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Netter’s 3 rd Edition
Clinical Anatomy
John T. Hansen, PhD
Professor of Neurobiology and Anatomy
Associate Dean for Admissions
University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry
Rochester, New York
Illustrations by
Frank H. Netter, MD
Contributing Illustrators
Carlos A.G. Machado, MD
John A. Craig, MD
James A. Perkins, MS, MFA
1600 John F. Kennedy Blvd.
Ste. 1800
Philadelphia, PA 19103-2899
NETTER’S CLINICAL ANATOMY, THIRD EDITION ISBN: 978-1-4557-7008-3
Copyright © 2014 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
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Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Permission for Netter Art figures may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Health Science Licensing
Department in Philadelphia, PA: phone 1-800-523-1649, ext. 3276, or (215) 239-3276; or email
[email protected].
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the
most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each
product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of
administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own
experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best
treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-1-4557-7008-3
Senior Content Strategist: Elyse O’Grady
Content Development Manager: Marybeth Thiel
Publishing Services Manager: Patricia Tannian
Senior Project Manager: John Casey
Senior Design Manager: Lou Forgione
Illustration Buyer: Karen Giacomucci
Printed in China
Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
I dedicate this book to my wife
Paula,
and to my children
Amy and Sean,
and to my grandchildren
Abigail, Benjamin and Jonathan.
Without their unconditional love, presence, and encouragement, little would have been
accomplished either personally or professionally. Because we’ve shared so much, this effort, like
all the others, was multiauthored.
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About the Artists
The Netter illustrations are appreciated not
Frank H. Netter, MD
only for their aesthetic qualities, but, more impor-
Frank H. Netter was born in 1906, in New York tant, for their intellectual content. As Dr. Netter
City. He studied art at the Art Students’ League wrote in 1949, “. . . clarification of a subject is the
and the National Academy of Design before enter- aim and goal of illustration. No matter how beau-
ing medical school at New York University, where tifully painted, how delicately and subtly rendered
he received his medical degree in 1931. During his a subject may be, it is of little value as a medical
student years, Dr. Netter’s notebook sketches illustration if it does not serve to make clear some
attracted the attention of the medical faculty and medical point.” Dr. Netter’s planning, conception,
other physicians, allowing him to augment his point of view, and approach are what inform his
income by illustrating articles and textbooks. He paintings and what make them so intellectually
continued illustrating as a sideline after establish- valuable.
ing a surgical practice in 1933, but he ultimately Frank H. Netter, MD, physician and artist, died
opted to give up his practice in favor of a full-time in 1991.
commitment to art. After service in the United Learn more about the physician-artist whose
States Army during World War II, Dr. Netter work has inspired the Netter Reference collection:
began his long collaboration with the CIBA Phar- http://www.netterimages.com/artist/netter.htm.
maceutical Company (now Novartis Pharmaceu-
ticals). This 45-year partnership resulted in the
Carlos Machado, MD
production of the extraordinary collection of
medical art so familiar to physicians and other Carlos Machado was chosen by Novartis to be
medical professionals worldwide. Dr. Netter’s successor. He continues to be the
In 2005, Elsevier, Inc., purchased the Netter main artist who contributes to the Netter collec-
Collection and all publications from Icon Learn- tion of medical illustrations.
ing Systems. More than 50 publications featuring Self-taught in medical illustration, cardiologist
the art of Dr. Netter are available through Elsevier, Carlos Machado has contributed meticulous
Inc. (in the US: www.us.elsevierhealth.com/Netter updates to some of Dr. Netter’s original plates and
and outside the US: www.elsevierhealth.com). has created many paintings of his own in the style
Dr. Netter’s works are among the finest exam- of Netter as an extension of the Netter collection.
ples of the use of illustration in the teaching of Dr. Machado’s photorealistic expertise and his
medical concepts. The 13-book Netter Collection keen insight into the physician/patient relation-
of Medical Illustrations, which includes the greater ship informs his vivid and unforgettable visual
part of the more than 20,000 paintings created by style. His dedication to researching each topic and
Dr. Netter, became and remains one of the most subject he paints places him among the premier
famous medical works ever published. The Netter medical illustrators at work today.
Atlas of Human Anatomy, first published in 1989, Learn more about his background and see
presents the anatomic paintings from the Netter more of his art at: http://www.netterimages.com/
Collection. Now translated into 16 languages, it is artist/machado.htm.
the anatomy atlas of choice among medical and
health professions students the world over.
vii
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About the Author
John T. Hansen, PhD, is Professor of Neu- nationally recognized medical educators. Dr.
robiology and Anatomy, and Associate Dean for Hansen’s investigative career encompassed the
Admissions at the University of Rochester School study of the peripheral and central dopaminergic
of Medicine and Dentistry. Dr. Hansen served as systems, neural plasticity, and neural inflamma-
Chair of the Department of Neurobiology and tion. In addition to about 100 research publica-
Anatomy before becoming Associate Dean. Dr. tions, he is co-author of Netter’s Atlas of Human
Hansen is the recipient of numerous teaching Physiology; the lead consulting editor of Netter’s
awards from students at three different medical Atlas of Human Anatomy; author of Netter’s
schools. In 1999, he was the recipient of the Anatomy Flash Cards, Essential Anatomy Dissec-
Alpha Omega Alpha Robert J. Glaser Distin- tor, and Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book; and
guished Teacher Award given annually by the co-author of the TNM Staging Atlas with
Association of American Medical Colleges to Oncoanatomy.
ix
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Acknowledgments
Compiling the illustrations for, researching, and Content Development Editor, and John Casey,
writing Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, third edition, Senior Project Manager, both of whom kept me
has been both enjoyable and educational, con- organized, focused, and on time. Without them,
firming again the importance of lifelong learning little would have been accomplished. Thanks and
in the health professions. appreciation also to Lou Forgione, Design Direc-
Netter’s Clinical Anatomy is for all my students, tion and Karen Giacomucci, Illustration Manager.
and I am indebted to all of them who, like many A special thank you to Madelene Hyde, Publishing
others, yearn for a better view to help them learn Director, and Elyse O’Grady, Senior Content Strat-
the relevant essential anatomy that informs the egist, for believing in the idea and always support-
practice of medicine. Anatomy is a visual science, ing my efforts. This competent team defines the
and Netter’s illustrations are the gold standard of word “professionalism,” and it has been an honor
medical illustration. to work with all of them.
Thanks and appreciation belong to my col- Special thanks to Carlos Machado, MD, for
leagues and reviewers who provided encourage- his beautiful artistic renderings that superbly
ment and constructive comments that clarified complemented, updated, and extended the Netter
many aspects of the book. Especially, I wish to anatomy collection. Also, I wish to express my
acknowledge David Lambert, MD, Senior Associ- thanks to my faculty colleagues at Rochester for
ate Dean for Undergraduate Medical Education at their generous and constructive feedback.
Rochester, who co-authored the first edition of Finally, I remain indebted to Frank H. Netter,
this book with me and remains a treasured col- MD, whose creative genius lives on in generations
league and friend. of biomedical professionals who have learned
At Elsevier, it has been a distinct pleasure to clinical anatomy from his rich collection of
work with dedicated, professional people who medical illustrations.
massaged, molded, and ultimately nourished the To all of these remarkable people, and others,
dream beyond even my wildest imagination. I owe “Thank you.”
much to the efforts of Marybeth Thiel, Senior JOHN T. HANSEN, PHD
xi
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Preface
Human anatomy is the foundation upon which elements of anatomy and begin to appreciate
the education of our medical, dental, and allied some of the clinical manifestations related to that
health science students is built. However, today’s anatomy. Other features of this edition include:
biomedical science curriculum must cover an
ever-increasing body of scientific knowledge, often • An introductory chapter designed to orient
students to the body’s organ systems
in fewer hours, as competing disciplines and new
technologies emerge. Many of these same tech-
nologies, especially those in the imaging science
• A set of end-of-chapter clinically oriented
multiple choice review questions to help
reinforce student learning of key concepts
fields, have made understanding the anatomy even
more important and have moved our discipline
firmly into the realm of clinical medicine. It is fair
• Basic embryology of each system that pro-
vides a contextual framework for human
postnatal anatomy and several common
to say that competent clinicians and allied health
congenital defects
professionals can no longer simply view their ana-
tomical training in isolation from the clinical
implications related to that anatomy.
• Online access with additional Clinical Focus
boxes
In this context, I am proud to introduce the My intent in writing this updated third edition
third edition of Netter’s Clinical Anatomy. Gen- of Netter’s Clinical Anatomy was to provide a
erations of students have used Dr. Frank H. concise and focused introduction to clinical
Netter’s elegant anatomical illustrations to learn anatomy as a viable alternative to the more com-
anatomy, and this book combines his beautiful prehensive anatomy textbooks, which few stu-
anatomical and embryological renderings with dents read and often find difficult to navigate
numerous clinical illustrations to help students when looking for essential anatomical details.
bridge the gap between normal anatomy and its Moreover, this textbook serves as an excellent
clinical application across each region of the essential review text for students beginning their
human body. clinical clerkships or elective programs, and as a
This third edition provides succinct text, key reference text that clinicians will find useful for
bulleted points, and ample summary tables, which review and patient education.
offer students a concise textbook description of The text is by no means comprehensive but
normal human anatomy, as well as a quick refer- does provide the essential anatomy needed by the
ence and review guide for clinical practitioners. generalist physician-in-training that is commonly
Additionally, some of the more commonly encoun- encountered in the first year of medical school. I
tered clinical conditions seen in medical practice have intentionally focused on the anatomy that a
are integrated within the textbook as Clinical first-year student might be expected to grasp and
Focus boxes. These clinical correlations are drawn carry forward into his or her clerkship training,
from a wide variety of medical fields including especially in this day and age when anatomy
emergency medicine, radiology, orthopedics, and courses are often streamlined and dissection exer-
surgery, but also include relevant clinical anatomy cises abbreviated. Those students, who by choice,
related to the fields of cardiology, endocrinology, choose to enter specialties where advanced ana-
infectious diseases, neurology, oncology, repro- tomical training is required (e.g., surgical special-
ductive biology, and urology. By design, the text ties, radiology, physical therapy, etc.) may
and clinical correlations are not exhaustive but are encounter a need for additional anatomical exper-
meant to help students focus on the essential tise that will be provided by their graduate medical
xiii
xiv Preface
or allied health education. By meeting the needs I hope that you, the health science student-
of the beginning student and providing ample in-training or the physician-in-practice, will find
detail for subsequent review or handy reference, Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, third edition, the valu-
my hope is that Netter’s Clinical Anatomy will be able link you’ve searched for to enhance your
the anatomy textbook of choice that will actually understanding of clinical anatomy as only Frank
be read and used by students throughout their Netter can present it.
undergraduate medical or allied health careers. JOHN T. HANSEN, PHD
Contents
chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body 1
chapter 2 Back 49
chapter 3 Thorax 87
chapter 4 Abdomen 145
chapter 5 Pelvis and Perineum 217
chapter 6 Lower Limb 271
chapter 7 Upper Limb 345
chapter 8 Head and Neck 411
Index 525
xv
Clinical Focus Boxes
chapter 1 Introduction to the Human Body
1-1 Psoriasis, 5
1-2 Burns, 6
1-3 Langer’s Lines, 6
1-4 Fractures, 12
1-5 Degenerative Joint Disease, 13
1-6 Atherogenesis, 18
1-7 Asthma, 22
1-8 Potential Spaces, 38
Available Online
1-9 Myasthenia Gravis
chapter 2 Back
2-1 Scoliosis, 51
2-2 Cervical Fractures, 53
2-3 Osteoarthritis, 55
2-4 Osteoporosis, 58
2-5 Spondylolysis and Spondylolisthesis, 59
2-6 Intervertebral Disc Herniation, 59
2-7 Back Pain Associated with the Zygapophysial (Facet) Joints, 61
2-8 Low Back Pain, 62
2-9 Whiplash Injury, 64
2-10 Herpes Zoster, 75
2-11 Lumbar Puncture and Epidural Anesthesia, 77
2-12 Spina Bifida, 83
Available Online
2-13 Myofascial Pain
2-14 Acute Spinal Syndromes
chapter 3 Thorax
3-1 Thoracic Cage Injuries, 92
3-2 Fibrocystic Breast Disease, 96
xvi
Clinical Focus Boxes xvii
3-3 Breast Cancer, 97
3-4 Partial Mastectomy, 98
3-5 Modified Radical Mastectomy, 99
3-6 Chest Drainage Tubes, 103
3-7 Pulmonary Embolism, 105
3-8 Lung Cancer, 106
3-9 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 107
3-10 Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis, 107
3-11 Cardiac Tamponade, 110
3-12 Dominant Coronary Circulation, 112
3-13 Angina Pectoris (the Referred Pain of Myocardial Ischemia), 115
3-14 Coronary Bypass, 115
3-15 Coronary Angiogenesis, 116
3-16 Myocardial Infarction, 118
3-17 Cardiac Auscultation, 119
3-18 Valvular Heart Disease, 120
3-19 Cardiac Pacemakers, 122
3-20 Cardiac Defibrillators, 123
3-21 Mediastinal Masses, 127
3-22 Ventricular Septal Defect, 136
3-23 Atrial Septal Defect, 137
3-24 Patent Ductus Arteriosus, 138
3-25 Repair of Tetralogy of Fallot, 139
Available Online
3-26 Hemothorax
3-27 Chronic Cough
3-28 Pneumonia
3-29 Cardiovascular Disease
3-30 Saphenous Vein Graft Disease
3-31 Infective Endocarditis
3-32 Mitral Valve Prolapse
3-33 Ventricular Tachycardia
3-34 Chylothorax
3-35 Coarctation of the Aorta
chapter 4 Abdomen
4-1 Abdominal Wall Hernias, 152
4-2 Inguinal Hernias, 157
4-3 Hydrocele and Varicocele, 158
4-4 Acute Appendicitis, 163
4-5 Gastroesophageal Refl ux Disease (GERD), 164
4-6 Hiatal Hernia, 165
4-7 Peptic Ulcer Disease, 166
4-8 Bariatric Surgery, 167
xviii Clinical Focus Boxes
4-9 Crohn Disease, 168
4-10 Ulcerative Colitis, 169
4-11 Diverticulosis, 170
4-12 Colorectal Cancer, 171
4-13 Volvulus, 172
4-14 Intussusception, 175
4-15 Gallstones (Cholelithiasis), 176
4-16 Pancreatic Cancer, 178
4-17 Rupture of the Spleen, 179
4-18 Cirrhosis of the Liver, 185
4-19 Portal Hypertension, 186
4-20 Renal Stones (Calculi), 194
4-21 Obstructive Uropathy, 195
4-22 Malignant Tumors of the Kidney, 196
4-23 Surgical Management of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm, 198
4-24 Congenital Megacolon, 206
4-25 Meckel’s Diverticulum, 208
4-26 Congenital Malrotation of the Colon, 210
4-27 Renal Fusion, 211
4-28 Pheochromocytoma, 212
Available Online
4-29 Acute Abdomen: Visceral Etiology
4-30 Irritable Bowel Syndrome
4-31 Acute Pyelonephritis
4-32 Causes and Consequences of Portal Hypertension
chapter 5 Pelvis and Perineum
5-1 Pelvic Fractures, 219
5-2 Urinary Tract Infections, 225
5-3 Stress Incontinence in Women, 228
5-4 Uterine Prolapse, 229
5-5 Cervical Carcinoma, 229
5-6 Uterine Leiomyomas (Fibroids), 230
5-7 Endometriosis, 230
5-8 Uterine Endometrial Carcinoma, 231
5-9 Chronic Pelvic Inflammatory Disease, 231
5-10 Dysfunctional Uterine Bleeding, 232
5-11 Ectopic Pregnancy, 233
5-12 Assisted Reproduction, 233
5-13 Ovarian Cancer, 234
5-14 Vasectomy, 237
5-15 Testicular Cancer, 238
5-16 Hydrocele and Varicocele, 238
5-17 Transurethral Resection of the Prostate, 239
Clinical Focus Boxes xix
5-18 Prostatic Carcinoma, 240
5-19 Hemorrhoids, 253
5-20 Episiotomy, 254
5-21 Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 255
5-22 Urethral Trauma in the Male, 259
5-23 Urine Extravasation in the Male, 259
5-24 Erectile Dysfunction, 260
5-25 Hypospadias and Epispadias, 264
5-26 Uterine Anomalies, 265
Available Online
5-27 Ovarian Tumors
chapter 6 Lower Limb
6-1 Deep Venous Thrombosis, 273
6-2 Congenital Hip Dislocation, 276
6-3 Pelvic Fractures, 277
6-4 Intracapsular Femoral Neck Fracture, 278
6-5 Pressure (Decubitus) Ulcers, 282
6-6 Iliotibial Tract (Band) Syndrome, 283
6-7 Fractures of the Shaft and Distal Femur, 284
6-8 Thigh Muscle Injuries, 287
6-9 Diagnosis of Hip, Buttock, and Back Pain, 289
6-10 Revascularization of the Lower Limb, 291
6-11 Femoral Pulse and Vascular Access, 292
6-12 Multiple Myeloma, 298
6-13 Tibial Fractures, 299
6-14 Deep Tendon Reflexes, 299
6-15 Patellar Injuries, 300
6-16 Rupture of the Anterior Cruciate Ligament, 300
6-17 Sprains of the Knee Ligaments, 301
6-18 Tears of the Meniscus, 301
6-19 Osgood-Schlatter Disease, 302
6-20 Osteoarthritis of the Knee, 302
6-21 Septic Bursitis and Arthritis, 303
6-22 Shin Splints, 305
6-23 Osteosarcoma of the Tibia, 305
6-24 Genu Varum and Valgum, 310
6-25 Exertional Compartment Syndromes, 310
6-26 Achilles Tendinitis and Bursitis, 311
6-27 Footdrop, 316
6-28 Lateral Ankle Sprain, 316
6-29 Ankle Fractures, 317
6-30 Rotational Fractures, 319
6-31 Fractures of the Calcaneus, 320
xx Clinical Focus Boxes
6-32 Congenital Clubfoot, 323
6-33 Metatarsal and Phalangeal Injuries, 324
6-34 Plantar Fasciitis, 325
6-35 Deformities of the Toes, 325
6-36 Fractures of the Talar Neck, 326
6-37 Common Foot Infections, 327
6-38 Diabetic Foot Lesions, 328
6-39 Arterial Occlusive Disease, 329
6-40 Gout, 329
Available Online
6-41 Healing of Fractures
chapter 7 Upper Limb
7-1 Glenohumeral Dislocations, 348
7-2 Fracture of the Proximal Humerus, 349
7-3 Clavicular Fractures, 350
7-4 Rotator Cuff Injury, 354
7-5 Shoulder Tendinitis and Bursitis, 355
7-6 Brachial Plexopathy, 358
7-7 Axillary Lipoma, 361
7-8 Deep Tendon Reflexes, 367
7-9 Fractures of the Humerus, 367
7-10 Biceps Brachii Rupture, 370
7-11 Elbow Dislocation, 371
7-12 Fracture of the Radial Head and Neck, 375
7-13 Biomechanics of Forearm Radial Fractures, 377
7-14 Fracture of the Ulna Shaft, 382
7-15 Distal Radial (Colles’) Fracture, 382
7-16 Median Nerve Compression and Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, 387
7-17 Fracture of the Scaphoid, 388
7-18 Allen’s Test, 388
7-19 De Quervain Tenosynovitis, 389
7-20 Proximal Interphalangeal Joint Dislocations, 390
7-21 Finger Injuries, 391
7-22 Radial Nerve Compression, 397
7-23 Proximal Median Nerve Compression, 400
7-24 Ulnar Tunnel Syndrome, 401
7-25 Clinical Evaluation of Compression Neuropathy, 402
7-26 Ulnar Nerve Compression in Cubital Tunnel, 403
Available Online
7-27 Trigger Finger
7-28 Rheumatoid Arthritis
7-29 Central Venous Access
Clinical Focus Boxes xxi
chapter 8 Head and Neck
8-1 Skull Fractures, 415
8-2 Zygomatic Fractures, 415
8-3 Midface Fractures, 416
8-4 Hydrocephalus, 422
8-5 Meningitis, 423
8-6 Subarachnoid Hemorrhage, 425
8-7 Epidural Hematomas, 427
8-8 Subdural Hematomas, 428
8-9 Transient Ischemic Attack, 428
8-10 Stroke, 429
8-11 Carotid–Cavernous Sinus Fistula, 430
8-12 Collateral Circulation after Internal Carotid Artery Occlusion, 430
8-13 Vascular (Multi-infarct) Dementia, 431
8-14 Brain Tumors, 432
8-15 Metastatic Brain Tumors, 433
8-16 Trigeminal Neuralgia, 438
8-17 Herpes Zoster (Shingles), 438
8-18 Facial Nerve (Bell’s) Palsy, 439
8-19 Tetanus, 440
8-20 Orbital Blow-out Fracture, 443
8-21 Clinical Testing of the Extra-ocular Muscles, 445
8-22 Horner’s Syndrome, 446
8-23 Eyelid Infections and Conjunctival Disorders, 451
8-24 Papilledema, 451
8-25 Diabetic Retinopathy, 452
8-26 Glaucoma, 453
8-27 Ocular Refractive Disorders, 454
8-28 Cataract, 455
8-29 Pupillary Light Reflex, 456
8-30 Mandibular Dislocation, 457
8-31 Mandibular Fractures, 459
8-32 Rhinosinusitis, 461
8-33 Nosebleed, 466
8-34 Acute Otitis Externa and Otitis Media, 471
8-35 Weber and Rinne Tests, 473
8-36 Cochlear Implant, 473
8-37 Vertigo, 474
8-38 Removal of an Acoustic Neuroma, 475
8-39 Common Oral Lesions, 480
8-40 Cancer of the Oral Cavity, 481
8-41 Hyperthyroidism with Diffuse Goiter (Graves’ Disease), 490
8-42 Primary Hypothyroidism, 491
8-43 Manifestations of Primary Hyperparathyroidism, 492
8-44 Emergency Airway: Cricothyrotomy, 500
xxii Clinical Focus Boxes
8-45 Manifestations of Hoarseness, 500
8-46 Nerve Lesions, 511
8-47 Craniosynostosis, 518
8-48 Congenital Anomalies of the Oral Cavity, 518
8-49 Pharyngeal Arch and Pouch Anomalies, 519
Introduction to the
Human Body
chapter
1
1. TERMINOLOGY 7. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 13. BODY CAVITIES
2. SKIN 8. NERVOUS SYSTEM 14. OVERVIEW OF EARLY
3. SKELETAL SYSTEM 9. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
4. MUSCULAR SYSTEM 10. GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM 15. IMAGING THE INTERNAL
ANATOMY
5. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 11. URINARY SYSTEM
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
6. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM 12. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
QUESTIONS
1. TERMINOLOGY parallel to the median sagittal plane (para-
sagittal) that divides the body into unequal
Anatomical Position right and left portions.
The study of anatomy requires a clinical vocabu-
lary that defines position, movements, relation-
ships, and planes of reference, as well as the
• Frontal (coronal) plane: vertical plane that
divides the body into anterior and posterior
portions (equal or unequal); this plane is at
systems of the human body. The study of anatomy right angles to the median sagittal plane.
can be by body region or by body organ systems.
Generally, courses of anatomy in the United States
approach anatomical study by regions, integrating
• Transverse (axial) plane: horizontal plane
that divides the body into superior and infe-
rior portions (equal or unequal) and is at
all applicable body systems into the study of right angles to both the median sagittal and
a particular region. This textbook therefore is the frontal planes (sometimes called cross
arranged regionally, and for those studying sections).
anatomy for the first time, this initial chapter
introduces you to the major body systems that you Key terms of relationship used in anatomy
will encounter in your study of anatomy. You will and the clinic are summarized in Table 1-1. A
find it extremely helpful to refer back to this intro- structure or feature closer to the front of the
duction as you encounter various body systems in body is considered anterior (ventral), and one
your study of regional anatomy. closer to the back is termed posterior (dorsal).
By convention, anatomical descriptions of the The terms medial and lateral are used to distin-
human body are based on a person in the ana- guish a structure or feature in relationship to the
tomical position (Fig. 1-1), as follows: midline; the nose is medial to the ear, and in ana-
tomical position, the nose also is anterior to the
•• Standing erect and facing forward
Arms hanging at the sides with palms facing
forward
ear. Sometimes these terms of relationship are
used in combination (e.g., superomedial, meaning
closer to the head and nearer the median sagittal
• Legs placed together with feet facing forward
Terms of Relationship and Body Planes
plane).
Movements
Anatomical descriptions often are referenced to Body movements usually occur at the joints where
one or more of three distinct body planes (Fig. 1-2 two or more bones or cartilages articulate with
and Table 1-1), as follows: one another. Muscles act on joints to accomplish
these movements and may be described as follows:
• Sagittal plane: vertical plane that divides
the body into equal right and left halves
(median or midsagittal plane) or a plane
“The biceps muscle flexes the forearm at the
elbow.” Figure 1-3 summarizes the terms of
movement.
1
