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Temple and Artisan Communities in Medieval Tamil Country

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Temple and Artisan Communities in Medieval Tamil Country

Author(s): K. Mavali Rajan

Source: Proceedings of the South Indian History Congress 40(2020), pp. 413-418

Stable URL: http://journal.southindianhistorycongress.org/journals/articles/2020/SIHC_2020_123.pdf

Published By: South Indian History Congress

© 2022 South Indian History Congress. All rights reserved.

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TEMPLE AND ARTISAN COMMUNITIES IN MEDIEVAL TAMIL COUNTRY

K. Mavali Rajan
The present paper is an earnest attempt to raising monuments, temples, patrons for
focus on the artisan community and their craft financing the projects, priests for consecrating
activities in medieval Tamil country. Among the the monuments and so on. The artisan
different social group of Tamil society the artisan community in ancient India was not an isolated
communities are prominent, who involved in social group, belonged to the general section of
skilled labour, occupied important position in the the society engaged in various craft production.
social life of the entire society. There were In ancient India different categories of artisans
different categories of artisan community in early are found clubbed together in one general group
India like painters, sculptors, carpenters, iron- called silpin. Likewise, the term ‘shilpa’ is of a
smiths, who were mostly considered as class of wide connotation and it includes within its ambit
master-craftsmen or skilled artisans belongs to various crafts, skills and occupations.2 Similarly
the lower caste groups in the Brahmanical social the word ‘rupakara’ was frequently used in
hierarchy. The term ‘artisan’ is generally used in ancient literature for sculptor as well as the term
the sense of one who is possessed of practical ‘silpi’ for painter, ‘vaddhakis’ for carpenters. The
skill in a particular trade or profession such as a Arthasastra also mention a term ‘karu’, which
handicraftsman, a mechanic, etc. The Manu, generally designates artisans, specifically
considered as a law book of Varna-Hindus gives connected with architecture and sculptural art.
some references to artisans, craftsman, practical The stone workers were referred in inscriptions
arts, handicrafts, mechanical works, etc. These as ‘silākarmanta’ or ‘sailakarma’. The sculptors
artisans can be placed in two broad divisions, are mentioned as rūpakāra, aveśani rūpadaksha.
namely general artisans and metal workers. In Rig-Veda, the god Vishwakarma is mentioned
Those who made a large number of daily uses as dhatu-karmara, here karmara is refer to
wood work such as plough, sward, cart, chariot, artisans and artificers (black-smith) 3 and dhatu
utensils, pestle, bed, seat, etc. were considered as refer to raw-material. The Vajasneyi Samhita
general artisans and those who associated with categories the artisans: chariot-makers,
the working of metals such as gold, silver, iron, carpenters, potters, smiths, jewelers, herdsmen,
brass, copper, tin, lead and precious stones were etc.4 The ancient text Mahavastu refers to various
known as metal workers.1 classes of artists and their field of specialization.
They are painters (chitrakāraka), carpenters
Artisans in Early Indian History
(vardhaki-rupakāra), carvers (kārupatrika),
Art activity in ancient India involved by modelers of clay (pustakāraka), plasters
different sections of the society: artisans for (pustakarmakāraka), decorators (lepaka), and
413
architects (sthapati-sūtrakkāra). The those of wood workers, smiths, painters, ivory
Sutradhara/Sutradhara were became master- carvers, site-explorers and image makers. In
iconologists and iconographer in later Indian art Tamil Sangam texts there are instances to the
history, in sometimes they were given place next Yavana artisans, who were experts in making
to the Sthapati. These different categories of the images, seems to have spread to the farthest
craftsmen mostly involved in temple building, corners of the country. In the Pattupattu (Ten
stone-caving and architecture works.5 Idylls) poet Nakkirar refers to a beautiful doll
made by a Yavana. In Manimekalai we get
Renowned historian S.Settar in his general
references to the Yavana carpenters and their
presidential address delivered at the Indian
skilled works along with the mention of
History Congress views that “the first artisan in
Magadhan craftsmen, Avanti blacksmiths,
the history of Southeast Asia -----------is found in
Maharatta Smiths and the Tamil skilled labour.
Karnataka. It is with the artisan named
From the descriptions we can understand that
Champada, who carved three edicts at
the early Tamils of the 2nd to 5th century CE
Brahmagiri that the documented history of the
invited many skilled artisan communities from
Indian artisans begins”. Further he says that the
the different regions of both inland and foreign
monumental scale of communication both visual
for the purpose of makings images and other
and verbal developed by Asoka (273-232 BCE),
artistic works.9
should have made him depend heavily on a
corps of composers, scribes, engravers, sculptors Vishwakarma
and architects. They were the early artisan
In modern days the artisan communities
community mostly involved in erection of edicts,
are known by the name Vishwakarma. Even the
stupas, viharas, chaityas, etc.6 Settar categorizes
community prefers the new name, which has
the artisan community of Asoka time into five
evidential support in 12th century inscriptions
categories such as indigenous or local artisans,
that refer to smiths and sculptors belonging to
folk or rural artisans, descendents of West Asian
the Vishwakarma kula. Although Vijaya
artisans, traditionalists or purists and skilled
Ramaswamy notes that “-----the Vishwakarma
artisans.7
community is obviously cutting across caste
According to inscriptional evidences the lines and----- comprises five socially and
king Asoka employed a large number of artisans economically differentiated castes”.10 The
to engrave the Prakrit-Brahmi (Prakrit language community claims descent from the
and Brahmi script were first used by Asoka for god Vishwakarma, who is considered by Hindus
transacting official communication) edicts. One to be the divine architect or engineer of the
of his edict mention about an engraver universe. According to Vishwakarma Purana it is
(dpr=dipir). A.H.Dani has made some interesting believed that god Vishwakarma had five children
observations on the writers and engravers of namely Manu, Maya, Tvastar, Shilpi and
Asoka’s time. He says that (a) it was the writer Vishvajna, being respectively the clans of
who dedicated the style of writing not the blacksmiths, carpenters, bell metalworkers (metal
engraver, because the letter’s role was only casters), stonemasons and goldsmiths. The five
secondary and (b) that writing of the inscription children served the gods as artisans, and
on the stone by the ‘lipikara’ preceded ‘cutting the possessed the ability to create things by simply
letters on the stone’.8 From the statement it is imagining them.
clear that Asoka used a separate artisan
The Vishwakarma have held a higher
community to write and engrave his edicts and
social status for many years, and believe that the
other official proclamation. Asoka engaged
trades which they traditionally follow are
several Kharosthi artisans to engrave edicts at
superior to the work of a manual labourer
Takshashilla, Chunnar, Pataliputra, Girnar, etc.
because they require artistic and scientific skills
Not only the scribes and engravers the sculptors
as well as those of the hand. According to
and architects were also engaged in the making
George Varghese, their claim to high status is
sculpture and architecture in different regions of
‘one of the mainstays of Vishwakarma identity’ in
Asoka time.
what is otherwise a fragmented, incoherent
We find references to in Buddhist Jataka community that has often suffered from internal
stories about the artisan guilds, which include differences of opinion. Vijay Ramaswamy in her
414
key note address delivered at the 38th session of Indian art, particularly between 8th and 9th
the South Indian History Congress states that century CE, they claimed and enjoyed a high
“the craft persons collectively referred to as social status in the community, equal to
Vishwakarma today constituted a unique Brahmins. The art of engraving and sculpture
craft/artisanal collective that cut through caste had attained a high stage of development. It was
and class lines having as its constituents the exclusively cultivated by Panchalas who
humble blacksmith and carpenter as well as the wore sacred thread and considered themselves
affluent Sthapati who was the mason-cum- as Vishwakarma Brahmins. The craftsman being
architect and the Pon-Kollar or goldsmith. The deeply versed in national epic literature always
primary identity of the craft persons stemmed figured in the history of India as missionaries of
from their community rather than their caste civilization, culture and religion. The intellectual
identity. The majority of medieval inscriptions influence being creative and not merely
emphasize that the artisan belonged to the assimilative was at least as great as that of the
Vishwakarma kula, rather than detailing his caste priest and the author”.
affiliation. Inscriptional evidence makes it amply
In a Brahmanical scheme of society as
clear that despite belonging to different
outlined in Manu, artisans belong to the lower
professions and different jatis, these craftsmen
orders had a far more degraded social status. The
claimed a collective entity that transcended caste
lower of Varna occupied by the Vaishyas and
and class to form the larger community of craft-
Sudras, who possessed the requisite technical
persons”.11
knowledge and experience of production and
Social Status of the Artisans distribution, which the members of the higher
orders lacked. R.S.Sharma in his work Economic
The artisan community is spread widely
History of Early India critically analyzed the
throughout India and played a vital role in the
functions of the different Varnas. He says that the
village economy. They occupied an important
upper two Varnas were non-producing social
place among the village community and as
section mostly involved in activities like praying
skilled labour in craft activities, produced the
and conquering and other two castes were
agricultural implements, which let for the
engaged in primary task of production.
agrarian and industrial development in early
Accordingly those who considered as upper
human society. Their socio economic status
Varnas were mostly non-producing social
varied from a very high level to the low level in
groups, enjoyed enormous social rights. The next
different parts of India, as they earned high
two social groups were the producer community,
wages in urban centre and low wages in villages.
produced for the whole society. It has been
Ananda K. Coomaraswamy says that “the
rightly pointed out by P.V. Kane that the principal
Kammalar (i.e. Panchalar) were known as Vishwa
tax payers were agriculturists, traders, manual
or Dev Brahmin. They spread gradually towards
workers and artisan communities.13 Though
the south and then reached Ceylon, Burma &
historical sources strictly stress that the artisan
Java. The Vishwa-Brahmins claim to have been
community enjoyed a respectable position in the
the spiritual guides and priests and their position
social system during the early period. Many
in the society survives in the saying the ‘Vishwa-
literary texts cite that some the artisans groups
brahmin, is guru to the world’.12
engaged in various crafts belonged to the vis, ‘the
They also performed priestly rites in Aryan community’. The special place of
connection with consecration of images. They Rathakaras and Karmaras and their
both claim and possess various special responsibilities have been indicated in literary
privileges, which they always upheld with much texts. Sometimes they were designated as ratnins
vigour, Coomaraswamy also mentions and assigned important roles in the coronation
‘throughout the rest of ceremony all priest ceremonies of the kings.14
officers had been performed by the craftsman
Temple and Artisan Community
themselves acting as Brahman priest’. Krishna
Rao says, that “The most highly organized and The temple and its ritual and non-ritual
efficient of the industrial classes was Virpanchal activities including the management were
comprising Goldsmiths, coiner, blacksmiths, engaged by the different communities of the
carpenters and masons. In the finest period of village. Among them the Brahmin functionaries
415
played vital role as priests, officials, land owners Among the five artisan community the
of the temple lands, etc. They performed all the black smith or kollan who were very active
ritual services like rites and sacrifices and member of village community did craft work that
received grants from the king and royal family in was substantially different in nature from the
return for their ritual service. The Brahmins work of a perum kollan or master black smith
controlled the administration of the Hindu who was an integrated part of the temple
temples as well as the management of the building process.18 There were some group of
Brahmadeya and Devadana villages. The landed people involved in the engraving inscriptions
community, merchant community and other and the images of gods in the temple building.
privileged section of the society who also had These engravers seem to have been smith
lively interest of the temple. From the South attached to that particular temple. Information on
Indian Inscriptions of the medieval period we engravers (porkoyil achari) is available in the
find references to non-Brahmin residents, who Pandya inscriptions. The inscriptions also list the
rendered numerous services in the temple. They various craft functions involved in the sculpting
often had made number of endowments to the of images and in temple building. Many of the
temple for the religious offerings. Due to close inscriptions speak of sculptor called shilpi or kal-
association with the temple activities many of tachchan and tirumeni cheyvar. The architect of
them both Brahmin and non-Brahmin the temple also referred to as sthapathi, who has
functionaries were contributing their services to knowledge of the science of architecture of the
the local Siva and Vishnu temples, which are temple.19 The Tiruvarur inscriptions describes
recorded in temple inscriptions of the medieval the sthapathi as vastu tatvajna, which means that
Tamil country.15 a person who well versed in the science of
architect.20 Besides the crafts production they
In addition to the Brahmin, land owning
directly concerned with the temple building, the
community and merchant class, there were a few
Kammalar also engaged in the construction of
artisans and craftsmen, who settled within the
wells, tanks, and sluices.21
limits of the temple-centered village and indebted
to render their service to the temple as well as The Rathakaras, chariot maker, one of the
village. Five of the leading artisan community in well known leading artisan community and was
south India came together in a unique the privileged group in the village communities
association and were hence collectively who involved in the chariot-making, the erection
identified as the Kammalar in the medieval Tamil of gopurams of the temple. The chariot-makers
country, as the panchalar in Karnataka; as were also used as a means of domestic transport
ainkudi kammalas in Kerala; some inscriptional along with the common carts and employed in
evidences referred them as pancha kammalar the temple to draw the images of the gods during
and anjuvannam (five classes of artisans).16 the festivals. Inscriptions make it clear that the
However, in many of the medieval inscriptions craftsmen residing in the tirumadaivilagam of the
they are also collectively referred to as the temple, served to the temple. Another inscription
Rathakaras, literally, the chariot makers. In describes the residential quarter of the
modern days they are referred to as Visvakarma, Rathakaras, like the blacksmith, and the village
divine architect they claim as decent. The carpenter as kammanacheri which located near
Visvakarmas were made up of five occupational the potter and other functionaries’ residence.22
groups (panchalar); goldsmith (tattan), brass The medieval Tamil epigraphs were recording
smith (kannar), black smith (karuman or kollan), the names of craftsmen refer to them as ‘our
carpenter (tach-chan), and mason (silpi or kal- temple goldsmith’ or ‘the temple mason
tachchan). These five Visvakarma group were (porkoyil)’, etc. The temple also employed
also referred to as kammala rathakarar, pancha various smiths and had carpenters and even
kammalar in medieval inscriptions, who were repairer attached to the temples. An inscription of
primarily engaged in the temple construction Vira Pandya dated 951 A.D. from
activities and engraving temple inscriptions that Ambasamudram in Tirunelveli district mentions
revived in the 11th-13th century CE. The the apportioning of land to the smith, potter,
construction did not involve the mere erection of drummer, barber, and others.23
shrines but the building up of an entire temple
complex spread over a vast area.17
416
 On the other hand the inscriptions of lime plaster. Sections of land were given to
medieval Tamil country refer to artisan classes temple security personnel Kaikkolas, who were
like taccar (carpenters), kalavaniyar (potters), as warriors and policemen during the medieval
vaniyar (oil-mongers) and vannar (washer men), period, but later they were the members of
brought to settle in the temple-centered society. weaving community.25
These skilled workers appointed to the temple to
In concluding part it is important to note
perform various services. The potters were
that the number of artisans and craftsmen settled
appointed to supply new pots to bring water to
in temple land to ensure their services to the
perform pujas. The washer man, barbers, tailors,
temple as well as its settlement. These people
jewel-makers were also appointed in temples to
were granted the right to settle down in the
perform various temple services. The jewel-
temple’s landed property, which they were
makers had to make various ornaments of the
bound to respond through their arts and crafts
deities, braziers for making vessels, carpenters
service.26 Thus they also became groups of
for making wood work in the temple and
hereditary occupations under the
goldsmith for making gold ornaments.24
encouragement of land rights. As usual they
Teachers and scholars were also in the employ
were also graded according to their birth and
of the temple, who involved in intellectual
occupation and were accommodated in to the
debates in the temple.
Varan-jati complex. Just as any of the major
The stone mason of the villages of caste, the caste of artisans or craftsmen evolved
medieval Tamil country were enjoyed some its own sub-caste and separate hierarchy. The
privileges such as the belonging of two conches, actual tillers of the soil, who were purely landless,
the beating of drums and so on at domestic constituted the lowest layer. In short, the temple
occurrences; good and bad, the use of sandals working as an institutional force had accelerated
when they went out of their homes, and the the crystallization of the caste-based stratification.
plastering of the walls of their residences with

References
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B.D.Chattopadhyaya (ed.), Essays in Ancient Indian Cr a f t sm a n , Lo n d o n , 1 9 0 9 , pp. 4 0 - 5 8 .
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Series, Second Edition, New Delhi, 2014, pp.89-92. reprint, 2018, p.65.
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Institute of Advance Study, Simla, 1975, pp.1-2. the Lower Order Dawn to Circa A.D. 600, 3rd edition,
3. Rig-Veda, X.72.2; cited by R.N.Misra, op.cit., p.2. Delhi, 2016, pp.27-28.
4. Ibid., p.3. 1 5 . K.Mavali Rajan, ‘Administrators, Artisans and Servants:
5. Ibid. , p. 9 . Temple’s Functinaries in Medieval South India’, in
K.Mavali Rajan (ed.), Temple and Society in South India,
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7. Ibid., pp.7-8. Tamilnadu (based on Inscriptions from the 8th to 13th
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History- Changing Perspectives, New Delhi, 2011, p.90. 1 8 . Ibid., p.28.

9. Ibid., p.93. 1 9 . Ibid., p.29.

10. Vijaya Ramaswamy, “Vishwakarma Craftsmen in Early 20. S.I.I., Vol. XVII, no.603.
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Institute of Epigraphy, Madras, 1978, p.136.
417

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