Science Academy (Regd.

) II PUC – Physics PASSING PACKAGE-2020

SCIENCE ACADEMY (Regd.)

(A Unique Centre for PU classes)

ELECTROSTATICS
1. Write the Properties of electric charges.
i) Charges possessed additive property. [Q = q1 + q2 + q3 …….. ]
ii) Charges are quantized , (Q = ± 𝑛𝑛e) :
iii) Charges are conserved [Charges can never be created nor destroyed.
2. State and explain Coulomb’s law of electrostatics or Inverse square law
This law states that “The force of attraction or repulsion between two point
stationary charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of charges
and inversely proportional to square of the distance between them”.
F12 F21
Q1 Q2
d
Q1Q2
i.e. F∝ d2
Q1Q2
F=K d2
∴
1 Q1 Q2
F= x
4𝜋𝜋 ℰ0 d2

3. Write Coulomb’s law in Vector form.

→ 1 Q1 Q2 → →
𝐹𝐹12 = �r21 ,
𝐹𝐹12 = − 𝐹𝐹21 and r�12 = - r�21.
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0 d2
where r�12and r�21 are unit vectors.
4. Obtain an expression for electric field at a point on the axis of a dipole.
Let P be a point on the axis of a
→
dipole of Moment and length 2a -q a o a +q p
P
at a distance ‘r’ from the mid point r
1 𝑞𝑞
Electric – field at ‘P’ due to +ve charge is E1 = x 2 along OP.
4πℰ0 (r−a)
1 𝑞𝑞
Electric – field at ‘P’ due to -ve charge is E2 = x along PO.
4πℰ0 (r+a)2

Electric – field at ‘P’ due to the dipole = EA = E1 – E2.

1 1 1
∴ EA = q 2 - 2
4πℰ0 (𝑟𝑟−𝑎𝑎 ) (𝑟𝑟+𝑎𝑎)

1 𝑑𝑑 2 +𝑞𝑞 2 +2𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 −𝑑𝑑 2 −𝑎𝑎 2 +2𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

EA = xq
Qπℰ0 (𝑟𝑟 2 −𝑎𝑎 2 )2
1 𝑞𝑞 x 4ra 1 𝑞𝑞 𝑥𝑥 2𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 2𝑟𝑟
Q x 2a = P EA = x = x
4πℰ0 (𝑟𝑟 2 −𝑎𝑎 2 )2 4πℰ0 (𝑟𝑟 2 −𝑎𝑎 2 )2
1 2pr
EA = 4πℰ x (𝑟𝑟 2 −𝑎𝑎 2 )2 along the axis from –ve charge towards +ve charge.
0
when a < < d, a2 can be neglected.
1 2pr 1 2p
EA = x = 4πℰ x 𝑟𝑟 3 .
4πℰ0 𝑟𝑟 4 0

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5. Derive an expression for electric – field at a point on the bisector line

of dipole. (Equatorial plane)

Field at P due to +ve charge,

1 𝑞𝑞
E1 = x 2 +𝑎𝑎 2 ) along PA
4πℰ0 (𝑑𝑑
Field at P due to -ve charge,
1 𝑞𝑞
E2 = x 2 +𝑎𝑎 2 ) along PB
4πℰ0 (𝑑𝑑

E1 along PA is resolved into two

components as E1cosθ and E1sinθ

|E1| = |E2|
Field at ‘P’ due to the dipole is
EB = Ecosθ + Ecosθ = 2Ecosθ
1 𝑞𝑞 𝑎𝑎
EB = 2x x x cosθ cos θ =
4πℰ0 (𝑑𝑑 2 +𝑎𝑎 2 ) (𝑑𝑑 2 +𝑎𝑎 2 )1/2
1 2𝑞𝑞 𝑎𝑎
EB = x x
4πℰ0 (𝑑𝑑 2 +𝑎𝑎 2 ) (𝑑𝑑 2 +𝑎𝑎 2 )1/2
1 𝑃𝑃
EB = 4πℰ0
x (𝑑𝑑 2 +𝑎𝑎 2 )3/2
along PR ∥el to axis
Directed from +ve charge towards –ve charge of dipole.
When a <<d, a2 can be neglected.

𝟏𝟏 𝐏𝐏 →
EB = x 𝒅𝒅𝟑𝟑 or → 1 𝑃𝑃
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝓔𝓔𝟎𝟎
𝐸𝐸𝐵𝐵 4πℰ0 x 𝑑𝑑 3
=

6. Derive an expression for torque acting on a dipole placed in a uniform

Electric – field.
Force acting on the + ve charge F1 = E q
in the direction of field.
Force acting on the -ve charge F2 = E q
in opposite to the direction of field.
|F1| = |F2|
These two equal and unlike parallel forces
constitute a couple which tends to rotate the
dipole in the direction of the field.
The moment of the couple or torque acting on the dipole is given by
τ = F x ⊥r distance between forces.
τ = Eq x BC. ... In the ABN, sin θ = BC
AB
τ = E x q x 2 l sin θ BC = AB sin θ
BC = 2a sin θ
τ = E x p sin 𝛉𝛉 (... q x 2l = p )

7. Write any three Properties of electric field lines. [lines of force]

1. Field lines are always starts from +ve charge and ends at –ve charge.
2. Field lines never intersects each other.
3. Field lines will not form a closed path.
4. Field lines do not pass through a conductor.

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8. Derive an expression for electric fields at a point due to infinitely long

straight charged wire.
The electric flux through two end faces will be
→
zero because & E are ┴er to each other [θ =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
900, cos θ = 0].
This flux is given by
Φ = E ds cos θ
θ = 0, cos 0 = 1
Φ = E x ds

Φ = E x 2𝜋𝜋ɤ x ℓ ------- (1) (For a cylinder ds = 2𝜋𝜋ɤ x ℓ )

By Gauss theorem
1
Φ = (𝑄𝑄) But, Q = λ ℓ
ℰ0
1
Φ = x λℓ --------- (2)
ℰ0
From the equations (1) and (2)we get
1
E x 2 𝜋𝜋 ɤ ℓ = ℰ x λ ℓ
0
𝛌𝛌
E= 𝟐𝟐𝝅𝝅𝓔𝓔𝟎𝟎 ɤ.
Derive an expression for electric field due to a uniformly charged
spherical shell
(a) at a point outside the shell & on the surface.
Electric flux through this sphere is given by
Φ = E ds cos θ
θ = 0, cos 0 = 1
Φ = E x ds
Φ= E x 4𝜋𝜋r2 ----- (1)
According to gauss theorem,
1
Φ= xq ------ (2)
ℰ0
From equations (1) and (2) we get
1
E x 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋2 = xq
ℰ0
𝟏𝟏 𝒒𝒒
E= x
𝟒𝟒𝝅𝝅𝓔𝓔𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐

b) At a point on the surface (d = R) :

The electric intensity E for the points on the surface of charged spherical shell is
given by
1 𝑞𝑞
E= x 2
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0 𝑅𝑅
1 𝜎𝜎 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 𝑞𝑞
= x (By def𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝜎𝜎 = , ... q = 𝜎𝜎4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 )
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0 𝑅𝑅 2 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2
𝝈𝝈
E= 𝓔𝓔𝟎𝟎

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9. Obtain an expression for Electric potential at a point due to a point

charge

Q P B dx A
D
x - dx
x
Force acting on unit +ve charge (Q0) at A due to charge ‘Q’ is given by
1 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄0
F= x Q0 = 1 C
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0 𝑥𝑥 2
1 Q
F= x
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0 𝑥𝑥 2

Work done in moving a unit +ve charge from A to B against the field direction is
given by, dw = - F x dx
1 Q
dw = - x 2 dx
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0 𝑥𝑥
|||ly Work done in bringing a unit +ve charge from ∞ to the point ‘ P ’ against the
field direction is given by
d 1 1
∫ dw = - Q ∫∞ 4𝜋𝜋ℰ 𝑥𝑥 2
0
1 d 1
w= - xQ ∫∞ 𝑥𝑥 2 dx
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0
1 1 d
w= - xQ -
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0 𝑥𝑥
∞
1 1 1
W=- xQ - +∞
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0 𝑑𝑑
1 𝑄𝑄
W= x
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0 𝑑𝑑
By def W = V, Potential
∴
𝟏𝟏 𝑸𝑸
V= x
𝟒𝟒𝝅𝝅𝓔𝓔𝟎𝟎 𝒅𝒅

This the expression for potential at point due to a point charge

10. Expression for electric potential energy of a system of two point charges
in the absence of electric field.

∴ U= 1 x
𝑄𝑄1 𝑄𝑄2
4𝜋𝜋ℰ0 𝑑𝑑
Electric potential energy = U.
d = distance between two charges
11. Mention an expression for electrostatic potential energy of a
dipole placed in an uniform electric field.
U = - PE cos θ
Where, U = Electric potential energy
P = dipole moment
E = Electric field applied

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12. What are polar and non polar molecules? Give examples.
1) Polar molecules :
Molecules in which centers of +ve and –ve charge concentration are
separated by a small distance are called polar molecules.
They have permanent dipole moment.
Ex: NH3 , H2O, CO etc.

2) Non-polar molecules:
In non-polar molecules the centers of +ve and –ve charge distributions
coincide.
They have no no permanent dipole moment.
Ex: O2, N2, H2 CO2 etc.

13. Mention the expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor and
explain the terms used.

C=

where, A = Area of cross section , d = distance between the plates

ℰ0 = permittivity.

14. Derive an Expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.

The electric intensity between the plates is given by

𝜎𝜎 𝑄𝑄
E=ℰ Where 𝜎𝜎 is surface charge density σ =
𝐴𝐴
0
𝑄𝑄
E= ------ (1)
𝐴𝐴ℰ0
𝑣𝑣
w.k.t, E = ---- (2) where ‘v’ is the P.D between plates
𝑑𝑑
From eqn. (1)and (2) we get
𝑄𝑄 𝑉𝑉
= .
𝐴𝐴ℰ0 𝑑𝑑

𝑄𝑄 ℰ0 𝐴𝐴 𝑄𝑄
= By definition, = C capacitance
𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉
∴ 𝓔𝓔𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝑨
C=
𝒅𝒅
This is the expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with air as
dielectric.

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15. Derive an expression for equivalent capacitance of two capacitors

in series.

V = V1 + V2, ---- (1)

𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄
But V1 = + V2 =
𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2
𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄
Eqn., (1) becomes V= 𝐶𝐶1
+
𝐶𝐶2
1 1
V=Q + … … … … … .. (2)
𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2

If Cs is the equivalent capacitance of the combination

𝑄𝑄
Then V = ----- (3)
𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠

From eqn., (2) and(3)we get

𝑄𝑄 1 1
= Q +
𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2

∴
= +

16. Derive an expression for equivalent capacitance of two capacitors

connected in parallel

Here, Q = Q1 + Q2 ……… (1)

The charge on the first capacitor is given by Q1 = C1V , Q2 = C2 V

Equation (1) becomes

Q = C1 V + C2 V
Q = V [ C1 + C2] -----------(2)
If Cp is the effective capacitance of the combination
Q = Cp V ---- (3)
From equation (2) and (3) we get,
Cp V = V [ C1 + C2]

Cp = C1 + C2

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17. Expression for energy stored in a capacitor (U = ½ CV2).

Work done in transferring small amount of charge ‘dq’ is given by

dw = P.D. x charge moved
dw = V x dq
dw = (q / C) x dq
Total work done in charging the capacitor to its full capacity of holding charge Q is given by ,
𝑄𝑄 𝑞𝑞
∫ dw = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶

1 𝑄𝑄
W= ∫0 𝑞𝑞 . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [∫q.dq = [q1 + 1/(1+1)] = [q2 / 2 ]
𝐶𝐶

1 𝑞𝑞 2
W= � �
𝐶𝐶 2

By definition , W = U (energy)
U = Q2/2 C = ½ C V2 [Q = CV]

U = ½ C V2 𝑄𝑄 2
Or U = ½ 𝐶𝐶
= ½ QV

18. Write any two uses of Capacitors.

Capacitors are used
1) to store electric charges
2) to store electric potential energy
3) In A.C. circuits to control current
4) To avoid sparking in gaps

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. State and explain Ohm’s law
This law states that, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference between the ends of the conductor. Provided temperature and other physical
conditions of the conductor remaining constant”
𝐼𝐼 ∝ 𝑉𝑉
1
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉
𝑽𝑽 = 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰
2. Define (a) Drift velocity (b) Mobility
Drift velocity: The average velocity with which free electrons get drifted towards the positive end of
conductor (or opposite to the electric field) under the influence of an external electric field is called
drift velocity.
Mobility: It is defined as the ratio of magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field.
|𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 |
𝜇𝜇 =
𝐸𝐸
3. Mention an expression for Drift velocity in terms of electric current
and explain the terms used.
𝑰𝑰
Vd =
𝒏𝒏 𝑨𝑨 𝒆𝒆
Where, n = number density of electrons
A = Area of cross section of conductor
Vd = Drift velocity of electrons

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4. Write the Limitations of Ohm’s law

The limitations of Ohm’s law are
1) The variation between Current and Potential difference is non linear.
2) The relation between Current and Potential difference is non unique.
3) Ohm’s law is not applicable for semiconductors.

5. Derive the vector form of ohm’s law 𝒋𝒋⃗ = 𝜎𝜎 𝑬𝑬

��⃗

Let I be the current in the conductor due to the potential difference 𝑉𝑉 across the conductor, then
according to ohm’s law
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ………….(i)
The electric field 𝐸𝐸 produced in the conductor is given by
𝑉𝑉
𝐸𝐸 =
𝐿𝐿
∴ 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 ………….(ii)
From (i) and (ii) we get
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼 × 𝜌𝜌 ( 𝑅𝑅 = 𝜌𝜌 )
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝐼𝐼
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ( = 𝐽𝐽 )
𝐴𝐴
𝐸𝐸 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝐸𝐸 1
𝐽𝐽 = 𝜌𝜌 ( = 𝜎𝜎)
𝜌𝜌
���⃗𝑱𝑱 = 𝝈𝝈𝑬𝑬
�⃗ → This is the vector form of ohm’s law.

6. Draw the graph for temperature dependence of Resistivity of

(a) metals and (b) semiconductors.
1) In Metals: Resistivity is directly proportional to temperature
i.e. 𝜌𝜌 𝛼𝛼 𝑇𝑇

The variation will be as shown in the big.

2) In semiconductors

Resistivity is inversely proportional to temperature

1
i.e. 𝜌𝜌 𝛼𝛼
𝑇𝑇

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7. Obtain en expression for effective resistance of two resistors connected

in series

Here, V = V1 + V2 -------------- (1)

Apply ohm’s law resistor we get
V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2
V = I [R1 + R2 ] ------------- -(2)
If Rs is the effective resistance of the combination then V = I Rs----(3)
∴ From eqns., (2) and (3) we get
I Rs = I [R1 + R2]

Rs = R1 + R2

8. Obtain en expression for effective resistance of two resistors connected in parallel

Here, I = I1 + I2 ----- (1)

Applying ohm’s law, V = I1R1 and V = I1R2

𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
(1) => I = + …………….. (2)
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
Equivalent resistor: A single resistor which produces the same effect as produced
by two or more resistors is called equivalent resistor.
V = I RP
I = V / RP ………………(3)
∴from eqns., (2) and (3) we get
𝑉𝑉 1 1
=V � + �
𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2

= =

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9. Obtain an expression for effective emf and internal resistance

of Cells connected in series:
The terminal potential of cell E1 is V1 = E1 - Iɤ1
The terminal potential of cell E2 is V2 = E2 - Iɤ2
The terminal potential of the combination
Veff = V1 + V2 = E1 - Iɤ1 + E2 - Iɤ2
= E1 + E2 - I (ɤ1 + ɤ2)

Veff = E1 + E2 – I [ɤ1 + ɤ2] ----- (1)

For the combination we have

Veff = Eeff - I ɤeff ------- (2)

Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get.

Eeff = E1 + E2 and ɤeff = ɤ1 +ɤ2

10. Obtain an expression for effective emf and internal resistance Cell in parallel.

Potential difference across cell E1 is V1 = E1 – I1r1

Potential difference across cell E2 is V2 = E2 – I2r2
𝐸𝐸1 −𝑉𝑉1 𝐸𝐸1 −𝑉𝑉
I1 = = (... V1 = V2 = V)
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟1
𝐸𝐸2 −𝑉𝑉
|||ly I2 =
𝑟𝑟2

Main current in the circuit is given by

I = I1 + I2
𝐸𝐸1 𝑉𝑉 𝐸𝐸2 𝑉𝑉
I= - 𝑟𝑟 + - 𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟1 1 𝑟𝑟2 2

𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 1 1
I = 𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 -v 𝑟𝑟1
+ 𝑟𝑟
1 2 2

𝐸𝐸1 𝑟𝑟2 +𝐸𝐸2 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟1 +𝑟𝑟2

I= - V
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2
𝑟𝑟1 +𝑟𝑟2 𝐸𝐸1 𝑟𝑟2 +𝐸𝐸2 𝑟𝑟1
V = -I
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2
𝐸𝐸1 𝑟𝑟2 +𝐸𝐸2 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2
V= -I ----- (1)
𝑟𝑟1 +𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟1 +𝑟𝑟2

For the combination we have

V = Eeff – I reff. ------ (2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we get

Eeff = and reff =

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11. State Kirchhoff’s laws (or rules).

Junction rule: In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents at
a junction is zero. i.e. ∑ I = O.
Significance of Kirchhoff’s I law is law of conservation of charge.
Loop rule: In any closed loop, the algebraic sum of the e.m.f is equal to the
algebraic sum of product of currents and resistances in that mesh.
∑ E = ∑ IR.
Significance of Kirchhoff’s II law is ‘ law of conservation of energy’.
12. Applications of Potentiometer:
1) It is used to verify the emf of the two different cells
2) It is used to find the internal resistance of the given cell.
13. Obtain a condition for Wheat stone’s Bridge network using Kirchhoff’s rules.

Currents flowing through different branches of the bridge will be as shown in the
figure.
Applying K.C.L to the junction A, I = I1 + I2 --------------(1)
Applying K.V.L to the mesh ABDA , I1P + IgG – I2R = 0 -------(2)
Applying K.V.L to the mesh BCDB , (I1 – Ig)Q – (I2 + Ig)S – IgG = 0
I1Q – IgQ – I2S - IgS – IgG = 0 -------(3)

Condition for balance: the current through galvanometer is zero (Ig = 0).

equations (2) and (3) becomes, I1P – I2R = 0

I1P = I2R -----------(4)

And I1Q – I2S = 0

I1Q = I2S -----------(5)

Divide (4) by (5) , we get

I1P / I1Q = I2R / I2S

∴ P/Q=R/S
This equation represents the balanced condition for wheat stone network.

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𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐 𝝉𝝉
14. Obtain an Expression for conductivity (𝝈𝝈 = ) of a conductor.
𝒎𝒎

The expression for current in the conductor is given by

𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 but 𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸
𝑚𝑚
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚 𝐸𝐸 by defn., = 𝐽𝐽
𝐴𝐴
𝐼𝐼 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏𝜏
= 𝐸𝐸
𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏𝜏
| 𝐽𝐽 | = |𝐸𝐸| As 𝐽𝐽 is parallel to 𝐸𝐸
𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏𝜏
𝐽𝐽 = 𝐸𝐸 but 𝐽𝐽 = 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎
𝑚𝑚
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏𝜏
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 = 𝐸𝐸
𝑚𝑚

𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐 𝝉𝝉
𝝈𝝈 = → This is the expression for conductivity
𝒎𝒎

MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

1. What is Lorentz force? Give an expression for it.
The total force experienced by a charge ( q ) moving in both electric and
magnetic field is called Lorentz force.
→ → → →
𝐹𝐹2 = q 𝐸𝐸 + (𝑉𝑉 x𝐵𝐵)
2. Mention an expression for Force on a current carrying conductor in a
uniform Magnetic field.
F = B I L sin θ
when the conductor is ┴ r to field
F=BIL

3. Mention an expression for Force due to motion of a charged particle

in a uniform magnetic field
F = q V B sin θ
When θ = 900, sin𝛉𝛉 = 1, F = Fmax.
Fmax. = QVB.

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4. Draw a neat labeled diagram of cyclotron and write any two applications of Cyclotron.

5. Mention any two Uses of cyclotron

1) It is used to accelerate proton’s , deuterons and ∝- particles which are used in
nuclear reaction.
2) It is used to produce radio isotopes which are used is medical diagnosis and treatment.

6. State and explain Biot savart’s law (or Laplace law).

Magnetic field produced at P due to current I in the

element AB is
1) directly proportional to strength of the current (dB α I)
2) directly proportional to length of the element (dB α dl )
3) directly proportional to sin θ (dB α sin θ) and
4) inversely proportional to square of the distance of point P from
the mid point ( dB α 1 / d2 )
Mathematically, dB α (I d l sin θ) / d2
dB = k. (I d l sin θ) / d2

dB = µ0 . I d l sin θ
4π d2

It will be along the perpendicular to the plane containing the point and the element.

7. Derive an expression for magnetic field at a point along the axis of circular coil carrying
current.

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Magnetic field produced at P due to current in the element is given by Biot Savart’
𝜇𝜇 𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
dB = 4𝜋𝜋0 2 θ = 900 , sin θ = 1
𝑟𝑟

𝜇𝜇 0 𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
dB =
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2

dB is resolved into two components as dB cosθ along the axis and dB sinθ ⊥ to the axis.
Magnetic field produced at P due to current in the full loop is given by
∑ 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = ∑ 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜽𝜽
𝜇𝜇 0 𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜇𝜇 0 𝐼𝐼
B=∑ cos 𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃 ∑ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (∑ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2πR )
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2
𝜇𝜇 0 𝐼𝐼
B= 2 cos 𝜃𝜃 x 2πR In ∆ OAP, cos θ = R/r
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟
r = R + x2 => r = (R2 + x2) ½
2 2

𝜇𝜇 0 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅
B= 2 x x 2πR ... r3 = (R2 + x2) 3/2
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝜇𝜇 0 𝐼𝐼
B= 3 2πR2
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟
𝝁𝝁𝟎𝟎 𝑰𝑰
B= 𝟑𝟑 2 π R2 along the axis towards the observer
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
(𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 + 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 )𝟐𝟐

For n turns of the coil,

𝝁𝝁 𝟐𝟐 𝝅𝝅 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝒏 𝑰𝑰
i.e. B = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟎𝟎 . 𝟑𝟑
(𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 + 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 )𝟐𝟐

𝝁𝝁𝟎𝟎 𝐧𝐧 𝐈𝐈
At the centre of the coil , B =
𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹
8. Write any three Properties of Magnetic field lines:
1. No two magnetic field lines can intersect each other.
2. The magnetic field lines will be parallel and equidistant in a uniform magnetic field.
3. The magnetic field lines will be more crowded where the strength of the field is more.
9. Derive an expression for force between two parallel current carrying conductor.
Magnetic field produced by current I1 on the conductor Q is given by
B1 = µ0 . 2 I1
4π d
The conductor Q carrying current I2 in the magnetic field B1
experiences a mechanical force F1 is given by
F1 = B1 I2 L sin θ If θ = 900
F1 = B1 I2 L towards the conductor P

F1 = µ0 . 2 I1 . I2 L ------------------(1)
4π d
ly
||| , conductor P experiences mechanical force F2 given by
F2 = µ0 . 2 I2 . I1 L ------------------(2) towards the conductor Q.
4π d
From equations (1) and (2)
It is found that F1 and F2 are equal and opposite.
The conductors attract each other when they carry current in same direction.
They repel each other when they carry current in opposite direction.

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10. Explain how do you convert Galvanometer into ammeter?

Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter
A galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting suitable low
resistance in parallel with the galvanometer.

Applying Ohm’s law to each resistance, we get

V = Ig G
V = (I – Ig) S
(I – Ig) S = IgG

S = Ig . G
I - Ig

11. Explain how do you convert Galvanometer into voltmeter?

A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting suitable high
resistance in series with the galvanometer.
Applying Ohm’s law, we get
V = Ig ( G + R)
V / Ig = (G + R)

R=V - G
Ig

12. Distinguish between Ammeter and Voltmeter

AMMETER VOLTMETER
1. Ammeter is used to measure current in the 1. Voltmeter is used to measure p.d. b/w two
circuit. points.
2. It is always connected in series. 2. It is always connected in parallel.
3. Its effective resistance is very low. 3. Its effective resistance is very high.
4. Resistance of ideal ammeter is zero. 4. Resistance of ideal voltmeter is infinity.

13. Write any three differences between dia, para and

Ferromagnetic materials.

Diamagnetic Materials Paramagnetic Materials Ferromagnetic materials

1. Magnetic susceptibility 1. Magnetic susceptibility 1. Magnetic susceptibility
has a small – ve value has a small + ve value. cm
has a large + ve value.
2. Intensity of 2 Intensity of Magnetisation 2. Intensity of
Magnetisation (I) has a (I) has a small + ve value. Magnetisation
small – ve value. (I) has a large + ve value.
3. Induced Dipole 3. Induced Dipole Moment 3. Induced Dipole Moment
Moment (M) is a small (M) is a small + ve value. (M) is a large + ve value.
– ve value.

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14. Define the earth’s magnetic elements declination, dip and Horizontal component.
Declination (δ): The angle between geographic meridian and magnetic meridian at
the place is called declination at the place.
Dip ( θ): The angle made by the direction of earth’s magnetic field B with the
horizontal along the magnetic meridian at the place is called ‘dip’ at the
plane.
Horizontal component (BH) : The resolved component of the earth’s magnetic
field B along the horizontal in the magnetic meridian is called horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field.
15. Show that Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid.

Number of turns in the element = n x 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The magnetic field produced at ‘P’ due to the element is given by
𝜇𝜇 0 2𝜋𝜋 𝑎𝑎 2 I (𝑛𝑛 x 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )
dB= x along the axis.
4𝜋𝜋 ((𝑟𝑟−𝑥𝑥)2 + 𝑎𝑎 2 )3/2
When ɤ >>>> a, a2 can be neglected compared with ɤ2
𝜇𝜇 0 2𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎 2 I 𝑛𝑛 x 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
dB = x
4𝜋𝜋 ɤ3
Total Magnetic field at ‘P’ due current in the solenoid in given by
𝑙𝑙 𝜇𝜇 2𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎 2 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫− 𝑙𝑙 4𝜋𝜋0 . ɤ3

𝜇𝜇 0 2𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎 2 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 +𝑙𝑙 2𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎 2 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

B= . ∫−𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = . [x]+1
−𝑙𝑙
4𝜋𝜋 ɤ3 ɤ3

𝜇𝜇 0 2𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎 2 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝜇𝜇 0 2𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎 2 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼x2ℓ

B = . [l + l ) = x N=n2l
4𝜋𝜋 ɤ3 4𝜋𝜋 ɤ3
Π a2 = A
𝝁𝝁𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 M=NIA
B= x
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 ɤ𝟑𝟑

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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION & ALTERNATING CURRENT

1. State F1. araday’s law of EMI:

This law states that the magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to
the rate of change of magnetic flux.
2. What are eddy currents? Write any two applications of eddy currents.
The current induced in metal plate when placed in changing magnetic field is
called ‘eddy currents’.
Eddy currents are used in Speedometer, induction furnace, electric breaks etc.
3. Derive an expression for Energy stored in an Inductor
Let dw be the work done in establishing a current I in the coil in time dt.
Then
dw = - e I dt
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
dw = + L x x I x dt (since e = - L )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

dw = + L x I dI
Total work done in establishing the current I is given by
I

𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐿𝐿 ∫𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿
2
= L I2
2
O

1
W= L I2
2
By definition, W = U U= L
AC Circuits:
4) Expression for Current in an AC circuit containing pure resistance only :

Let us consider an AC circuit in which a pure resistance R connected in series with a source of
alternating voltage.
Let V = V0 sin ωt ----------(1) is the applied AC voltage
Where, V0 is the peak value of voltage and w is the angular velocity. w = 2πf
Due to the applied AC voltage, A current flows in the circuit this current is given by,
I = V / R = V0 (sin ωt ) ---------(2)
R
Current is maximum when sin wt = ± 1, that current is called ‘peak value of current and is denoted
as I0 .
... I 0 = V0 / R
(2) becomes , I = I0 sin ωt - ------------(3)
This is the expression for current in pure resistance circuit.

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5) Expression for Current in an AC circuit containing pure inductance:

Let, V = V0 sin wt ------------ (1) is the applied alternating voltage.

And V1 = - L . dI
dt
Applying KVL for the circuit , we get
V + V1 = 0 (. . . R = 0 , IR = 0)
V = L . dI
dt
V0 sin ωt = L . dI
dt
dI = V0 sin ωt . dt
L
Integrating we get,
∫ dI = ∫ (V0 / L) sin ωt . dt
I = V0 ∫ sin ωt . dt
L
I = V0 [- cos ωt / w]
L
I = V0 . sin (ωt - π/2) - cos ωt = sin (ωt - π/2)
ωL
Current is maximum when sin (wt - π/2) = ± 1 ,
that current is called as ‘peak value of current and it is denoted as I0.
I0 = V0 / ω L when sin (wt - π/2) = ± 1

I = I0 sin (ωt - π/2) -------------(2)

This is the expression for current in inductance circuit.

3) An AC circuit consisting of pure capacitance:

Let V = V0 sin ωt ----------(1)

... Alternating current flows in the circuit, thus current in the
circuit given by,
I = dq / dt But, q = CV
I = d (CV) / dt
I = C . d (V0 sin ωt)
dt
I = C V0 d (sin ωt)
dt
I = C V0 ω cos ωt

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..
I = V0 . sin (ωt + π/2) . cos wt = sin (ωt + π/2)
(1/ωC)
Current is maximum when sin (ωt + π/2) = ± 1 , this current is called as peak value of current and
is denoted as I0.
I0 = V0 when sin (ωt + π/2) = ± 1
(1/ωC)

I = I0 sin (ωt + π/2) ------------ (2)

This is the expression for alternating current in a capacitor circuit.

From (1) and (2) , it is found that ‘in capacitor circuit current leads the voltage by 900 or π/2 ‘.

AC voltage applied to series LCR Circuit

(Expression for Impedance and current using phasor diagram)
AC circuit consisting of inductance, capacitance and resistance in series or expression for
impedance of an LCR circuit.

Let V = V0 sin wt is the applied voltage.

Where, V0 – peak value and w = 2 π f.
As all are in series current through each of them will be same as the main current I.
The voltage across each of them is given by,
VL = I XL leads the current by π/2
VC = I XC lags behind current by π/2
VR = I R in phase with current.
In ∆le OAE, Y
OE2 = OA2 + AE2 B
V2 = VR2 + (VL – VC)2
V2 = (IR)2 + (I XL – I XC)2 D E

V2 = I2 [ R2 + (XL – XC)2 ] VL V
V2 / I2 = R2 + (XL – XC) 2 VL - VC
Z2 = R2 + (XL – XC)2 Φ

O A
Where, Z = V / I , impedance of the circuit Vc VR X
...
Z = √ R2 + (XL – XC)2 C

This is the expression for impedance for LCR circuit.

Current in the LCR circuit is given by , Irms = Vrms / Z

𝑽𝑽𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
Irms =
�𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 + (𝑿𝑿𝑳𝑳 − 𝑿𝑿𝑪𝑪 )𝟐𝟐

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TRANSFORMER: Transformer is a device used to step up or step down alternating voltages.

Principle: It works on the principle of mutual induction.

Working:
As input is alternating, at every alteration magnetic flux linking
round the secondary changes. Therefore an emf of the same
nature is induced in the secondary. The magnitude of output
voltage depends on number of turns in primary and secondary
coils.
Let Vp and Vs are the input and output voltages. np and ns be
the number of turns in primary and secondary.

Then it can be shown that

Vs / Vp = ns / np = T
Where, T is a constant of the transformer called as turns ratio.
Sources of Energy losses in Transformer: Energy losses in transformer are
1) Magnetic flux leakage loss
2) Eddy current loss
3) Resistance of winding loss
4) Hysteresis loss
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES
1. State Ampere’s Circuital Law.
“ The line integral of magnetic field → 𝐵𝐵
around any closed path is equal to μo times the total
current threading the closed path”
i.e. ∮�𝐵𝐵� �𝑑𝑑�𝑙𝑙 = μo I
2. What is displacement current? What is the need for displacement current?
“ The current which comes into play in the region in which the electric field and the electric flux is
changing with time”.
𝑑𝑑𝜑𝜑
Mathematical form: ID = ∈0 𝐸𝐸
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Need for Displacement Current:
(i) To know about the Apparent Violation of Kirchhoff’s Junction Law
(ii) To study the Violation of Ampere’s Circuital law.
3. Write any two applications of gamma rays.
i) They are used in the treatment of cancer.
ii) They are used to produce nuclear reaction.
4. Write any two applications of UV rays.
i) They are used for purification of air and water.
ii) They are used in the synthesis of vitamin D.
5. Write any two applications of IR-rays.
i) They are used for long distance photography.
ii) They are used in the treatment of muscular sprain.
6. Write any two applications of X-rays.
i) They are used to detect foreign bodies inside human body.
ii) They are used to detect fracture in bones.
iii) They are used in the treatment of skin cancer.
7. Write any two applications of Microwaves
i) They are used in microwave ovens for heating
ii) They are used in RADAR system for aircraft navigation
8. Write any two uses of Radio waves.
i) Used in RADAR system
ii) Used in TV and Radio broadcasting

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RAY OPTICS & WAVE OPTICS

1. Relation between focal length and Radius of curvature for
concave mirror (f = R / 2) :
Consider a ray of light, AB || PC,
and CP ≈ CB = R, is the radius of curvature.
The ray AB, after reflection from mirror will pass
through F and obeys law of reflection,
i.e., i = r. ------- (1) where i is the angle of
incidence and r is the angle of reflection.
From the figure,

--------- (2) (alternate angles)

From (1) and (2)

As the aperture of the mirror is small, B lies close to P, BF ≈ PF

... FC = FB = PF
PC = PF + FC = PF + PF
R = 2 PF = 2f (... PC = R and PF = f , focal length)

f=R/2

2. State Laws of refraction:

I law: This law states that the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of
incidence are all lie in same plane.
II law (Snell’s law) : This law states that the ratio of sine of angle of incidence and sine of angle
of refraction is always a constant for given pair of media and for a colour ray of light.
Sin i = constant
Sin r
3. Write the Conditions of TIR
1) The ray should go from denser medium to rarer medium.
2) The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than critical angle.
4. Write Illustrations of TIR
1) Sparkling of diamond is due to total internal reflection.
2) Appearance of mirages is due to TIR.
3) Appearance of rainbow is due to dispersion and TIR.
5. Write any two Applications of TIR;
1) Artificial diamonds are made to sparkle using TIR.
2) Using TIR messages are sent from one place to the other through the optical fibre.

6. Write any two Applications of Optical Fibre:

1) It is used to diminish or enlarge optical images.
2) It is used to measure blood flow in heart.

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7. Obtain the relation between n, u, v and R for refraction at spherical surface.

Let ‘P’ be the pole , ‘C’ be the centre of curvature and ‘R’ be the radius of curvature of a small
aperture spherical refracting surface.

PM PM
In triangle OMR, 𝑖𝑖 = + ,
PO PC
PM PM
In triangle MCI, = 𝑟𝑟 +
PC PI

PM PM
But , 𝑟𝑟 = −
PC PI

By snell’s law,
𝑛𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛2 sin 𝑟𝑟
𝑛𝑛1 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛2 𝑟𝑟

PM PM PM PM
𝑛𝑛1 � PO + PC
� = 𝑛𝑛2 �
PC
− PI
�

𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛 2 𝑛𝑛 2
+ = −
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛 2 𝑛𝑛 2
− + = −
𝑢𝑢 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑣𝑣
𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 −𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏
∴ − =
𝒗𝒗 𝒖𝒖 𝑹𝑹

8. Derive Lens makers formula:

Refraction by a lens (Lens makers formula & Lens formula)

From the figure we can write

𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 −𝑛𝑛
+ 2 = 2 1 ………….(i)
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝐵𝐵𝐼𝐼1 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶1
For refraction at the face ABC of the lens, image 𝐼𝐼′ acts as virtual object and produces red image 𝐼𝐼 at
a distance 𝑣𝑣 from the lens.
−𝑛𝑛 2 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 2 −𝑛𝑛 1
+ 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷1 = ………….(ii)
𝐷𝐷𝐼𝐼1 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶2

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Adding (i) and (ii), we get

𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛𝑛 1 1
+ 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷1 = [𝑛𝑛2 − 𝑛𝑛1 ] � + � ………….(iii)
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶1 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶2
By definition, when 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = ∞, 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝑓𝑓

Equation (iii) becomes

𝑛𝑛 1 1 1
= (𝑛𝑛2 − 𝑛𝑛1 ) � + � ………….(iv) [ 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶1 = 𝑅𝑅1 , 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷2 = −𝑅𝑅2 ]
𝑓𝑓 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶1 𝐷𝐷𝐶𝐶2
𝑛𝑛 1 1 1
= (𝑛𝑛2 − 𝑛𝑛1 ) �𝑅𝑅 − 𝑅𝑅 �
𝑓𝑓 1 2
1 𝑛𝑛 2 1 1
= �𝑛𝑛 − 1� �𝑅𝑅 − 𝑅𝑅 �
𝑓𝑓 1 1 2

𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= � 𝟏𝟏𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏� �𝑹𝑹 − 𝑹𝑹 � This is lens makers formula
𝒇𝒇 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐

9. Define Power of lens. Mention its SI Unit.

It is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a beam of light falling at a
unit distance from the optical center.
1
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑓𝑓

The unit of power in S.I system is dioptre (D).

10. Expression for equivalent focal length of two thin convex lenses in
contact.

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If we replace the system of two lenses by a thin lens of focal length F, such that it
forms the image of object O at I, then we have

1 1 1
- 𝑢𝑢 = 𝐹𝐹 ----------------- (4)
𝑣𝑣
Comparing equations (3) and (4)
1 1 1
We get, = +
𝐹𝐹 𝑓𝑓1 𝑓𝑓2

REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM

Derive Sin A+D

n= 2 for refraction through a prism. (With usual notations)
Sin A/2

A ray of light PO incident on the face AB of a glass prism

ABC of angle A and refractive index ‘n’.
In quadrilateral AOMO1
∟A + ∟M = 1800 ------------ (1)
In ∆le OMO1
∟r1 + ∟r2 + ∟M = 1800 ---------- (2)
From (1) and (2)
∟A + ∟M = ∟r1 + ∟r2 + ∟M
∟A = ∟r1 + ∟r2 ------------ (3)
In ∆ SOO1 ,
∟d = (i1 – r1) + ( i2 – r2)
= (i1 + i2) - ( r1 + r2)
= (i1 + i2) - ( A)
A + d = i1 + i2 -------------- (4)
But,. i1 = i2 , r1 = r2
At minimum, deviation position , d = D and i1 = i2 = i and r1 = r2 = r
Equations (3) and (4) becomes
A = ∟r1 + ∟r2 = r + r = 2r
r=A/2
A + D = i1 + i2 = i + i = 2i
i=A+D
2
Substituting the values of i and r in the Snell’s law equation. We get
n = sin i
sinr
n = sin (A + D) / 2
sinA / 2

n = sin (A + D) / 2
sin A / 2

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WAVE OPTICS
1. Define Wavefront:
A wavefront is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles which are
vibrating in the same phase.

2. What is an Interference ?
Modification (redistribution) in the intensity of light (energy) when two or more similar light
waves travelling in the same direction super impose on each other is called ‘Interference’.
3. Write any two conditions for sustained interference.
1) The two sources must be coherent
2) Two sources must be very narrow
4. Give the THEORY OF INTERFERENCE :
Let us consider two light waves of same angular frequency ‘ω’ traveling in a medium in the
same direction.
Let a1 and a2 be their amplitudes. The displacement of the particles of the medium, due to
these waves is given by
y1 = a1 sin ωt
y2 = a2 sin (ωt + δ)
where ‘δ’ is the phase difference between the waves.
, the resultant displacement of the particles of a medium is given by,
y = y1 + y2
y = a1 sin ωt + a2 sin (ωt + δ)
y = a1 sin ωt + a2 sin ωt cos δ + a2 sin δ cos ωt1 ,
y = (a1 + a2 cos δ) sin ωt + a2 sin δ. cos ωt1 , ……………(1)
Let R cos θ = a1 + a2 cos δ …………….(2)
R sin θ = a2 sin δ ………………..(3)
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1) we get
y = R cos θ. Sin ωt + R sin θ cos ωt
y = R [sin (ωt + θ)]
‘R’ is the resultant amplitude and ‘θ’ is the phase difference between the resultant
wave and the first wave.
Squaring and adding (2) and (3)
R2 cos2 θ + R2 sin2 θ = a12 + a22 cos2 δ + 2 a1 a2 cos δ + a22 sin2δ.
R2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = a12 + a22 (cos2 δ + sin2δ) + 2 a1 a2 cos δ
R2 = a12 + a22 + 2 a1 a2 cos δ [... cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1]

R = �𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝛅𝛅

This is the expression for resultant amplitude

5. Write Conditions for constructive interference:

(i) Phase difference δ = 2nπ where n = 0,1, 2,3,…………
(ii) Path difference between the waves is
x=nλ n = 0, 1 , 2 , ………..

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6. Write the Conditions for destructive Interference:

(i) Phase difference δ = (2n + 1) π
where n = 0,1,2,3,…………
δ = π, 3π, 5π, 7π,…………….odd multiples of π
(ii) Path difference between the waves is
x = (2n + 1) . (λ/2) where n = 0,1,2,3,…………………..
Band width: The distance between two consecutive bright bands or dark
bands will be the same. This distance is called band width.
Bandwidth is given by w=λD/d

7. Obtain an Expression for bandwidth of interference bands

S1 and S2 be two coherent sources of wavelength 𝜆𝜆
separated by a small distance 𝑑𝑑.

Let P be a point on the screen at a distance 𝑥𝑥 from O.

Depending on the path difference S2P - S1P of light
waves ‘P’ will be the position of dark band or bright
band.when S2P – S1P = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
P be the position of nth bright band in ∆, 𝑆𝑆2 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
1
S2P – S1P = �𝑛𝑛 + � 𝜆𝜆 P be the position of nth dark band 𝑆𝑆2 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑆𝑆2 𝐹𝐹 2 + 𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑃2
2
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑 2
S2 P 2 − S1 P 2 = �D2 + �𝑥𝑥 + � � − �D2 + �𝑥𝑥 − � � . = 𝐷𝐷 2 + �𝑥𝑥 + 2 �
2 2
S2 P 2 − S1 P 2 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 in ∆, 𝑆𝑆1 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
S2 P − S1 P = P+S P = = [As 𝑑𝑑 ≪ 𝐷𝐷, S1 P + S2 P ≈ 2D] 𝑆𝑆1 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑆𝑆1 𝐸𝐸2 + 𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃2
S2 1 2D D

𝑑𝑑 2
For bright band, S2 P − S1 P = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐷𝐷 2 + �𝑥𝑥 − �
2
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =
D

𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 =
𝑑𝑑

𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 +1 = (𝑛𝑛 + 1)
𝑑𝑑

𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝜔𝜔 = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 +1 − 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = (𝑛𝑛 + 1) − 𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑

𝝀𝝀𝝀𝝀
𝝎𝝎 = 𝒅𝒅

8. What is Diffraction?
The phenomenon of light waves bending round the corners is called ‘Diffraction’.

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9. Distinguish between Interference and diffraction

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
2. The modification in the intensity when 1. The phenomenon of light waves bending
two similar light waves traveling in round the corners or obstacles, is called
same direction super impose on each diffraction.
other is called interference. 2. It is produced due to the superposition of
3. It is produced due to superposition of no. of secondary waves of same sources.
two waves from two coherent sources. 3. Diffraction pattern consists of central
4. Interference pattern consists of alternate bright band bordered by alternate dark
bright and dark band. and bright band of decreasing intensity.
5. Interference bright bands are of equal 4. Diffraction bright bands are of unequal
thickness and intensity. thickness and intensity.
6. Interference dark bands are perfectly 5. Diffraction dark bands are of unequal
dark and of equal thickness. thickness and intensity.

POLARIZATION
Polarisation: The phenomenon in which vibrations of a beam of light is restricted
to a single plane is called polarisation.

Plane of vibration: A plane in which vibrations occur is called plane of vibration.

Plane of polarisation: A plane in which no vibrations occur is called plane of

polarisation.
Plane of vibration and plane of polarisation will be perpendicular to
each other.

Ordinary light or unpolarised light

OR . . . . . . .

Plane polarized light

. . . . . . . . Or

1. What is Brewster’s angle (Polarising angle, iP) ?

It is the angle of incidence for which the reflected light is almost plane polarized.
It is denoted iP and expressed in degrees.

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2. *** State and prove Brewster’s law:

Statement: “ This law states that tangent of the polarising angle is equal to
refractive index of the material of the reflector”.
Tan (ip) = n

Let us consider unpolarised ray of light PQ incident

on the surface of a medium of refractive index ‘n’ at the
polarising angle ip. A part of it is reflected along QR and a
part is refracted along QS. Let ‘r’ be the angle of
refraction. According to Brewster the reflected ray and
refracted ray will be perpendicular to each other, from the
figure we have
ip + r = 900

r = 900 - ip

Applying Snell’s law, we get

n = sin ip / sin r

= sin ip / sin (900 - ip)

n = sin ip / cos ip = tan ip

n = tan ip
Hence, the Brewster’s law.

Note: By Brewster’s law, n = tan ip = sin ip / cos ip ………………(1)

By snell’s law,
n = sin ip / sin r ……………….(2)
from (1) and (2)
sin ip / cos ip = sin ip / sin r

sin r = cos ip
sin r = sin (90 – ip)
.’. r = 90 - ip
ip + r = 900
.’. The reflected ray and refracted ray will be perpendicular to each other.
3. Write the Applications of Polaroid’s.
1) They are used as sun glasses.
2) They are used as polarizers.
3) They are used as analyser.
4) They are used to view 3d pictures.
4. State and explain Malus Law:
According to Malus : When a completely plane polarised light beam is incident
on a polarising sheet the intensity of the emergent light varies as the square of
the cosine of the angle between the direction of electric field vector of the
incident light and the polarising direction of the sheet.

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Dual Nature of matter & Radiation

1. Mention any two types of electron emission.
1. Photoelectric emission 2. Thermionic emission
3. Field emission
2. Explain experimental observations of photoelectric effect.
1) Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous effect. (as time lag is 10-9 second)
2) For a photometal there is a minimum frequency of incident radiation below which there is no
photoelectric effect, this minimum frequency is called ‘threshold frequency (υ 0 )’.
3) Above threshold frequency, kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of incident radiation. (K.E α υ )
4) Above threshold frequency, number of photoelectrons (and hence photoelectric current) is
directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
5) Above threshold frequency, there is a minimum negative potential of the anode for which
photoelectric current becomes zero. This minimum negative potential of anode is called as
“stopping potential” or “retarding potential”.
3. Explain Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect.
Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of ‘Quantum theory of radiation’.
The energy of Photon is given by
hυ = W + ½ mv2

K.E = h υ – φ0 ---------------- (1)

φ0 = hυ0

Substituting the value of φ0 in equation (1) we get,

K.E max = h (υ – υ0)

Observations and Conclusions by Einstein

1) Photoelectric effect is instantaneous effect and takes place due to elastic collision between
photon and electron inside the metal.
2) If ν < ν0, then ½ mv2 max is negative, which is not possible. Therefore, for
photoelectric emission to take place ν > ν0.
3) Since one photon emits one electron, so the number of photoelectrons
emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
4. Write any three Characteristic Properties of photon
1. Photons travel at the speed of light in vacuum. i.e. 3 x 108 m/s.
2. Photons travel in straight lines. (Only in a homogeneous).
3. A photon has zero rest mass. i.e. m0 = 0. It means photon can not exist at rest.
4. Photons do not have any charge. They are electrically neutral.
5. Derive an Expression for de Broglie wavelength.
According to quantum theory of radiation, the energy of the photon is given by
E = hυ = hc / λ …………… (I)
Where, h = Planck’s constant, υ = frequency of emitted radiation,
λ = wavelength, c = velocity of light
According to Einstein’s mass energy relation, energy of the photon is given by
E = mc2 …………….. (II)
Where m is the mass of the photon and c is the velocity of the photon (light)
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From (I) and (II) , we get

hc / λ = mc2
λ = h / mc = h / p
where p = mc, is the momentum of photon.
In the same way de Broglie says that a particle of mass m moving with velocity v exhibit the
properties of waves, the wavelength of these waves is given by

λ = h / mv

ATOMS & NUCLEI

1. Draw a neat labelled diagram for Geiger-Marsden scattering experiment.

Observations :
(i) Most of α-particles pass through the gold foil undeflected.
(ii) A very small number of α-particles (1 in 8000 )suffered large angle deflection.
(iii) Some of them retraced their original path or suffered 180° deflection.

2. Write any two limitations (Drawbacks) of Rutherford Model of atom.

i) It could not explain the stability of atoms.
ii) It could not explain the line spectrum
3. Explain the postulates of Bohr’s Atom Model.
(i) Stationary Circular Orbits: An electron in an atom could revolve in certain
stable orbits without the emission of radiant energy called Stationary orbits.

ii) Quantum Condition : Electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits
ℎ
for which the angular momentum is some integral multiple of
2𝜋𝜋
𝑛𝑛 ℎ
(That is L = 2 𝜋𝜋 (L = mvr)
iii) Transitions: Electron emits energy only when they jumps from stationary orbit of higher
energy level to lower energy level.
i.e. h 𝝂𝝂 = E2 – E1 .

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4. Derive an expression for the radius of an electron in the nth orbit of

hydrogen atom.
The electrostatic force of attraction between the electron and the nucleus is
1 Ze 2
FE = � 4πε � � 𝑟𝑟 2 �
0
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2
But, the centripetal force is Fc =
𝑟𝑟

For stability of the atom FE = Fc

1 Ze 2 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 2
� �� 2
� =
4πε0 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟

1 Ze 2
mv2 = � �� � --------- (1)
4πε0 𝑟𝑟

But, from Bohr’s Quantization rule,

mvr = nh
2𝜋𝜋
, n = 1, 2, 3, --------
2 2 2 n2 h2
squaring , m v r = ----------------- (2)
4𝜋𝜋 2

(2) ÷ (1) ⇒
𝑚𝑚 2 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑛𝑛 ℎ 2 2
4πε r
𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 2
= � 4𝜋𝜋 2 � � Ze 02 � (For hydrogen z = 1)

2 2
r = ε𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
0 𝑛𝑛 ℎ
𝑒𝑒 2

ε𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐

∴ rn = 𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐

This is the expression for the radius of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom.

5. Derive an expression for energy of electron in an nth orbit of hydrogen

atom.
For a dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom
Fe = FC
𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑟𝑟
= 1 𝑒𝑒 2
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 0 𝑟𝑟 2
[For hydrogen, Z = 1]
Thus, the relation between the orbit radius and the electron velocity is
mv2 = 𝑒𝑒 2
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 0 𝑟𝑟
------------------ (1)
The K.E (K) and electrostatic potential energy (U) of the electron in
hydrogen atom are
𝑒𝑒 2
K = ½ mv2 = 8𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖 0 𝑟𝑟
[ from (1) ]
𝑒𝑒 2
And U = - 4𝜋𝜋 𝜖𝜖 0 𝑟𝑟
(U = -2 x K)

Thus, the total mechanical energy E of the electron in a hydrogen atom is

E=K+U
𝑒𝑒 2 𝑒𝑒 2
E = 8𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 𝑟𝑟 - 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 𝑟𝑟
0 0

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𝑒𝑒 2 ε𝟎𝟎𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐
E = - 8𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 𝑟𝑟 but ∴ rn =
0 𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐

𝑒𝑒 2
E=- ε𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐
8𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 0
𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐

En = - m Z2e4
8 Є02 n2 h2

6. Draw the Energy level Diagram for hydrogen atom.

7. Write any two limitations of Bohr’s theory.

1) Bohr’ theory is not applicable to atoms having more than one electron.
2) Bohr’s theory fails to explain fine structure of spectral line.
3) This theory does not account for the wave nature of electrons.

8. What are Isotopes, Isobars and isotones?

1. Isotopes:
The atoms of an element having same atomic number (Z) but different mass-
numbers are called isotopes.
Ex: i) 6C12 , 6C13 , 6C14
2. Isobars:
The nuclei having same number of nucleons but different number of protons
are called isobars.
Examples:

3. Isotones:
The nuclei containing the same number of neutrons are called isotones.
Ex: i) 1H3, 2He4

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9. What is Mass defect? Mention an expression for it.

The mass of a nucleus is always less than the mass of constituent nucleons
(i.e., protons + neutrons). This difference of mass is called the mass defect.

It is denoted by Δm and expressed in amu.

Δm = [Zmp + (A – Z) mn ] - Mnucleus
Where Z is atomic number, mn is mass of neutron, M is mass of nucleus.

10. Write any three Properties (Characteristics) of nuclear force.

1. The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb force
2. The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance is more than a few
femtometres.
3. The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton is approximately
the same.
4. Nuclear force is a short range force.
5. Nuclear force is non gravitational force.

11. State and prove disintegration law. (S.T. N = N0 e- λ t ).

This law states that “the rate of disintegration of a radioactive element is directly
proportional to number of atoms present at that instant of time”.
Let ‘N’ be the number of atoms of a radioactive element present at any instant of time ‘t’
Let ‘dN’ be the number of atoms disintegrates in a small interval of time ‘dt’,
Then According to law, - (dN / dt) α N
(dN / dt) = -λ N.
Where λ – is a constant of the element called as disintegration constant or decay
constant
dN / N = -λ .dt
Integrating both sides
∫ dN / N = -λ ∫ dt
loge N = -λt + k ……….(1)
where k – is integration constant
When t = 0, N = N0 (Initial number of atoms)
then (1) becomes,
loge N0 = -λ (0) + k
.
. . logeN0 = k

substituting the value of k in the equation (1) , we get

loge N = -λt + logeN0
loge N - logeN0 = -λt
loge (N/No) = -λt
expressing in index form we get
N / N0 = e – λt
.
. .
N = N0 e- λ t

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12. What is Half life period? Obtain the relation between half life and decay constant.
Half life of a radioactive material is defined as the time during which half the number
of atoms present initially in the sample of the element disintegrates.
It is denoted by ‘T’ and is given by , T = 0.693 / λ
Where λ is decay constant of element.

Expression for half life:

We know that, N = N0 e- λ t
Where N0 is the initial number of atoms
N is the number of atoms present at any instant of time ‘t’
λ is decay constant of the element.
At half life, t = T and N = N0 / 2

N0 / 2 = N0 e - λT
½ = 1 / e λT
e λT = 2
taking log on both sides

λT loge e = loge 2 (loge e = 1 and log e 2 = 2.303 log10 2)

λT = 2.303 log10 2 = 2.303 x 0.3010 = 0.693

. T = 0.693
. . λ

13. State α and β decay with an example.

I. Alpha decay: This law states that
“ When a radioactive element emits an α – particle, the new element has got mass
number less by 4 units and atomic number less by 2 units.

Ex: z X A α Z–2 YA–4

92U238 Th
α 234
90

II. Beta decay: This law states that

1) “When a radioactive element emits an β- – particle the new element has got
the same mass number but atomic number increases by 1.

Ex: z X A β- Z+1 Y A

90 Th234 β– 91 Pa 234

The basic nuclear process underlying β- decay (electron emission) is the

conversion of neutron to proton
n p + e- + ν-
electron Antineutron

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2) When a radioactive element emits β+ (positron), the new element has got the
same mass number but atomic number decreases by 1. It falls in a group 1
column to the left of the parent element in the periodic table.
Ex: z X A β+ Z-1 Y A

i) 15P30 β+ 14 Si30

14. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion.

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1) It is a process in which heavier 1) Nuclear fusion is a process in which
nucleus breaks up into two or two lighter nuclei are fussed
more lighter nuclei of comparable together to form a heavier nucleus.
masses. 2) Reaction is uncontrollable.
2) Reaction is controllable. 3) Energy released cannot be
3) Energy released can be controlled. controlled.
4) It forms the principle of atom 4) It forms the principle of hydrogen
bomb. bomb.
5) Energy released per nucleon is 5) Energy released per nucleon is
less. more.

15. Draw a neat labelled diagram of Power Reactor (Nuclear

Reactor) :

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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
1. Explain the Energy Band in solids.
In solids, atoms will be closely packed. Therefore electron in any orbit will be influenced by
surrounding atoms. This range of energy possessed by the electrons is called as energy band , this
theory is called as band theory of solids.
Energy band: The range of energy possessed by the electrons is called as energy band.
Energy bands are formed due to the continous energy variation in different energy levels.
Valence band (V.B) : The range of energy possessed by valence electrons (outer most electrons) is
called valence band, this band may be half filled or completely filled but never be empty.
Conduction band (C.B): The range of energy possessed by conduction electron (free electron) is
called as conduction band. It may be half filled, completely filled or it may be empty.
Energy gap (Eg) : The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence band
to conduction band is called energy gap.
The energy gap for different materials is different.
Eg = 0 for conductors., Eg = 0.7 ev – 1.1 ev for semiconductors
Eg = 5 ev - 10 ev for insulators.
2. Explain the Classification of Solids on the basis of energy bands into conductors,
semiconductors
and insulators :
Sl.
No Conductors Semiconductors Insulators
1 Conductivity is very high Conductivity is between less Conductivity is negligible
than that of conductors
2 Resistivity is very low Resistivity is more than Resistivity is very large
conductors
3 Temperature co-efficient Temperature co-efficient of Temperature coefficient of
of resistance is positive resistance of a Sc is negative resistance is slightly
for conductor. and large. negative.
4 Type of bonding present is Type of bonding present is Type of bonding present is
metallic bonding Covalent ionic. (or covalent)

3. Write the differences between Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors:

Intrinsic semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors
1. It is a pure semiconductor 1. It is a semiconductor doped with impurities.
2. Number of holes and electrons are equal 2. Number of holes and electrons are unequal
3. Conductivity depends only on 3. Conductivity depends on temperature and
temperature impurities added.
4. Conductivity is due to both electrons 4. Conductivity is mainly due to majority charge
and holes carriers.
Ex: Ge in its purest state Ex: Ge doped with As

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4. Write the differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors.

n-type p-type

1) Majority charge carriers are electrons. 1) Majority charge carriers are holes.
2) Minority charge carriers are holes. 2) Minority charge carriers are electrons.
3) Produced by adding pentavalent impurities 3) They are produced by adding trivalent impurities
4) Donor impurity level lies very close to 4) Acceptor impurity level lies very close to valence
conduction band band
Ex: Ge doped with Arsenic Ex: Ge doped with Indium

5. Explain the Action of diode When forward biased.

Diode is said to be forward biased when p-side of the diode is connected to positive of the battery and n-side
of diode is connected to negative of the battery.
Positive of the battery attracts electron from n-side to p-side through the junction, negative of the battery
attracts holes from p-side to n-side through the junction therefore thickness of depletion layer decreases, its
resistance decreases and conductivity increases, it conducts current. A diode conducts current when it is
forward biased.
6. Explain the Action of diode when reverse biased.

Diode is said to be reverse biased when p-side is connected to negative of the battery and n-side is connected
to positive of the battery. The positive of the battery attracts electrons directly from n-side. Negative of the
battery attracts holes directly from p-side, thickness of depletion layer increases. Its resistance increases and
conductivity decreases therefore it does not conduct current.
6. Explain the working of half-wave Rectifier with its waveform.

A half wave rectifier is one in which rectification is done for only one half cycle of input AC.

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Working :
(i) During the positive half cycle of input AC, A is +ve and B is –ve hence diode is forward
biased, it conducts current therefore a current flows through the load resistance, there
will be voltage across the load resistance.
(ii) During negative half cycle, A is –ve and B is +ve hence diode becomes reverse biased, it
will not conduct current, no current flows through the load resistance and there is no
voltage across the load resistance. Thus half cycle of input AC is blocked by the diode.
This process is called as half wave rectification. Output is DC but not steady.
7. Explain the construction and working of Full-wave Rectifier with waveform.

A full wave rectifier is one in which rectification is done for the complete (both) cycle of input Ac.
Working:
(i) During positive half cycle of input AC , A is +ve and B is –ve hence diode D1 is forward
biased and D2 is reverse biased, D1 only conducts current. Current flows through the
load resistance in the direction D1 RL T there will be output voltage across the load
résistance.
(ii) During negative half cycle of input AC, A is –ve and B is +ve hence diode D2 is forward
biased and D1 is reverse biased. Diode D2 only conducts current. A current flows
through the load resistance in the direction D2 RL T. There will be voltage across the load
resistance.
In both the cases current flows in the same direction through the load resistance. Therefore output is
DC and steady. This process is called as “full wave rectification”.

8. Explain the action of Zener diode as a voltage Regulator.

Principle: Zener voltage remains constant, even though current
through the Zener diode varies over a wide range.

Working:
Case (i) : If the input DC voltage increases,
The current through RS and zener diode also increases.
This increases the voltage drop across RS without change in
the voltage across zener diode.
This is because in the breakdown region, zener voltage
remains constant even though the current through the diode changes.
Case (ii) : Similarly if the input DC voltage decreases,
The current through RS and zener diode also decreases. This decreases the voltage drop across RS
without change in the voltage across zener diode. This is because in the breakdown region, zener
voltage remains constant even though the current through the diode changes.
Thus in both the cases voltage across the zener diode remains constant and also the output voltage
across RL remains constant at VZ.
Hence Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.

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9. What is Light emitting diode (LED)? Write any two applications of LED.
An LED is a p-n junction diode which converts electrical energy to light energy.
Applications of LED’s:
1) They are used as optical fibre transmitter.
2) They are used for message display in railway station, bus stand, and airport.
3) Infrared LED’s are used in burglar alarm system and TV remote control.
10. What is Photo diode? Write any two applications of photodiode.
A Photo diode is a p-n junction diode which converts light energy to electrical energy.
Applications:
1) These photodiodes are used in computers and in films.
2) They are used in camera light meters and clock radios.
3) They are used to measurement of intensity of light in camera.
11. What is Solar Cell diode? Write any two applications of it.
A solar cell is a junction diode which converts solar energy into electrical energy.
Applications:
1. They are used in Solar water heaters, solar power supplies.
2. Solar cells are used in satellites to recharge their batteries.
12. Write the circuit symbol and truth table for OR gate.

A B y=A+B
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
13. Write the circuit symbol and truth table for AND gate.
A B y =A.B
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
14. Write the circuit symbol and truth table for NOR gate.

A B y (A + B = y)
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

15. Write the circuit symbol and truth table for NAND gate.
A B
y (y = A.B)
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

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