stall may result in a spin or other departure from controlled flight
2. Various Factors & their Effect on Stall Speed
A. A stall can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting, depending on the total factors affecting the aircraft
B. Power Settings
i. Low Speed and/or Low Power Setting
a. As airspeed decreases, AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
b. Eventually, an AOA is reached that results in the wing stalling because the AOA has exceeded the critical
angle and the airflow over the wing is disrupted
c. Increased load factor only exacerbates the slow, high AOA aircraft
ii. High Speed and/or High-Power Setting
a. As discussed above
b. Depending on the aircraft, a higher power setting may reduce stall speed and increase lift on the wings
 Although the wing may be stalled, a higher power setting can provide increased lift due to the
propeller airflow/prop wash moving over the wing roots
 More prominent in low wing aircraft where the propeller airflow moves directly over the wing
 This airflow also likely has a relatively low angle of attack
C. Yaw Effects
i. Uncoordinated flight combined with high load factors/accelerated stalls can quickly lead to a spin
ii. The higher stall speed, lower than anticipated pitch attitude, and aggressive stall can catch a pilot off guard
a. If uncoordinated this can lead to a spin

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

D. Configuration
i. Flaps
a. Reduce the stall speed of an aircraft
 Most flaps increase the camber of the wing and change the chord line, producing more lift
a The nose of the aircraft is lowered to prevent ballooning
b Generally, the lowered nose and additional lift assist in decreasing the stall speed (factors will
vary based on aircraft/flap design)
 Note the differing speeds on the airspeed indicator (green arc vs white arc)
b. Flaps do not protect from an accelerated stall
 Lower designed g-loads in flap configurations could lead to failure/damage
E. Weight
i. As the weight of the aircraft is increased, the stall speed increases
a. Remember, to maintain altitude lift must equal weight
b. So, the greater the weight, the greater the lift required
c. A higher AOA is required to generate the lift (all other factors remaining the same)
d. The higher AOA puts the aircraft closer to the critical AOA; thus the aircraft will stall at a higher speed
ii. A lighter aircraft will stall at a slower airspeed
a. Same as above, but opposite. Less lift is required, and the AOA can be reduced (all other factors
remaining the same), lowering the stall speed
F. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Center of Gravity (CG)
a. Increases the stall speed
b. A forward center of gravity has the same effect on stall speed as a heavier aircraft
 The farther forward the CG moves, the higher the AOA must be to compensate for the extra load
imposed by the tail (see picture)
 Due to the higher AOA, the aircraft is closer to the
critical AOA and therefore will stall at a higher speed
c. The aircraft is also more controllable due to the longer
arm from the CG to the elevator, improving the stall
recovery capabilities
 Additionally, the farther forward the CG, the greater
the tendency for the nose to pitch down
a Imagine it as more “nose heavy”
d. Worth noting:
 The higher AOA and increased deflection of the
stabilizer increases drag; thus the aircraft is slower
for a given power setting
ii. Aft CG
a. Decreases the stall speed
b. An aft center of gravity has the same effect on stall speed as a lighter aircraft
 The farther aft the CG, the lower the AOA has to be to compensate for the load imposed by the tail
 Due to the lower AOA, the aircraft is farther from the critical AOA and will stall at a lower speed
c. Although stall speed is lower, the aircraft is less controllable due to the shorter arm from CG to elevator
 Shortened arm produces less force making recovery more difficult
 As the CG moves aft, recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult
 Additionally, the farther aft the CG, the less tendency for the nose to pitch down on its own
a Imagine it as more “tail heavy”

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

d. Worth noting:
 The lower AOA and less downward deflection of the stabilizer reduces drag; thus the aircraft is
faster for a given power setting
e. by approximately ½
G. Snow, Ice, and Frost
i. Increase the stall speed
ii. Snow, ice and frost disrupt the smooth flow of air over the wing causing the boundary layer to separate at
an angle of attack lower than the critical angle of attack
a. To make matters worse, lift is greatly reduced due to the disrupted air, and if ice accumulates, the
weight of the aircraft is increased
 More lift is required due to the added weight, but less lift is available due to the ice
b. As little as .8 millimeters of ice on the upper wing increases drag and reduces lift by 25%
H. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
ii. Microbursts
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
3. RM: Accelerated Stall Situations
A. Steep turns
B. Stall and spin recoveries
i. Especially when close to the ground
C. Steep, aggressive pull ups, or other abrupt changes in the aircraft’s flightpath
4. Accelerated Stalls
A. Pre-Maneuver
i. *Checklist
a. Fuel Pump ON
b. Mixture RICH
c. Lights ON
d. Gauges GREEN
ii. Clearing Turns
iii. At a Safe Altitude
a. Recover no lower than 3,000’ AGL
iv. Setup
a. Two methods for performing an accelerated stall per the Airplane Flying Handbook
 Below VA, roll into 45o of bank and smoothly increase back pressure to induce a stall (most common)
 Roll into a 45o bank above VA, and after the airspeed reaches VA, increase back pressure
b. Configure as required
 Never practice accelerated stalls with flaps extended due to the lower design G-load limitations in
that configuration
v. CE: Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
B. Performing
i. Establish the desired flight attitude
a. At or Below VA
 The airplane will stall before the limit load factor can be exceeded
b. From straight and level, roll into a steep, level turn (About 45o)
ii. Then smoothly, firmly, and progressively increase the AOA until a stall occurs (at/below V A)
a. Increases wing loading, decrease airspeed, and the centrifugal force will push the pilot into the seat
C. Recognizing the Stall
i. Buffet, stall warning horn will indicate an impending stall

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

a. The nose high attitude and reduction in noise as the aircraft slows doesn’t occur in accelerated stalls
ii. The airplane typically stalls during a coordinated steep turn exactly as it does from straight and level flight,
except the buffet tends to be sharper, and the pitching and rolling actions tend to be more sudden
 If coordinated - Both wings stall simultaneously, just like straight and level
 If slipping - Tends to roll rapidly toward the outside of the turn (Outside wing stalls 1 st)
 If skidding - Tends to roll rapidly toward the inside of the turn (Inside wing stalls 1 st)
iii. High or increasing descent rate
iv. Aircraft Specific
a. Note any aircraft specific designs, indicators, characteristics, etc.
v. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations
a. Buffet
b. Stall Horn
c. Ranges & Limitations
vi. Common Errors:
a. Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
b. Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
c. Failure to achieve a stall
 Ensure a stall has developed. Indications will vary between aircraft
D. Recovery - Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
i. Disconnect: the autopilot is likely already disconnected
ii. Pitch: The elevator pressure should be released
a. Reduce the AOA and eliminate the stall warning
iii. Roll: Use coordinated aileron and rudder pressures to level the wings
iv. Thrust: Adjust power as necessary
a. If a high airspeed already exists, additional power may not be necessary
b. Power may even need to be reduced depending on the airspeed and attitude
c. If a spin were to develop, power should be taken to idle
v. Stabilize: Return to the desired flight path
vi. Configure: Likely no changes applicable, but establish the desired configuration
vii. Common Errors
a. Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery
b. Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
procedure in recovering from an accelerated stall
 Poor procedures can lead to a secondary stall, spin, or continuation of the accelerated stall
E. RM: Stall Warning during Normal Operation
i. Recover
ii. The first thought is not how and why is this happening, the first reaction is to recover/fix the problem
a. When safe, then you can figure out how it happened
5. RM: Hazards
A. Secondary Stalls
i. Occurs after recovery from a preceding stall
a. Pilot does not sufficiently reduce AOA or attempts to recover using power only
ii. More likely to occur at low altitude, where the natural impulse is to pull up abruptly
iii. Perform the stall recovery procedure again
iv. Prevent secondary stalls with proper recovery procedures (Push, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize)
B. Cross-Controlled Stalls
i. Uncoordinated aileron and rudder in opposite directions can lead to a cross-controlled stall
ii. Often associated with the traffic pattern, and especially hazardous at low altitudes

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X.E. Accelerated Stalls

a. Ex. Overshooting final and using rudder to “help the turn” with opposite aileron to maintain 30 o bank
iii. May have little to no warning of the impending stall
iv. Release the crossed-controls and recover
v. Prevent cross-controlled stalls by maintaining coordination
C. Spins
i. Stall + Yaw (or uncoordinated flight)
a. Recover at the first sign of a stall
b. Maintain coordination to prevent a spin
ii. In the case a spin develops, recover using PARE
a. Power idle, Ailerons neutral, Rudder opposite the spin, Elevator forward
D. Collision Hazards
E. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
 Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery
 Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor procedure in
recovering from an accelerated stall
Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is important that the pilot be able to determine the stall characteristics of the airplane being flown and develop the
ability to instinctively recover at the onset of a stall at other than normal stall speeds or flight attitudes.

Commercial Pilot ACS Skills Standards

1. Establish a coordinated 45° bank, increasing elevator back pressure until an impending stall is reached.
2. Acknowledge the cue(s) and recover at the first indication of an impending stall (e.g., aircraft buffet, stall horn, etc.).

386
X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should understand the dynamics of a cross-controlled stall and therefore be able to
recognize situations which could lead to a cross-controlled stall. The student also should be able
to safely and effectively demonstrate and properly recover from a cross-controlled stall.

Key Elements 1. Too much rudder can hurt us

2. Little or no warning of a stall
3. Intuitive reactions are dangerous

Elements 1. Aerodynamics of Cross-Controlled Stalls

2. Recognizing Cross-Controlled Stalls
3. Cross-Controlled Stalls
4. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student understands the unique requirements for a cross-
Standards controlled stall and can confidently recognize and recover from a cross-controlled situation.
 X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Situation intro below

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This type of stall occurs with the controls crossed - aileron pressure applied in one direction and rudder pressure in
the opposite direction.

Why
It is imperative that this type of stall not occur during an actual approach to landing, since recovery may be
impossible prior to ground contact due to the low altitude. During traffic pattern operations, any conditions that
result in overshooting the turn from base leg to final approach, dramatically increase the possibility of an
unintentional accelerated stall while the airplane is in a cross-controlled condition.

How:
Very interesting read on cross-controlled stalls from APS (Aviation Performance Solutions)

1. Aerodynamics of a Cross-Controlled Stall

A. Situation
i. 30o bank left turn to final with overshooting wind pushing you past the runway centerline
ii. To avoid the overshoot, you add left rudder – aircraft rolls left, and the nose drops
a. Compensate with right aileron (cross controlling the plane), and raising the nose
iii. Still overshooting so you add more left rudder (more right aileron and back pressure to counter)
iv. Suddenly, the aircraft rolls sharply left, inverted (or even into a spin)
v. Instinct is to recover with more right aileron and back elevator pressure
vi. Aircraft rolls further left and accelerates the descent to the ground
B. Why did this happen?
i. A cross control stall occurs when the critical AOA is exceeded with aileron pressure applied in one direction
and rudder pressure in the opposite direction
ii. Using rudder to turn requires opposite (right) aileron and back pressure to maintain bank / altitude
a. Opposite Aileron
 As the right wing accelerates, right aileron is necessary to maintain the bank angle
 Right aileron increases the AOA on the left wing, and decreases it on the right
a The inside, low wing, has a higher AOA than the outside, high wing
b. Back Elevator Pressure (leads to the stall)
 The nose drop, due to increasing drag, leads to increased back pressure to maintain altitude
 Increased back pressure to maintain the same flight path leads to increased AOA
c. Overall
 AOA of the left, inside wing, is increased with right aileron
 AOA of both wings is increased with the added back pressure
iii. The Stall and the Reaction to the Stall

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 X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls

a. At the point of the stall, the inside wing has a higher AOA and therefore stalls first
 The plane rolls in the direction of the low wing (often inverted if not corrected quickly)
b. If you attempt to roll wings level (more right aileron), it further increases AOA on the inside wing
c. With the ground approaching rapidly, instinct is to pull up, making the stall even deeper
d. Stall + Yaw = Spin. You could very easily end up in a low altitude spin
C. The Moral of the Story
i. Stay coordinated, especially low to the ground
ii. In the case of an overshoot, or a cross controlled situation, go around and avoid the risk
D. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence, Microbursts, Atmospheric Conditions
E. RM: Limitations: Reference any aircraft limitations associated with cross-controlled stalls
2. Recognizing Cross-Controlled Stalls
A. Understand the conditions that can lead to a cross-controlled stall
i. Be alert for these conditions, especially at low altitudes
3. Cross-Controlled Stalls
A. Safe Altitude
i. Before demonstrating the stall, it is extremely important to be at a safe altitude
a. This is because of the extreme nose down attitude and loss of altitude that could occur
b. Plan for the worst-case scenario, a spin – 3,500’ AGL would allow for 3 rotations (at 500’ per rotation)
and a recovery above 1,500’ AGL (these numbers can vary by aircraft)
ii. Single engine stalls should be recovered by 1,500’ AGL
B. Pre-Maneuver Checklist; Clear the area
C. Set Up
i. Close the throttle
ii. Gear down (if retractable)
iii. Do not extend flaps to avoid exceeding airplane limitations
iv. Maintain altitude as the airplane slows, then establish a descent at normal glide speed
v. CE: Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
D. Performing
i. Roll into a medium-bank turn (simulate an overshooting turn to final)
ii. Apply excessive rudder in the direction of the turn and maintain 30 o of bank with opposite aileron
iii. At the same time, increase back pressure to keep the nose from lowering
iv. Increase control pressures until the airplane stalls
a. Due to the sideslip / abnormal airflow, the plane may stall without warning
 Depending on stall horn location, it may or may not warn the pilot of the stall
 Due to the sideslip, the buffet may not be felt until very late (right before the stall), if at all
v. CE: Failure to establish a cross-controlled turn and stall condition that will adequately demonstrate the
hazards of a cross-controlled stall
E. Recovery - Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
i. Recovery must be made before the airplane enters an abnormal attitude
ii. When the stall occurs:
a. Disconnect: Likely not applicable in this situation
b. Pitch: Apply nose down pressure to reduce AOA and eliminate the stall warning
c. Roll: Remove the excessive rudder, and level the wings
d. Thrust: Add power as necessary
e. Stabilize: Return to the desired flight path
iii. Configure: Likely not applicable, but establish the configuration required
iv. CE: Improper/inadequate demo of recognition & recovery from a cross-controlled stall

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 X.F. Cross-Controlled Stalls

v. CE: Failure to present simulated student instruction that emphasizes the hazards of a cross-controlled
condition in a gliding or reduced airspeed condition
F. Spin Recovery
i. This maneuver can result in a spin
ii. Recovery
a. Power - Idle
b. Ailerons - Neutral
c. Rudder - Opposite
d. Elevator - Briskly forward
 Break the stall
e. Rudder - Relaxed
f. Elevator - To pull out of stall
G. Bottom Line: Stay coordinated to avoid a cross-controlled stall!
4. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
 Failure to establish a cross-controlled turn and stall condition that will adequately demonstrate the hazards of a
cross-controlled stall
 Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery from a cross-controlled stall
 Failure to present simulated student instruction that emphasizes the hazards of a cross-controlled condition in a
gliding or reduced airspeed condition

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

390
X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to elevator trim stalls and their
application in executing a safe go-around. The student understands the inherent danger
involved when positive control of the airplane is not maintained, especially close to the
ground.

Key Elements 1. Maintain Positive Control

2. Anticipate Attitude Changes
3. Do Not Stall in a Go-Around

Elements 1. Aerodynamics
2. Elevator Trim Stall Situations
3. Elevator Trim Stalls
4. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can properly and safely perform a go-around procedure, correcting for any
Standards unintentional changes in airplane attitude, and without stalling the aircraft.
X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Applying full power with too much nose up trim (as in an approach to land) can have dire results if we don’t know
how to deal with it.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The elevator trim stall maneuver shows what can happen when full power is applied for a go around and positive
control of the airplane is not maintained.

Why
A situation like this could occur during a go-around procedure or immediately after takeoff. The objective is to show
the importance of making smooth power applications, overcoming strong trim forces, maintaining positive control of
the airplane, and using proper trim techniques. It’s imperative a stall doesn’t occur during an actual go-around.

How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the wing is disrupted, and lift decreases rapidly
i. This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a. The critical AOA varies with aircraft, but is usually around 15-20o in GA aircraft

B. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

i. The point at which the airflow separates and there is a rapid reduction in lift is the stalling angle of attack, or
the critical angle of attack, or CLMAX (the Maximum Coefficient of Lift)
h. CL = Coefficient of Lift – Measurement of lift as it relates to AOA
 Determined by wind tunnel tests;
based on airfoil design/AOA
i. Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a stall
and lift drops off rapidly
C. Stall Characteristics
i. Most general aviation aircraft are
designed to stall at the wing root and
progress out to the wing tips
a. Aileron effectiveness is maintained at
the wingtips, maintaining control

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X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls

ii. Various design can be used to accomplish this:

a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
b. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the leading edge to induce a stall earlier than otherwise
C. Specific to the Elevator Trim Stall
i. In the event of a go around, as maximum power is applied, the nose will rise sharply and turn left
a. If uncontrolled, the excessive nose-up pitch can result in a stall
b. If uncorrected, the uncoordinated left turn/yaw can lead to a spin
D. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence, Microbursts, Atmospheric Conditions
E. RM: Limitations: Reference any aircraft limitations associated with elevator trim stalls
2. Elevator Trim Stall Situations
A. Primarily used to demonstrate a go-around without maintaining control (namely pitch and yaw)
i. Basically, any situation where the aircraft is trimmed nose high and considerable power is added
B. Situations include:
i. Normal landing approach followed by a go around / Simulated forced landing followed by a climb
ii. Immediately after takeoff with the trim still set for the landing approach (nose high trim)
3. Elevator Trim Stalls
A. Entry
i. Pre-Maneuver
a. Pre-Maneuver Checklist; Clear the area
b. Select an altitude - Must be able to recover prior to 1,500’ AGL
c. Note / bug the heading
ii. Setup
a. Slowly retard the throttle while maintaining altitude
b. As airspeed decreases, configure for landing (gear and landing flaps)
c. Once configured, close the throttle, and maintain altitude until approaching normal glide speed
d. Establish a glide and trim to maintain glide speed
 CE: Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
B. Performing the Elevator Trim Stall

i.Smoothly advance the power to the maximum allowable (as would be done in a go-around)
a. The nose will rise sharply and turn to the left
 Allow time for the student to see the hazards without compromising safety
ii. Recognizing the stall is imminent
a. Rapid pitch up combined with rapid loss of airspeed
b. Stall warning horn and buffeting
C. Recovery - Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
i. Disconnect the autopilot (this may be the reason for the excessive trim)
ii. Pitch: Sufficient forward pressure must be applied to return to normal climbing attitude

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X.G. Elevator Trim Stalls

iii.
Roll: Coordinated roll as necessary to establish wings level
iv.Thrust: As required (likely max power, if it’s not already there)
v. Stabilize: Trim should be relieved, and the normal go-around and level-off procedures completed
vi.Configure: As you would for a normal go-around
vii.
If a full stall occurs, recovery will require significant nose-down pitch and altitude loss
a. Do not allow a full stall to occur as there may not be enough altitude to recover
viii. CE: Improper / inadequate demo of the recognition/recovery from an elevator trim stall
ix. CE: Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
correction for torque and up-elevator trim during go-around and other maneuvers
D. Additional Concerns
i. Often, instinct is to undo the action that caused the problem
a. In this case, adding power created the excessively nose high, left yaw situation
b. Although it might be somewhat helpful, taking power to idle could lead to:
 Significant loss of airspeed & inability to climb while close to the ground
4. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor correction for
torque and up-elevator trim during go-around and other maneuvers
 Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
 Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and the recovery from an elevator trim stall
Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is very important that a pilot understands the elevator trim stall hazard associated with go-arounds. By understanding
the risk involved if positive control of the airplane’s attitude is not maintained future flights will be considerably safer.

394
X.H. Secondary Stalls

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25),
Stall and Spin Awareness Training (AC 61-67), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to secondary stalls and the
importance of an initial proper stall recovery.

Key Elements 1. Airspeed!

2. Increased Load Factor
3. More Pronounced Stall the 2nd Time

Elements 1. Aerodynamics
2. Secondary Stall Situations
3. Secondary Stalls
4. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the importance of a properly performed stall recovery.
Standards
X.H. Secondary Stalls

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Fool me once shame on you. Fool me twice, shame on me. Stalling once isn’t good. Stalling twice really isn’t good.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A secondary stall is a stall that occurs after a recovery from a preceding stall.

Why
The loss of altitude associated with a single stall can be potentially hazardous. By stalling the aircraft a second time
while recovering from the first stall, the altitude loss is amplified and the second stall may be more aggressive.
Learning the proper stall recognition and recovery procedures and seeing/demonstrating a secondary stall will allow
the pilot to safely recover the first time and not aggravate the situation.

How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the wing is disrupted, and lift decreases rapidly
i. This happens when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
a. The critical AOA varies with aircraft, but is usually around 15-20o in GA aircraft

B. The Critical Angle of Attack/CLMAX

i. The point at which the airflow separates and there is a rapid reduction in lift is the stalling angle of attack, or
the critical angle of attack, or CLMAX (the Maximum Coefficient of Lift)
j. CL = Coefficient of Lift – Measurement of lift as it relates to AOA
 Determined by wind tunnel tests; based on airfoil design/AOA
k. Any AOA beyond CLMAX results in a stall
and lift drops off rapidly
C. Stall Characteristics
i. Most general aviation aircraft are
designed to stall at the wing root and
progress out to the wing tips
a. Aileron effectiveness is maintained at
the wingtips, maintaining control
ii. Various design can be used to accomplish
this:

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X.H. Secondary Stalls

a. Twisting the wing to create a lower angle of attack at the wing tip compared to the wing root
a. Adding strips to the first 20-25% of the leading edge to induce a stall earlier than otherwise
D. Specific to a Secondary Stall
i. Causes: Aggressive recovery, recovery with only power, recovering before breaking the stall
i. Secondary stall is often deeper / more aggressive than the first
ii. Hazards Associated with a Secondary Stall
a. Prolonged Recovery – Takes longer to recover from 2 stalls than 1 (hazardous near the ground)
 Startle Factor – can lead to even longer recovery delays
b. Additional loads on the aircraft due to aggressive control inputs
 Spin / Loss of Control – Deeper, unexpected stall means a greater chance of loss of control / spin
E. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence
a. Bumpy air may induce a secondary stall
ii. Microbursts
a. Natural reaction close to the ground in a down draft is to pull up
b. Ensure the aircraft is fully recovered for any semblance of a chance of continued flight
iii. Atmospheric Conditions
a. Less dense air decreases performance and requires a more lengthy/difficult recovery
b. Ensure fully recovered before pitching for a climb (don’t over pitch at high altitudes)
F. RM: Limitations: Reference any aircraft limitations associated with elevator trim stalls
2. Secondary Stall Situations
A. Stall recovery close to the ground – To avoid the ground, the pilot may try to raise the nose too early
B. Unexpected stall scaring the pilot – Can lead to abrupt, overaggressive control movements
i. Attempting to recover using power only – Pitch must be used to recover, the AOA must be reduced
3. Secondary Stalls

A. Pre-Maneuver
i. Pre-maneuver checklist; Clear the area
ii. Select a safe altitude – Recover no lower than 1,500’ AGL
iii. Setup and configure for a power on or power off stall, as required
iv. CE: Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
B. Getting into the Secondary Stall
i. Initial Stall: Once configured, perform the initial stall (normal power on, or power off stall)
ii. Secondary Stall: Reaching the first stall, reduce AOA, then abruptly pull back on the controls
a. Do not exceed VA
C. Recognizing the Stall
i. Like a normal stall, but often times more aggressive/pronounced
a. The stall warning horn will sound again
b. Buffeting rapidly returns
c. Excessive back pressure

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X.H. Secondary Stalls

d. Controls are “mushy”, loss of control effectiveness

e. Nose down pitch, high sink rate
f. Yaw (Depends on the stall characteristics, power on vs power off, coordination, etc.)
ii. CE: Improper/inadequate demo of the recognition of and recovery from a secondary stall
D. Recovery: Disconnect, Pitch, Roll, Thrust, Stabilize, Configure (perform each step as appropriate)
i. Disconnect: Autopilot is likely already disconnected
ii. Pitch: Apply nose down elevator pressure to reduce AOA and break the second stall
a. Because the stall is more aggressive, greater nose down pitch may be required to break it
iii. Roll: Coordinated roll to return to wings level
iv. Thrust: Apply maximum power and maintain coordination with right rudder
v. Stabilize: With sufficient airspeed, return to straight-and-level or establish a climb at (V X or VY)
vi. Configure: Once stabilized, establish the desired configuration based on the phase of flight
vii. CE: Improper/inadequate demo of the recognition of and recovery from a secondary stall
4. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
 Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from a secondary stall
 Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor procedure in
recovering from a primary stall

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Properly recover from the stall the first time. The second stall likely will be more pronounced and is worth avoiding.

398
X.I. Spins

References: 14 CFR Part 23, Type Certificate Data Sheet; Stall and Spin Awareness Training (AC 61-67), Airplane Flying
Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to spins. The student will learn
how to recognize a spin and the proper recovery techniques.

Key Elements 1. Stall + Yaw = Spin

2. Brisk and Positive Recovery
3. Ensure Spins are Approved

Elements 1. Spins and Anxiety

2. Aerodynamics of a Spin
3. Various Factors & Spins
4. Recognizing Spin Situations
5. Not all Aircraft are Approved for Spins
6. Spin Procedures
7. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the factors involved in creating and maintaining a spin and knows the
Standards process to recover from a spin.
X.I. Spins

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Who WANTS to do a spin? Most people are scared of them but understanding them will help in avoiding them and
remove some of the fear.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A spin is an aggravated stall that results in what is termed “autorotation,” wherein the airplane follows a downward
corkscrew path.

Why
Without an understanding of spins and the proper procedures to recover from them the pilot could be put in an
impossible situation. Understanding spins will also increase confidence and reduce the anxiety associated with spins.

How:
1. Spins and Anxiety
A. A common perception to those unfamiliar with aviation is that a spin is a death sentence
B. Knowledge and training can remove the anxiety and make you a far safer and competent pilot
i. You’re trained to avoid a stall, and if you do stall, you’re trained to recover safely, preventing a spin
ii. In the unlikely case you stall and spin, you’ll also be trained to recover from a spin
2. Aerodynamics of a Spin
A. Requirements for a Spin: Stall + Yaw
B. Basically, the inboard, lower wing is more stalled than the outboard wing, which creates an autorotation, or
rolling, yawing, and pitching motion around the vertical axis of the aircraft
C. More specifically…
i. When the aircraft stalls, one wing drops (the wing will drop in the direction of the yaw)
a. Although both wings are stalled…
 The wing that drops has an increasing AOA (more stalled) – decreased lift / increased drag
 And the rising wing has a decreasing AOA (less stalled) – increased lift / decreased drag
ii. The autorotation results from the unequal angle of attack on the airplane’s wings
a. The difference in lift results in the rolling action and the drag difference results in the yawing
iii. Load factor during a spin varies with aircraft but is usually slightly above 1G. Two reasons for this:
a. Airspeed in a spin is very low, usually within 2 knots of the unaccelerated stall speed
b. An aircraft pivots, rather than turns, while it is in a spin
D. 4 Phases of a Spin
i. Entry Phase – Elements for a spin are provided (stall + yaw)
ii. Incipient Phase – From start of the stall / rotation to the time the spin has fully developed
a. 2 - 4 turns for most aircraft; Aerodynamic / inertial forces have not balanced
b. Airspeed generally stabilizes at a low and constant airspeed
c. Airplane in the turn indicator will indicate the direction of the spin
iii. Developed Phase – Rotation, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized in a nearly vertical flightpath
a. Spin is in equilibrium – attitude, angles, self-sustaining motions are constant, or nearly so

400
X.I. Spins

b. Recovery Phase – Rotation ceases, and AOA is decreased below the critical AOA

3. Various Factors & Spins (Very similar to information in the Stall lessons since a stall leads to a spin)
A. A stall can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting, depending on the total factors affecting the aircraft
B. Airspeed & Power Settings
i. Low Speed
a. As airspeed decreases, the AOA must be increased to maintain altitude
b. At a slow enough speed, the critical AOA is exceeded
ii. High Speed
a. If an aircraft is in a high-speed dive and the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator
 Although the nose is raised, the aircraft continues downward for some amount of time
b. AOA changes from low to very high while the flight path remains the same
c. The aircraft reaches the critical AOA at a speed much higher than the published stall speed
iii. High power settings, especially at slow airspeeds and high AOA increases left turning tendencies
a. Anticipate considerable right rudder to maintain coordination (extremely important in preventing a spin)
b. Additionally, in low wing planes, high power settings may reduce stall speed and increase lift
 Propeller airflow over the wing roots can provide some lift even if the wing is stalled
C. Configuration
i. Flaps –generally increase the lifting ability of the wings and therefore decrease stall speed
ii. Gear – the effects of gear can vary based on the aircraft design and characteristics (increases drag)
D. Load Factor
i. Any increase in the load factor increases the stall speed
a. Stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
ii. Pulling out of a steep descent, steep turns, aggressive control inputs, etc.
E. Bank Angle & Load Factor
i. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all banked turns

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X.I. Spins

ii. Tremendous loads are imposed on an airplane at bank angles above 45o

F. Weight
i. Heavier plane = higher stall speed (more lift / higher AOA to maintain altitude)
ii. Lighter plane = lower stall speed (opposite of above)
G. Center of Gravity
i. Forward CG
a. Increases stall speed (same as a heavier aircraft)
b. The farther forward the CG, the higher the AOA to
compensate for the extra load imposed by the tail
c. More controllable due to the longer arm from CG to
elevator, improving stall recovery ability
d. Additionally, the farther forward the CG, the greater the
tendency for the nose to pitch down
ii. Aft CG
a. Decreases stall speed (same as lighter aircraft)
b. The farther aft the CG moves, the lower the AOA needed
to compensate for the tail down load
c. Aircraft is less controllable due to the shorter arm from the CG to the elevator
 Stall recovery becomes progressively more difficult as CG moves aft
 Additionally, the farther aft the CG, the less tendency for the nose to pitch down on its own
H. Snow, Ice, and Frost
i. Increase the stall speed
ii. Disrupt airflow over the wing causing the boundary layer to separate at an AOA lower than the critical AOA
a. To make matters worse, as ice accumulates weight is increased
 More lift is required due to the added weight, but less lift is available due to the ice
b. As little as .8 millimeters of ice on the upper wing increases drag and reduces lift by 25%
I. Yaw Effects
i. Uncoordinated flight is what results in a spin
a. Stall + Yaw = Spin
ii. Maintaining directional control and preventing the nose from yawing before stall recovery is initiated is key
to averting a spin
iii. Pilot must apply the correct amount of rudder to keep the nose from yawing and the wings from banking
J. RM: Environmental Elements
i. Turbulence, Microbursts, Atmospheric Conditions
4. RM: Recognizing Spin Situations
A. Any situation in which you have both a stall and yaw
i. Uncoordinated Go-around / Short field takeoff – High pitch attitude, high power, low airspeed situations

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ii. Turn from base to final – Cross controlled to avoid overshooting the runway without excessive bank
iii. Sloppy stall recovery
iv. Unrecognized Stall Conditions
a. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations – Feel/Sound, Buffet, Stall Horn, Warning Ranges & Limitations
B. Recognizing Potential Spins
i. Understand what causes a spin, and be aware of situations where spins are likely to occur
ii. Continued stall / spin practice makes the pilot more competent in recognizing / avoiding potential spins
a. CE: Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin
5. Not all Aircraft are Approved for Spins
A. DO NOT intentionally spin an aircraft that is not authorized for spins
B. To determine if spins are approved, check:
i. Airworthiness Category, Type Certificate and Data Sheets, AFM/POH – Limitations section
ii. Placard in the airplane stating, “No acrobatic maneuvers including spins approved”
C. In the case spins are approved, also check:
i. Weight and Balance limitations, as well as recommended entry and recovery procedures
ii. Even minor weight and balance changes can affect spin recovery characteristics
iii. Utility category plane approved for spins but loaded for the normal category may not be recoverable
D. CE: Hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins
6. Spin Procedures
A. Preflight – Special emphasis on loose items that may affect weight, CG, and controllability of the plane
B. Pre-Maneuver
i. Pre-maneuver checklist; Clear the Area
ii. Altitude – Recovery must be completed at or above 1,500’ AGL
a. 3,500’ AGL is a good minimum altitude, assuming 500’ is lost per turn (varies with aircraft)
iii. CE: Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry
C. Maneuver
i. Entry Phase
a. Procedure (like a power off stall)
 Reduce power to idle while raising the nose to a stalling pitch attitude
a CE: Failure to close throttle when a spin entry is achieved
 Approaching stall, apply full rudder in the direction of desired spin with full back pressure
 Keep ailerons neutral
b. Maintaining a Stabilized Spin – Keep full back pressure / rudder, with neutral ailerons
 CE: Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry
c. Maintaining Orientation During a Spin
 Select an outside reference point and use the turn coordinator
a Turn coordinator deflects in the direction of the spin and is reliable
b Gyroscopic Instruments may tumble and be misleading (heading / attitude indicator)
d. CE: Disorientation during a spin
ii. Incipient Phase – The aerodynamic and inertial forces have not reached a balance
a. Airspeed is near/below stalling speed and the turn coordinator indicates direction of the spin
iii. Developed Phase – Aerodynamic forces and inertial forces are in balance, the spin is in equilibrium
a. Note: Some planes will transition from the incipient phase to a spiral dive (no developed phase)
 Airplane will be accelerating and as a result G load can rapidly increase
 In a spin, the airspeed does not accelerate
b. CE: Failure to distinguish between a high-speed spiral and a spin
iv. Recovery Phase (PARE – Power, Ailerons, Rudder, Elevator) – Can last ¼ of a turn to several turns

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a. General procedures (follow manufacturer’s procedures, if published):

b. Step 1 – POWER IDLE
 Power aggravates spin characteristics, resulting in a flatter spin and increased rotation
c. Step 2 – AILERONS NEUTRAL
 Aileron in the direction of spin can speed rotation, steepen spin attitude, delay recovery
 Opposite direction: flattens spin attitude delaying recovery, or making recovery impossible
d. Step 3 – RUDDER OPPOSITE THE ROTATION
 Briskly apply and hold FULL rudder opposite the direction of rotation until rotation stops
e. Step 4 - ELEVATOR FORWARD
 To break the stall, apply a positive / brisk, straight forward movement of the elevator
a Apply immediately after full rudder application. Do not wait for the rotation to stop
b Hold the controls firmly in this position (decreases AOA, breaks stall)
1. If airspeed is increasing, the airplane is no longer in a spin
f. Step 5 – RUDDER NEUTRAL (after rotation stops)
 If not neutral, increased airspeed will cause a yawing or skidding effect
 Also, if the stall is not broken a spin can quickly start in the direction of the rudder pressure
g. Step 6 – ELEVATOR BACK PRESSURE
 Once broken, raise the nose to level flight. Avoid secondary stall / exceeding load limits
 CE: Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery
h. CE: Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
i. CE: Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude
7. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry
 Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry
 Failure to close throttle when a spin entry is achieved
 Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin
 Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
 Disorientation during a spin
 Failure to distinguish between a high-speed spiral and a spin
 Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery
 Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude
 Hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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X. RM Concepts

1. RM: Environmental Elements & Slow Flight

A. Turbulence
i. Can increase the stall speed
a. Sudden changes in relative wind, and/or aggressive control inputs to maintain altitude can lead to
exceeding the critical AOA and a stall
b. In moderate to severe turbulence or strong crosswinds, use a higher-than-normal approach speed
ii. When flying below minimum drag speed (L/DMAX) the aircraft exhibits speed instability
a. If disturbed by turbulence and airspeed decreases, total drag increases, leading to further loss of speed
b. Total drag continues to rise, and airspeed continues to fall
B. Microbursts
i. Can induce windspeeds greater than 100 knots and downdrafts as strong as 6,000 fpm
ii. At a high AOA/power and slow speed, there is minimal ability to climb, especially in the case of a microburst
iii. Do not fly in or around thunderstorms or heavy rain showers where microbursts are most common
iv. In the case of a microburst follow the POH procedures
v. Aviation Weather Handbook (FAA-H-8083-28)
a. Recognizing and avoiding microbursts, and strategies for successful escape
C. Atmospheric Conditions
i. Pressure Altitude: Altitude above the standard 29.92” Hg plane (1,000 ( 29.92− Altimeter ) + Elev )
a. Higher Pressure (lower pressure altitude): Better engine performance (more combustion)
b. Lower Pressure (higher pressure altitude): Poorer performance
ii. Density Altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature
a. 120 ( ℃−15℃ ) + PA (approximation)
b. Lower temperatures (the air is more compressed): Improves performance
c. Higher temperatures (the air is less compressed): Degrades performance
iii. Humidity: Although not directly accounted for on the performance charts, humidity decreases performance
2. RM: Stall Warning Range & Limitations
A. Buffet: Tends to occur prior to the stall horn
i. May not always occur (Ex: Cross controlled stalls can occur with little to no warning)
B. Stall Horn: Designed to provide warning of an approaching stall and time for stall recovery
i. Per 23.207
a. Clear & distinct stall warning with the flaps and gear in any normal position, in straight and turning flight
b. Warning must begin at least 5 knots above stall speed and continue until the stall occurs
c. Must provide the pilot time to take action to avert the stall
C. Stall indications and horns have different operational ranges and limitations
i. Reference the POH for specific information
ii. Ex: Uncoordinated flight may inhibit airflow at the stall indicator
3. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, & Task Management
A. Distractions
i. They’re dangerous
a. Remove distractions from view or, if a person, explain the situation and ask them to stop
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
X. RM Concepts

ii. Maintain SA
a. Starts with preflight planning
b. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
c. Divide attention between inside and outside references
d. If SA is lost, admit it and fix the problem
iii. Disorientation can be caused by, or lead to, an upset
a. Push: Apply forward pressure to unload the plane
b. Roll: Roll aggressively to the nearest horizon
c. Thrust: Adjust as required
d. Stabilize: Return to a safe flight condition
iv. Lack of Visual References
a. Reference II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance and II.M. Night Operations
b. Trust the instruments
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
iv. Proper task management can help prevent distractions, loss of SA, and disorientation
v. Safety is the number one priority – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
4. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Scanning
a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
b. Divide attention between flying and scanning for aircraft
ii. Clearing Procedures
a. Climb/Descent: Execute gentle banks to scan above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
b. Prior to any turn: Clear in the direction of the turn
c. Pre-Maneuver: Clearing turns – clear above/below, in front/behind
iii. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
iv. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 If the aircraft are different categories:
a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
B. Terrain

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i. Study terminal charts and IFR/VFR chart altitudes, use Max Elevation Figures (MEFs)
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which can extend 1,500’ horizontally from the structure
ii. Overhead Wires (may not be lighted)
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
D. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
i. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property
ii. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
iii. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely populated
areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure

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XI. Basic Instrument Maneuvers
XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to attitude flight and can
smoothly and steadily control the aircraft, without the use of outside references. The student
will be able to perform this as required in the ACS.

Key Elements 1. Pitch + Power = Performance

2. Trim
3. Crosscheck
4. Adjust

Elements 1. Instrument Flying Hazards

2. Control & Performance
3. Procedural Steps
4. Establish
5. Trim
6. Crosscheck
7. Adjust
8. Straight-and-Level Flight
9. Turns to Headings
10. Constant Airspeed Climbs
11. Constant Airspeed Descents
12. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can smoothly and steadily control the airplane by reference to the instruments
Standards only. He or she will be able to establish and maintain a thorough crosscheck and make the
required adjustments to the flight attitude.
 XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Note: Basic instrument maneuver lessons A-D are often taught together, and therefore have been combined into a
single lesson plan.

Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
As you’re flying you can see that the weather ahead looks like it might be getting worse. You think you can ‘scud run’
the rest of the way but, lo and behold, you unexpectedly enter a cloud and need to get out safely.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Attitude instrument flying may be defined as the control of an aircraft’s spatial position by using instruments rather
than outside visual references.

Why
In the instance that you mistakenly fly into adverse weather it is important to be comfortable flying the airplane
without outside, visual references.

How:
1. RM: Instrument Flying Hazards
A. Failure to Maintain VFR
i. Risks include disorientation, loss of control, getting lost, icing, stress, midair/terrain, collision, and more
ii. These risks can be reduced/mitigated through thorough preflight planning and weather briefings
B. Spatial Disorientation & Loss of Control
i. Lack of orientation about the position, attitude, or movement of the airplane in space
ii. In visual flight, the eyes prevail over any false sensations
iii. In IMC, the eyes cannot correct for false sensations which can lead to disorientation
a. For more details, see II.A. Human Factors
iv. Without proficiency in instrument flight, disorientation can lead to a loss of control
C. Stress & Fatigue
i. Inadvertent IMC is a stressful and mentally fatiguing exercise, especially to the non-proficient pilot
ii. Maintain proficiency in instrument flight and have a plan
a. “We don’t rise to the level of our expectations; we fall to the level of our training”
D. Actions
i. In the case unexpected weather results in less than VMC, use all options to safely exit:
a. Flight Instruments – Transition to & trust the instruments, use the autopilot & GPS/moving map
b. ATC – Request assistance (Other options: Guard, FSS, other aircraft, cell phone, etc.)
E. RM: Assistance & Emergencies
i. An emergency can either be a distress or urgency condition
a. Distress: Threatened by serious and/or imminent danger and of requiring immediate assistance
 Do not hesitate to declare an emergency (ex: fire, mechanical failure, structural damage)
b. Urgency: Concerned about safety, requiring timely but not immediate help; potential distress condition
ii. An aircraft is at least in an urgency condition the moment the pilot becomes doubtful about position, fuel

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endurance, weather, or any other condition that could adversely affect flight safety
a. This is the time to ask for help, not after it develops into a distress situation
2. Control and Performance
A. Pitch + Power = Performance
B. 3 categories of instruments:
i. Control - Display immediate attitude and power indications and permit precise adjustments
a. Control is determined by reference to the attitude indicator and power indicators
b. Control covers the Pitch + Power portion of the equation
ii. Performance - Indicate the aircraft’s actual performance
a. Altimeter, airspeed indicator, VSI, heading indicator, and turn coordinator
iii. Navigation - Indicate the position in relation to a selected navigation facility or fix
a. Determined by course / range indicators, glide-slope indicators, and bearing pointers
3. Procedural Steps
A. Establish - an attitude and power setting on the control instruments to obtain desired performance
B. Trim - until control pressures are neutralized
C. Crosscheck - the performance instruments to determine if the desired performance is being obtained
D. Adjust - the attitude or power setting on the control instruments as necessary, trim and repeat
4. Establish
A. Control instruments are used to set the pitch / bank attitude and power setting
i. Pitch (and bank) control is accomplished with the attitude indicator
ii. Power control is accomplished with the throttle
B. Set known / approximate pitch and power settings for the desired performance
C. Pitch Control
i. Changes are made by changing the pitch attitude by precise amounts in relation to the horizon
a. Measured in degrees or bar widths
D. Bank Control
i. Changes are made by changing the bank attitude by precise amounts in relation to the bank scale
E. Power Control
i. Made by throttle adjustments and reference to the power indicators
a. Make changes with the throttle and then crosscheck the engine indicators
b. Don’t fixate on the engine indicators while setting the power
c. CE: Improper control applications
5. RM: Trim
A. Trim for hands off flight. Don’t fly with trim; set pitch / power and trim the control pressures away
i. CE: Faulty Trim Procedure
6. Crosscheck
A. The continuous / logical observation of instruments for attitude and performance information
B. Select Radial Crosscheck (most popular method)
i. “Hub and Spoke” method (based off attitude indicator)
a. Attitude indicator is the hub/primary reference,
performance instruments are the spokes
b. Move from the hub out to a spoke, back to the hub
and repeat to another spoke, etc.
C. Crosscheck and Bank
i. Establish, then check the heading indicator and turn
coordinator for desired performance
D. Crosscheck and Pitch
i. Establish, then check the altimeter, VSI, and airspeed

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indicator for desired performance

E. Crosscheck Errors
i. CE: Fixation
a. Staring at a single instrument
b. Occurs for a variety of reasons and
eliminates the crosscheck of other pertinent
instruments
ii. CE: Omission
a. Omitting an instrument from the crosscheck
b. May be caused by failure to anticipate
major instrument indications following
attitude changes
iii. CE: Emphasis (VSI chasing is common as is emphasizing pitch or bank instruments)
a. Putting emphasis on a single instrument, instead of the necessary combination of instruments
b. We naturally tend to rely on the instrument most understood
F. Instrument Interpretation
i. For the crosscheck to be effective, you must understand the information being received
ii. Understand each instrument’s operation and the application of that knowledge to performance
a. CE: Improper instrument interpretation
7. Adjust
A. Make the necessary adjustments on the attitude indicator, then repeat the process again
i. The amount of deviation from the desired performance will determine the magnitude of correction
a. Restrict the attitude indicator’s pitch displacement to 1 bar or ½ bar width up or down
b. Use a bank angle that approximates the degrees to turn, not to exceed 30o
ii. Smooth, small adjustments lead to smooth, steady control
iii. CE: Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, and power adjustments during altitude, bank, and airspeed
corrections
8. Straight-and-Level Flight
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
Nose on Horizon + Cruise Power = Straight and Level
Control Performance
Pitch On Horizon Altimeter Constant
Bank Constant VSI 0 fpm
Power Cruise Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated

A. Establish - Establish wings level / nose on the horizon on the attitude indicator; adjust power for cruise
B. Trim - Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck – Monitor the instruments for any performance deviations from straight-and-level flight
D. Adjust – Re-establish pitch and / or power to correct for deviations, trim, and repeat
9. Turns to Headings
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
Wings Banked/Nose Slightly High + Cruise Power = Turn to Heading
Control Performance
Pitch Nose Slightly High Altimeter Constant
Bank Wings Banked VSI 0 fpm
Power Cruise Airspeed Constant
Heading Turning
Turn Coord Banked/Coordinated

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A. Prior to entering, determine turn direction and the angle of bank required
B. Establish – Use coordinated aileron and rudder to establish the desired bank on the attitude indicator
i. If standard rate, use the turn coordinator
ii. Adjust pitch as necessary (increase back pressure) to maintain level flight
C. Trim - Trim the airplane
D. Crosscheck – Monitor the instruments for any performance deviations from the turn
E. Adjust – Re-establish pitch and / or power to correct for deviations, trim, and repeat
F. Roll Out
i. Apply coordinated rudder and aileron pressure to level the wings on the attitude indicator
a. Depending on the rate of turn, rollout 5-10o before the desired heading
 Or use ½ the bank angle or less as a reference for small turns
ii. Adjust pitch and power for straight-and-level flight at cruise, crosscheck, adjust, and repeat
G. CE: Improper entry or rollout procedure
a. The four-step process works for any change in flight attitude - Establish, trim, crosscheck, adjust
10. Constant Airspeed Climbs
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
10o Nose Up + Full Power = Constant Airspeed Climb
Control Performance
Pitch 10o Nose Up Altimeter Climbing
Bank Level VSI Positive Climb
Power Climb Power Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated

A. Establish - Raise the nose to the approximate pitch attitude for the desired climb speed
i. As the airspeed approaches the climb speed, set the power to the climb setting (full)
B. Trim -Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck – Monitor the instruments for any performance deviations from the climb
D. Adjust - Re-establish pitch and / or power to correct for deviations, trim, and repeat
i. Adjust pitch to maintain the desired climb airspeed (1 bar or ½ bar width movements)
E. Level Off
i. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed (Ex: 500 fpm climb is led by 50’)
a. Establish - Reduce power, apply elevator pressure toward level flight on the attitude indicator
b. Crosscheck - VSI, Altimeter and attitude indicator should show level flight
c. Trim the airplane, maintain straight-and-level flight, and continue to repeat the process
F. Turning Climbs
i. Apply the climb procedures above, and establish the desired bank angle on the attitude indicator
ii. Monitor turn performance on the heading indicator and turn coordinator
iii. Small adjustments to pitch and power may be necessary to maintain airspeed in the turn
iv. The instrument crosscheck will have to be accelerated as there is more information to take in
G. CE: Improper entry or level-off procedure
i. The four-step process works for any change in flight attitude - Establish, trim, crosscheck, adjust
11. Constant Airspeed Descents
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
3o Nose Down + Descent Power = Constant Airspeed Descent
Control Performance
Pitch 3o Nose Down Altimeter Descending
Bank Level VSI Negative Climb
Power Descent Power Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated

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 XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

A. Establish - Reduce power for the descent and maintain straight-and-level flight as airspeed decreases
i. Approaching descent speed, lower the nose with the attitude indicator to maintain descent speed
B. Trim - Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck – Monitor the instruments for any performance deviations from the desired descent
D. Adjust – Re-establish pitch and / or power to correct for deviations, trim, and repeat
i. Adjust the pitch attitude to maintain the desired climb airspeed
E. Level Off
i. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed (EX: 500 fpm descent is led by 50’)
ii. Establish - Introduce power and apply smooth steady elevator pressure toward a level attitude
iii. Crosscheck - VSI, Altimeter and attitude indicator should show level flight
iv. Trim the airplane to maintain straight-and-level flight, repeat the process
F. Turning Descents
i. Apply the same procedures as above, and establish the desired bank angle on the attitude indicator
ii. Monitor turn performance on the heading indicator and turn coordinator
iii. Small adjustments to pitch and power may be necessary to maintain airspeed in the turn
iv. The instrument crosscheck will have to be accelerated as there is more information to take in
G. CE: Improper entry or level-off procedure
a. The four-step process works for any change in flight attitude - Establish, trim, crosscheck, adjust
12. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 “Fixation,” “Omission,” and “Emphasis” errors during instrument cross-check
 Improper instrument interpretation
 Improper control applications
 Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, or power adjustments during altitude, heading, or airspeed corrections
 Improper entry or level-off procedure (specific to Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents)
 Improper entry or roll-out procedure (specific to Turns to Headings)
 Faulty trim procedure

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to recovering from unusual
flight attitudes as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Crosscheck

2. Recovery
3. Coordination

Elements 1. General
2. Unusual Attitude Situations and Conditions
3. Recognizing Unusual Attitudes
4. Recovery Basics
5. Nose High (Climbing Turn) Recovery
6. Nose Low (Diving Spiral) Recovery
7. Coordination During Recovery
8. Common Recovery Errors
9. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student will understand the reasons unusual flight attitudes may occur, and the proper
Standards recovery procedure for a nose low or nose high unusual flight attitude.
 XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
On July 16, 1999, JFK Jr. was killed along with his wife and sister-in-law, when the aircraft he was piloting crashed into
the Atlantic Ocean. Kennedy had 310 hours of flight experience, including 55 hours of night flying and 36 hours in the
high-performance Piper Saratoga. He had completed about half of an instrument training course. The NTSB
investigation found no evidence of mechanical malfunction and determined that the probable cause was the pilot's
failure to maintain control of the airplane during a descent over water at night, which was a result of spatial
disorientation (or, not recovering properly from an unusual attitude). Factors in the accident were haze, and the dark
night.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
An unusual attitude is an airplane attitude not normally required for flight.

Why
Without proper recovery training in instrument interpretation and aircraft control, a pilot can quickly aggravate an
abnormal flight attitude into a potentially fatal accident.

How:
1. General
A. Since unusual attitudes (UAs) are not intentional maneuvers, they are often unexpected
i. Reactions are therefore instinctive and often dangerous, rather than intelligent and deliberate
B. In a UA, the immediate problem is not how it got there, but what is the aircraft doing and how to get back to
straight and level flight as quickly and safely as possible
2. Unusual Attitude Situations and Conditions
A. Unusual attitudes may result from various situations/conditions, such as:
 Turbulence  Preoccupation with cockpit duties
 Disorientation/Confusion  Task saturation
 Instrument Failure  Errors in instrument interpretation/crosscheck
 Stress or Confusion  RM: Control input errors leading to a UA
B. Preventing Unusual Attitudes (Top 4 Causal Factors – Environmental, Mechanical, Human, Stall)
i. Environmental Factors
a. Turbulence or large variations in wind velocity over a short distance
 Clear air turbulence, mountain waves, wind shear, thunderstorms, microbursts
ii. Mechanical Factors
a. Mechanical Failures
b. May cause departure from normal flight (asymmetric flaps, malfunctioning controls, runaway trim, etc.)
c. Instrument Failures
d. Autopilot Malfunctions
 Can be insidious – the pilot may not be aware there’s a problem until deep in a UA
 Disengage the autopilot and fly the airplane
e. Big picture: Knowledge of systems and POH procedures helps minimize failures and prevent UAs

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 XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

iii. Human Factors

a. VMC to IMC
 A loss of the natural horizon significantly increases the chances of spatial disorientation & vertigo
b. Diversion of Attention
 Diverting attention from flying to an anomaly, malfunction, or any other distraction can lead to a UA
c. Task Saturation
 The margin of safety is the difference between task requirements & pilot capabilities
d. Sensory Overload/Deprivation
 A pilot’s ability to correlate and manage warnings, annunciations, instrument indications is limited
a Especially during a UA that can present multiple visual, auditory, and tactile warnings
 An effective crosscheck is very important to determine the issue and maintain control
e. Spatial Disorientation (SD)
 Significant factor in many upset accidents
 Pilots experience SD or perceive the situation in one of the following ways:
a Recognized SD: Pilot recognizes the situation & safely corrects
b Unrecognized SD: Unaware of the UA and fails to take corrective action
c Incapacitating SD: Unable to recover due to some combination of:
1. Not understanding the events
2. Lacking the skills required
3. Exceeds psychological or physiological ability to cope with the situation
 Understanding, training & practice are necessary to maintain situation awareness and recover safely
f. Surprise & Startle Response
 Surprise: Unexpected event that violates expectations & affects the mental process used to respond
 Startle: Uncontrollable, automatic muscle reflexes, raised heart rate, blood pressure, etc., elicited by
exposure to a sudden, intense event that violates a pilot’s expectations
 Untrained pilots often experience a state of surprise & startle response to UAs
 “We don’t rise to the level of our expectations; we fall to the level of our training”
g. See lesson II.A. Human Factors for more details on illusions, spatial disorientation, etc.
iv. Stall-related Factors (Stall factors are more focused on upsets vs UA)
a. Distraction
b. Maintain airspeeds, configurations, procedures as described in the POH
c. Recovery Procedures
 Maintain coordination
 Practice proper UA recovery procedures
3. RM: Recognizing Unusual Attitudes (Assessment of Unusual Attitudes)
A. General Rule: If you note an instrument rate of movement / indication other than those associated with basic
instrument flight maneuvers, assume a UA and increase the crosscheck to confirm the situation
B. Two Categories: Nose high, and Nose low attitudes
C. Nose High Attitudes (Climbing Turn)
i. Airspeed Indicator: Decreasing airspeed
ii. Altimeter / VSI: Increasing altitude / Positive rate of climb
iii. Turn Coordinator: May indicate a bank
iv. Attitude Indicator: Nose high, a lot of blue
D. Nose Low Attitudes (Diving Spiral)
i. Shown by the same instruments but in the opposite directions
ii. CE: Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude
4. RM: Recovery Basics (Interpreting Flight Instruments)

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 XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

A. When using analog instruments, recovery is performed without the attitude indicator
i. If the attitude indicator is spillable its upset limits may have been exceeded and is unreliable
ii. Even if operating properly, errors of up to 5o pitch and bank can result
iii. May be inoperative due to mechanical malfunction, and is a reason for the UA
iv. Indications are difficult to interpret in extreme attitudes
B. Recovery, instead, is performed with the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI, and turn coordinator
i. Follow the POH recommended recovery procedures if they differ from the information here
ii. With a glass cockpit, the attitude indicator is very helpful and can be used for recovery
C. RM: Nose High vs Nose Low Unusual Attitudes (Operating Envelope Considerations)
i. Although similar, the recovery procedures for each are different
ii. The basic intent of the nose high recovery is to prevent a stall
iii. The basic intent of the nose low recovery is to prevent over stressing the airplane
5. Nose High (Climbing Turn) Recovery
A. Nose High Attitudes (Main Point: Avoid a stall) - If the airspeed is decreasing, or below that desired:
i. Proced
ure –
the
steps
listed
are
made
in the

sequence below, but occur almost simultaneously

a. Power – Increase as necessary (in proportion to the deceleration)
b. Pitch – Apply forward elevator pressure to lower the nose (reduces AOA preventing stall)
c. Bank – Use coordinated aileron / rudder to level the wings (reference turn coordinator)
ii. After the initial correction, accelerate the cross-check to verify performance
a. As the altimeter and airspeed needles slow, attitude is approaching level flight
b. When the needles stop and reverse direction, the aircraft is passing through level flight
iii. Return to the desired altitude, and establish / verify straight-and-level, coordinated cruise flight
a. Level flight is indicated by reversal and stabilization of the altimeter and airspeed indicator
b. Straight, coordinated flight is indicated on the turn coordinator by a level aircraft / centered ball
c. Set power for the desired airspeed once the airspeed is under control
6. Nose Low (Diving Spiral) Recovery
A. Nose Low Attitudes (Main Point: Avoid over G-ing) - If the airspeed is increasing, or above that desired:
i. Proce
dure
a. P
o
w
er
–

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 XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

Reduce power to prevent excessive airspeed and loss of altitude

b. Bank – Use coordinate aileron / rudder to level the wings using the turn coordinator
 Leveling the wings prior to raising the nose reduces load factors in the recovery
c. Pitch – Raise the nose to level flight attitude with smooth back pressure
 If ground contact is a concern, use whatever back pressure necessary to survive
d. All components should be changed simultaneously for a smooth, proficient recovery
ii. After the initial correction, accelerate the cross-check to verify performance
a. As the altimeter and airspeed needles slow, attitude is approaching level flight
b. When the needles stop and reverse direction, the aircraft is passing through level flight
iii. Return to the desired altitude, and establish/verify straight-and-level, coordinated cruise flight
a. Level flight is indicated by reversal and stabilization of the altimeter and airspeed indicator
b. Straight, coordinated flight is indicated on the turn coordinator by a level aircraft / centered ball
c. Set power for the desired airspeed once the airspeed is under control
7. Coordination During Recovery
A. Use the turn coordinator and attitude indicator, if available, to determine / maintain coordinated flight
i. Skidding and slipping sensations can aggravate disorientation and retard recovery
ii. A nose low recovery could result in excessive G’s and uncoordinated flight
iii. A nose high recovery could result in an uncoordinated stall, and potentially a spin
8. Common Recovery Errors
A. RM/CE - Inappropriate control applications during recovery
i. It is very important to properly recognize the type of UA and apply the proper procedures
B. CE: Consequences of attempting to recover from an unusual flight attitude by “feel” rather than by instrument
indications
i. Feel can be especially deceiving in IMC conditions; trust the instruments
C. CE: Failure to recognize from instrument indications when passing through level flight
i. Level flight is indicated by the reversal/stabilization of the airspeed indicator and altimeter needles
9. Hazards
A. Inadvertent Flight into IMC
i. Importance of Instrument Flight
a. Statistics show that a pilot who isn’t trained in instrument flying, or has let their skills erode, loses
control after about 10 minutes once forced to rely solely on instruments
ii. Recognize
a. Anytime a pilot is unable to maintain control by reference to the natural horizon, the condition is IMC
b. Recognize the situation and accept it as a genuine emergency requiring action
iii. RM: Maintain Control (Control Application Solely by Reference to Instruments)
a. The only way to control the airplane safely is by using and trusting the flight instruments
b. The most important concern at this point is to keep the wings level
 An uncontrolled turn usually leads to difficulties with overall control and can lead to disorientation
c. Believe the flight instruments regardless of your senses
d. Attitude Control
 Trim for hands-off level flight at cruise speed
 Don’t over-control
 Make smooth and small attitude changes
a No more than one bar width movements up or down
 Use any aids (autopilot, wing leveler, etc.)
 Maintain cruise speed (turns, climbs, descents) until required to slow for landing
 See XI.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

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 XI.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

iv. Obtain Assistance

a. ATC, Guard, FSS, etc.
b. Weather charts - Be aware of expected VMC conditions
v. Find/Return to VMC
a. The best option may be to bug your heading, engage the autopilot (if available) and perform a 180 o turn
 Return to the last known VMC (terrain, airspace, etc. permitting)
C. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude
 Consequences of attempting to recover from a UA by “feel” rather than by instrument indications
 Inappropriate control applications during recovery
 Failure to recognize from instrument indications when the airplane is passing through a level flight attitude

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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XI. RM Concepts

1. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, & Task Management

A. Distractions
i. They’re dangerous
a. Remove distractions from view or, if a person, explain the situation and ask them to stop
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
ii. Maintain SA
a. Starts with preflight planning
b. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
c. Divide attention between inside and outside references
d. If SA is lost, admit it and fix the problem
iii. Disorientation can be caused by, or lead to, an upset
a. Push: Apply forward pressure to unload the plane
b. Roll: Roll aggressively to the nearest horizon
c. Thrust: Adjust as required
d. Stabilize: Return to a safe flight condition
iv. Lack of Visual References
a. Reference II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance and II.M. Night Operations
b. Trust the instruments
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
iv. Proper task management can help prevent distractions, loss of SA, and disorientation
v. Safety is the number one priority – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
2. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Scanning
a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
b. Divide attention between flying and scanning for aircraft
ii. Clearing Procedures
a. Climb/Descent: Execute gentle banks to scan above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
b. Prior to any turn: Clear in the direction of the turn
c. Pre-Maneuver: Clearing turns – clear above/below, in front/behind
iii. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
iv. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 XI. RM Concepts

 If the aircraft are different categories:

a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
B. Terrain
i. Study terminal charts and IFR/VFR chart altitudes, use Max Elevation Figures (MEFs)
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which can extend 1,500’ horizontally from the structure
ii. Overhead Wires (may not be lighted)
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
D. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
i. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property
ii. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
iii. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely populated
areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure

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XII. Emergency Operations
XII.A. Emergency Descent

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to an emergency descent,
when the descent is required, and the proper procedure to perform the maneuver. The
student will have the ability to perform the maneuver as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Configuration

2. Airspeed and Load
3. Recovery

Elements 1. General
2. Emergency Descent
3. Descent Factors
4. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the situations which necessitate an emergency descent and can
Standards properly perform the maneuver with a smooth, controlled recovery.
 XII.A. Emergency Descent

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This maneuver is a lot of fun to practice, partly because there is not a lot too it, but also because the airplane is put in
a very nose low attitude and is descending very fast. You’re dive bombing the ground.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
An emergency descent is a maneuver for descending as rapidly as possible to a lower altitude, or to the ground for an
emergency landing.

Why
The need for this maneuver may result from an uncontrollable fire, a sudden loss of cabin pressurization, or any other
situation demanding an immediate and rapid descent.

How:
1. General
A. Objective: Descend as soon and as rapidly as possible, within the structural limitations of the airplane
B. Situations
i. Fire, smoke, loss of cabin pressurization, or any other demanding situation (medical, injury, etc.)
ii. CE: The consequences of failing to identify reason for executing an emergency descent
C. POH
i. Follow the procedures outlined in the POH
ii. Reference & note any applicable aircraft limitations
2. Emergency Descent
A. Prior to the Maneuver
i. Pre-maneuver checklist; Clear the area
ii. CE: Improper use of clearing procedures for initiating the emergency descent
B. Procedure
i. Reduce power to idle
ii. Extend the flaps and gear as specified by the manufacturer
a. Provides maximum drag to increase the rate of descent, without excessive airspeed
b. CE: Improper use of the prescribed emergency checklist to verify accomplishment of procedures for
initiating the emergency descent
iii. Put the nose down to maintain maximum allowable airspeed
a. Speed may vary based on flaps, nature of the emergency, and turbulent conditions
 Don’t exceed VNE or VFE, and in the case of turbulence, do not exceed VA
iv. As the nose is lowered, begin a 90o left turn at 30-45o of bank
a. Puts positive load on the aircraft (countering the negative load from the descent)
b. Acts as a clearing turn (below and to each side) and gets the plane off an airway
v. Technique: Left turn because faster traffic passes on the right (right of way rules)
C. Level Off
i. The recovery should be smooth to prevent overstressing the airplane

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 XII.A. Emergency Descent

ii. These recommendations generally work well, but in the case of a real-life emergency descent (i.e., a fire in
the cabin), do what is necessary to land safely / stay alive
a. Initiate the level off at an altitude that will ensure a safe recovery or precautionary landing
 10% rule works well (lead the level off by 10% of the VSI)
iii. Increase power to the cruise setting, or as required
iv. Once straight-and-level, return to a normal configuration (flaps, gear, etc. are retracted)
v. Trim the aircraft and adjust the mixture as necessary
vi. CE: Improper procedures for recovering from an emergency descent
a. Follow the POH procedures, and avoid overstressing the airplane with an aggressive level off
3. RM: Descent Factors
A. Altitude
i. Dictates the amount of descent
a. Recommended to be at/below 10,000’ in the case of depressurization (terrain/safety permitting)
ii. In the case of an engine failure, altitude will dictate the distance the aircraft can travel
B. Wind
i. During the descent
a. Can have a large effect on glide distance in the case of an engine failure
b. Headwind vs tailwind vs crosswind
ii. Landing
a. Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Component
b. Tailwind
 Increases the runway required for landing, verify performance
 Don’t exceed the POH tailwind limitation (exception: emergency situation)
C. Terrain & Obstructions
i. Be familiar with and especially cautious of terrain & obstructions during an emergency descent
D. Glide Distance
i. In the case the engine fails, and the aircraft must glide to the landing area, terminate the emergency descent
at a time appropriate to the situation and transition to best glide speed
ii. Know glide distance data and transition to the engine failure emergency landing
4. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Common Errors:
 The consequences of failing to identify reason for executing an emergency descent
 Improper use of the prescribed emergency checklist to verify accomplishment of procedures for initiating
the emergency descent
 Improper use of clearing procedures for initiating the emergency descent
 Improper procedures for recovering from an emergency descent

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

426
XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to performing an emergency
approach and landing. The student will be able to perform the maneuver as required in the
ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Best Glide Airspeed

2. Emergency Checklists
3. Soft Field Power Off Approach and Landing

Elements 1. Best Glide Speed

2. ABC - Aviate, Best Landing Spot, Checklists
3. The Approach
4. Contact ATC
5. Landing
6. Descent Factors
7. Hazards
8. Emergency Locating Devices
9. Mental Attitude

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to simulate an emergency approach and landing, taking into
Standards account the landing area, and wind while accomplishing the necessary checklists and properly
positioning the airplane to land safely on the desired landing spot.
 XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Understanding the elements behind a properly executed emergency approach and landing could be the difference
between a safe soft field landing and a dangerous, poorly performed crash.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A simulated emergency landing occurs when the power is pulled, simulating a lost engine, and the pilot must run the
checklist to attempt to restart the engine while properly configuring the airplane for an approach and landing usually
in a nearby field.

Why
To develop accuracy, judgment, planning, technique, and confidence when little or no power is available.

How:
1. Best Glide Speed
A. Airspeed at which the aircraft glides the furthest for the least altitude lost in non-powered flight
i. Occurs at the highest lift-to-drag ratio (L/DMAX)
B.

Glide Ratio: Distance the airplane travels in relation to the altitude it loses
C. Best Glide & Weight
i. L/D determines the distance the airplane can glide, not weight
ii. If the pilot maintains the proper speed, changes in weight don’t affect the best glide angle or distance flown
iii. However, a heavier plane needs to fly at a higher airspeed to obtain the same glide ratio
D. Best Glide & Wind
i. With a tailwind, the airplane glides farther because of the higher groundspeed
ii. With a headwind, the airplane does not glide as far because of the lower groundspeed
E. Best Glide & Configuration
i. When drag increases, the airplane must be pitched down to maintain airspeed (no longer at L/D max)
ii. To maximize distance traveled, minimize drag-producing components
F. Minimum Sink Speed
i. Airspeed use to maximize the time that the airplane remains in flight

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 XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

a. Results in losing altitude at the lowest rate (lowest vertical speed)

ii. Less distance traveled versus best glide airspeed
iii. Not often published but generally a few knots less than best glide airspeed
G. Cardinal Rule: Do not attempt to “stretch” a glide by increasing back pressure/slowing below best glide
i. Any speed other than best glide reduces distance traveled
2. ABC - Aviate, Best Landing Spot, Checklists
A. *AVIATE: The first reaction should be to immediately establish the best glide airspeed and fly the airplane
i. Flying the airplane is the most important priority
ii. Variations in speed nullify accuracy in judgment of gliding distance / landing spot
iii. Eagerness to get down is one of the most common faults during simulated emergency landings
a. Pilots neglect speed, arriving too fast for a safe landing – just as dangerous as too slow
iv. CE: Improper airspeed control
B. BEST Landing Spot: Select the best landing spot and immediately turn toward it
i. Check in front, behind and to both sides of the airplane
ii. Landing sites are restricted by the route of flight, height above the ground, and excess airspeed
iii. An airport is ideal. If no airport, select a field within glide distance:
a. Preferably hard packed, long, smooth, with no obstacles, especially at the approach end
b. As a general rule, the pilot should not change their mind more than once
iv. Note wind direction / speed; land into the wind, if able (altitude, obstacles, etc. may prevent this)
a. Be aware of tailwind (longer landing distance) and crosswinds
b. CE: Failure to estimate the approximate wind speed and direction
v. Always continue to clear for traffic
vi. CE: Poor judgment in selection of an emergency landing area
C. Emergency CHECKLISTs
i. Restart Checklist
ii. Troubleshoot (if the reason for failure can be determined, a restart becomes more likely)
a. Check the systems to decipher the problem
D. CE: Failure to accomplish the emergency checklist
3. The Approach
i. Governed by:
a. Wind direction / speed
b. Dimensions / slope of the field
c. Obstacles on final approach path
B. Proceed directly to the landing area
i. Goal: Be on downwind, abeam the landing point
at normal pattern altitude
ii. If above pattern altitude, circle over the
approach end while descending
a. Turn in the same direction you intend to fly
the pattern
iii. RM: Following or changing the flight path to the
landing area
a. Adjust as conditions change
b. Best practice is to go directly to the landing
area and circle overhead, with a plan to
enter the pattern
C. Divide attention between flying / checklists
i. Constantly assess the approach

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 XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

D. Adjust the pattern based on altitude, wind, etc. to safely reach the landing area
i. Make the approach as normal as possible
ii. Base / final turns are positioned based on altitude, wind, obstructions, etc.
a. Strong headwind = closer base Tailwind = farther out base
b. If high, delay base leg; if low, turn early, or go direct to landing area
iii. Corrections:
Too High Too Low
 Extend the pattern  Tighten the pattern
 S-turn  Proceed direct to landing
 Configure early  Delay configuration
 Slip  Maintain best glide
iv. CE: Undershooting or overshooting selected emergency landing area
a. The pattern that works for one emergency approach and landing likely won’t work for the next one
E. Stable Approach
i. The more stable the approach, the more predictable the approach
ii. Flying the airplane is the highest priority
F. Configuration
i. Intent is to touchdown in a normal landing configuration (emergency permitting)
ii. Flaps will be gradually lowered based on the conditions, situation, airplane performance, etc.
a. Have a standard position to lower the flaps and adjust based on the day
 Too high: Configure earlier (or delay configuration and slip, vary the base leg, etc.)
 Too low: Delay configuration (tighten the base leg and/or turn to final)
b. Once flaps are lowered, they should not be retracted
c. Landing flaps should only be lowered once the landing area is assured
G. CE: Failure to fly the most suitable pattern for existing situation
i. The pattern that works for one emergency approach and landing likely won’t work for the next one
4. Contact ATC
A. If on frequency with ATC, transmit “Mayday, mayday, mayday.” If not on frequency, use guard 121.5
i. Let them know who you are, where you are, and what you’re doing
ii. The radios will likely be kept on until just before landing. Keep ATC apprised of the situation / plan
iii. If time and conditions permit, squawk emergency - 7700
B. ATC Emergency Services
i. Priority: The frequency is basically yours, whatever you need
ii. Aircraft Separation: Any other potentially hazardous aircraft will be moved out of your way
iii. Advice: Nearby airports, etc.
iv. Emergency Response: ATC will coordinate with the tower or local emergency response
5. Landing
A. If a restart is not an option, complete the Emergency Landing Checklist
i. Keep the electrical equipment on as long as practical to make radio calls, use the flaps, etc.
B. Gear & Flaps
i. Gear and flaps should only be lowered after landing is assured
a. Gear can provide better protection in the case of stumps, rocks, or other obstacles
b. If the field is excessively soft, wet, short, or snow covered, a gear up landing may be safer
C. If practical, hold the wheels off to allow for a gentle touchdown, like a soft field landing
i. At this point, the safety of the passengers is the only concern, the airplane does not matter
6. RM: Descent Factors
A. Altitude

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 XII.B. Emergency Approach & Landing

i. Dictates the distance the aircraft can travel (use AGL, not MSL)
a. Know approximate distance traveled at best glide per 1,000’ – apply to the situation
ii. Goal is to put the aircraft at a normal pattern altitude at a normal key position
B. Wind
i. During the approach
a. It can influence glide distance (headwind vs tailwind vs crosswind)
b. The stronger the wind on final, the closer the base leg needs to be to make a normal approach
ii. Tailwind
a. A tailwind increases the runway required for landing
iii. Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Component
a. If possible, don’t exceed it as the aircraft may not be able to remain with the confines of the runway
C. Terrain & Obstructions
i. Be especially cautious of terrain/obstructions during an emergency approach & landing
ii. Without an engine, there may not be enough energy to clear the terrain
D. Available Landing Distance
i. Be familiar with the landing distance required for an emergency approach and pick a suitable landing area
a. The landing distance at off airport landing areas will have to be estimated from the air
7. RM: Hazards
A. Collision Hazards
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization
C. Low Altitude Maneuvering
8. Emergency Locating Devices
A. ELT: Small, self-contained radio transmitter that will automatically, upon impact, transmit an emergency signal
i. Transmits on 121.5, 243, and/or 406 MHz
B. Numerous private companies produce emergency locating devices that can be carried on oneself
i. Basic Personal Locator Beacons (PLBs)
ii. Satellite Messengers
9. Mental Attitude
A. The survival records favor pilots who maintain their composure and know how to apply the concepts and
procedures developed through the years. Success is as much a matter of the mind as of skills
i. “We don’t rise to the level of our expectations; we fall to the level of our training”

Common Errors:
 Improper airspeed control
 Poor judgment in the selection of an emergency landing area
 Failure to estimate the approximate wind speed and direction
 Failure to fly the most suitable pattern for existing situation
 Failure to accomplish the emergency checklist
 Undershooting or overshooting selected emergency landing area

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard

Elements 1. Malfunction Procedures

2. Power Loss
3. Electrical Malfunction
4. Vacuum/Pressure Malfunctions
5. Pitot Static Malfunction
6. EFD Malfunction
7. Flap Malfunction
8. Hydraulic Malfunction
9. Landing Gear Malfunction
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
11. Smoke & Fire
12. Door or Window Opening in Flight
13. Pressurization Malfunction
14. Hazards

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane. The student
Standards also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a timely
manner.
 XII.C. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Wouldn’t it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of course
not, that’s why it’s important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involve the knowledge and procedures to handle problems that may occur in
the airplane.

Why
The key to successful management of an emergency, and/or preventing a non-normal situation from progressing into
a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary procedures.

How:
Note: This lesson provides generic procedures & malfunction discussions. Always follow the POH procedures.
1. Malfunction Procedures (MATL)
A. Maintain Aircraft Control
i. Fly the airplane, get to a safe flight state (straight-and-level, etc.)
ii. Trim the aircraft and turn on the autopilot, if possible
iii. Maintaining control continues throughout the malfunction
iv. RM: Distractions can lead to an undesired aircraft state
a. Can quickly amplify the malfunction already being dealt with
B. Analyze the Situation
i. Indications, lights, sounds, visual (i.e., smoke, leaks, fire, etc.), smells, etc.
ii. Use all available information to determine the issue
C. Take the Proper Action
i. Apply any memory items
ii. RM: Checklist usage – Use the appropriate checklist from the POH
D. Land, as conditions require/permit
i. Based on the emergency, decide on a landing area (divert, field, ditching, etc.)
2. Power Loss
A. Rough running engine:
Possible Causes Corrective Action
Improper mixture Adjust mixture for smooth op
Defective ignition or valves Consult maintenance personnel
Detonation / preignition Reduce power, enrich mixture, open cowl flaps, land as soon as practical
Induction air leak Reduce power. Consult maintenance
Plugged fuel nozzle Reduce power. Consult maintenance
Excessive fuel pressure / fuel flow Lean mixture
Induction Icing Leave icing conditions, use alternate air source
Low Oil Reduce Power. Land ASAP

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Oil Congealed in Cooler Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine

Inadequate Engine Cooling Reduce Power, Increase airspeed
Detonation or Preignition Check Cylinder Head Temps / Enrich Mixture / Reduce MP
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Defective Gauge Reduce Power. Land ASAP
A. Oil Pressure Malfunctions
i. High Oil Pressure
a. Possible Cause - Cold oil or possible internal plugging
b. Corrective Action - If cold, allow the engine to warm, if not, reduce power and land ASAP
ii. Low Oil Pressure
a. Possible Cause – Broken pressure relief valve, insufficient oil, burned out bearings
b. Corrective Action – Land as soon as possible or feather the propeller and stop the engine (multi-engine)
iii. Fluctuating Oil Pressure
a. Possible Cause – Low oil supply, loose oil lines, defective pressure relief valve
b. Corrective Action – Land as soon as possible or feather propeller and stop engine (multi-engine)
B. Engine Overheat
i. The oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
C. Fuel Starvation
i. Normally indicated by a rough running engine, and can be caused by blocked lines or empty tanks
ii. In general, turn on boost pumps, switch tanks, verify fuel is on, adjust mixture
3. Electrical Malfunction
A. Electrical Power
i. Generally, power comes from a generator or alternator
ii. If the generator/alternator fails, typically a battery provides
power for a limited amount of time
B. Battery Time
i. The higher the amperage load (electrical draw) on the battery,
the faster the energy gets consumed
ii. Very important to shed non-essential loads to provide
maximum time
C. Consumers (see picture to right for average amperage)
i. Gear and flaps use significant amounts of power
D. Procedures
i. Follow the applicable checklist(s) in the POH
ii. Generic Steps:
a. Shed all but the most necessary electrical equipment
b. Notify ATC immediately
c. Expect a no-flap landing and manual gear extension
4. Vacuum/Pressure Malfunctions
A. What’s Lost?
i. Heading Indicator, Attitude Indicator, and/or Turn Coordinator
ii. Traditionally, turn coordinators use a different power source
than the heading / attitude indicators
B. Failure results from a loss of the suction or pressure source
(vacuum failure)
i. As the gyro slow, they will begin to wander, displaying incorrect

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information - Can be slow and insidious

C. Many small aircraft do not have a warning system for vacuum failure
i. Look for failure indications – monitor the vacuum pressure gauge
D. Compare the Attitude Indicator with the Turn Coordinator and VSI
i. Compares the static, suction, and electric systems
ii. Identify failed component(s) and use functional instruments
E. Assess the situation - when and where to land may vary based on the conditions and failure(s)
i. Ex. day VMC versus night over water
5. Pitot Static Malfunction
A. General
i. Errors in the ASI/VSI often indicate a pitot and/or static blockage
B. Blocked Pitot System
i. Pitot system measures the difference between ram & static pressure
ii. Ram air blocked, with drain hole open
a. Air in the system vents through the drain hole, remaining pressure in the pitot tube drops to match the
outside (static) pressure
b. Airspeed decreases to zero
iii. Ram air blocked, and drain hole blocked
a. Big Picture
 Airspeed indicator acts like an altimeter
 Ram air pressure in the pitot tube is trapped
a Accelerating/decelerating does not affect indications
 Static pressure changes with altitude
C.

Blocked Static System

i. Static system blocked, with pitot tube open
a. Airspeed
 Above the altitude where the port was blocked, airspeed indicates lower than actual
 At a lower altitude, airspeed indicates higher than actual
b. Altimeter freezes at the altitude where the block occurred
c. Vertical Speed shows a continuous zero indication
D. Alternate Static Source
i. Alternate source of static pressure in case the primary is blocked
ii. Normally inside the flight deck
a. Cabin pressure is lower than exterior pressure
iii. Instrument indications when the alternate static source is used:
a. Altimeter indicates slightly higher than actual

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b. Airspeed indicates greater than actual

c. Vertical speed shows a momentary climb and then stabilizes

6. Electronic Flight Display (EFD) Malfunction

A. In the case of an EFD failure, the system reverts to a composite, reversionary mode
i. Moving map is eliminated
ii. PFD and engine instruments are combined on the remaining screen
B. Pilots often become overly reliant on the moving map
i. Significant loss of situational awareness if the pilot is not prepared for this failure
C. Stay Prepared
i. Follow the flight on an enroute chart & have a Chart Supplement on hand
7. Flap Malfunction
A. Total Flap Failure (no flap approach and landing)
i. Requires substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more)
ii. Losing altitude is more difficult so a wider, longer pattern may be necessary
iii. Flown in a relatively nose-high attitude compared to flaps extended
iv. Landing
a. Airplane is slightly less stable in pitch and roll axes with power reduced and flaps retracted
b. Tend to float during roundout - Don’t force the plane onto the ground
c. Don’t flare excessively as it risks a tail strike
B. Asymmetric (Split) Flap
i. A situation in which one flap deploys or retracts while the other remains in position
a. Indicated by a roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
ii. Countered with opposite aileron
iii. Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing
iv. Approach and landing should be flown at a higher-than-normal airspeed
8. Hydraulic Malfunction
A. If the hydraulic pump were to fail, there are alternate means to raise/lower the gear
i. Some airplanes will automatically lower the gear
9. Landing Gear Malfunction
A. Alternate gear extension procedure
i. If this does not solve the problem, a gear up landing is required
B. Considerations
i. Airport with crash and rescue facilities

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ii. A smooth, hard runway surface tends to cause less damage than a rough, unimproved grass strip
a. The hard surface creates sparks that could ignite fuel
iii. Burn off excess fuel
a. If the malfunction is limited to one leg, consume as much fuel from that side as practicable
C. Landing the Airplane
i. One Leg Retracted
a. Land in a nose-high attitude with wings level
b. As airspeed slows, apply aileron to keep the unsupported wing airborne as long as possible
c. After touchdown use full rudder and aggressive braking to maintain some degree of directional control
d. On a narrow runway, or one with ditches/obstacles on the edges, landing with all gear up may be safer
ii. Nose Wheel Retracted
a. Hold the nose off the ground until almost full-up elevator is applied
b. Release back pressure to allow the nose to slowly settle to the surface
c. Do not apply brakes unless necessary to avoid a collision with obstacles
iii. Main Gear Retracted (Nose extended)
a. Initial contact should be made on the aft fuselage with a nose high attitude
b. Allow the nose-wheel to gradually touchdown & use nose-wheel steering as necessary
10. Inoperative or “Runaway” Trim
A. Grip the controls and maintain control of the plane while disengaging the electric trim system
i. Disengage button, circuit breaker, etc.
B. If the reason for the runaway trim is obvious and has been resolved, engage the breaker
11. Smoke & Fire
A. In-Flight Smoke / Fire - In any fire, it is essential the source is discovered first
i. Engine Fire
a. Usually caused by a failure allowing a combustible substance to contact a hot surface
b. Indicated by smoke / flames from cowling; and / or discoloration, bubbling, melting of cowling
c. Unless the POH says otherwise, 1st step should be to shut off fuel
d. If the flames are put out, do not attempt to restart the engine
e. Perform an emergency landing
f. Keep in mind:
 There may be severe structural damage and control could be lost at any time
 Airplane may still be on fire and susceptible to explosion
 Airplane is expendable and the only thing that matters is the safety of those onboard
ii. Electrical Fires
a. First indication is usually the distinct odor of burning insulation
b. Try to identify the problem by checking circuit breakers, lights, instruments, avionics
 If it cannot be detected, the battery master and generator should be turned off
a Any materials which have been ignited may continue to burn
c. If power is essential for the flight, attempt to identify / isolate the faulty circuit:
 Electrical master off, then all individual electrical switches off
 Electrical master on
 Turn on electrical switches one at a time, waiting after each switch to check for signs of fire
a Turn off / do not use any equipment that restarts the fire. Other equipment can be used
iii. Cabin Fires
a. Usually result from smoking, electrical system malfunctions, and heating system malfunctions
b. Two immediate demands:
 Attacking the fire, and getting the airplane safely on the ground as quickly as possible

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c. In general, identify and shutdown the cause of the fire

d. Smoke can often be cleared by opening air vents – only after using the fire extinguisher
 If smoke increases, immediately close them
e. Windows can also be used to help clear smoke
f. Use oxygen if the smoke is severe; initiate an immediate descent
B. Ground Smoke / Fire
i. Engine Fire / Smoke - Shut down the engine, turn off the electrics and evacuate the airplane
ii. Electrical Fire / Smoke - Immediately turn off the master switch, and shutdown the engine
a. Use the fire extinguisher and evacuate as necessary
12. Door or Window Opening in Flight
A. Follow the POH procedures. In general, adhere to the following:
i. Concentrate on flying the plane, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
ii. Do not rush to land (climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing)
iii. Don’t release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it
iv. Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
a. A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
13. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Descend or use supplemental oxygen (emergency descent)
B. Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression
14. RM: Hazards
A. Startle Response
i. Uncontrollable, automatic muscle reflex, raised heart rate, blood pressure, etc. elicited by exposure to a
sudden intense event that violates a pilot’s expectations
ii. Protect against startle response through scenario-based training incorporating realistic distractions
iii. The pilot should react in a calm, controlled manner and:
a. Maintain aircraft control
b. Analyze the situation
c. Take the proper action
d. Land, as conditions require/permit
iv. Reactions or inputs outside of checklists may likely aggravate the situation
B. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, Task Prioritization

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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XII.D. Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency equipment and
survival gear, understanding that certain equipment should be taken on certain flights to aid in
survival and rescue operations. The student will have knowledge in accordance with the
ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Equipment for the Situation

2. Equipment Care
3. Equipment Storage

Elements 1. Appropriate Equipment and Gear

2. Equipment Use and Care
3. Ballistic Parachute
4. Emergency Autoland Systems

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Basic Survival Kit

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands that flights over different terrain, and during different seasons
Standards require different emergency equipment and survival gear. The student also knows that the
gear must be properly cared for and stored to ensure it functions correctly upon use.
 XII.D. Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Would you want to crash land in the desert with a life raft, life preserver, warm clothes and an average water supply
as your survival equipment? Or, wouldn’t you rather have survival gear tailored to the flight you are taking? We want
to be properly prepared for an emergency landing.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Emergency equipment and survival gear refers to the equipment that should be carried onboard an airplane based on
the flight being taken to aid in survival and rescue operations.

Why
By carrying and understanding flight tailored survival equipment you will greatly increase odds of survival & rescue.

How:
1. Appropriate Equipment and Gear
A. For flight over uninhabited areas, it’s wise to have/understand proper survival equipment for the climate/terrain
i. General plan is equipment and gear for 48-72 hours, adjust as required
B. A survival kit should provide sustenance, shelter, medical care, and a means to summon help
C. Consider the terrain, the climate/season, and type of emergency communication equipment needed
D. General items to consider
i. First Aid Kit & Field Medical Guide vi. Fire starter
ii. Flashlight and batteries vii. Shelter, survival blanket
iii. Food and Water (water purification/filtration) viii. Signaling device(s), PLBs, GPS etc.
iv. Tackle kit, Equipment to attain food ix. Maps & Compass
v. Rope, paracord x. Water/windproof layer
vi. Multi-tool or Knife, hatchet xi. Sunscreen, bug spray
E. More specific items should be considered based on the type of terrain and wildlife
i. Climate Extremes
a. Cold
 Warm clothes and layers, gloves, headgear, boots, snowshoes
 Waterproof layer(s)
 Blanket(s)
 Shovel
 Hand/body warmers
b. Hot
 Light clothing & hat (sun protection), sunglasses, sunscreen, extra water
ii. Mountainous Terrain
a. Mosquito head net
b. Hiking boots
c. Warm/Cold weather clothing to adapt to temperature changes
d. Bear spray, or similar items depending on the wildlife

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iii. Overwater
a. Life vests, Dry suit/survival suit
b. Raft
F. Think outside the box
i. What parts of the airplane/baggage could be used for survival?
a. Ex: The aircraft cover could be used for shelter, warmth, etc.
2. Equipment Use and Care
A. Onboard emergency equipment often consists of an ELT, fire extinguisher, emergency axe, & your survival gear
B. ELT
i. Purpose - transmit a downed aircraft’s location for search and rescue personnel
a. Broadcasts on 121.5 and 243.0 (no longer monitored by satellite), and 406 MHz
ii. Operation / Use – Emits a signal for rescue crews. Designed to automatically activate in a crash
a. Operates continuously for at least 48 hours over a wide temperature range
b. Know how to activate the ELT and ensure transmitting
iii. Servicing - Must be checked every 12 calendar months
a. FAR 91.207 – The battery must be replaced after 1-hour cumulative use or ½ its useful life
b. ELT Testing
 Analog 121.5/243 MHz ELTs – Test only during the first 5 minutes after any hour
 Digital 406 MHz ELTs – Test in accordance with the unit's manufacturer's instructions
 Airborne tests are not permitted
c. Storage – Usually installed by the manufacturer in order to prevent damage to the device in a crash
C. Fire Extinguisher
i. Purpose - Used to fight / extinguish fires (check the types of fires it’s intended to fight)
ii. Operation – Generally, pull the pin, point, and squeeze the handle (verify operating instructions)
a. Aim at the base of the fire
iii. Servicing – Verify the extinguisher isn’t expired, has been inspected, and contains the proper charge
iv. Storage – Ensure it is attached / secured where it is supposed to be, securely in its mount
D. Emergency Axe
i. Purpose – To provide a means to exit in case the doors cannot be opened
ii. Operation – If door(s) can’t be opened, use the axe to escape as described by the manufacturer
iii. Servicing – Ensure the axe is onboard and properly mounted, and inspected as required
iv. Storage – The axe should be stored in its mount as the manufacturer intends
E. RM: Survival Gear (for 48-72 hours)
i. Purpose – Used for survival (food, water, shelter, warmth, etc.)
ii. Operation / Use – The operation / use will vary with equipment. Use based on the instructions
iii. Servicing – Verify the equipment is in good working order and does not need replaced, cleaned, etc.
a. Ensure electronic equipment is in good working order and properly charged/ for use
b. Adjust the contents of the survival gear based on the trip, weather, terrain, etc.
iv. Storage – Store the gear safely and accessibly on the airplane
3. Ballistic Parachute
A. Understand and follow the procedures for arming/disarming and the conditions under which it should be used
B. Conditions for Deployment
i. Examples include catastrophic loss of controllability, pilot incapacitation, and loss of control
ii. Airframe will be lost, but if deployed in an acceptable flight regime it can prevent injuries & save lives
C. Passenger Brief
i. RM: Conditions for a safe deployment
a. When & How to deploy it
b. What to expect

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ii. Applicable hazards (Ex. Ground hazards with a deployed parachute, surface winds)
iii. Evacuation procedures once on the ground
4. Emergency Autoland (EAL) Systems
A. Designed to be deployed in the case of pilot incapacitation
B. How it Works
i. Manually activated by a pilot or passenger
ii. Automatic Activation
a. If the system sense erratic flying, it stabilizes the aircraft, and checks for pilot responsiveness
b. Without further input, it initiates an emergency descent
c. If no further input, it initiates the process for an automated landing
iii. Transmits automated messages on the last selected frequency and Guard & squawks 7700
a. Call sign and intention to divert to a particular airport and runway
C. Passenger Brief
i. RM: Conditions for a safe deployment
a. When & How to deploy it
b. What to expect
ii. Evacuation procedures on the ground
iii. Any applicable hazards
D. FAA Safety Team Emergency Autoland Overview

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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1. Distractions, SA & Disorientation, & Task Management

A. Distractions
i. They’re dangerous
a. Remove distractions from view or, if a person, explain the situation and ask them to stop
ii. Sterile cockpit
a. Implement and maintain a sterile cockpit during taxi, takeoff, and climb as well as descent and landing
iii. Fly first! Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
B. Situational awareness (SA) & Disorientation
i. Extremely important, lost SA has led to unsafe situations, mishaps, and incursions
ii. Maintain SA
a. Starts with preflight planning
b. Know what’s coming next and stay ahead of the airplane
c. Divide attention between inside and outside references
d. If SA is lost, admit it and fix the problem
iii. Disorientation can be caused by, or lead to, an upset
a. Push: Apply forward pressure to unload the plane
b. Roll: Roll aggressively to the nearest horizon
c. Thrust: Adjust as required
d. Stabilize: Return to a safe flight condition
iv. Lack of Visual References
a. Reference II.B. Visual Scanning & Collision Avoidance and II.M. Night Operations
b. Trust the instruments
C. Task Management
i. Divide attention between the aircraft, scanning, and communicating (ATC or CTAF)
ii. Understand what tasks need to be accomplished and when
iii. Recognize when you are getting behind and find a way to catch up
iv. Proper task management can help prevent distractions, loss of SA, and disorientation
v. Safety is the number one priority – Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
2. Collision Hazards
A. Collision Avoidance
i. Scanning
a. Series of short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas into the central visual field
 Each movement should not exceed 10o, each area should be observed for at least one second
b. Divide attention between flying and scanning for aircraft
ii. Clearing Procedures
a. Climb/Descent: Execute gentle banks to scan above/below the wings as well as other blind spots
b. Prior to any turn: Clear in the direction of the turn
c. Pre-Maneuver: Clearing turns – clear above/below, in front/behind
iii. Operation Lights On
a. Voluntary FAA safety program
b. Turn on landing lights during takeoff and when operating below 10,000’, day or night
iv. Right-of-Way Rules (FAR 91.113)
a. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traffic
b. Converging Aircraft
 When aircraft of the same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way
 XII. RM Concepts

 If the aircraft are different categories:

a Basically, the less maneuverable aircraft has the right-of-way
1. Balloons, gliders, and airships have the right of way over airplanes
b An aircraft towing or refueling an aircraft has the right-of-way over all engine driven aircraft
c. Approaching Head-on: Each pilot shall alter course to the right
d. Overtaking: Aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; when overtaking, pass on the right
e. Landing
 Aircraft landing/on final approach to land have the right-of-way over those in flight or on the surface
a Do not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the runway which has already landed
 When two or more aircraft are approaching for landing, the lower aircraft has the right-of-way
a Don’t take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another aircraft
B. Terrain
i. Study terminal charts and IFR/VFR chart altitudes, use Max Elevation Figures (MEFs)
ii. Day vs Night flying over terrain
a. Be extra vigilant at night, when terrain may be impossible to see until it is too late
C. Obstacles and Wire Strike
i. Antenna Towers
a. Numerous antennas extend over 1,000’-2,000’ AGL
 Most are supported by guy wires which can extend 1,500’ horizontally from the structure
ii. Overhead Wires (may not be lighted)
a. Overhead transmission wires and lines span runway departures and landmarks pilots frequently follow
 Lakes, highways, railroad tracks, etc.
D. Minimum Safe Altitudes (FAR 91.119)
i. Anywhere: At an altitude allowing an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property
ii. Over Congested Areas: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle within 2,000’
iii. Over other than Congested Areas: 500’ above the surface, except when over open water/sparsely populated
areas, then no closer than 500’ to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure
3. Low Altitude Maneuvering
A. A small problem at high altitude can quickly become a big problem at a low altitude
B. Be aware of, and avoid, obstructions, towers, etc.
i. Quick, panicked maneuvers, especially when slow, can result in a stall or loss of control close to the ground
C. Low Altitude Stall/Spin
i. A low altitude stall or spin can leave little to no recovery time
a. ALWAYS maintain coordination, and airspeed at low altitudes
b. If you get any indication of a stall at low level, recover, and climb to a safe altitude
ii. Spin
a. A spin is a result of a stall + yaw
b. Prevention
 Maintain coordination
 Do not use abrupt, excessive pressure inputs (especially back elevator pressure)
 Stop whatever you’re doing and recover at the first sign of a stall
c. Recovery (PARE)
 Power - Idle
 Ailerons - Neutral
 Rudder - Full rudder opposite the spin direction
 Elevator - Brisk, positive forward pressure (nose down)
 Once the spin has stopped, neutralize the rudders and raise the nose, being careful not to stall again

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d. Different aircraft respond differently to spins and spin recoveries, follow the POH procedures
D. CFIT (Controlled Flight into Terrain)
i. AC 61-134: General Aviation CFIT Awareness
ii. The solution to combating CFIT accidents starts on the ground
a. Common themes include proper planning, good decision making, and being able to safely operate the
aircraft throughout its entire operating range
iii. Recommendations:
a. Non-instrument rated VFR pilots should not attempt to fly in IMC
b. Know and fly above minimum published safe altitudes
c. If IFR, fly published procedures
d. Verify proper altitude, especially at night or over water, through use of a correctly set altimeter
e. Verify all ATC clearances. Question potentially hazardous clearances
f. Maintain situational awareness both vertically and horizontally
g. Comply with appropriate regulations for your specific operation
h. Don't operate below minimum safe altitudes if uncertain of position or ATC clearance
i. Be extra careful when operating in an area which you are not familiar
j. Use current charts and all available information
k. Use appropriate checklists
l. Know your aircraft and its equipment

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XIII. Postflight Procedures
XIII.A. After Landing, Parking, & Securing

References: Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to postflight procedures and
be able to perform them as required in the ACS/PTS.

Key Elements 1. Shutdown Checklist

2. Postflight Inspection
3. Securing the Airplane

Elements 1. Parking
2. Engine Shutdown
3. Deplaning passengers
4. Postflight Inspection
5. Securing the Aircraft
6. Common Error

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can safely ‘postflight’ the airplane based on different situations and at different
Standards airports.
 XIII.A. After Landing, Parking, & Securing

Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Have you ever forgotten to turn something off after a flight? Leaving certain things running can be dangerous or
costly. Properly securing an airplane isn’t important just to save on costs though, weather and other situations can
cause damage and/or injuries.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Postflight procedures are completed at the end of the flight when the airplane is parked, shutdown and properly
secured.

Why
The postflight is just as important as preflight in maintaining the plane and keeping it safe for the next flight.

How:
1. Parking
A. Select a parking location and heading that
avoids the propeller / jet blast of other planes
i. Also ensure you are not parked in a way that
will blast other aircraft
B. Park heading into the wind, if possible
C. Hand signals may be used if ramp personnel are
available – be familiar
D. After stopping, roll forward slightly to straighten
the nosewheel
2. Engine Shutdown
A. A flight is not complete until the engine is shut
down and the airplane is secured
B. Once stopped, set the parking brake
C. Common practice: With the engine running,
move the ignition from BOTH to OFF and back to
BOTH
i. Ensures mags are properly grounded
D. Follow the procedures outlined on the
manufacturer’s checklist
i. Read each item aloud and perform the task (Read and Do)
E. CE: Hazards resulting from failure to follow recommended procedures
3. RM: Deplaning Passengers
A. Ensure passengers understand the safe procedures for exiting the airplane (after engine shutdown)
B. Ensure passengers are aware of potential hazards nearby – other aircraft starting, taxiing in/out, etc.
C. Do not let the passengers disembark until required checklists are complete and safety precautions met
4. Postflight Inspection
A. Postflight Inspection

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 XIII.A. After Landing, Parking, & Securing

i. Check the general condition of the aircraft

a. Inspect the outside for any damage that may have occurred
b. Look for leaks, streaks, stains
c. Check oil, and other required fluids and replenish as necessary
B. Document all Discrepancies
i. Don’t leave the problem for someone else
ii. Allows maintenance to fix issues
iii. If not fixed, informs the next pilot of the discrepancies so they can make an informed go/no go decision
iv. Can see trends/repeating problems
C. Fuel the Airplane
i. If another flight is planned, the tanks should be filled based on that flight’s fuel requirements
ii. If the aircraft is going to be inactive, fill the tanks to prevent water condensation from forming
5. Securing the Aircraft
A. An essential part of every flight
i. Remove personal belongings
ii. Verify the nosewheel is straight
iii. Parking Brake/Tiedown/Chocked, as necessary
iv. Flight controls secured, gust locks
v. Covered (airframe, propeller, shades, inlet covers, pitot covers, etc.) and/or hangered
vi. Windows closed
vii. Locked
viii. Any other requirements for your aircraft
B. RM: Airport Specific Security Procedures
i. Address any specific procedures (hours of operation, gates, codes, other requirements)
6. CE: Poor planning, improper procedure, or faulty judgment in performance of postflight procedures
A. Be aware of the parking areas (ramps space, FBOs, etc.) at the destination
B. RM: Activities & Distractions
i. Taxiing and parking around buildings, people, etc. is no time to be distracted (sterile cockpit)
ii. Follow all checklist(s) step by step, and ensure the airplane is left in a safe condition for the next flight
iii. Do not skip the postflight inspection, assuming the next pilot will catch any issues in their preflight
a. If a discrepancy is noted, attempt to have the issue inspected/fixed prior to the next flight
iv. Leaving the airplane in an unsafe place, condition, or situation can result in damage and/or injuries

Common Errors:
 Hazards resulting from failure to follow recommended procedures
 Poor planning, improper procedure, or faulty judgment in performance of postflight procedures

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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XIV. Appendix
A. Flight Review

A. Flight Review
References: Currency Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check (AC 61-98),
FAR 61.56 – Flight Review, Certificate: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors (AC 61-65), WINGS – Pilot Proficiency
Programs (AC 61-91)

1. Purpose
A. A routine evaluation of a pilot’s ability to conduct safe flight
B. Not a test or checkride, rather a training event in which proficiency is evaluated
2. Role of the Instructor
A. Provide an evaluation, however instruction is also encouraged (they should leave a better pilot)
B. As long as deficiencies are corrected, providing instruction does not prevent a successful review
3. FAR 61.56
A. Flight Review Requirements – Minimum of 1 hour ground and 1 hour flight training, covering:
i. Current operating/flight rules (part 61/91)
ii. Maneuvers/procedures that, at the discretion of the CFI, demonstrate safe operation
B. Aircraft –Must be accomplished in an aircraft for which the pilot (and CFI) is rated (FAR 61.56(c)(1))
i. If a pilot holds multiple ratings, a flight review in any one counts for all
C. Exceptions to the Flight Review:
i. 61.56(d) – Passed a proficiency check, or practical test in the last 24 months
ii. 61.56(e) – Completed one or more phases of WINGS in the last 24 months (more info: AC 61-91)
iii. 61.56(f) – CFI who has completed a renewal of a flight certificate in the last 24 months (61.197)
4. Planning the Flight Review
A. Tailor the Review to the Pilot’s Needs (talk to the pilot to create a plan)
i. Type of aircraft, and type of flying usually done by the pilot
ii. Amount and recency of flight experience
iii. Specific topics/weaknesses they would like to focus on or review
B. AC 61-98 Focus Areas
i. Pilot Deviation Avoidance
a. Review airspace types/ground operating procedures/best practices to avoid deviations
ii. Automation Competency
a. Numerous accidents/incidents have been attributed to a lack of proficiency in automation
iii. AOA Systems (Safety initiative aimed at reducing the GA accident rate/loss of control accidents)
a. If equipped with AOA indicator, evaluate proper use. If not, review AOA aerodynamic principles
C. Build the Plan Based on the Individual - See sample Topics/Maneuvers below
D. Agreement on the review
i. Review the plan with the pilot to reach an understanding of how the flight review will be conducted
ii. Review the criteria for satisfactory completion of the flight review (ex. ACS/PTS standards)
5. Post Flight Review
A. Debrief the pilot
i. Satisfactory or not, provide a comprehensive analysis of performance, including ways to improve
B. If unsatisfactory, log the flight as dual instruction given, not as a failure (not a checkride)
i. Offer a practical course of action to regain proficiency
6. Endorsement
A. AC 61-65: I certify that [First name, MI, Last Name], [grade of pilot certificate], [certificate number], has
satisfactorily completed a flight review of § 61.56(a) on [date].
A. Flight Review

Ground Review Topics (AC 61-98) o Clearances (AIM 4-4)

Pilot o Procedures (AIM 5)
 Experience  Weather
o Recent Flight Experience (61.57) o Meteorology (AIM 7-1)
 Responsibility o Wake Turbulence (AIM 7-4)
o Authority (91.3)
o ATC Instructions (91.123) Flight Activities (AC 61-98)
o Preflight Action (91.103)  Preflight Preparation
o Safety Belts (91.107) o Weather Information
o Flight Crew at Station (91.105) o Cross-Country Flight Planning
 Cautions o Performance and Limitations
o Careless or Reckless Operation (91.13) o Operation of Systems
o Dropping Objects (91.15)  Preflight Procedures
o Alcohol or Drugs (91.17) o Inspection(s)
o Supplemental Oxygen (91.211) o Cockpit Management
o Fitness for Flight (AIM 8-1) o Before Takeoff Check
Aircraft  Airport Operations
 Airworthiness o Radio Communications
o Basic (91.7)
o Airport, Runway, Taxiway Signs/Markings/Lights
o Flight Manual, Markings, Placards (91.9)
o Certification Required (91.203)  Takeoffs, Landings, Go-Arounds
o Instruments/Equipment Requirements (91.205) o Normal/Crosswind Takeoff/Climb and Landing*
 ELT (91.207) o Soft Field Takeoff/Climb and Landing
 Aircraft Lights (91.209) o Short Field Takeoff/Climb and Approach
 Transponder Requirements (91.215) o Go-Around / Rejected Landing*
 Inoperative Instrument/Equip (91.213)  Performance Maneuvers
 Maintenance o Steep Turns
o Responsibility (91.403)
o Maintenance Required (91.405)  Navigation
o Maintenance Records (91.417) o Pilotage / Dead Reckoning
o Operation after Maintenance (91.407) o Nav Systems and Radar Services
 Inspections o Diversion
o Annual, ADs, 100-hour (91.409) o Lost Procedures
o Altimeter & Pitot Static (91.411)  Slow Flight and Stalls*
o VOR Check (91.171) o Slow Flight
o Transponder (91.413) o Power Off Stalls
o ELT (91.207)
o Power On Stalls
Environment
o Spin Awareness
 Airports
o Markings (AIM 2-3)  Basic Instrument Maneuvers
o Operations (AIM 4-3, 91.125, 91.126) o Straight and Level / Turns to Headings*
o Traffic Patterns (91.126) o Recovery from Unusual Attitudes*
 Airspace o Radio Comm/Navigation Systems
o Altimeter Settings (91.121, AIM 7-2)  Emergency Operations
o Min Safe Alts (91.119, 91.177) o Emergency Approach and Landing
o Cruising Alts (91.159, 91.179, AIM 3-1-5) o Systems and Equipment Malfunctions
o Speed Limits (91.117)
o Automation Failure
o Right-of-Way (91.113)
o Formation (91.111)  Postflight Procedures
o Cntrld Airspace (AIM 3-2, 91.129, 130, 131, 135) o After Landing, Parking, and Securing
o Class G (Aim 3-3)
o Special Use (AIM 3-4, 91.133, 137, 141, 143, 145) NOTES
o Emergency Rules (91.139, AIM 5-6) Possible Structure: Out-and-back. One leg focuses on XC procedures,
 ATC and one leg focuses on air work. Remember, some ground review
o Services (AIM 4-1) can be gauged and/or accomplished in flight.
o Radio Comms (AIM 4-2, Pilot Controller Glossary)
Structure activities and review based on pilot’s normal flying. For
 Flight Review

example, a different plan for someone who flies local/single airport

flights vs long-distance XCs in busy terminal areas.

*Maneuvers critical to flight – recommended to be reviewed

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B. Plan of Action

The intent is to use time and altitude as efficiently as possible during your student’s training flights. Below are two
sample plans designed to conserve energy and minimize drone time while incorporating all maneuvers. The instructor
should tailor the individual plan based on airfield, airspace, maneuver and training requirements, etc.

HIGH TO LOW

PRIVATE PILOT COMMERCIAL PILOT

1. SLOW FLIGHT & STALLS

“High” Alt 1. PERFORMANCE MANEUVER Climb
o Maneuvering during Slow Flight o Chandelles (Up to altitude)
o Power-Off Stalls
o Power-On Stalls 2. SLOW FLIGHT & STALLS
“High” Alt
o Maneuvering During Slow Flight
2. PERFORMANCE MANEUVER o Power-On Stalls
o Steep Turns o Power-Off Stalls

3. BAI FLIGHT 3. PERFORMANCE MANEUVERS (CONT)

o Straight-and-Level o Steep Turns
o Constant Airspeed Descent o Lazy Eights
o Constant Airspeed Climb 4. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS Descent
o Turns to Heading o Systems & Equipment Malfunctions
o Unusual Attitudes o Steep Spiral / Emergency Approach
Descent 5. GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS
4. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS Low Alt
o Systems & Equipment Malfunctions o Eights on Pylons
o Emergency Approach / Go-Around 6. TAKEOFFS & LANDINGS
Low Alt o Normal / Crosswind
5. GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS
o Soft-Field
o Rectangular Course
o Short-Field
o S-Turns
o Power-Off 180
o Turns Around a Point
o Go-Around
6. TAKEOFFS & LANDINGS
o Normal / Crosswind
o Soft-Field
o Short-Field
o Slip to a Landing
o Go-Around

The student climbs to training altitude, transitions from the climb into slow flight and stalls, completes
the maneuvers, and attitude instrument flight (if applicable), and then uses a simulated engine failure
to descend to ground reference maneuver altitudes before returning to the airfield for landings.
 B. Plan of Action

LOW TO HIGH

PRIVATE PILOT COMMERCIAL PILOT

1. TAKEOFFS
Low Alt & LANDINGS Low Alt
1. TAKEOFFS & LANDINGS
o Normal / Crosswind o Normal / Crosswind
o Soft-Field o Soft-Field
o Short-Field o Short-Field
o Slip to a Landing o Power-Off 180
o Go-Around o Go-Around

2. GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS 2. GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS

o Rectangular Course* o Eights on Pylons
o S-Turns
3. PERFORMANCE MANEUVERS Climb
o Turns Around a Point
o Chandelles (Up to altitude)
3. Climb
BAI FLIGHT
o Straight-and-Level 4. SLOW FLIGHT & STALLS
“High” Alt
o Maneuvering During Slow Flight
o Constant Airspeed Climb
o Power-On Stalls
o Constant Airspeed Descent o Power-Off Stalls
o Turns to Heading
o Unusual Attitudes 5. PERFORMANCE MANEUVERS (CONT)
o Steep Turns
“High”
4. Alt FLIGHT & STALLS
SLOW o Lazy Eights
o Maneuvering during Slow Flight
o Power-Off Stalls 6. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS Descent
o Systems & Equipment Malfunctions
o Power-On Stalls
o Steep Spiral / Power-Off 180
5. PERFORMANCE MANEUVER
o Steep Turns
Descent
6. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS
o Systems & Equipment Malfunctions
o Emergency Approach & Landing

The student begins in the pattern, and transitions to the applicable ground reference maneuvers. BAI
or Chandelles can be accomplished during the climb to an altitude where slow flight, stalls, and
maneuvers can be practiced. Finally, a simulated engine failure descends back to the airfield.

*Rectangular course doesn’t make a lot of sense after patterns

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C. Common Carriage

References:
 FAA Order 8900.1. Volume 2, Chapter 2, Section 2
 CFR 61.133
 AC 120-12A: Private vs Common Carriage
 NBAA Certification of Commercial Aircraft Operations – Which Rules Apply?

This is a basic overview of common vs private carriage, certificates, and the like. For considerably more detail, use the
reference links above, and additional information here:

 How to Become a Certificated Air Carrier

 FAR Part 119 – Certification: Air Carriers and Commercial Operators

1. FAR 61.133: Privileges and Limitations

A. Privileges – A person holding a commercial pilot certificate may act as PIC of an aircraft:
i. Carrying persons or property for compensation or hire
ii. For compensation or hire
iii. In both cases, the pilot must be qualified for the type of operation
B. Limitations
i. Commercial certificate without an instrument rating in the same category and class
a. Carriage of passengers for hire on cross-country flights in excess of 50 nautical miles at night is
prohibited
 Limitations is lifted with an instrument rating in the same category and class
C. These privileges allow the pilot to act as PIC – i.e., someone can hire you to fly their plane
i. Commercial certificate does not allow you to operate as an air carrier or commercial operator
D. The type of operation you’re hired to fly for will dictate the applicable FARs and governing regulations that they
(and therefore you, as the pilot) operate under
i. The operation has to decide whether they fall under common carriage or private carriage and drill down
from there
a. Also applies if you’d like to start you own business as an air carrier or commercial operator
2. What is Common Carriage & Private Carriage?
A. Common Carriage and Private Carriage are common law terms
i. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 uses the term “common carriage” but does not define it
ii. AC 120-12 provides guidelines to define common carriage and its opposite, private carriage
B. Common Carriage
i. A carrier becomes a common carrier when it “holds itself out” to the public (or a segment of the public) as
willing to provide transportation to any person who wants it
ii. Holding Out
a. Makes a person a common carrier
b. Can be done in many ways, does not matter how it’s done
c. Examples
 Signs and advertising are most direct means of holding out
 Actions of agents or salesman who obtain passengers from the general public
 A reputation to serve all (even without advertising)
iii. 4 elements defining a common carrier
a. A holding out of a willingness to
 C. Common Carriage

b. Transport persons or property

c. From place to place
d. For compensation
iv. As a pilot with a commercial certificate, you cannot “hold out”
a. Illegal without the proper Part 119 certificates (more below)
C. Private Carriage
a. Carriage for hire which does not involve “holding out”
b. Carriage for one or several select customers, generally on a long-term basis
 Too many contracts = willingness to make a contract with anybody (common carriage)
3. Governing Regulations
A. Once you’ve decided whether the operation falls under common carriage or private carriage, the next step is to
decide what FAR regulations it falls under
B. Common carriage operations are required to be conducted under FAR Part 121, or Part 135 (depending on the
type of aircraft, seating configuration, and payload capacity)
i. An operational certificate is required (issued under Part 119)
ii. Two basic types of Air Operator Certificates:
a. Air Carrier Certificate: Issued for interstate, foreign, or overseas transportation, or to carry mail
b. Operating Certificate: Intrastate common carriage operations
C. Private carriage, on the other hand, is conducted under Part 125, Part 135 (again, depending on the type of
aircraft, seating configuration, and payload capacity), or Part 91 Subpart D
i. Most private carriage also requires an operating certificate (exceptions for Part 91)
D. If they both require operating certificates, then what’s the difference?
i. Regulations and limitations
ii. Generally, private carriage is less regulated than common carriage
a. Ex. Part 121 pilots rest rules
4. Kind of Operation
A. Note: this is getting into extra, possible overly confusing information. Unless the learner is considering starting
their own operation it may not be necessary
B. The final step is to decide the kind of operation
i. Part 121
a. Domestic: Between two points inside the contiguous 48 states
b. Flag: Between a point outside of contiguous 48 states to a point inside the contiguous 48
c. Supplemental: Cargo, charter, departure location/times are negotiated with customer (vs scheduled)
ii. Part 135
a. Commuter: Scheduled time and locations with at least 5 round trip flights per week
b. On-demand: Departure time and location and arrival location are negotiated with the customer
C. FAA Order 8900.1. Volume 2, Chapter 2, Section 2
i. Table 2-4 looks at the Operating Certificate, Seating/Payload, 14 CFR Operating Part, & Kind of Op.
5. FAR 119.1(e) Exceptions
A. Operations for compensation or hire that do not require an air carrier or commercial operator certificate
i. Student instruction
ii. Nonstop commercial air tours (a lot more detail to this in the FAR)
iii. Ferry or training flight
iv. Aerial work (crop dusting, seeding, spraying, banner towering, aerial photography, and more)
v. Parachute operations within 25 statute miles of the airport
vi. Part 375 operations (foreign civil aircraft in the US)
vii. Emergency mail service
viii. Operations under part 91.321 (carriage of candidates in elections)

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 C. Common Carriage

6. Confused?
A. Discuss any proposed operation with the FAA
i. Early discussions can prevent a lot of pitfalls and potential illegal operations
B. As a commercial pilot you can be hired to fly for an operation but, other than the FAR 119.1(e) exceptions, you
cannot hold out or offer your services without the proper FAA/FAR approval and certificates

458