SLOPE STABILITY AND

STABILIZATION
METHODS
Second Edition f
J

LEE W. ABRAMSON
Hatch Mott MacDonald
Millburn, New Jersey

THOMAS S. LEE
Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Quade & Douglas
San Francisco, California

SUNIL SHARMA
University of Idaho
Moscow, Idaho

GLENN M. BOYCE
Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Quade & Douglas
San Francisco, California

A Wiley-lnterscience Publication
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
CONTENTS

PREFACE xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxi

1 GENERAL SLOPE STABILITY CONCEPTS 1

Lee W. Abramson
1.1 Introduction / 1
1.2 Aims of Slope Stability Analysis / 2
1.3 Natural Slopes / 2
1.4 Engineered Slopes / 3
1.4.1 Embankments and Fills / 3
1.4.2 Cut Slopes / 15
1.4.3 Landfills / 18
1.4.4 Retaining Structures / 24
1.5 Landslides / 25
1.5.1 Features and Dimensions of Landslides / 25
1.5.2 Landslide Rates and Types of Movements / 29
1.6 Factors Contributing to Slope Failures / 33
1.7 Basic Concepts Applied to Slope Stability / 34
1.8 Typical Input Data for Slope Stability Analyses / 36
1.8.1 Geologic Conditions / 36
Vi CONTENTS

1.8.2 Site Topography / 36

1.8.3 Possible Effects of Proposed Construction / 37
1.8.4 Material Properties / 39
1.8.5 Shear Strength / 42
1.8.6 Groundwater Conditions / 48
1.8.7 Seismicity / 49
1.9 Subsurface Model and Back-Analysis for Slope Stability
Analyses / 51
1.10 Conclusions / 53
References / 53

2 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY PRINCIPLES 56

Thomas S. Lee
2.1 Introduction / 56
2.2 Types and Characteristics of Geologic Soil Deposits / 56
2.2.1 Alluvial Deposits / 57
2.2.2 Glacial Deposits / 65
2.2.3 Eolian Deposits / 65
2.2.4 Residual Deposits / 67
2.2.5 Colluvial/Talus Deposits / 69
2.2.6 Marine Deposits / 70
2.2.7 Melanges / 71
2.2.8 Other Types of Deposits / 72
2.3 Types and Characteristics of Rocks / 73
2.3.1 Shales / 74
2.3.2 Sandstones / 75
2.3.3 Limestones and Related Carbonate Rocks / 75
2.3.4 Igneous Rocks / 75
2.3.5 Pyrocrastic Volcanic Rocks / 76
2.3.6 Metamorphic Rocks / 76
2.4 Geologic Features Associated with Slopes / 76
2.4.1 Soil/Rock Fabric / 77
2.4.2 Geological Structures / 77
2.4.3 Discontinuities / 78
2.4.4 Groundwater / 78
2.4.5 Ground Stresses / 79
2.4.6 Weathering / 79
2.4.7 Preexisting Landslide Activities / 81
 CONTENTS VM

2.4.8 Clay Mineralogy / 82

2.4.9 Seismic Effects / 84
2.5 Landslides / 84
2.5.1 Landslide-Prone Occurrences / 85
2.5.2 Fundamentals of Landslides / 93
2.5.3 Useful Clues to Landslide Investigations and
Identifications / 95
References / 99

GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS 102

Thomas S. Lee

3.1 Introduction / 102

3.2 Review of Groundwater Fundamentals / 103
3.2.1 Movement of Groundwater / 104
3.2.2 Principles of Groundwater Mechanics / 106
3.3 Site Conditions / 108
3.3.1 Groundwater Levels / 108
3.3.2 Zones / 108
3.3.3 Aquifers / 1 1 1
3.3.4 Aquicludes / 112
3.3.5 Perched Water / 112
3.3.6 Artesian Water / 114
3.3.7 Springs / 114
3.4 Types of Groundwater Flow / 115
3.4.1 Runoff / 115
3.4.2 Infiltration / 117
3.4.3 Regional Flow / 118
3.5 Fluctuation of Groundwater Levels / 121
3.5.1 Rainfall / 121
3.5.2 Floods / 123
3.5.3 Snowmelt / 124
3.5.4 Sudden Drawdown / 125
3.6 Influence of Geological Structures on Groundwater
Flows / 125
3.7 Pore Pressures / 127
3.7.1 Positive Pore Pressures / 128
3.7.2 Negative Pore Pressures / 131
3.7.3 Measurement of Pore Pressures / 133
yiii CONTENTS

3.8 Water Levels for Design / 138

3.8.1 General / 138
3.8.2 Wetting Band Approach / 139
3.9 Field Identification and Interpretation of Groundwater
Conditions / 142
3.9.1 Field Identification of Groundwater Conditions / 142
3.9.2 Interpretation of Groundwater Conditions / 142
3.10 Groundwater in Slope Stability Analysis / 144
3.10.1 Developing a Groundwater Model from
the Field Data / 144
3.10.2 Groundwater Effects on Slope Stability / 146
3.10.3 Groundwater in Rock / 150
3.11 Monitoring of Groundwater Pressures / 151
3.11.1 Piezometers and Observation Wells / 151
3.11.2 Installation of Piezometers / 157
3.11.3 Fluctuating Groundwater Levels / 159
3.12 Other Instruments—Rainfall Gages / 159
References / 159

GEOLOGIC SITE EXPLORATION 162

Thomas S. Lee
4.1 Introduction / 162
4.2 Desk Study / 166
4.2.1 Available Existing Data / 166
4.2.2 Previous Geologic Explorations / 172
4.2.3 Identification of Landslide-Prone Terrains through
Topographic Expressions / 173
4.2.4 Air Photos / 175
4.3 Field Study / 183
4.3.1 Site Reconnaissance / 183
4.4 Exploration Methods / 197
4.4.1 Introduction / 197
4.4.2 Auger Drilling / 198
4.4.3 Rotary Wash Drilling / 200
4.4.4 Limitations of Auger and Rotary Wash Drilling / 203
4.4.5 Sampling in the Ground / 203
4.4.6 Large Boreholes / 204
4.4.7 Test Pits / 205
 CONTENTS iX

4.5 Testing Methods / 209

4.5.1 In Situ Testing / 209
4.5.2 Geophysical Testing / 223
4.5.3 Downhole Geophysics Logging / 229
4.5.4 Mineralogy Tests / 232
4.5.5 Radiocarbon Dating / 235
4.6 Exploration Program Design / 235
4.6.1 Locations and Number of Boreholes / 235
4.6.2 Depth of Boreholes / 237
References / 238'

LABORATORY TESTING AND INTERPRETATION 242

Sunil Sharma

5.1 Introduction / 242

5.2 Effective Stress Concepts / 243
5.3 Mohr Circle / 244
5.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion / 245
5.4.1 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope—Unsaturated
Soils / 247
5.4.2 Mohr-Coulomb Envelope in p-q Space / 249
5.5 Effective/Total Stress Analysis / 250
5.5.1 Factors of Safety / 252
5.6 Stress Paths / 254
5.6.1 Typical Field Stress Paths / 257
5.7 Shear Strength of Soils / 259
5.7.1 Shear Strength of Granular Soils / 260
5.7.2 Shear Strength of Fine-Grained Soils / 260
5.7.3 Stress-Strain Characteristics of Soils / 261
5.7.4 Discrepancies between Field and Laboratory
Strengths / 263
5.7.5 Strength Testing / 269
5.7.6 Selection and Preparation of Test Samples / 271
5.7.7 Laboratory Test Conditions / 272
5.7.8 The SHANSEP Method / 274
5.7.9 Triaxial Tests / 276
5.7.10 Direct Shear Test / 283
5.7.11 Direct Simple Shear (DSS) Test / 287
5.7.12 Unsaturated Tests / 288
CONTENTS

5.8 Pore Pressure Parameters / 291

5.8.1 Skempton's Parameters / 291
5.8.2 Henkel's Parameters / 291
5.9 Interpretations of Strength Tests / 293
5.9.1 Triaxial Tests / 293
5.9.2 Direct Shear Tests / 298
5.9.3 Unsaturated Tests / 302
5.9.4 Selection of Design Shear Strengths / 302
5.10 Other Properties / 305
5.10.1 Consolidation Tests / 306
5.10.2 Permeability Tests / 306
5.10.3 Compaction Tests / 307
5.10.4 Classification Tests / 308
5.10.5 Interpretations of Classification Tests / 310
5.10.6 Shrink/Swell Potential / 312
5.10.7 Slake Durability / 313
5.10.8 Collapsibility / 314
5.10.9 Dispersivity / 315
5.10.10 Chemical Tests / 316
5.10.11 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis / 318
5.11 Quality Control/Quality Assurance / 319
References / 321

SLOPE STABILITY CONCEPTS 329

Sun/7 Sharma
6.1 Introduction / 329
6.2 Modes of Failure / 330
6.3 Factor of Safety Concepts / 332
6.4 Pore Water Pressures / 334
6.4.1 Phreatic Surface / 335
6.4.2 Piezometric Surface / 336
6.4.3 Example / 337
6.4.4 Negative Pore Pressures / 339
6.5 Block Analysis / 339
6.5.1 Example / 341
6.6 Infinite Slope Analysis / 343
6.6.1 Infinite Slopes in Dry Sand / 343
6.6.2 Infinite Slope in c-</> Soil with Seepage / 344
 CONTENTS Xi

6.7 Planar Surface Analysis / 345

6.7.1 Planar Surface Example / 348
6.8 Circular Surface Analysis / 349
6.8.1 Circular Arc (</>u = 0 ) Method / 349
6.8.2 4>u = 0 Example / 350
6.8.3 Friction Circle Method / 350
6.8.4 Friction Circle Example / 352 y
6.9 Method of Slices / 353
6.9.1 Ordinary Method of Slices (OMS) / 358
6.9.2 Simplified Janbu Method / 360
6.9.3 Simplified Bishop Method / 363
6.9.4 Generalized Limit Equilibrium (GLE) Method / 364
6.9.5 Janbu's Generalized Procedure of Slices (GPS) / 367
6.9.6 Method of Slices—An Example / 370
6.9.7 Control of Negative Effective Stresses / 375
6.9.8 Comparison of Limit Equilibrium Methods / 376
6.10 Selection and Use of Limit Equilibrium Methods / 378
6.10.1 Essential First Four-Steps / 378
6.10.2 Selection of Analysis Method / 379
6.10.3 Considerations for All Types of Analyses / 380
6.11 Design Charts / 380
6.11.1 Historical Background / 381
6.11.2 Stability Charts / 381
6.12 Seismic Analysis / 393
6.12.1 Pseudostatic Method / 394
6.12.2 Newmark's Displacement Method / 396
6.12.3 Accelerogram Selection for Newmark's
Method / 398
6.12.4 Computed Permanent Displacements / 399
6.12.5 Tolerable Permanent Displacements / 408
6.13 Other Factors Affecting Slope Stability Analysis / 409
6.13.1 Effect of Tension Cracks on Stability Analysis / 409
6.13.2 Effects of Vegetation / 410
6.13.3 Foundation Loads on Slopes / 411
6.14 Three-Dimensional Analysis / 412
6.15 Rock Slope Stability / 413
6.16 The Finite Element Method (FEM) / 415
6.16.1 Example of FEM Analysis of Slopes / 416
XH CONTENTS

6.17 Computer Analysis / 419

6.17.1 Available Computer Programs / 419
6.18 Probabilistic Analysis of Slopes / 420
6.18.1 Sources of Uncertainty / 420
6.18.2 Basic Probability Concepts / 421
6.18.3 Reliability Index / 424
6.18.4 Probabilistic Formulation for Slopes / 427
6.18.5 Probabilistic Analysis of Performance Function / 427
6.18.6 Quantifying Uncertainty / 436
6.18.7 Examples / 438
6.18.8 Summary / 452
References / 454

SLOPE STABILIZATION METHODS 462

Lee W. Abramson
7.1 Introduction / 462
7.2 Unloading / 463
7.2.1 Excavation / 463
7.2.2 Lightweight Fill / 468
7.3 Buttressing / 470
7.3.1 Soil and Rock Fill / 474
7.3.2 Counterberms / 474
7.3.3 Shear Keys / 475
7.3.4 Mechanically Stabilized Embankments / 477
7.3.5 Pneusol (Tiresoil) / 480
7.4 Drainage / 482
7.4.1 Surface Drainage / 482
7.4.2 Subsurface Drainage / 483
7.5 Reinforcement / 497
7.5.1 Soil Nailing / 497
7.5.2 Stone Columns / 507
7.5.3 Reticulated Micropiles / 511
7.5.4 Geosynthetically Reinforced Slopes / 512
7.6 Retaining Walls / 520
7.6.1 Gravity and Cantilever Retaining Walls / 523
7.6.2 Driven Piles / 523
7.6.3 Drilled Shaft Walls / 524
7.6.4 Tieback Walls / 524
 CONTENTS Xiii

7.7 Vegetation / 530

7.7.1 General Design Considerations / 531
7.7.2 Vegetation Species / 537
7.7.3 Erosion Control Mats and Blankets / 538
7.7.4 Biotechnical Stabilization / 540
7.8 Surface Slope Protection / 541 ^
7.8.1 General Design Considerations / 542
7.8.2 Shotcrete / 543
7.8.3 Chunam Plaster / 544
7.8.4 Masonry / 546
7.8.5 Rip-Rap / 546
7.9 Soil Hardening / 547
7.9.1 Compacted Soil-Cement Fill / 547
7.9.2 Electro-osmosis / 548
7.9.3 Thermal Treatment / 549
7.9.4 Grouting / 549
7.9.5 Lime Injection / 550
7.9.6 Preconsolidation / 553
7.10 Rock Slope Stabilization Methods / 559
7.10.1 Removal of Unstable Rock / 559
7.10.2 Catchment / 562
7.10.3 Flattening of Slope / 565
7.10.4 Buttresses / 565
7.10.5 Surface Protection / 566
7.10.6 Reinforcement / 568
7.10.7 Drainage / 568
7.10.8 Use of Explosives / 571
7.10.9 Rock Slope Stabilization Case
Histories / 573
7.11 Alternatives to Slope Stabilization / 584
7.11.1 Complete Removal of Slide Zone / 585
7.11.2 Facility Relocation / 585
7.11.3 Bridging / 587
7.12 Selection of Stabilization Methods / 587
7.12.1 Goals / 588
7.12.2 Technical Constraints / 588
7.12.3 Site Constraints / 589
7.12.4 Environmental Constraints / 590
7.12.5 Aesthetic Constraints / 590
XiV CONTENTS

7.12.6 Schedule Constraints / 590

7.12.7 Other Constraints / 591
7.12.8 Cost / 591
7.13 Probable Cost Analysis of Stabilization Alternatives / 591
7.13.1 Introduction / 591
7.13.2 Developing Alternative Schemes / 592
7.13.3 Estimating Outcomes and Probabilities / 592
7.13.4 Determining Probable Costs / 593
References / 598

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND MAINTENANCE 604

Glenn M. Boyce

8.1 Introduction / 604

8.2 Contract Documents / 604
8.2.1 Contract Drawings / 605
8.2.2 Specifications / 606
8.2.3 Geotechnical Design Reports / 606
8.3 Inspection during Construction / 607
8.3.1 Inspection Guidelines / 607
8.3.2 Quality Control/Quality Assurance / 608
8.3.3 Instrumentation / 608
8.3.4 Instrumentation Monitoring / 627
8.4 Inspection following Construction / 630
8.4.1 Introduction / 630
8.4.2 Frequency of Inspections / 631
8.4.3 Technical Inspections / 632
8.4.4 Engineering Inspections / 632
8.4.5 Inspection Reports / 632
8.5 Maintenance / 633
8.5.1 Access / 633
8.5.2 Slope Performance Observations / 633
8.5.3 Instruments / 637
8.5.4 Drainage / 637
8.5.5 Adjacent Utilities / 638
8.6 Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) / 639
8.6.1 Introduction / 639
8.6.2 Mechanics of TDR / 639
 CONTENTS XV

8.6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of TDR

over Inclinometers / 640
References / 641

SHALLOW FAILURES 643

Thomas S. Lee

9.1 Introduction / 643

9.2 Seepage Flow Mechanism due to Infiltration / 644
9.3 Mechanism of Rainfall-Induced Landslides / 645
9.4 Field Loading Conditions / 647
9.5 Correlations between Land Slides and Rainfall / 648
9.5.1 Antecedent Rainfall / 650
9.6 Rainfall Thresholds for Prediction of Shallow Failures / 651
9.7 Types of Soils, Hydrogeologic, and Geomorphologic
Features / 652
9.7.1 Colluvium / 652
9.7.2 Loess / 653
9.7.3 Debris Flows / 655
9.7.4 Residual Soils / 656
9.7.5 Rapid Snowmelt / 657
9.8 Effect of Permeability of Surficial Stability / 657
9.9 Standard Codes for Shallow Slope Stability / 658
9.10 Design Practice for Shallow Slope Stability / 661
9.10.1 Debris Flow Hazard Mitigation / 662
9.10.2 Design of Loess Slopes / 663
9.11 Attending Landslide Incidents / 664
9.12 Summary / 665
References / 665

10 STABILITY OF LANDFILL SLOPES 669

Lee W. Abramson
10.1 Unique Nature of Landfills / 669
10.2 Typical Landfill Configurations / 669
10.3 Landfill Waste Engineering Properties / 675
10.4 Geosynthetics in Landfills and Engineering Properties / 679
10.4.1 Geomembranes / 680
10.4.2 Geotextiles / 680
XVi CONTENTS

10.4.3 Geonets / 680

10.4.4 Geogrids / 682
10.4.5 Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs) / 684
10.4.6 Engineering Properties of Geosynthetics / 685
10.4.7 Anchor Trenches / 686
10.5 Landfill Construction / 688
10.6 Slope Stability Considerations / 692
10.6.1 Excavation Slope Stability / 693
10.6.2 Waste Fill Stability / 696
10.6.3 Cover System Stability / 700
References / 702

INDEX 703