HardwareX 14 (2023) e00422

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

HardwareX
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ohx

Hardware Article

Robust Arduino controlled spin coater using a novel and simple

gravity chuck design
Adam Shnier a,c, Francis Otieno b,c,d, Caren Billing a,c, Daniel Wamwangi b,c, David G. Billing a,c,⇑
a
School of Chemistry, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
b
School of Physics, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
c
DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Strong Materials (CoE-SM), University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
d
Department of Physics and Materials science, Maseno University Private Bag Maseno, Kenya

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Spin coaters offer an invaluable method of thin film fabrication. Various implementations,
both proprietary and open-source exist, offering vacuum and gravity samples chucks.
These implementations vary in their reliability, ease-of-use, cost, and versatility. Here
Keyword: we present a novel easy-to-use open-source gravity-chuck type spin coater with minimal
Spin coater points of failure at a material cost of around 100 USD (1500 ZAR). The unique chuck design
Arduino makes use of interchangeable brass plate sample masks, each specific to a sample size,
Gravity chuck
these can be made with basic skills and common hand tools. In comparison, replacement
Thin film
Low cost
chucks for commercial alternatives can cost as much as the entire spin coater we present.
Open-source hardware such as this provides an example for individuals in the field on the
design and development of hardware where reliability, cost, and flexibility are most impor-
tant, as is the case for many institutions in developing countries.
Ó 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Specifications table

Hardware name Gravity chuck spin coater

Subject area
Engineering and material science

Educational tools and open source alternatives to existing infrastructure
Hardware type
Mechanical engineering and materials science
Closest commercial analog Ossila Spin Coater [1]
Open source license Software: MIT
Hardware: SHL-2.1
Cost of hardware $ 80 - $ 120
Source file repository Mendeley Data, http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4

⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Chemistry, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D.G. Billing).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ohx.2023.e00422
2468-0672/Ó 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Shnier, F. Otieno, C. Billing et al. HardwareX 14 (2023) e00422

1. Hardware in context

Spin coating is a widely used process for the deposition of uniform thin films on flat substrates from a precursor solution.
The technique is common for fabricating thin films of photovoltaic materials, small organics molecules, polymers, nanopar-
ticles, metal oxides, etc. [2–4]. A substrate is mounted on the spin coater then a liquid precursor is applied to cover the sub-
strate. The spinning process drains precursor solution from the substrate using centrifugal force, while viscosity and surface
tension restrict this process [5]. The film thickness and quality is affected by rotational speed, atmosphere, solvent evapo-
ration, the rheology of the precursor, and surface wetting of the substrate [2,5].
Commercial spin coaters are most commonly available with either gravity or vacuum chucks to mount the sample. A vac-
uum chuck exposes a sample to a low vacuum through an opening in the sample chuck. The size and shape of the chuck
varies, with the simplest implementation being a small hole in the centre of the chuck. One advantage of vacuum chucks
is the ability to accommodate any sample shape and a wide range of sizes, provided the sample’s base can make a good seal
against the chuck. Vacuum chucks require a vacuum pump and a rotary union suitable for high speeds, adding both cost and
complexity. Another consideration is that the suction of a vacuum chuck may warp very thin substrates (such as 300 lm Si)
[1].
Gravity chucks typically take the form of an inset shape matching a specific sample size. These may require either a dif-
ferent chuck entirely for each sample size, or a compound inset where an inset for a smaller sample is set into a larger inset.
Gravity chucks are mechanically simpler, and are not subject to clogging or failures related to vacuum systems, which are
notorious for breaking down or requiring repair. The absence of a vacuum system and rotary union allows for a more cost
effective and simpler implementation.
Some more ‘‘affordable” vacuum chuck based spin coaters costing a few thousand dollars (USD) have, at least within our
research institution, been unreliable and subject to repeated failure and/or down-time usually related to the vacuum chuck,
vacuum system and the path between. This observation is localised and may not be a fair representation of the manufactur-
ers of these devices.
When designing shorter term research projects such as in MSc and undergraduate studies the wait time for new equip-
ment or for parts to repair existing equipment can elapse a significant fraction of a student’s available time. This is strongly
affected by geo-bureaucratic circumstances, including the time required to organise and process funding for equipment,
shipping time, customs delays, and costs. Also when working with imported commercial equipment, repair costs and logis-
tics can result in significant down-time while waiting for a technician, shipping the instrument, or arranging finances.
While commercial builds cost a few thousand dollars, with additional sample chucks costing from $90 to a few hundred
dollars (examples in SI Section 13), DIY spin coater builds can cost a few hundred dollars or even less making them a far more
attractive option when cost, cost of repair and ease of repair are of primary importance.
In this paper, we present a simple, low cost 2-stage spin coater with a novel gravity chuck design. This makes use of a
chuck and mask system with the full build planned around repairability, robustness and simplicity. These benefits are in part
a result of bypassing the common points of failure in vacuum dependent designs.

2. Hardware description

This spin coater consists of a gravity chuck, motor, power supply, electronics, software, and the enclosure. It is a low cost
device with simple circuitry built around an Arduino Nano compatible microcontroller to drive a DC motor and provide
information on a Nokia 5110 display. The novelty of the chuck design lies in the plate like sample holder mask, and the round
pins extending from the chuck on which the mask rests as the holding mechanism. In order to accommodate samples of dif-
ferent sizes, only the sample mask needs to be exchanged, in a quick tool free process. Two prototype implementations are
presented in Fig. 1.
This hardware can be useful in any facility where thin films are being studied, which includes research in the following
fields:

Thin-films device fabrication, including thin film solar cells.

The study of optical and optoelectronic properties in thin films.

Education to show an application of centrifugal force, and the relationship between spin speed and film thickness. This
spin coater can be simplified as in hardware Version 1 (hV1) (See reference [6]) for applications such as teaching motor
control or optical properties of materials [7].

2.1. Mechanics and Hardware

Motor
The spin coater is driven by a permanent magnet DC motor which is mounted to the enclosure, with a rubber gasket
between as a vibration dampener. In Hardware version 2 (hV2), the motor axle had an M8 thread while hV3 had a
6.35 mm smooth shaft. Some commercial spin coaters have shafts of 3 mm. Under normal operation, it is inconceivable that
any issue would arise from this, yet considering the surprising feats students are capable of, the motors were chosen to have
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A. Shnier, F. Otieno, C. Billing et al. HardwareX 14 (2023) e00422

Fig. 1. The assembled spin coaters, (a) Hardware version 2 (hV2) lined with foil and with an inset showing the pre-run display of the set run parameters, (b)
Hardware version 3 (hV3) with the sample mask taped down for transport to Maseno University, Kenya.

thicker shafts which cannot easily be bent. The rotation speed is motor dependent, in the case of hV2 the motor operates
comfortably between 600 and 7000 rpm. At lower speeds the force exerted by the motor magnets is significant and when
the PWM (pulse-width modulation) duty cycle is below 5 % (PWM 13/255,  500 rpm), the motor magnet and other mechan-
ical resistive forces are very close to or exceed the force generated by the motor coils potentially stalling the motor.
Tachometer
The motor speed was read using an infra-red proximity sensor. In hV2 the underside of the sample chuck was patterned
into evenly spaced alternating sections of black 1000 grit sandpaper and bare reflective aluminium, as shown in Fig. 2b. The
sandpaper provides a very good light absorbing surface, with the roughness diffusing any light that could be reflected by a
smooth black surface. This approach required mounting of the sensor directly under the chuck, as shown in Fig. 2a. In hV3
(Fig. 2c) this system was replaced by mounting a reflector on the small portion of shaft protruding from the bottom of the
motor. This reflector was made from a brass strip bent into a ‘‘U” shape. This was painted black with the outer sides covered
with a reflective aluminium tape. The infra-red sensor gain/sensitivity needs to be set such that it is not close to either pro-
viding false positive nor false negative readings. Both implementations make use of a strong reflector/absorber type contrast.
This allows strong discrimination between reflective and ‘‘dark” conditions. Additionally, the sides of the infra-red receiver
on the sensor was covered with black heat shrink (glued in place) to reduce the light received directly from the adjacent
transmitter. This allows a higher sensitivity/gain to be set on the sensor, while preventing false positive readings from this

Fig. 2. Tachometer assembly showing (a) the infra-red proximity sensor for hV2, (b) the reflector/absorber pattern on the underside of the chuck in hV2,
and (c) the reflector/sensor assembly used in hV3.

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effect. Comparing the sensor placement in hV2 and hV3, the sensor in hV2 was in the coating chamber directly under the
sample chuck. This resulted in a more complicated mounting implementation requiring a protective enclosure. In hV3 the
sensor mounting was entirely in the main enclosure. The tachometer assembly is included in SI documents ‘‘Assembly of
Spin-Coater hV2.pdf” and ‘‘Assembly of Spin-Coater hV3.pdf”.
Sample chuck and mask
The chuck design (Fig. 3) makes use of a flat top with two 3 mm pins positioned 45 mm apart. On these, an easily
machined sample mask sits, allowing quick and simple interchange between sample sizes without removing the chuck,
and the easy crafting of new masks for different sample sizes. The chuck was machined by a workshop technician from a
cylindrical aluminium block with a CNC router to form the top with pins, and a lathe to shape the profile. hV2 makes use
of a chuck with a thread tapped in the centre to fit on a motor with a threaded shaft, while hV3 has a blind hole in the chuck
with 2 grub screws to fix it on a smooth motor shaft. An alternative chuck version for a motor can be made without these
machining tools, as described in SI Section 3.1.
The sample mask is a 0.7 mm brass plate that has two 3 mm holes corresponding to the chuck’s 3 mm pins, along with a
cut-out in the centre corresponding to the sample/substrate size used. The sample mask should be thinner than the samples
to allow easy drainage of the precursor solution while coating. The 0.7 mm mask was paired with 1.1 mm thick samples, this
being the thickness of the microscope slides and ITO coated glass used within our research group. The sample mask is easily
exchanged, which is especially valuable in a lab where multiple users work with substrates of different sizes.
The sample chuck and mask system is ideal for substrates slightly thicker than the sample mask. Very thin samples such
as a 300 lm silicon wafer risk slipping under the mask. To avoid this, they can be mounted with double sided tape on a glass
slide or equivalent for spin coating. As mentioned, vacuum chuck spin coaters risk creating a curvature in ultra thin samples,
and this may similarly be remedied by mounting onto a glass slide. Another good alternative for very thin samples is to use
inset type chucks [8]. With these, thin samples cannot slip between the sample chuck and mask. Inset type sample holders
can be made to fit the presented chuck design using holes corresponding to the pins of the hV2/hV3 chuck for easy mounting.
These can be produced by either 3D printing, using a CNC router, or by gluing a sample mask to a backing plate (these have
not been produced for this work).
Commercial alternatives using vacuum or gravity chucks typically require the entire chuck to be exchanged to change the
sample mount [1,9–11]. Mounting systems in open-source designs include the use of double-sided tape, vacuum chucks
when using hard drive motors, gravity chucks where adjustment for sample size requires tools and measurement, and
chucks using removable screws to secure samples [12,13,7,2,14]. In comparison, the chuck design presented here provides

Fig. 3. Sample chuck and mask. (a,b) hV2 chuck and sample mask, (c,d) hV3 sample chuck for mounting on the motor shaft using M3 grub screws on the
side, with 3 mm pins on top. (e) Sample mask 14x13mm for hand cut ‘‘12.5x12.5 mm” samples. Design Files are included as ‘‘Chuck_smooth-shaft.FCStd”
and ‘‘Masks.FCStd” drawn in FreeCAD V0.18.

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a simple, rapid, easy, and tool-free method to exchange the sample mounting configuration which takes close to 5 s to swap
the sample mask.
Commercially, chucks are available at purchase prices ranging from $90 to $300. In cases where chucks can be 3D printed
[8], the associated knowledge and access to a 3D printer with a fine enough print resolution is required. In the design pre-
sented, the majority of technical expertise rests in the manufacture of the chuck, while the brass masks which accommodate
samples are less sensitive to machining accuracy, and are easily crafted with readily available tools and inexpensive mate-
rials (i.e. a drill, saw or tin snips, small metal files and brass sheet). This offers the advantage of lower cost, reliable access
without the risk of parts being discontinued, and avoids shipping, logistics and other potential delays in favour of locally
available components. [15,16].
The need to accommodate a new shape and size of sample can occur long after the spin coater was commissioned. There
is no guarantee the same individuals, technical knowledge and resources that were involved when equipment was commis-
sioned will still be accessible. The simplicity and ease of machining a sample mask from brass plate serves as an advantage
over other commercial and open source alternatives [15].
All the components are supported by, and housed in the enclosure as shown in Fig. 1. It serves to support the motor and
protect the electronics in a lab environment, while the stainless steel bowl acts to contain the waste fluid from the spinning
process. An enclosure can be bought or built using whatever non-flammable materials are most accessible. In our case, this
was offcuts of steel barge flashing (a roofing material). Information regarding the materials for and assembly of the enclosure
is provided in the SI documents ‘‘Assembly of Spin-Coater hV2.pdf” and ‘‘Assembly of Spin-Coater hV3.pdf”

2.2. Electronics

Inputs
An Arduino Nano compatible microcontroller (Nano) formed the core of the electronics as seen in Fig. 4. The Nano func-
tioned to control the DC motor with a pulse-width modulated (PWM) signal through an IRF540 n-channel MOSFET. In hard-
ware version 2 (hV2), 50 kX potentiometers (pots) were used to set the spin parameters, with each sending a voltage
between 0 and 5 V to the analog pins of the Nano for each parameter. Momentary contact buttons for start and reset func-
tions were included in hV2. The pots used in hV2 provided unsTable 10-bit values (0 to 1023). The source of the instability
could be related to the 5 V 3A USB power supply used for the Nano, which may additionally be affected by the power draw of
components directly connected to the Arduino in our build. The instability was managed using a software based approach
discussed in the software section.
To simplify the design and side-step the instability of the values read from the pots, hardware version 3 (hV3) replaced
the pots and buttons with an incremental type rotary encoder containing an inbuilt momentary contact button. This func-
tioned using the button to cycle through parameters, while rotation of the encoder adjusted parameter values, as shown in

Fig. 4. Circuit diagram for hardware version 3.

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Fig. 5. Flow diagram of software version 2.2 operation (used in hV3).

Fig. 5. The use of a single rotary encoder replacing the 5 pots and 2 buttons simplified the enclosure assembly, and provided
digital parameter control which bypasses the need to read analogue signals from pots.
Tachometer
The logic level voltages of an Arduino Nano are inherited from its ATMega328 microcontroller. The digital input voltages
are > 3.0 V for a digital high and < 1.5 V as a low [17]. An IR-proximity sensor working on 3.3 V was connected to the Nano
through a logic level converting NOT gate, with a threshold of 1.7 V and output of 5 V made using a NE555 timer. During
testing of hV2, a direct connection between the sensor and Nano did not reliably trigger a digital high input. The logic level
converting NOT gate was included to address this for the specific IR sensor board used.
Power delivery
The motor was powered by a 24 V PSU in hV2, and 12 V in hV3. In hV2, power was delivered to the microcontroller by a
step-down converter which delivered 5.2 V to the USB port of the Nano; a small voltage drop is expected in the USB cable. In
hV3, a L7809 linear regulator reduced the voltage to 9 V which was then fed into the Power in (Vin) pin of the Nano. The Vin
pin on the Nano is specified to accept 7–12 V input [18] which is regulated to 5 V by a LM1117 regulator. By dropping the
voltage to 9 V prior to the Vin pin, the heat which the small onboard regulator will need to dissipate is reduced,
PHeat ¼ ðV In  V Out Þ  ILoad þ V In IGround [19]. Linear regulators reduce voltage by resistively dissipating energy as heat, while
step-down/buck converters use PWM (pulse width modulation) typically followed by low pass filters to provide a reduced
DC voltage at a high conversion efficiency.
Testing a 24 V PSU with the 9 V LM7809 (TO-220 package) for the hV2 configuration resulted in slow heating in a L7809
regulator, leading to thermal overload. While the heat dissipation can be accelerated with a heatsink, a step-down converter
is preferable due to the higher conversion efficiency and reduced heat generation. The lower heat generation is desired as it
allows the enclosure to be sealed without a need for vents or a fan. The absence of vents reduces the gradual accumulation of
dust. This is of great importance in environments such as fume-hoods, where the strong air flow accelerates dust accumu-
lation. The chemicals a researcher uses can require a spin coater to be used in a fume-hood due to OHS considerations.

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2.3. Software and system

The software is included in SI files ‘‘SpinCoater_v2.3.1(for_hV3).ino” and ‘‘SpinCoater_v1.4(for_hV2).ino”. These operate as

per the flow diagram in Fig. 5 for hV3, and Figure SI-3a for hV2.
Setting parameters
The spin parameters consist of the speed and time for each of the two stages (speed 1, speed 2, time 1, time 2) and the ramp
time (ramp), which is the time to be allocated in total for ramping up the speed from stationary to the first speed, and
between the first and second speeds. Parameters are either set using pots in hV2, or an incremental type rotary encoder
in hV3. In hV2, 10-bit (0 to 1023) DAC readings are taken from 50 kX pots in the range 0 to 5 V. These readings were collected
by averaging 5 readings, each 5 ms apart. Parameter values were updated if the new average values differed from the stored
values by more than 5 units, equivalent to 24 mV. These values were converted into the spin parameters, of which the
parameters with the finest increments are speed. Speed 1 was defined by ‘‘s1 = byte(float(a[0])*242/1023)+13;”, where s1
is speed 1, and a[0] is the averaged value read from the first pot. This converts the 10-bit value averaged from the DAC reading
to 8-bit (byte) value with extrema of 13 and 242, defining limits on the minimum and maximum PWM duty cycles chosen
for the specific motor. This provided good parameter control with the caveat that parameter values occasionally shifted by
one unit. The parameter values are fixed when a run is started, as such these values should be checked on the display prior to
each operation run.
This minor instability was addressed in hV3 by utilising a rotary encoder in place of relying on DAC read signals from the
pots. Each time a parameter is updated on rotation of the rotary encoder in hV3, a delay of 10 ms is observed to allow for
effects such as contact bounce before reading the state of its ‘‘SW” and ‘‘DT” pins (see Fig. 4). This provided a stable, reliable
means of adjusting parameters.
Motor control
The motor speed is controlled using a MOSFET driven by a PWM signal. This can be generated by software, switching the
signal through loops, or hardware driven, using the Nano’s analogWrite() command. A software based PWM loop did not pro-
vide consistent speed control which was attributed to the computational processes demanded of the Nano single processing
core. The most intensive being the processing and updating of the graphics display, and the hardware interrupt signals from
the tachometer which trigger priority execution of the associated software function. In contrast, consistent operation of a
hardware controlled PWM signal was obtained, irrespective of the other demands on the processor. The drawback of the
hardware PWM is the fixed PWM frequency and discrete steps in the PWM duty cycle, limiting the accessible speeds to dis-
crete intervals. On a Nano, hardware based PWM is limited to a byte value between 0 and 255, corresponding to a target duty
cycle of 0 and 100 % respectively.
Calibration
Prior to the first use, the spin coater should be calibrated (speed in RPM vs duty cycle). Calibration can be accessed though
the menu as per Fig. 5, which calls a function void Calibrate(). Once initiated, the motor speed is measured at values across
the AnalogWrite() PWM range. The motor is allowed time to get to speed, followed by sampling the tachometer reading and
averaging 5 values (hV2), followed by time idle between each speed. The result for each PWM duty cycle is written to the
Nano’s EEPROM non-volatile memory.
Bypassing RPM calibration
Operation can rely either entirely on the PWM duty cycle, or on RPM values as determined by the menu parameter
bRPM4ramp. When bRPM4ramp is set to True, the speed will ramp linearly with time using the RPM calibration values. When
set to False, the duty cycle will ramp linearly with time. In hV2, ‘‘bRPM4set” toggles whether the speeds are set using RPM or
PWM values, while hV3 allows the speed to be set by either at the pre-run display, where parameter are displayed and set.
Tachometer
During operation the tachometer code relies on system interrupts to measure the time between successive transitions of
the infra-red sensor’s signal from low to high. The motor used in hV2 will not exceed 8000 rpm (7.5 mS per revolution), with
3 interrupts per revolution this leaves 2.5 mS between transitions. The interval between interrupts is stored when successive
interrupts occur slower than 2 mS apart. This minimum interval prevents multiple readings for a single transition. When the
display refreshes, it calls the function showRPM() which averages the last 18 intervals to provide the rotational speed.
Boost function
The DC motors used require more torque to overcome the resistance to rotation when the motor is stationary compared
to when it has some inertia. To allow the motor to run at lower duty cycles, a ‘‘boost function” was implemented in hV3. The
‘‘boost function” increases the PWM duty cycle for 50 ms to generate additional torque in the motor. The activation criteria
for the boost function requires that the tachometer reads 0, and that it is between 50 and 500 ms from the start of the spin
program.
Should the tachometer ever fail and be unable to provide the microcontroller with readings, the spin coater can continue
to operate provided the boost function is toggled off. This serves to reduce the risk of a user facing unusable equipment while
plans are made for hardware inspection and repair.
Modularity
The circuity, motor and tachometer are not specifically paired, allowing easy substitution of these components for repairs
and modification. A replacement motor can be easily set-up by running the calibration function accessible in the menu.

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There are both DIY and commercial spin coaters available offering more advanced software. Some of these include fea-
tures such as active speed correction using PID control. Many available spin coaters operate with 2 stages, while some com-
mercial and DIY devices allow for a larger number stages in the coating process. The code written for this project provides 2
stages and an easy-to-use interface.

Design files

3. Design files summary

Design filename File type Open source license Location of the file
Shnier2022-SpinCoater-SI.pdf PDF SHL-2.1 Available with the article
SpinCoater_parts-list.xlsx Excel SHL-2.1 http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4
Chuck_smooth-shaft.FCStd FreeCAD SHL-2.1 http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4
Chuck_threaded-shaft.FCStd FreeCAD SHL-2.1 http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4
Electronics Spin hV2 20211129.zip LTSpice SHL-2.1 http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4
Electronics Spin hV3 20220916.zip LTSpice SHL-2.1 http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4
Video of operation (hV2) Video MIT http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4
Assembly of Spin-Coater hV2.pdf PDF SHL-2.1 http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4
Assembly of Spin-Coater hV3.pdf PDF SHL-2.1 http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4
SpinCoater_v2.3.1(for_hV3).ino Arduino Sketch MIT http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4
SpinCoater_v1.4(for_hV2).ino Arduino Sketch MIT http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4
SpinCoater_not-gate.zip LTSpice/ various SHL-2.1 http://doi.org/10.17632/y84tbnfsj4

Design files descriptions

Shnier2022-SpinCoater-SI 20220914.pdf provides additional aspects of and concepts around the spin coater. This includes a
list of commercial and DIY or open-source spin coaters.

SpinCoater_parts-list.xlsx is an Excel spreadsheet containing a more detailed list of parts used for spin coaters hV2 and hV3
with the enclosure parts included.

Chuck_smooth-shaft.FCStd and Chuck_threaded-shaft.FCStd contain the sample chuck dimensions the 6.35 mm shaft vari-
ants of hV3 and the M8 threaded shaft of hV2 respectively. The threads for the shaft is represented with an 8 mm hole in
hV2 and the M3 tapped thread for grub screws of hV3 are represented by two 3 mm holes in the CAD drawings.

Electronics Spin hV2_20211129.zip and Electronics Spin hV3_20210916.zip are LT spice schematics showing the connectivity
of the electronics including the motor, IR sensor, LCD display and rotary encoder.

Video of operation (hV2) Shows a typical use case for spin coater hV2.

Assembly of Spin-Coater hV2.pdf and Assembly of Spin-Coater hV2.pdf detail the build processes and techniques for the cor-
responding spin coaters.

SpinCoater_v2.3.1(for_hV3).ino and SpinCoater_v1.4(for_hV3).ino containing the Arduino code designed for the correspond-
ing spin coaters.

SpinCoater_not-gate.zip contains the LTSpice schematic for the NOT gate along with images of the simulations run on the
circuit.

Bill of materials

4. Bill of materials summary

Designator Component Qty Unit Total Source of Material type

USD USD materials
Common Electronics - Total $20.79
COM Nokia 5110 LCD Module (15M8247) 1 $10.99 $10.99 mantech.co.za semiconductor
COM Infrared Obstacle Avoidance Sensor 1 $0.84 $0.84 pishop.co.za semiconductor
COM NE555 timer 1 $0.23 $0.23 mantech.co.za semiconductor
COM Resistor 10 k Ohm 3 $0.04 $0.12 mantech.co.za other
COM Resistor 100 Ohm 1 $0.04 $0.04 mantech.co.za other

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(continued)

Designator Component Qty Unit Total Source of Material type

USD USD materials
COM Resistor 1 k Ohm 1 $0.04 $0.04 mantech.co.za other
Motor MOSFET IRF540 1 $3.00 $3.00 mantech.co.za semiconductor
control
Motor Rectifier diode DO41 1A 400 V 1 $0.01 $0.01 mantech.co.za semiconductor
control
COM PROTOTYPING PCB 2.54 PITCH (14M1306) 1 $1.54 $1.54 mantech.co.za composite
COM Female headers (14M6379) 3 $1.02 $3.06 mantech.co.za composite
COM JUMPER LEAD PLUG-SOCKET 200 mm 1 $1.68 $1.68 mantech.co.za composite
COM WIRE SOLID 0.34 1.6MM 250 mm (red/black/ 3 $0.14 $0.42 mantech.co.za composite
yellow)
COM Hex Brass M3x10mm Stand off 4 $0.12 $0.47 mantech.co.za metal
COM M3 nut 4 $0.02 $0.07 mantech.co.za metal
hV2 Specific Electronics - Total $74.66
PWR-hV2 Dual USB Output 6–24 V To 5.2 V 3A Step 1 $2.68 $2.68 pishop.co.za semiconductor/
Down Converter other
PWR-hV2 Mean Well Power supply 24 V 100W 1 1 $26.18 $26.18 mantech.co.za other
hV2 DC motor 24 V 6000 rpm XD-3420 1 $35.73 $35.73 amazon.com other
UI-hV2 Buttons (momentary contact) 2 $1.67 $3.33 mantech.co.za other
72M4324/72M2826
UI-hV2 Potentiometer Linear 17MM 50 Kx PCB 6 $1.12 $6.74 mantech.co.za other
hV3 Specific Electronics - Total $54.68
hV3 Motor JAK Motor 6-18VDC 79 W RS-997SH- 1 $16.64 $16.64 mantech.co.za other
7013F
PWR-hV3 Mean Well Power supply 15 V 100W2 1 $33.06 $33.06 mantech.co.za other
PWR-hV3 REG FIX POS TO220 9 V 1A - L7809CV 1 $0.26 $0.26 mantech.co.za semiconductor
PWR-hV3 Capacitor Ceramic Disc 330nF 1 $0.26 $0.26 mantech.co.za other
PWR-hV3 Capacitor Ceramic Disc 100nF 1 $0.24 $0.24 mantech.co.za other
UI-hV3 Rotary Encoder Keyes - KE0053 1 $3.22 $3.22 mantech.co.za other
-hv3 Brass sheet 0.9 mm, 40x10mm 1 <$1 <$1 metalcentre. metal
co.za
Chuck and Mask - Total $5.12
C&M Aluminium rod, / = 65 mm, L = 55 mm 0.5 $4.07 $2.04 metalcentre. metal
co.za
C&M Brass plate 65x65x0.7 mm 3 $1.01 $3.03 metalcentre. metal
co.za
C&M-hV3 Grub screw M3 2 $0.03 $0.05 mantech.co.za metal

* The enclosure components are detailed in the SI document SpinCoater_parts-list.xlsx.

1 The motor has a rated locked-rotor current of 3.37 A at 24 V (81 W).
2 This motor is currently running off a 12 V 2A PSU and comfortably reaches 5200 rpm.
COM: Electronic components common to hV2 and hV3.
UI: User interface.
PWR: hV2 and hV3 specific power delivery related components.
C&M: Chuck and mask related materials.
-hV2, -hV3: Components specific to hV2 or hV3, mostly used in combination with other categories.

5. Build instructions

The spin coater build consists of an enclosure, motor, and the electronics which include the power supply. Safety should
be the first priority when building and operating equipment. A selection of considerations are listed below, with some addi-
tional precautions and best practices in the SI Section 10. This is intended as informative and is not comprehensive:

When working with electricity all connections and wiring should be done while the power is off and the device is discon-
nected from mains.

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A. Shnier, F. Otieno, C. Billing et al. HardwareX 14 (2023) e00422

Capacitors, such as those present in power supplies (PSUs) store charge even after the PSU is disconnected from mains
power. These can discharge explosively if shorted.

Soldering involves high heat, care should be take to avoid burns while good ventilation is required for the fumes produced
from solder, fluxes, and potentially but hopefully not, your components.

When working with a motor keep the area clear of anything that could get caught by the motor such as loose clothing,
jewellery, or hair.

The spin coater’s chuck and sample mask should not be touched when rotating. At speed the sample mask could poten-
tially mimic a rotary cutting tool.

The components needed for the power supply depend on the chosen motor.

A 12 V motor should be paired with a 12 V PSU with a sufficient power rating to supply the motor. The voltage of the PSU
also affects how power can be supplied for the microcontroller. The microcontroller steps down the input power from the
Vin pin using a linear voltage regulator which dissipates heat proportional to the voltage difference between the input
and output voltages. To reduce the heat dissipation on the board itself the 12 V was lowered to 9 V using a LM7809 linear
voltage regulator to supply the microcontroller’s Vin pin.

For the 24 V motor and PSU in hV2 there is a much larger voltage difference making a linear voltage regulator less suitable
due to heating concerns. For this a buck converter with a 5.2 V USB output was used to power the Nano through its USB
port.

The connections for the electronics are as per the circuit diagram in Fig. 4. The following considerations were made in
assembly:

Use of female headers on the PCB to allow detachable connections for the Arduino Nano compatible microcontroller, rotary
encoder, display and tachometer sensor. These connections were made with ribbons of jumper leads.

For the power in and motor power connections PCB mounted screw terminals were soldered to the PCB.

A DIP8 socket was soldered to the PCB to house the NE555 timer chip.

The remaining connections were soldered in place.

The use of removable components allows for easier trouble-shooting as components can be disconnected or exchanged
for testing.

The choice of infra-red proximity sensor will affect whether the logic converting circuit is needed for signals to be reliably
read by the Nano. For proximity sensors which provide 5 V logic signals the NOT gate sub-circuit will not be needed. Ide-
ally 3.3 V logic signals should work reliably directly connected to the Nano, yet with the sensor tested in our application
this was not the case. It is suggested that 3.3 V proximity sensors should be tested in a bread board to assess the need for
logic level converting circuit, such as the NOT gate sub-circuit.

The enclosure can be built in innumerable ways such that the motor is supported, the electronics are protected, and a cham-
ber is present for collecting the waste liquid thrown off the sample during coating. Enclosure build instructions are available
as follows:

See the SI document, ‘‘Assembly of Spin-Coater hV2.pdf”

See the SI document, ‘‘Assembly of Spin-Coater hV3.pdf”

Instructions for hV1, which makes use of a simpler design is available at [6]

6. Operation instructions

The spin coater operation consists of loading a sample, setting parameters, and initiating the run. Appropriate safety pre-
cautions should be observed when working with spin coaters. A few prominent safety concerns are mentioned here, with the
caveat that the list is by no means exhaustive. Precursor solutions used in spin coating are expected to be aerosolised and/or
evaporated to some extent. It is necessary to take appropriate precautions such as working in a well ventilated area, in a
fume-hood, or in a glovebox as determined by the chemicals in use. The spin coater includes a rotating motor, spinning
chuck, and sample, thus appropriate precautions include not wearing loose clothing, and keeping anything that could poten-
tially get caught by the moving parts clear of the space. Protective eyewear is essential, as the device does not include a cover
for the enclosure-bowl. The spin coater chuck and mask should not be touched while in motion. Some additional information
on best practices and safety precautions are offered in the SI Sections 10 and 11.

1. Ensure that the inner part of the enclosure-bowl is lined with aluminium foil
2. Make a protective paper ring from strips of A4 paper cut lengthways by joining the paper with folds, masking tape or
staples. Place the paper ring inside the enclosure-bowl along the outer edge (see Fig. 3b). This collects most of the
excess precursor from the spin coating process. This can then be changed after each set of samples to reduce the risk
of sample cross-contamination and prevent gunk build-up in the coater.
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A. Shnier, F. Otieno, C. Billing et al. HardwareX 14 (2023) e00422

3. Ensure the desired sample mask is in place, or change the mask for the substrate being coated.
4. Turn on the spin coater at the power switch.
5. (Calibration, first use) If the spin coater has not been previously calibrated, load a test or old substrate/sample and run
the built in calibration program. Calibration is best run with a sample and sample mask in place to provide conditions
similar to standard operation.
Access the menu (described below) and cycle through the options as explained on the screen. Select calibrate and
allow the calibration to run. It will cycle through the PWM parameter values up to 255, saving an average RPM for
each value as it progresses (this takes about 2 h on hV3).
hV2. To access the menu on hV2, long press the red start button.
hV3. To access the menu on hV3, long press the rotary encoder with any item other than ‘‘Start” selected.
6. Adjust the spin coating parameters as appropriate for the hardware variant:
hV2. Adjust the 5 pots, each of which correspond to a single parameter. There will be a ‘‘>” in front of the parameter
while it is being adjusted.
hV3. Use short presses on the rotary encoder to scroll through parameters, the selected item is indicated with a ‘‘>” on
the LCD display. Rotate the rotary encoder to adjust the parameters.
7. (Optional) Warm up the motor by running the spin coater for 2 min. This affects the motor grease viscosity and coil
windings resistance which can affect motor speed for a specific PWM duty cycle. A comparison of the tachometer
reading and spin parameters is valuable to assess whether the motor needs to be warmed up, and as an assessment
of the calibration values.
hV2. Press the red button to start a run.
hV3. Long press on the rotary encoder with ‘‘Start” selected to start a run.
8. Place a substrate in the cut-out of the sample mask.
9. Place precursor solution on the substrate using a dropper or micro-pipette.
10. Start the program as described in Step 7
11. (Optional) To stop the spin coater early press the red button (hV2), rotary encoder (hV3).
12. Remove the coated sample.
13. The spin coater returns to the parameter editing mode after a run and can be started again as done in Step 7, using the
red button.
14. Remove and dispose of the contaminated paper ring from Step 2 once finished.
15. Clean and store.

7. Validation and characterization

Direct and indirect indications of spin coater performance were assessed. This includes the stability of the calibration
speed vs duty cycle calibration data, the effect of repeated operation, and the analysis of thin films fabricated with hV2
by means of highly sensitive measurements.
The calibration function was run on the spin coater. Once completed, the speed vs. PWM parameter data was read from
the spin coater’s EEPROM, then converted into speed vs duty cycle for Fig. 6. This was fitted with a 6th order polynomial,
R2 ¼ 0:9997, Residual std. error ¼ 31:3, Figure SI-14. The magnitude residual std. error is dependent on the choice of motor
and power supply stability. At higher speeds the PWM control allows finer increments as the calibration curve’s gradient
decreases. This is represented by the mean step in the RPM values of 81 below 3000 RPM, and 37 between 4000 and
6000 RPM. This imposes a granular selection of spin speed and informs on the step size limitations of the Nano’s hardware
based PWM control.

Fig. 6. The relationship between motor speed and duty cycle for the 24 V DC motor controlled through a n-channel MOSFET with an Arduino Nano
equivalent microcontroller as used in hV2.

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A. Shnier, F. Otieno, C. Billing et al. HardwareX 14 (2023) e00422

In testing the effect of extended operation of the spin coater, a cycling experiment was conducted. For each cycle, the spin
coater was operated at a set duty cycle for 30 s followed by 30 s idle. The spin coater was started on the beginning of each
minute over an hour. Multiple readings of the motor speed (> 5) were taken and averaged for each data point during the 30 s
active period (Fig. 7a). This was carried out with the enclosure fully assembled, as per standard operation.
In a separate instance, K-type thermocouples were placed on the back of the MOSFET used for PWM control, and on the
top of the motor housing. The thermocouples were monitored using digital multimeters with a resolution of 1 °C, as shown
in Fig. 7b. In cases where the multimeter reading was unstable between 2 consecutive integers, the average was taken lead-
ing to some values with a half. The cycle number was denoted by n; From time (ðn  1Þ  60 s) to ((ðn  1Þ  60 s)þ30 s) the
motor is running, after which the motor is idle until the nth minute. The MOSFET-Hi temperatures were taken at (ðn  1Þ  60
s) + 30 s while the MOSFET-low temperatures (Figure SI-15) were taken at the end of the cycle on the minute mark (n  60 s).
The motor casing/housing temperature was recorded as the maximum stable value over the 1 min period of the cycle, Fig. 7c.
In Fig. 7a, the spin coater (hV2) motor speed remains reasonably steady with cycling at around 2200 rpm while operating
at a duty cycle of 12%. When this is increased to a duty cycle of 31%, the motor speed gradually increases from 5050 to
5300 rpm, this constitutes a 5% increase in speed, after an hour of cycling. This was suspected as an effect of heating in either
the motor or the MOSFET controlling the motor. The temperatures of both components were tracked using the same 30 s on
30 s off cycling approach (Fig. 7c). The MOSFET was quick to stabilise between 26–27 °C during cycling at a 31% duty cycle,
while the temperature of the motor housing rose in a similar trend to the speed in Fig. 7a (see Fig. 7c).
To support assignment of motor temperature as the cause of the speed increase, we consider the motors no-load speed n0
as a suitable indicator for the trend in operational speed. This neglects the effect of the weight of the sample chuck which is
minimal. The relation is given in Eq. 1 where K E is the voltage constant of the motors permanent magnets, and am is the per-
manent magnets temperature coefficient [20,21]. For small changes in am DT ðam  0:002 C 1 ; < 40 CÞ; n0 can be approxi-
mated to increase linearly with increasing DT.

VT
n0 / whereK E ¼ K 0E ½1 þ am DT ) n0 / 1=ð1 þ am DTÞ; am < 0 ð1Þ
KE

With Eq. 1 in consideration, the increase in motor speed was attributed to an increase in motor temperature during cycling at
a the higher PWM duty cycle of 31 %. The motor used in hV2 had a sealed housing which does not allow air to pass through
for cooling of the motor. It is recommended that either a motor be used that generates less heat or one which has a better
heat dissipation. To accommodate this dynamic behaviour in hV2, the PWM duty cycle set point can be monitored and mod-
ified in cases of extended operation to minimise the error in spin speeds. Alternatively a software based correction can be
implemented.

Fig. 7. The effect of extended operation observed through cycling of 30 s on, 30 s off for hV2. (a) Motor speed as a function of cycle number with the at PWM
duty cycles of 12 and 31 % (nominally 2200 and 5000 rpm respectively). (b) The hV2 spin coater with thermocouples attached for collection of temperature
data. (c) Motor housing and MOSFET temperature as a function of cycle number at a 31 % duty cycle.

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A. Shnier, F. Otieno, C. Billing et al. HardwareX 14 (2023) e00422

7.1. Application example

With the purpose of a spin coater being the fabrication of thin films, such films were fabricated on hV2. These were then
assessed using characterisation techniques sensitive to film quality.
Polymer blend thin films were prepared using the hV2 spin coater, followed by surface measurements using atomic force
microscopy (AFM). A precursor solution was used containing 20 mg/ml of PBDB-T:PC71BM (1:1 ratio) in chlorobenzene. The
solution was stirred overnight at 40 °C. A dropper was used to cover a clean glass substrate with the solution followed by
spin coating at between 1000 and 5000 rpm for 60 s.
The AFM measurements and roughness of the thin films are presented for various spin speeds in Fig. 8. The roughness
appeared quite modest and consistent across the measurements. The roughness was lower at 1000 and 2000 rpm, highest
at 3000 rpm and decreased thereafter. In a line-trace of the 3000 rpm sample (Figure SI-16) a maximum peak to valley height
of 11 nm was observed which is comparable to the 8 nm over a 5 lm length for PCBM in literature [3]. Differences in the
viscosity and concentration of the polymer blend solution, and the boiling point of the solvent used will have a strong influ-
ence on the film topography and roughness, yet these measured values are sufficient as a positive reflection on the hV2 spin
coater.
X-ray reflectometry (XRR) measurements provide an indication of film quality. XRR demands high quality films with a
roughness of no more than a few nanometres for the observation of Kiessig fringes. With this in mind PMMA thin films were
coated on a glass substrate at 4000 rpm using hV2 with a 0.5 or 1 wt% solution of PMMA (PMMA Sigma–Aldrich 445746). The
samples were dried for 20 min at 60 °C then annealed for 60 min at 95 °C in an Ar filled annealing chamber. XRR measure-
ments were then taken on a Bruker D8 Discover with Goebel mirror and 2 bounce Ge (022) monochromator. The data was
fitted using LEPTOS (Bruker AXS, V7).
The measurements provided exceptionally good XRR patterns for samples prepared using spin coating, as seen in Fig. 9.
Due to the low electron density and small volume of the PMMA films its density information was obscured by that of the
substrate. The density of the PMMA films was thus fixed to a literature based value of 1.18 g/cm3 [4,22]. While this assump-
tion reduces the absolute accuracy of the modelled thicknesses, it increases the stability of the determined thicknesses, thus
improving the relative accuracy between measurements, which is valuable for the following comparison. The thicknesses for
the samples made from the 1 wt% precursor were 27.0  0.3 and 26.2  0.3. For the 0.5 wt% precursor thickness were mod-
elled to 7.3  0.2 and 7.9  0.2. Comparable values were observed for the resulting films within each precursor weight per-
cent solution, the slight variations observed may have contributions from minor variance in the application of the precursor
to the substrate, and the wait time between this application and the start of the spin coating program.

7.2. Capabilities and limitations:

Quick to change samples and sample masks

600–7000 rpm

2-stage spin program

Max / 45 mm sample size limited by the distance between pins on the chuck

Sample masks unsuitable for ultra-thin samples

In-built speed calibration program

Absence of a speed correction algorithm

Intuitive controls and display

Fig. 8. Tapping mode AFM of PBDB-T:PC71BM (1:1) thin films, spin coated for 60 s at various speed. (a) 1000 rpm, (b) 2000 rpm, (c) 3000 rpm, (d) 4000 rpm,
(e) 5000 rpm (f) Root-mean-square (RMS) roughness for the various spin speeds determined across lengths scales between 2 to 5 lm.

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A. Shnier, F. Otieno, C. Billing et al. HardwareX 14 (2023) e00422

Fig. 9. X-ray reflectometry measurements on PMMA spin coated films produced using hV2 and collected on a Bruker D8 Discover.

7.3. Discussion and future work

The spin coater design presented provides good functionally and ease of use. hV2 as presented has survived use in a
multi-user research lab in South Africa since 2019, while hV3 has been in a Kenyan research lab since 2021, without a need
for repair or maintenance, exceeding the performance of at least some more costly commercial alternatives. Accommodating
additional sample sizes by cutting a new mask from brass sheet is manageable by any individual competent with hand tools.
This spin coater is cost effective, and allows the fabrication of high quality thin films. This makes it ideal for research groups
where a reliable, repairable product is needed on a minimal budget. The cost and maintenance aspects of open-source hard-
ware can offer utility to low budget institutes and groups where the commercial equivalent may be prohibitively expensive
or otherwise inaccessible. Commercial alternatives using motors with less internal resistance provide smoother operation at
low speeds compared to the motors used in hV2 and hV3. Since this is entirely dependent on the motor, this can be upgraded
in future versions to close this gap.
Many of the design considerations implemented or features avoided were inspired by the authors experience (direct and
indirect) with failure points and repairs of commercial spin coaters and their related vacuum systems. This includes precur-
sor solution clogging vacuum chucks, various problems with vacuum pumps for which vacuum pumps are notorious [1],
motor problems, tachometer issues causing glitches in speed regulation, and precession due to a slightly bent motor shaft
among other issues.
The motor in hV2 showed gradual heating at higher PWM duty cycles. This is attributed to a closed motor housing design
which leads to heat retention. In response to this, hV3 instead uses a motor with an air cooled housing.
Speed correction could be implemented to address the effects of changes in conditions, such as motor temperature on the
spin speed, a simple means of speed correction would be to adjust the motor speed towards a target based on the tachometer
reading. With the PWM duty cycle set by a byte value, a threshold is required to avoid constantly cycling between two adja-
cent speeds. The threshold can be defined relative to the step size between consecutive speed calibration values closest to
the target speed, this accommodates larger steps at lower speeds and smaller steps at higher speeds consistent with Fig. 6.
For more advanced speed correction Arduino libraries are available for implementation methods such as PID control [23].
To reduce the size increments of accessible speeds at lower duty cycles, effectively continuous PWM steps can be imple-
mented. This can be achieved by using software controlled PWM. Initial tinkering showed inconsistent speed control when
using software based PWM where the same microcontroller was also handling the display and tachometer. This could be
easily remedied with a dedicated microcontroller to drive the software based PWM at the expense of additional cost and
complexity. The finer speed increments could also benefit any speed correction implementations.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Adam Shnier: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Writing – original draft, Investigation. Francis Otieno: Inves-
tigation. Caren Billing: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Daniel Wamwangi: Supervision, Resources, Writing –
review & editing. David G. Billing: Supervision, Resources, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Gerry Germishuizen who machined the aluminium chuck for the spin coater. Additionally, Lesias
Kotane and Nicolette Visser for feedback and discussion.
14
A. Shnier, F. Otieno, C. Billing et al. HardwareX 14 (2023) e00422

The financial assistance of the National Research Foundation (NRF), University of the Witwatersrand - Material and Energy
Research Group (MERG), DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Strong Materials (CoE-SM) and UKRI GCRF-START towards this research
is hereby acknowledged. The use of resources and equipment of the University of the Witwatersrand is hereby acknowledged. Fran-
cis Otieno would like to highly thank ARUA Centre of Excellence in Materials, Energy and Nanotechnology (CoE-MEN) through the
ARUA/Carnegie Early Career Research fellowship for their timely funding.Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of
the authors and are not necessarily to be attributed to Wits, NRF, MERG DSI-NRF CoE-SM, UKRI GCRF-START, ARUA, nor CECRF.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the online version, athttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ohx.2023.
e00422.

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Mr. Adam Shnier is a part-time PhD student at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa where he also completed an
Honours degree (with distinction) in Chemistry and a BSc in Chemistry and Material Science. His research focuses on hybrid-
perovskites for photovoltaic applications. This work involves thin-film fabrication and the use of advanced X-ray diffraction
techniques to characterise thin films as well as bulk materials. He is also interested in developing viable cost-effective alter-
natives to commercial equipment for emerging regions. He received the South African Chemical Institute Post-Graduate Award
in 2020 for his versatile approach to his research work.

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A. Shnier, F. Otieno, C. Billing et al. HardwareX 14 (2023) e00422

Dr. Francis Otieno is currently a full-time lecturer at the department of Physics and Materials science, Maseno University,
Kenya. He holds an Msc and PhD in Physics and recently completed a 3-year postdoctoral fellowship at the University of the
Witwatersrand, South Africa funded by the Synchrotron Techniques for Africa Research and Technology-Global Challenge
Research Fund (START-GCRF). He is a recipient of several funding including the British Council - South Africa, under the Newton
Fund in partnership with the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) South Africa and recently the ARUA/Carnegie
Early Career Research Fellowship. His research interest includes fabrication and characterization of thin films solar cell devices
including organic solar cells, dye sensitized solar cell and perovskites with a view to enhance performance using plasmonics,
spectral conversion, varied device structure and probing into the morphology using Synchrotron Soft X-Rays. His focus is on thin
film growth and characterization via physical deposition techniques such as sputtering, thermal evaporation, pulse laser
deposition etc.

Caren Billing is currently an Associate Professor at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, in the field of electro-
chemistry. Her research currently includes investigating energy materials with a focus on solid electrolytes for fuel cell and
battery applications, through electrochemical techniques and a range of structural characterisation techniques. Other research
areas include electroanalysis, studying of metal-ligand equilibria using voltammetry, and investigating mineral leaching and
corrosion inhibition.

Daniel Wamwangi is currently an associate professor at the School of Physics, at the University of the Witwatersrand where he
has been based since 2010. His research interests include the development of novel materials for energy conversion and
information storage using advanced characterization tools. He is a Member of the Center of Excellence in Strong Materials,
Materials Physics Research Institute (MPRI) and the defunct ‘‘Materials for Energy Research group” (MERG).

David Billing is currently a professor at the School of Chemistry, at the University of the Witwatersrand. His research currently
focusses on structure-property relationships in solid eletrolyte materials typically for energy applications, using advanced X-ray
and Neutron diffraction and total scattering techniques. Of particular interest is the use of in situ and in operando studies, as
well as the use of synchrotron based techniques to gain a better understanding of the real structure and performance of the
materials under investigation.

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