‘Observations Observations are made with five senses of vision, hearing, smell, tiste and touch. ‘Types of observations Observations may be qualitative or quantitative. Comparison of Quantitative and qualitative observations. ‘Quantitative observations are considered more accurate than qualitative observations because the former are invariable and measureable and can be recorded in terms of numbers. Explanation () Qualitative Observations Definition Qualitative observations are less accurate, variable and can't be measured. These represent the, quality of substance e.g., beauty, intelligence ete. > The freezing point of water is colder than the boiling point, > Alter of water is heavier than a liter of ethanol. (6) Quantitative Observations Definition ‘These represent quantity which can be measured in term of numbers and are measurable and invariable, > The freezing point of water is 0°C and the boiling point is 100°C. D A liter of water weighs 1000 grams and a liter of ethanol weighs 789 grams.Formulation of Hypothesis: Observations do not become scientific observations until they are organized and related to a question. Biologist organizes his/her and others’ observations into data form and constructs a ‘statement that may prove to be the answer of the biological problem under study. Definition: “A tentative explanation of the observations is called as hypothesis.” OR ““A proposition that might be true is called hypothesis.” Example: Plasmodium is the cause of malaria Characteristics: ‘A good hypothesis should have the following characteristics: ‘© It should be a general statement ‘© It should be a tentative idea ‘* It should agree with available observations, ‘+ It should be kept as simple as possible. ‘+ It should be testable and potentially falsifiable. In other words, there should be a way to show thatthe hypothesis is false, a way to disprove the hypothesis. Reasoning: AA great deal of careful and creative thinking is necessary for the formulation of a hypot logists use reasoning to formulate a hypothesis.Deductions: In the next step, the biologist draws deductions from the hypothesis. Definition “The logical consequences of a hypothesis are called deductions.” Explanation: For formulating a deduction, a hypothesis is taken as true and expected results (deductions) are drawn from it. Generally, in a biological method, if a particular hypothesis is true, then one should expect (deduction) a certain result. It involves the use of “if-then” logic. Example: “If plasmodium is the cause of malaria then all persons ill with malaria should have plasmodium in their blood”.Experimentation: The most basic step of a biological method is experimentation. A biologist performs experiments to see if hypothesis are true or not. Testing of hyothesis: The deductions which are drawn from hypothesis are subjected to rigorous testing. Through experimentation, a biologist learns which hypothesis is correct. The incorrect hypotmeses are rejected and the one which proves correct is accepted. An accepted hypothesis makes firmer preaictions that provide an important way to further test its validity. Controlled Experiment: In science when doing the experiment, it must be a controlled experiment. The scientist must contrast an :experimental group” with a “control group”. The two groups are treated exactly alike except for the one variable being tested. Example: In an experiment to test the necessity of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, one can contrast the control group (a plant with freely available carbon dioxide) with an experimental group (a plant with no carbon dioxide available). The necessity of carbon dioxide will be proved when photosynthesis occurs in the control group and does not occur in the experimental group.Summarization Of Results: The biologist gathers actual, quantitative data from experiments. Statistical Analysis Data for each of the groups are than averaged and compared statistically. To draw conclusions, a biologist also uses statistical analysis.Rerrrtivg The. Resufes: Biologists publish their findings in scientific journals and books, in talks at international and international meetings and in seminars at colleges and universities. Importance: Publishing of results is an essential part of the scientific method. It allows other people to verify the results or apply the knowledge to solve other problems.OY. Explain biological method with an example of malaria. ‘Ane Observations abot Malaria, (0) Disease oes and fever In ancien times, pyscane were falar with his sae They deserted is diese of hills and fever wih curing atch. They obser tht teeta more common ‘mong peopl ving om marty aes, (2) Assocation of malaria wth marshy places was though that the sagan wae of muses policed he ar and a a est of ‘wething ints “bad a, people gt malaria. This Bel lad Yo the mame of dae “Ma (9) Meaning of atria ‘A combination of wo Itlian wor. “The Klan word fr “bai aa and “ae” (Mares nd Malaria Soe vanes dank tbe sgaant water fo the mashes. They did not develop ala (6 Treatment of malaria by wing incon bark In 17 cen, many plans fom America were sent tack 1 Europe 10 be sed as ‘edie. The ark of ate own asin qui was very suitable fr curing fever, ‘Same dione merchars began o abet bark fate ee “ions wch ly esembed ui quinn. Tis idoesty proved much atable fr mankind. ‘Cinchona bak was fund to be excellet fr weating malaria Cinchora bak ontains iinet fective la eng the dee. (6 Work ef Laveran In 17%, « Freoch army physician Laver beg 0 seach fr te case of ai. He ‘wok a small amount of bod fom a mali pet md examined it nie micrscope He ote soe ay Iving centres The erga was gen a mane"Plasmediu (our major ebserations about malaria 1. Matra a may aren have some relia, 2 Quinine is an effective drug for eating malaria 5. Drinking he water of mb oe ot se aii 46 leinoiom seen inthe boot of mri ets Hypothesis ‘The hypotrsemne reaiing malaga wos “Pastainm thc of mais” Deduction olin deductions avn fom the sbove mestowed hypothesis“ the Pasmodiam {she came of malaria hen ll persons il wih male should have Plamen i eit oe Experiments “Tenet ep wa text the deduction roghexperineas which were designed as: (0 Bxperinental Group Blood of 100 alia pales ws examined under microscope. ( Contret Group Blod of 10 healthy persons was so examined under microscope, Resa “Te real ofthe enpeinests showed tht moe ll mri pains ha Pardo ‘tir hood ile Tout of 100 hel psoas hd plsmodim inhi blood. Now we ‘ow tat asd inthe lot of ely pope wa in incon perio ie te psod terween the ery of Pura in ost and appear of symptoms The eas were que comvincing and proved tha the hypothesis “Plamodium is the cane of malaria” was re.Q:2, How Plasmodium gets into human body? ‘Ans. 1k was the next biological problem. The biologists want to learn how plasmodium gets into the blood of man © Observations. Biologists had following observations: Malaria is associated with marshes Dainking water of marshes doesnot cause malaria ‘These observations show that plasmodium was not present in the marsh water. But it rust be carried by something. That thing comes to marsh wate. (i) Work of AB.A.King, In 1883, physician A.F.A. King listed 20 observations some important observations of king were: (i)Observations of A.P.A King © People who slept outdoors were more likely to get malaria than those who slept indoors. People who slept under fine nets were less likely to get malaria than those who did not tse such nets @ An individual who slept near smoky fire usually did not get malaria, Gv) King’s Hypothesis “Mosquitoes are involved in the spread of malaria”. (¥) Deductions Following deductions were made considering the hypothesis as true i.e; If mosquitoes are ‘involved in the spread of malaria then; ‘Deduction 1 ~Plasnodium should be present in mosquitoes”. Deduction 2 “A mosquito can get plasmodium by biting a malarial patent.” (vi) Experiments of Ronald Ross Introduction Tn order to test the above deductions, Ronald Ross, a British army physician working India in 1880's, performed important experiments. Experiment No.1 Ross allowed a female Anopheles mosquito to bite a malarial patient. He killed the ‘mosquito some days later and found plasmodium multiplying in mosquto's stomach. ‘The next logical experiment was tallow an infected mosquito to bite a healthy person. If the hypothesis was tre, the healthy person would have got malaria but scientists avoid using ‘human beings for experiments.Experiment No. 2 Ross used sparrows and redesigned his experiments. He allowed a female culex mosquito to bite on the sparrows suffering from malaria. Some of the mosquitoes were killed and studied at various times. In cach mosquito, Ross found that plasmodium multiplied in the wall of mosquito’s stomach and then moved into the mosquito’s salivary glands. “Experiment No. 3 Ross kept some mosquitoes alive in the second experiment and allowed them to bite healthy sparrows. Ross found that saliva of the infected mosquito contained ge plasmodium and these entered the & ¢ # & sparrow’s blood. When he examined the blood of these previously healthy sparrows, ima" ome he found many plasmodium in it. gure 2.2: Malaria i sparrow and man is transmitted by Calex and Anophetes mougultoes respectively Conclusion Ross concluded that similar relationship is found in mosquito and plasmodium. (vii) Experiments on Man In the end, the hypothesis that “mosquitoes transmit plasmodium and so are involved in the spread of malaria” was tested by direct experimentation on human beings. In 1898, some Italian Biologists allowed an Anopheles mosquito to bite a malarial patient. The mosquito was kept for a few days and then it was allowed to bite a healthy man. This person became ill with maiaria, In this way, it was confirmed that mosquitoes transmit plasmodium and so are mvolved in the spread of malaria.Q.NO.4 - Write a note on data organization. DATA ORGANIZATION Definition: The information such as names, dates, or values made from observations and experimentation is called data. Collection of Dat: In order to formulate and then to test a hypothesis, scientists collect and organize data, Data Collection Methods: Prior to conducting an experiment, it is very important for a scientist to describe the data collection methods. It ensures the quality of the experiment. Data Organizing Formats: Data is organized into different formats like © Graphics Tables Flow-chans Maps DiagramsDescribe the process of data analysis ato Analysis. Dato analysis is necessary to}! ove of disprove a. “hypothesis by | pefimentation. Jt is done through “the | plication af statistical methods Depending on the type of | and the _ biologic foblem this | include appitaton of shatistical ie A Ratio (i) Propor tion ition. When a. relation between two mbers eq ‘a’ and “b” is expresed in ms of Quotient (a/b) if is called the io of one number fo ather pression _of _a_ratiow E Al xatio a division (+) two numbers is sapere by ar con (3) mark stom.vatio between $0 malarial patients 180 nofmal patients is 1:3 | ‘opartion means fo join two | jee! wlis by the sign “of equalty (=) i r ion ynay be expressed as abucd | | is a proportion between the, proportion way ako be abit | When —dhree values. in a | proportion are hnown. the fourth one (x) canbe calculated | mple-- | a fl biologist can calculate how rman birds will get ~ malaria when he allows infected —rdsquitoes to bite 100 healthy sparrows: 4n the previ iment be arrows Previous expe ated than when he allowed mnaxqsitoes p bite 30 sparrows, I oul of therm gat Poloria: Now he may apply dhe proporlion | |1¥ Patio - 14.20 [14 owt of 20) Proportion ~ 14:90.» x -100 A. 100 20 Xx20 = WORKIN X= 19a. KNW xX =10 of a ream value: I he step important as it teorstes aie info. information, which can is to summanze and epost 2" Patio + x:100 (How any ovt of (00) oot of 100 sparrows would Sial “Stale ate thus a mean sempaizing data throwgh jhe a | | | : |e ~ EREACISE Question 4h a test shows that some people have swindon im their blood but they do ot show ony symptoms of malaria, pothesis would yoo formulate to answer “this probleme | FORMUUTon! OF _HypoTHESIS *mpabess oe as : There ig a specific firme peiiod | betuxen entry oF Plasmadiom tn dn. indivie 5 blood” and appearance of malarial symptoms.” ‘Pasimodiurn is an infectious pot ai Upon entiy is an indivisual’s bady , i | ponder oes “an “Incubation period ff Fo | ; SFrcbaton eiod is dhe time period “| bettveen ents o see in dhe hast | the joe af symptoms: During aad senna ont in te liver When a sarmple, oF blood is checked Jor the presence Pear. ret? this period - The patient is appaveri h Sand rE free -o ae bot Pee modin is 4 delaled in she beadToertae observotions are biol eal method How Belerment _of Quantitative vartitative type of bservations de desiphon, Ore given in the form of mumbels woldes. Hence they aie better _ qalitative observation, ¢n the Ospects better in | | Freez point of wale is | the bsiling point is 00% \ statement ree mi a stroight and Ispecitic. piece information based on | Jdelinite * value. ileQ.2. Explain Mathematics as an integral part of scientific process. Ans: Biological method involves the use of applied mathematics to solve biological problems. Mathematical Applications: Major biological problems, in which knowledge of mathematics is used include: © Gene finding ¢ Protein structure ¢ Protein-protein interactions Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics refers to the computational and statistical techniques for the analysis of biological data.