IMPACT OF OIL EXPOLRATION IN

NIGER DELTA, NIGERIA

BY

TOM, EDIDIONG ANIETIE

HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT COURSE

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PROJECT AND

SAFETY MANAGEMENT

DECEMBER, 2022
 ABSTRACT

This study was designed to investigate the impact of crude oil exploration in the Niger Delta
region of Nigeria with particular reference to its environmental effect on the six oil producing
communities in Akwa Ibom State. This research became necessary because oil exploration
and production have gravely injured agricultural produce (aquatic and farm), in the region.
Activities such as farming, fishing and hunting have drastically reduced in the region which
in the past was the major sources of income and livelihood of the local population. With the
increasing soil infertility, health hazard and underdevelopment of the region, the inhabitants
of the host communities have been forced to abandon their land and seek for nonexistent
alternative means of livelihood.
The population of the study consisted of residents in the six oil producing communities in
Akwa Ibom State. Data for the study was collected through secondary sources. The result of
the data analysis indicated a significant relationship between oil exploration and
environmental degradation in Akwa Ibom State. On the basis of this, the following
conclusion were drawn: that oil exploration activities in Akwa Ibom State has affected the
people and their agricultural production as the people are no longer engaged in their normal
farming activities due to soil infertility caused by frequent oil spillage and gas flaring in the
region; oil exploration and production affected the people health status and their live span as
they directly inhale the poisonous chemicals released into the environment by oil companies
through gas flaring and oil spillages; that most environmental laws initiated by the past and
present Government has not achieved its set goals and objectives of protecting the Niger
Delta environment from pollution and degradation due to corruption, lack of political will and
political intrigues due to the fact that most political elite in the country have a stake in the oil
industry. Based on the findings of the study and the conclusions drawn, it was recommended
among other things that: oil companies operating in the region should step up monitoring,
repair and replacement of pipeline through both human and machine aided system, strict
modification and implementation in the current regulatory framework of oil spillage and gas
flaring, and a holistic approach to the environment in terms of planning, development and
management of land resources.
 INTRODUCTION

The environment is the life support system given by the Creator to mankind. Sometimes in
the past, the three components of the environment – air, soil and water were pure, virgin,
undisturbed, uncontaminated and basically most hospitable. But today, the reverse is the case
due to progress in human activities which evidently led to environmental degradation and
serious ecological imbalance which in the long run may prove disastrous for mankind
(Sharma, 2002). Crude oil exploration in the Niger Delta Region has been on the increase
since 1958 when it was discovered in commercial quantity in Olobiri in today Bayelsa State.
These replaced earnings from agriculture which was the main stay of the Nation’s economy.
The Niger Delta Region of Nigeria which is richly endowed with natural resources, oil and
gas deposit and abundance of human and material resources including good agricultural
lands, extensive forests, excellent fisheries, as well as with a well-developed industrial base
are subjected to severe environmental degradation due to largely ecologically unfriendly
exploration of oil and state policies that expropriate the indigenous peoples of the Niger Delta
of their rights to these natural resources (Alagoa, 2004; Watt, 2008; Chinda & Braid, 2000;
Etuk, 2004).
The region which consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, fresh water swamps,
rain forest is now characterized by complete contamination of streams and river and forest -
destruction of biodiversity to oil pollution in the area. According to Adati (2012), this has
affected the livelihood of the indigenous people who depend on the ecosystem services for
survival. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over 50 years is at least 9- 13
million barrels, which is equivalent to 50 Exxon Valdez spills (FOS 2012). Throughout the
more than 50 years of crude oil exploration and production in Niger Delta region, oil drilling
and refining has caused unquantifiable and inhuman devastation to the people of the region as
the people are no longer engaged in their fishing, farming, and hunting activities which was
the mainstay of their economy.
This ecologically productive region has suffered extensive soil degradations, forest clearing,
toxic discharges, habitat degradations, dredging fillings and significant alteration by
extensive road and pipeline construction from the petroleum industry of particular concern in
the Niger Delta, and frequent and extensive oil spill that have occurred (Zabbey, 2014;
Anukam, 2000; Owugah, 2006; Owugah, 2002; Egwu 2012). The ecological devastation in
the Niger Delta region occasioned by oil exploration and production has degraded most
agricultural lands in the area and has turned the hitherto productive areas into wastelands.
With increasing soil infertility due to the destruction of soil micro- organisms and dwindling
agricultural productivity, farmers have been forced to abandon their lands, to seek
nonexistent alternative means of livelihood. Aquatic life has also been destroyed with the
pollution of traditional fishing grounds, exacerbating hunger and poverty (Gbadegesin, 2000;
Amadi & Tamuno, 2001; Aaron, 2005;Duru, 2010). Ibaba (2001:12) wrote: Olibiri is a
shadow of its former self. Farming which used to be the mainstay of the community's
economy has been paralyzed as farmlands has been destroyed, fishing activities grounded and
aquatic life virtually castrated by many years of oil prospecting and exploration.
The above observation connotes that oil spillages and gas flaring has destroyed the very basis
of the economies upon which many Niger Delta Communities depend. Drinking water is
polluted, fishing and farming activities are significantly impacted and ecosystem is degraded.
Oil spills has significantly affect the health and food security of rural people living near oil
facilities. Today, Niger Delta is characterized by several environmental problems ranging
from soil erosion, water pollution, global warming, absence of socio economic and
infrastructure development and abject poverty (Ibaba, 2010; Akpan 2005; Douglas &
Binuomoyo, 2008; Atairet, 2005). As noted by Aaron (2006), the poverty incidence and
unemployment have been on a visible upward trajectory in the Niger Delta region over 50
years of oil exploration and exploitation. Official statistical sources place about 72 percent of
households in endemic poverty in the region thereby reducing the inhabitants to below the
World Bank benchmark definition of poverty (the World Bank benchmark for poverty is 2
dollar per day). These however, have become sources of agony, pain and disillusionment for
the people of the region. The people of the region where the nation derives greater percentage
of her natural resources has persistently complained that adequate attention has not been
given to them as regards to development, employment, social amenities etc. despite the
environmental devastation resulting from oil, which has resulted in loss of lives, personnel
and abject poverty (Ekpo, 2004; Ekongson, 2006; UNEP, 2011; Briggs 2005).
Afinotan & Ojakorotu (2009), rightly assert that “obtuse neglect by successive governments
and massive degradation in the region, occasioned by oil production and export activities
contributes to the bane of the Niger Delta”. The Niger Delta case is the one of injustice and
neglect by multinationals which repatriates natural resources of the region with their allies to
the detriment of the environment and its people. This development has produced significant
and far-reaching consequences in which industrial establishments and their staffs have been
the target of restive youth (Duru, 2008). Essien (2005), opine that the Niger Delta has largely
become a cynosure because of widespread social unrest generated by neglect, environmental
degradation and mindless spoliation among others. Moller (2005) also agreed that social
unrest and pervasive youth restiveness in the area is the result of soil degradation,
environmental pollution, water contamination, inequality in resource allocation and
deliberates under development spanning over three decades. The grim picture of injustice has
been aggravated by the role of multinational companies whose primary aim is to exploit
resources of host communities at the detriment of the people’s health and their environment
(Ikelegbe, 2010; Worgu, 2000; Etuk 2004; Mbata 2004; Moffot & Olof, 2000). Opukri &
Ibaba (2008:30), have this to contribute:
Activities of multinational companies have impaired and attenuated the value of aquatic
resources for recreation, fishing and transportation. The continuous discharge of domestic
sewage, industrial affluent, petroleum hydrocarbons, dredge materials and Garbage has
aggravated problems of the Niger Delta. The indigene have reacted to neglect in various way
ranging from disruption of industrial activities, violent demonstrations, hostage taking,
vandalism of assets and communal clashes. To further analyze the plight of the Niger Delta
people, Ndubusi & Asia (2007) assert “inter alias, land left for the people has also been
polluted by activities of multinational companies and marine ecology has been degraded.
Pollution of the rivers, streams and creek has severally debased the fishing occupation, which
is the economic life wire of more than 70% of rural dweller in the Niger Delta”. A sad
example as illustrated by Nnaa (2008) where more than one million assorted fishes were seen
dead in the swamp near the flow station of Elf Petroleum (NIG) Limited. Ikelegbe (2010:9)
describe the situation in the Niger Delta region thus The contradictions are several; first while
being the bread basket of the nation in a federal state, it has Receive only a trickle of oil
based revenues particularly since 1981. Second, while providing the revenues for the
development of other parts of the nation, it has not experienced much of these developments
and the region is reputed to be one of the least developed and poorest in the country. Third,
while being home to the oil and gas resources and oil infrastructure, it participates little in
their control and management.
These conditions create numerous crises. In addition, poverty and misery has produced mass
discontent, resentment alienation, hostility and a generation of angry citizen. Following the
above, Ikelegbe (2010) further asserts that in consequences, the region has been immersed by
agitation, protest and struggle against perceived in justice, inequality, disinheritance,
marginalization and neglect. The protest has been so broad, intense and militant that between
1998 and 2009, the region slipped into insurrection and insurgency. In order to halt the
continuous environmental degradation and devastation in Niger Delta region, Governments at
both the Federal and State level had enacted several environmental laws with the primary aim
of ensuring for all Nigerians a quality environment adequate for their health and well-being;
conserve and use the natural environment and resources for the benefit of present and future
generations, maintain and enhance ecosystems and ecological processes essential for the
functioning of the biosphere and for the preservation of biological diversity (Owabukereyele,
2000).
Regrettably, the reverse is the case; most environmental laws enacted by the government at
both national and state levels are not strictly adhered to by the oil and gas operators in the
region which evidently lead to environmental pollution thus making the problems of
environmental pollution unabated. Nigeria’s environmental laws have been marred by
political intrigues since most political leaders have stake in the oil business. Regrettably,
rather than handling the problem of environmental pollution as a fundamental moral issue,
the problem which caused over sixty percent of deteriorating health and death of the
inhabitants of the area is politicized. This is in contrast to the global best practice (Mbata,
2004).
The study however intend to identify and examine the various environmental problems
associated with oil exploration and production in Niger Delta region sing Akwa Ibom state as
reference point. The thrust of our opinion in this paper is informed by the theory of relative
deprivation. American sociologist, Robert K. Merton was among the first to use the concept
of relative deprivation in order to understand “social deviance” adopting, Emile Durkheim’s
concept of “anomie” as a starting point Relative deprivation according to Lain & Heather
(2001), is the experience of being deprived of something to which one believes oneself to be
entitled. It refers to the discontent a people feel when they have less of what they compare
their positions to others and realize that they have less of what they believe themselves to be
entitled than those around them. Schaefer (2008a) define it as the conscious experience of as
negative discrepancy between legitimate expectations and present actualities. Coleman
(1966) argues that the unequal socio economic development of the various ethnic groups in
Nigeria led to inter-ethic and intra-ethnic conflicts. Once there is an uneven development in
all or some facets of human existence within a given society, the different group will
definitely become immersed in the competition for goods of modernity which invariably
leads to a conflict situation. Thus in the light of the above theory, the Niger Delta people
consider themselves as being deprived of their agriculture production which was the main
stay of the people livelihood due to the incident of high rate of oil exploration. At the
emergent of crude oil in 1958 at the commercial quantity, Nigerian government shifted her
focus from agriculture production, to oil and gives less attention to agriculture which was the
main stay of the nation’s economy. In some oil producing communities where agricultural
production is in place, much yield are not recorded due to the damages of farmlands and
produced occasioned by the activities of oil Multinational Corporation (oil spillage).
The oil industry has enormous physical presence in the environmentally sensitive highly
populated Niger Delta Region of Nigeria throughout the over 50 years of oil production. This
ecologically productive region has suffered extensive habitat degradation, forest clearing,
land degradation, water population, toxic discharges and significant alteration by extensive
road pipeline construction from the petroleum industry of a particular concern in Niger Delta
which in turn affects the agricultural productivity in the region negatively. The literature on
the Niger Delta highlights poverty, unemployment, underdevelopment, and rural urban
migration as the consequences. Many inhabitants of the region have migrated to other
regions, seeking for the necessary ways of survival and dumped agricultural activities which
were their main activity before the advent of crude oil in the region. Hence, the total or
almost entire dependence of the economy on oil has led to the relegation of agricultural
production to the background. Both government and the oil operators seem to pay no or less
attention to the harm caused by oil production on agriculture, hence resort to restiveness and
other forms of violent reaction in the region. Where there are oil spillages on farmlands and
waters which destroy the flora and fauna, the oil multinational manages to pay compensation
to the affected people. This is due to the fact that, they are interested in their profit and the
gains which the powerful elites expect from oil, at the detriment of the masses. The attention
of the federal Government and oil multinational companies are here drawn to look into these
issues (Ugbomeh, 2008; Udoh & Bassey, 2010; Eteng, 2010).

Literature Review
The world today recognizes the significance of environmental sustainability to the
development of any nation. In fact, one of the cardinal objectives of the sustainable
Development Goals (SDGS) is to ensure environmental sustainability. It then implies that
there should be reduction in environmental degradation as well as pollution. Multinational
and other industrial establishments are expected to play a significant role in the development
of the society and host communities (Eregha & Irughe, 2009).
The literature on the Niger Delta highlights soil erosion, water pollution, oil spillage, soil
erosion, and global warming as the consequences of oil exploration in the region. Lawal &
Ese (2012) in their opinion observe that spills are under-reported, but independent estimate
are that at least 115,000 barrels (15,000) tons of oil are spilled into the delta each year,
making the Niger Delta one of the most oil impacted ecosystems in the world. According to
UNDP Report (2006), environmental degradation issues are of topical concern to
communities in the Niger Delta as it is a major cause of productivity losses. This is the main
reason why oil and gas extraction impact on the Niger Delta has consequences for the
declining productivity of the region which is predominantly based on fisheries and other
agricultural activities as farming, and timber business. Based on UNDP report, Opukri &
Ibaba (2008) opine that oil production definitely worsened environment disaster and has
affected Fishing and other agricultural activities in the region. Bisina (2004) observed that
before the discovery of crude oil in 1958 at commercial quantity, agriculture was the
dominant occupation of the people of the Niger Delta region. According to him, oil
exploration has continued resulting into what he termed as environment destruction: due to
neglect and negative attitude of the multinational companies in environmental management in
the area. He further observed that Agricultural output has greatly been hampered by near
constant incidences of oil exploration in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria (Bisina, 2001).
This includes the production of major staple food crops such as cassava in the oil producing
region of the country. Bassey (2002) in his study observed that since the discovery of oil in
Nigeria in 1956, the country has been suffering the negative environmental consequences of
oil development. He further assert that in Nigeria, 32% of oil spillage is due to corrosion of
pipeline lines and tanker accidents, 28% is due to sabotage and 21% are due to oil production
operations while 19% of the oil spills is due to engineering drills, inability to effectively
control wells, failure of machines and inadequate care in loading and offloading oil vessels.
In connection with Bassey’s opinion, Akpabio et.al (2010) stated that oil industry has an
enormous physical presence in the environmental sensitive highly populated Niger Delta
region of Nigeria. He canvas that throughout the over 50 years of oil production, this
ecologically productive region has suffered extensive habitat degradations, forest clearing,
toxic discharges, dredging filling and significant alteration by extensive road and pipeline
construction from the petroleum industry of particular concern in the Niger Delta Region and
frequent extensive oil spill that have occurred. He further opined that Oil exploration has
caused a lot of environmental problems in the Region by degrading most agricultural lands in
the area and turned hitherto productive area into wastelands with increasing soil micro-
organisms and dwindling agricultural productivity. According to him, farmers have been
forced to abandon their land to seek non-existent alternative means of livelihood. Aquatic life
has also been destroyed with the pollution of traditional fishing grounds, exacerbating hunger
and poverty in the fishing communities. Akpofure (2008) observed that the collapse of the
local economies, induced by oil exploration, and other activities of the oil industry has
disengaged many from their occupations, without providing viable alternatives. From his
study, he observes that an estimated 5 to 10% of Nigeria mangrove ecosystems have been
wipe-out either by settlement or oil. The rainforest which previously occupied some
7,400km/square of land is disappearing as well as flares and resulting to acid rain. Collier
(2000) noted that the consequences of environmental degradation and pollution on
agricultural production, ecosystem and human health are enormous. Findings from previous
studies particularly, Ukpatu (2001), Omoweh (2001), Omorogbe (2003) and Nwabuenyi
(2012) have shown differently that, farm lands, fishing posts and shelters have been
devastated in the affected oil producing communities through thermal pollution by oil
spillage. Gbadegesin (2000) in their study on socioeconomic impact of oil pollution in Niger
Delta environment stated that crude-oil exploitation has had adverse environmental effect on
soils, forests and water bodies in host communities in the Niger Delta. Farmers have lost their
lands and are consequently forced to emigrate to other communities in search of livelihood
exerting additional pressures on natural resources in such area. Eteng (2010) noted that it is
noteworthy that the devastating consequences of oil exploration in Niger Delta Region with
its eventual hazard on both aerial and terrestrial environs are tantamount to an irreversible
chain effect on both the bio-diversity and safety. It is observed in his study that, crude oil
exploration in populated area affect agricultural activities such as farming, hunting as well as
fishing through contamination of the ground-water and soils which affects the economy and
human health adversely. For Watt (2008), the degree of damage to soils depends on the level
of contamination. If it is relatively low, the soil could be robbed of activities especially
because of the paraffinic nature of Nigeria oil. However, where the pollution is more serious
soil become infertile because nutrients essential to plant growth become scarce, while those
that are toxic to plant become more available (Ijaiya, 2013). Base on Watts opinion, Worgu
(2000), observe that oil spillage in populated areas often spread-out over a wide area,
destroying crops through contamination of the underground water and soils.
The consumption of dissolved oxygen by bacteria feeding on the spilled hydrocarbons
contributes to the death of fish because of the careless nature of oil operations in the Delta,
the environment is growing increasingly uninhabitable. Aaron (2006) also towing Worgu
line, observes that the major impact of oil exploration is the drastic decrease in the fertility of
the soil and land mass for cultivation, with consequent decrease in agricultural food
materials. In a study carried out to examine the impact of oil industries in Mkpanak, Iwo
Ukpum and Ntaikan communities, Inoni et.al (2013) found out that due to oil exploration
activities, the operation of oil industries in these communities has displaced a majority of the
population from their traditional occupation which is fishing. He also observed that, it has led
to prostitution and high rate of divorce. Similarly Afinotan & Ojakorotu (2009) found out in
his study that the activity of oil exploration has contributed to the decline of food crop
production in Egbema.
The study revealed that oil exploitation affect agricultural activities in the Niger Delta.
Eregha & Irughu (2009) enumerated the effects of oil exploration and industrial wastages on
the cultural, religious, economic and political live of the people. He then pointed out the
serious negative implications these effects have had on the people on all the spheres of lives
of the people in the affected communities in Nigeria. Nwabuenyi (2012) maintains that the
Oyaka and Ibaba oil spillage adversely affected food crop production and productivity. They
found out that crop production yields have decreased in quantity and quality. In the same
vein, the Bomu oil spill of July, 2001 devastated the environment. The soil of the affected
areas have been polluted and could not be utilized in the future, other problems associated
with the pollution in the area include, the degradation of vegetation including economic trees,
like palm trees, loss of fish as a result of Rival pollution and lack of security for crop and
other property. In addition to Nwabuenyi opinion, Amaize (2012) hold the view that gas
flaring areas produce short cassava tuber which decreases in length and weight with
increasing distance from the flare. Anee (2004) in his study of the challenges of
communities’ development; observes that development starts only when a man is able to take
control of his environment, to manipulate and manage progressively everything in that
environment to increase his production and productivity of all those things he needs to live a
qualitatively better life. to him, communities development is the physical transformation of
backward habitats to sages represented by symbolic presence of such structure as modern
building, town-halls, school building, hospitals, good roads, electricity, pipe borne water, and
bridges etc, all these are artifacts of environment reports that it is an idea of positive approach
to the handling of affairs, which aims at developing the initiative of individual and
communities by obtaining the willing participation of the people in the scheme for promoting
their own better men. This means that, a particular – programmme embarked upon most be
the priority of the people.
Development entails the whole activities in a district or village, whether these activities are
undertaken by the government or unofficial bodies. Schaefer (2008b) argued that the
underdevelopment of the oil producing communities in the Niger Delta region is a direct
consequence of oil exploration and environmental degradation in the region. To him,
underdevelopment has largely been understood in the context of lack of social amenities such
as pipe born water, good roads, hospitals, schools and employment opportunities.
Corroborating the above assertion by the Schaefer, Duru (2010) opined that "experience of
the area has shown that even when shell provided these amenities, they only facilitate the
exploitation of the communities as evidenced in the construction of its access roads that link
up its various oil and gas fields and not necessarily to develop the host communities". Amu
(2006) in similar vein, recounted that the neglect and underdevelopment is the plight of every
community in the Niger Delta region due to oil exploration which has resulted to adverse
environmental degradation. In his own observation, Omorogbe (2003) identified ecological
disaster such as flooding, environmental pollution caused by oil spillage and gas flaring
(which lead to air and water pollution), desecration of the natural vegetation and wild life as
some of the most serious factors retarding development in the Niger Delta region. According
to him, all the aforementioned factors are direct consequences of oil exploration in the region.
Base on Amu opinion, Grigi (2007) further opine that Niger Delta region is underdeveloped
in all its ramifications, despite the fact that it is the bread basket of Nigeria. He aptly
described the economic dilemma of the region when he stated that "the oil region in Nigeria
seems to be stuck in time warp, with little real change since oil was discovered 45 years ago.
Away from the main towns, there is no real development, no roads, no electricity, no running
water and no telephone." The underdevelopment is so severe; the youth of the region are the
hardest hit by lack of development. This is why many of them have resorted to militancy in
an effort to focus national and international attention to their plight. Despite all the claims by
the oil companies to be involved in the development of the region, it is to the contrary. The
pervasive underdevelopment of the region made Gerith & Laban (2003:7) to note that,
The government and oil companies have profited by hundreds of billions of dollars since oil
was discovered, yet most Nigerians living in the oil producing region are living in dire
poverty. In analyzing the problem of underdevelopment in the Niger Delta, Ebong (2005)
posed the following questions: why has the Niger Delta remained underdeveloped for
decades despite the fact that it contributes about 90 percent of the nation's wealth? .Why is
there stagnation in the mode of life and living standards of the people for decades?. Are there
concrete signs that the communities and rural dwellers in the Niger Delta are moving further
away from the zone of underdevelopment?. In summarizing the answers to the above
questions posed by Ebong, some scholars and environmental experts have linked the problem
of underdevelopment, poverty in the Niger Delta region to oil exploration and environmental
degradation in the region. Ibaba (2001), Owugah (2002) and Bassey (2002) have argued that
the underdevelopment of the oil producing communities in the Niger Delta region is a direct
consequence of oil exploration and environmental degradation in the region. To them,
underdevelopment has largely been understood in the context of lack of social amenities such
as pipe-home water, good roads, hospitals, schools and employment opportunities.
Corroborating the above assertion by the trio, Akpan (2005) stated that "experience of the
area has shown that even when shell provided these amenities, they only facilitate the
exploitation of the communities as evidenced in the construction of its access roads that link
up its various oil and gas fields and not necessarily to develop the host communities" Ekpe
(2009) in similar vein, recounted that the neglect and underdevelopment is the plight of every
community in Niger Delta State due to oil exploration which has resulted to adverse
environmental degradation.
In his own observation, Ebong (2005: 105) identified ecological disaster such as flooding,
environmental pollution caused by oil spillage and gas flaring (which lead to air and water
pollution), desecration of the natural vegetation and wild life as some of the most serious
factors retarding development in the Niger Delta region. He further asserts that
unemployment is very high in the region as the oil companies do not hire their employees
from the region that produce the oil, but from non-oil producing regions of Nigeria. Chinda &
Braid (2000) have described the effects of multi-national corporations on the rural areas as
that of displacement and distortion of rural society. The multi-national corporations as they
noted, stagnated agriculture and rural urban migration. On this note, Attah (2001) supports
the view that multi-national corporation are instruments of underdevelopment in the rural
areas. Confirming this, Collier (2000) note that oil boom failed to transmit prosperity to bulk
of rural population. Thus, in this view, the tripartite relationship in oil exploration exist
among the government, the oil companies and the host communities such that government oil
policies continually increase the strength of the oil companies at the expense of the oil
producing communities. Agriculture, which is the major source of income of the natives, is
destroyed and the rural communities experience a serious decline. Amadi & Tamuno (2001)
The study further asserts that, oil company exploration of crude oil resources has contributed
in no small measure to ecological degradation and environmental pollution, which have
adversely affected the people’s quality of life. In approximating the poor living conditions to
underdevelopment there appears to be a positive relationship between the level of oil
exploration activities and the degree of underdevelopment in the area (Amadi & Tamuno
2001).
Base on Amadi & Tamuno views, Anee (2004) went on to assert that, the most painful of the
activities of oil multinational corporations is that they have been implicated in the act of
collusion with the federation government in the militarization of the Niger Delta region. They
invariably divert the resources they should have used in the development of the Niger Delta
region to security. Toughing with Amadi & Tamuno opinion, Duru (2010), rightly asserts that
obtuse neglect by successive governments and massive degradation in the region, occasioned
by oil production and export activities contributes to the bane of the Niger Delta. According
to them, The Niger Delta case is the one of injustice and neglect by multinationals which
repatriates natural resources of the region with their allies to the detriment of the environment
and its people. Today, Niger Delta is characterized by almost complete absence of socio
economic and educational infrastructure, a physical environment rendered hostile by
industrial activities, seismic genocide, environment, lack of communication network, absence
of well-articulated development plans, and pervasive youth restiveness. Nnaa (2007:30), have
this to contribute: Activities of multinational companies have impaired and attenuated the
value of aquatic resources for recreation, fishing and transportation. The continuous
discharge of domestic sewage, industrial affluent, petroleum hydrocarbons, dredge materials
and garbage has aggravated problems of the Niger Delta.
The indigenes have reacted to neglect in various way ranging from disruption of industrial
activities, violent demonstrations, hostage taking, vandalism of assets and communal clashes.
To further analyze the plight of the Niger Delta people, World Bank (2000:18) assert that
“land left for the people has also been polluted by activities of multinational companies and
marine ecology has been degraded. Pollution of the rivers, streams and creek has severally
debased the fishing occupation, which is the economic live wire of more than 70% of rural
dweller in the Niger Delta”.
A sad example as illustrated by Idumu, (2008) is where more than one million assorted fishes
were seen dead in the swamp near the flow station of Elf petroleum (NIG) Limited.
Environmental degradation in the Niger Delta has reduced the economic viability of the
region there by ridding many of its inhabitants of their livelihood, mainly fishing and
agriculture. Bisina, (2004:27) agreed with Idumu by asserting that the effects of oil on the
Niger Delta community is very detrimental to human life as it has affected their main source
of livelihood. The contradictions are several; first, while being the bread basket of the nation
in a federal state, it has received only a trickle of oil based revenues particularly since 1981.
Second, while providing the revenues for the development of other parts of the nation, it has
not experienced much of these developments and the region is reputed to be one of the least
developed and poorest in the country. Third, while being home to the oil and gas resources
and oil infrastructure, it participate little their control and management. These conditions
create numerous crises. In addition, poverty and misery has produced mass discontent,
resentment alienation, hostility and a generation of angry citizen. Following the above,
Ikelegbe (2010), further asserts that in consequence, the region has been immersed by
agitation, protest and struggle against perceived injustice, inequality, disinheritance,
marginalization and neglect. The protests have been so broad, intense and militant that
between 1998 and 2009, the region slipped into period insurrection and insurgency.

The Impact of oil Exploration and Production on the Environment and

Wellbeing
Oil pollution has impacted negatively on the oil producing communities under study
in several ways. The present situation of the Akwa Ibom State environment especially the oil
producing areas is appalling. Though natural phenomena like erosion, flood and climate
change are major factors which adversely affect the environment, consequences of human
activities like gas flaring and oil spillage have threatened an imminent collapse of the
ecosystem. Oil spillage that occurred in the host communities of Akwa Ibom State are the
cost or the attendant problems the people are facing and suffering from since the advent of oil
exploration in the area. In fact, it could be seen as the major cause of environmental
degradation, oil conflict within the state. The situation is worsened by the lack of
commitment in rectifying the anomaly. This laissez –fair attitude has continued unabated
despite outcry by the victims as well as relevant environment protection laws. While the
stakeholder especially the transnational oil companies, have exhibited zero concern for the
wellbeing of their operational domain and its inhabitants, the victims of this acts of
degradation are left to their fate. This has led to countless Litigation against the oil
companies. The effects of the negative activities of the oil companies include air pollution,
soil pollution, soil degradation, health risk among others. In most of the oil producing
Communities of Akwa Ibom State under study, despite being the highest crude oil producer
in Niger Delta, they are perhaps the most underdeveloped place in the State. They play host
to oil firms including Exxon Mobil, Shell Petroleum Development Company amongst others.
In this section, the research work will look more specifically at various environmental and
socioeconomic problems that have been identified as a result of the intensive extraction of
natural oil resources in the Niger Delta communities in Nigeria. These impacts are grouped
into three interrelated impacts viz;
1. Socio-Economic Impacts
2. Physico-Health impacts
3. Socio-Culture Impacts

a) Socio-Economic Impacts
i. Destruction of Traditional Means of Livelihood Another implication of oil exploration in
Akwa Ibom State is that having destroyed biodiversity, it has also rendered the agricultural
sector, which is the largest employer of labour in oil producing community, unprofitable.
Hence, most of the youth and women have become jobless since their local economic support
system of fishing and farming is no longer sustainable. An example is the case of the
mangrove abundant in Mkpanak community in Ibeno Local Government where the livelihood
of the local people have been sustained by living in the midst of a once healthy and
productive mangrove forest by fishing and farming. They also gathered mangrove wood for
building and for local energy and fuel. However, due to being subjected to incessant oil spill
incidences, oil have coated the breathing roots of this plant killing off parts of the mangrove
forest and animals and marine life that depend on it.
This mangrove forest which serves as habitats for fish and mollusks as well as a source of
raw materials for communities in Mkpanak have been lost to the ravages of oil pollution. The
land, the sea and the environment can no longer support the subsistence life that this local
community, which they have been dependent upon for thousands of years. Oil extraction and
production has led to adverse environmental impact on the soil, forest and water of the host
communities in a variety of ways, which ultimately have caused problems of environmental
refuges. Crop planted in the host communities are diseased because the land is poisoned by
oil activities. Some of the landless farmers migrate to other more fertile lands in other rural
communities, putting pressure on scare fertile land. While some of the displaced farmers out
migrate to the urban areas in search of other means of livelihood. Various harmful and toxic
organic compound introduced into the natural environment during oil extraction such as
during seismic work, oil spill, gas flares and several other components of the environment.
This in turn affects agriculture and led to a drastic decline in output in both fishing and
farming activities. Akpan (2005: 67-79) noted that: 7.7 % of the 797 people interviewed on
the socio economic impact of oil exploration in Akwa Ibom
State identified farm-land pollution as a major problem”. The peasants are very reactive to
these changes because of the unavailability of modern farming and fishing techniques to meet
the challenges of a declining soil and marine resources. The drastic fall in output of the
agricultural product, led to intensive exploitation of other fertile land. The long run effect of
(this) degradation and immigration to other rural and urban areas…exerted (pressure) on the
often inadequate and dilapidated infrastructure (in this new areas) leading to increase (in)
poverty. In addition, Essien (2005:23-26) stated that: “Most farmers are concerned with
problem of displacement without resettlement during oil spill”. Etekpe (2005: 25) further
noted that: “A part from loss of farms, oil spills have led to extensive deforestation with no
adequate replanting practices – this in effect has shortened fallow periods, compounded land
use degradation and led to a loss of soil fertility and consequently erosion of the top soil. The
out migration of the rural displaced farmers in Akwa Ibom State as a result of environmental
degradation caused by oil extraction in the region has led a significant percentage of the local
inhabitants to remain a cyclical poverty and penury. This has meant greater environmental
degradation as a result of the intensive exploitation of the few remaining fertile land in the
region by the residents. It has also led to increasing urban blight in the urban areas in the
State as more and more displaced rural inhabitant flood the urban areas in search of non-
existent Jobs. The above observation connotes that oil spillages have destroyed the very basis
of the economies of the local communities which host the oil industry. Put differently, the
blame concerning the crisis of development has been placed on the oil companies. The
picture below shows the impact of crude oil spillage on the farm land in Mkpanak
community, Ibeno Local Government Area affects aquatic life. Fish are driven away from in-
shore or shallow waters into deep-sea as a result of flaring. The ultimate result of this is the
poor fish catch, as most fish has been driven into deep waters. Oil contamination affects the
fish population and affects the farmer that relies on fishing to support their family. In Eastern
Obolo Local Government Area, Shell Production Company and Exxon Mobil’s operations
have reportedly led to the loss of fish populations along the coast, fishing is a viable only to
those who can afford large boat engine and trawlers to venture into the high sea. The rest of
the population must buy “ice fish” (frozen fish) from commercial fishermen, a practice totally
unknown a few year back – since prices are constantly on the rise, many villagers have to go
without fish. Only a small section of the local population in Eastern Obolo Local Government
gets employment in Shell and Mobil’s facilities and thereby earns money to buy food (Essien,
2005). By enforcing law and holding oil companies accountable for their actions the risk of
contamination
Physio-Health Impact
i. Health Risks Human health is heavily affected by environmental degradation.
Reduction in water quality is responsible for more than two million deaths and
billions of illness annually across the globe. The most worrisome aspect of oil
pollution in Akwa Ibom State is the rise in occurrence of certain ailments that
were previously unknown in the area. It has been reported that there is correlation
between exposure to oil pollution and the development of health problems. In a
recent research report released by a group of scientists from the Faculty of
 Pharmacy, University of Lagos, it was found that water samples collected from
the sea, river, bore holes, lagoons, beach and so on from the Niger Delta region –
especially in Akwa Ibom and River States, indicates that more than 70% of the
water in the Niger Delta contains a chemical called Benzo-pyrene, with a high
concentration of 0.54 to 4ug per litre, far above the World Health Organisation
(WHO) recommendation of 0.7ug/1 for drinking water . Residents of oil-
producing areas 0f Akwa Ibom State at times have to cope with drinking water
that contains residual oil even many years after clean-up. There is also the lasting
health effects of chemical dispersants used during clean-up. For example, many
residents of the of Iko town in Eastern Obolo local Government have complained
of asthma, breathing difficulties and pain, headaches, nausea, and throat irritation
as well as chronic bronchitis. Such health concerns can bring about substantive
causes of action in toxic tort for exposure to dangerous substances and chemicals.
It has also been held to be a violation of the fundamental right to health in the
Nigerian case of Jonah Gbemre v. Shell, in which the Nigerian federal court held
that gas flaring and oil spillage by Shell in the course of their oil exploration and
production activities in the applicant’s community were violations of the
fundamental right to a healthy environment and dignity of human persons. Again,
the effect of gas flaring has constituted health hazard to the people. It is on record
that oil multinational companies operating in Akwa Ibom State flare more gas
than their counterpart which has contributed immensely to the local and global
environmental warming, loss of soil fertility, coupled with strange growth of
fauna and plants (Bassey 2002:174). Also, there are high degree of marine erosion
menace due to the over dredging of shallow creeks in the area to allow for big oil
vessels. This is threatening to the lives and properties of the host communities
within Akwa Ibom State especially in the rainy season when the water overflows
its banks. As a result, host communities within Ibeno, Eastern Obolo Local
Government Area among others are being washed into the sea and Atlantic Ocean
(Amaize, 2012). In 2001, the people of Ibeno, and Eastern Obolo, among others
called the attention of the Local Government council to the situation after the
traditional method of embankment continued to fail. The level of environmental
degradation faced by the people of the host communities in Akwa Ibom State is so
much that they should be classified under endangered species. Since the
commencement of oil exploration in the area, the people have been passing
through strange experiences almost on a daily basis, such as, earth tumor as a
result of constant explosion of dynamite and other explosive devices from oil
multinational companies

ii. Destruction of Zinc Roof

One of the increasing socio-economic costs to most oil producing communities resulting
from oil pollution is the rapidity of which zinc roofs are easily corroded. Houses with zinc
roofs that are close to the location of the flare stacks do not last for two years before they
become corroded. This is different from other areas where zinc roofs last for at least ten
years. This is a common trend that is also observed in other parts of the Niger Delta
where oil extraction is presently taking place This zinc corrosion has added another
dimension to the increasing socio-economic costs to the burden of the Akwa Ibom people.
It is a common knowledge that acid rain oxidizes zinc through the process of oxidation to
 form zinc oxides. This oxidation process is responsible for the corrosion. This has led
homeowners to resort to purchase of the expensive asbestos with its obvious potential
health hazards. Volume XVIII Issue III Version I 65 (F ) Global Journal of Human Social
Science - Year 2018 © 2018 Global Journals The picture below shows how flaring gas
corrode roofing Zinc in Atabrikang Community in Ibeno Local Government Area

iii. Water Pollution

According to Ekongson (2006), the main source of water pollution in Akwa Ibom State
has to do with oil spillage, deforestation and improper soil tillage practices which increase
the concentration of soil particles that make their way into water bodies. The discharge of
industrial waste materials into bodies of water is another major source of pollution in
Akwa Ibom State. Discharges from oil industries among others have increased the
contents of sulfates and nitrates in water bodies and has altered properties such as color
and odor (Etuk, 2004).

These metals and other chemical substance increase the toxicity of water bodies as well as
soils. A large percentage of the inhabitants from the host communities derive most of
their domestic and drinking water from ponds, stream, and shallow wells. Hence, water
pollution is a major health concern that places the health of the people at risk of diseases
such as cholera, dysentery, diarrhea, and typhoid (Ekpo, 2004). According to Ekpe
(2009), the oil activities in the area has resulted to situations whereby complete polluted
waters is been queathed to the children.

The communities shoreline have been washed away or erode due to the high volume of
deep – sea exploration and exploitation the incidence of oil spill has greatly increased.
Available records show that a total of 6,817 oil spills occurred between 2000 and 2005
with less of approximately three million barrels of oil in the region. Approximately,
twenty-five percent spilled in swamps and sixty-nine in off shore (UNDP Report, 2006;
Ekongson, 2006). Beside as source of water pollution, canalization and wastes discharge
into freshwater swamps and into the sea are other sources (Akpofure, 2008).

In an attempt to shorten travel time and improve access to oil fields and production
facilities, oil companies have constructed canals that in some case have caused salt water
to flow into fresh water zone destroying freshwater ecological systems. The toxic effect
of oil on marine life depends on the duration of exposure and oil concentration in the
environment. The presence of toxic components does not always cause mortality, but may
induce temporary effect like narcosis and tainting of tissues, which usually subsided over
time. Oil spill in the ocean destroy small sea organism, fish, seabirds, sea mammals,
shoreline and may contaminate the ocean floor for many years after the event (Godon
et.al, 2007.
 CONCLUSION

This research was undertaken to examine the effects of crude oil exploration in six oil producing
communities in Akwa Ibom State. From the study, it is seen that oil spillage and gas flaring and
indeed environmental degradation has grave effects in the environment especially in the area of study,
which ranges from its effect on the land, water to its effect in the entire outdoor environment. Apart
from affecting the chemical properties of the soil, it also resulted to poor soil fertility or nutrient,
leading to poor crop productivity in the area as well as polluting of rivers and streams where fishing
activities were carried out for subsistence up keep of the family.
The study reveal that the activities of oil multinational companies operating in the region has
contribute immensely to environmental degradation of the host communities which in turn affect the
crop yield, health of the dwellers, land productivity, health status and farm income. However in order
to halt the continual environmental degradation of the Niger Delta region, the federal and the State
Government over the year has embarked on several efforts towards resolving the incidents of
environmental degradation in the region. Such efforts range from the several legal framework such as
Oil Pollution Act (OPA) of 1990, Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC), the Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) Decree No. 86 of 1992, among others.
Despite these entire institutional framework towards resolving the incident of environmental
degradation, contingence sway in the region. The widespread poverty, general under development,
unemployment, Environmental degradation and pollution, marine contamination, as well as the area
which according to Eke, (2010:1), “has been environmentally desolated, economically strangulated
and political raped,” has for any other sources of livelihood for survival. Therefore, in order to halt the
continual degradation of the Niger Delta environment, the Federal Government and the State
Government must play a leading role by not only enacting but also enforcing stringent environmental
laws that guarantee the people a better livelihood.
Deliberate intervention policies must be implemented speedily to embark on massive infrastructural
development of the region, as well as address the crushing level of poverty among the people of the
Akwa Ibom State especially the oil producing communities of the State.
 RECOMMENDATIONS
Akwa Ibom State are confronted with several environmental problems, which ranges from
deforestation, drought and desertification, soil and coastal erosion, water pollution, oil pollution,
water hyacinth invasion, loss of biodiversity, flooding, urban decay, and industrial pollution caused
by oil Multinational Company operating in the region. Based on the findings of the study and the
conclusion drawn, the following recommendations were made to minimize the occurrence of
environmental degradation in the oil producing communities of Akwa Ibom State.
1. There should be a constant environmental monitoring, assessment and evaluation to determine the
level of damage that is done by gas flaring and other oil pollutions on the environment as a whole.
2. The companies and government should provide relief assistance to the bearing communities as
regards to the provision of basic input such as fertilizers to the various farmers as to enable them to
produce enough food crops as their only mainstay of livelihood and compensation should be paid to
host communities. The Federal Government should ensure that all decisions relating to environmental
quality integrate the need for sustainable development for future generation.
3. Promotion of environmental awareness and consciousness not only amongst the oil operators but in
the general public through the organization of the Biennial Seminar on the Petroleum Industry and the
Nigerian Environment should be encouraged.
4. Oil Operators in the region should adopt and promote the use of existing environmentally friendly
technologies as recommended by World Environmental Safety Standard.
5. The Federal Government operative laws governing the MNCOS should be updated so that foreign
and indigenous firms can plough back substantial investment in the region affected with what these
multi-nationals practice in other part of the world, where they do business.
6. The Federal Government through the Federal Ministry of Environmental Protection Agency
(FEPA), Niger Delta Affairs Ministry, NOSDRA and all Policy stakeholders in environment and oil
and gas sector should revisit and review existing environmental and oil drilling laws in Nigeria with a
view of updating them to international and environmental friendly standards.
7. The Government should adopt the Pollute and Pays Principle as an instrument of environmental
protection policy and management; and eGovernment agencies such as National Orientation Agency
(NOA) should be made to organize interactive session with the oil communities, oil companies and
NGOs operating in the area for a review of Government program/ Policies Concerning Oil
Exploration and Production. This will help to breach communication by the Government, the people
and the oil companies and also help to identify early warning violent conflict signals.
8. Oil companies operating in the Niger Delta region should review their policies on community
development, technology transfer, employment, corporate social responsibility and compensation to
host communities if they earnestly desire to achieve their organizational goals, stable and congenial
working environment.
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