Chapter

Multiview Drawings 8
OBJECTIVES As lines, so loves oblique, may well

Themselves in every angle greet;

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
But ours, so truly parallel,
1. Explain orthographic and multiview projection.
Though infinite, can never meet.
2. Identify frontal, horizontal, and profile planes.
3. Identify the six principal views and the three space
Andrew Marvell
dimensions.
4. Apply standard line practices to multiview drawings.
5. Create a multiview drawing using hand tools or
CAD.
6. Identify normal, inclined, and oblique planes in
multiview drawings.
7. Represent lines, curves, surfaces, holes, fillets,
rounds, chamfers, runouts, and ellipses in multiview
drawings.
8. Apply visualization by solids and surfaces to
multiview drawings.
9. Explain the importance of multiview drawings.
10. Identify limiting elements, hidden features, and
intersections of two planes in multiview drawings.

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 8 introduces the theory, techniques, and standards

of multiview drawings, which are a standard method for
representing engineering designs. The chapter describes
how to create one-, two-, and three-view drawings with
traditional tools and CAD. Also described are standard
practices for representing edges, curves, holes, tangencies,
and fillets and rounds. The foundation of multiview draw-
ings is orthographic projection, based on parallel lines of
sight and mutually perpendicular views. ■

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Figure 8.1 Projection
Methods Projections
Projection techniques
developed along two lines:
parallel and perspective.

Perspective or Central Parallel Projections

Projections

Orthographic
Linear Aerial Oblique
Projections
Perspectives Perspectives Projections

Axonometric Multiview
Projections Projections
Half
Depth
Cabinet
One-Point Projection
q g
Perspective
b Isometric
a oc a= b= c
oq = or = og
Full
Aerial Perspective
Depth r
Object features appear
Two-Point Cavalier
less focused at a distance g
Perspective Projection
q b Dimetric
a oc a= b≠ c
oq = or ≠ og
Depth
Varies
Three-point General r
Perspective g
Projection
q b Trimetric
a oc a≠ b≠ c
The Attributes of Each Projection Method oq ≠ or ≠ og

One principal
Lines of plane parallel r
Projection Method Application
Sight to plane of
projection

Linear Perspective Converging; Sometimes Single view

inclined to pictorial
T

-One-Point
-Two-Point plane of
projection T
-Three-Point
Oblique Projection Parallel; Always Single view
-Cavalier inclined to pictorial
F RS F RS
-Cabinet plane of
-General projection Third-angle projection
Orthographic Projection
Axonometric Parallel; Never Single view RS F
-Isometric normal to pictorial
-Dimetric plane of RS F
-Trimetric projection
Multiview Projection Parallel; For all Multiview
T

-Third Angle normal to principal drawings T

(preferrred) plane of views
-First Angle projection First-angle projection

8.1 PROJECTION THEORY

methods are based on projection theory, which has taken
Engineering and technical graphics are dependent on pro- many years to evolve the rules used today.
jection methods. The two projection methods primarily Projection theory comprises the principles used to
used are perspective and parallel. (Figure 8.1) Both represent graphically 3-D objects and structures on 2-D
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 377

media. An example of one of the methods developed to All projection theory is based on two variables: line of
accomplish this task is shown in Figure 8.2, which is a sight and plane of projection. These variables are de-
pictorial drawing with shades and shadows to give the scribed briefly in the following paragraphs.
impression of three dimensions.
8.1.1 Line of Sight (LOS)
Drawing more than one face of an object by rotating the
object relative to your line of sight helps in understanding
the 3-D form. (Figure 8.3) A line of sight (LOS) is an
imaginary ray of light between an observer’s eye and an
object. In perspective projection, all lines of sight start at
a single point (Figure 8.4); in parallel projection, all lines
of sight are parallel (Figure 8.5).

8.1.2 Plane of Projection

A plane of projection (i.e., an image or picture plane) is
an imaginary flat plane upon which the image created by
the lines of sight is projected. The image is produced by
connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the
Figure 8.2 Pictorial Illustration
projection plane. (See Figure 8.5.) In effect, the 3-D ob-
This is a computer-generated pictorial illustration with shades ject is transformed into a 2-D representation (also called
and shadows. These rendering techniques help enhance the 3-D a projection). The paper or computer screen on which a
quality of the image. (Courtesy of SDRC.) sketch or drawing is created is a plane of projection.

Parallel lines of sight

O
OrR
thTo
HgO
raG
phRi
cAP
H IC
ReR
voElV
veOdL
VE
D
TTiIpP
pPeE
dDfo
FrwOa
RrdW
AR
D
(Pla Pap
ne e
of p r
roje
ct ion
)

Figure 8.3 Changing Viewpoint

Changing the position of the object relative to the line of sight creates different views of the same object.
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378 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Nonparallel lines of sight

radiating from a point

Vie
pic w of
tur ob
e p jec
lan t pr
Pic e oje
cte
(pature do
pe pla nto
r o ne
rc
om
pu
ter
sc
ree
n)

Observer (Station point)

One viewpoint

Figure 8.4 Perspective Projection

Radiating lines of sight produce a perspective projection.

Parallel lines of sight

Vie
pic w of
tur ob
e p jec
lan t pr
e oje
cte
Pic do
nto
(pature
pe pla
r o ne
rc
om
pu
ter
sc
ree
n)
Observer (Station point)
Infinite viewpoint

Figure 8.5 Parallel Projection

Parallel lines of sight produce a parallel projection.

8.1.3 Parallel versus Perspective Projection

requires that the object be positioned at infinity and
If the distance from the observer to the object is infinite viewed from multiple points on an imaginary line paral-
(or essentially so), then the projectors (i.e., projection lel to the object. If the distance from the observer to the
lines) are parallel and the drawing is classified as a paral- object is finite, then the projectors are not parallel and the
lel projection. (See Figure 8.5.) Parallel projection drawing is classified as a perspective projection. (See
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 379

Figure 8.4.) Perspective projection requires that the ob- show all three dimensions of an object in one view or
ject be positioned at a finite distance and viewed from a multiviews that show only two dimensions of an object
single point (station point). in a single view. (Figure 8.6)
Perspective projections mimic what the human eye
sees; however, perspective drawings are difficult to cre-
ate. Parallel projections are less realistic, but they are 8.2 MULTIVIEW PROJECTION PLANES
easier to draw. This chapter will focus on parallel projec-
tion. Perspective drawings are covered in Chapter 10. Multiview projection is an orthographic projection for
Orthographic projection is a parallel projection which the object is behind the plane of projection, and the
technique in which the plane of projection is positioned object is oriented such that only two of its dimensions are
between the observer and the object and is perpendicular shown. (Figure 8.7) As the parallel lines of sight pierce
to the parallel lines of sight. The orthographic projection the projection plane, the features of the part are outlined.
technique can produce either pictorial drawings that Multiview drawings employ multiview projection
techniques. In multiview drawings, generally three views
of an object are drawn, and the features and dimensions
in each view accurately represent those of the object.
Each view is a 2-D flat image, as shown in Figure 8.8.
The views are defined according to the positions of the
planes of projection with respect to the object.

8.2.1 Frontal Plane of Projection

Isometric Oblique Multiview
The front view of an object shows the width and height
Figure 8.6 Parallel Projection dimensions. The views in Figures 8.7 and 8.8 are front
Parallel projection techniques can be used to create multiview views. The frontal plane of projection is the plane onto
or pictorial drawings. which the front view of a multiview drawing is projected.

Plan Plan
e e
proj of proj of
e
(fro ction e
(fro ction
ntal ntal
) )

pth
De

Lines of sight
perpendicular to plane Fro
of projection nt
Projectors perpendicular to view
plane Object’s depth is not
represented (B)
(A)

Figure 8.7 Orthographic Projection

Orthographic projection is used to create this front multiview drawing by projecting details onto a projection plane that is parallel to
the view of the object selected as the front.
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380 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Industry Application

CAD and Stereolithography Speed Solenoid Design

When Peter Paul Electronics faced the need to quickly re- cause the sleeve sits inside the coil, which is the heart of
design a humidifier solenoid valve, Senior Design Engi- the solenoid valve. In addition, a plunger that causes air
neer Thomas J. Pellegatto naturally turned his CAD-KEY- or fluid to flow in the valve rises inside the sleeve.
based system loose on the physical parameters of the According to Pellegatto, the simplest method for
new valve. But that wasn’t enough. The design required reducing cost and complexity of the critical sleeve
lower-cost manufacturing technology as well as dimen- assembly was to use the coil’s bobbin to replace the
sional and mechanical design changes. sleeve and house the plunger. Working directly with engi-
Existing valves from the company feature an all-steel neers at DuPont, designers selected a thermoplastic
sleeve, consisting of a flange nut, tube, and end stop, all named Rynite to eliminate misalignment and the need for
of which are staked together for welding. A weld bead se- welding the new assembly. The CAD system fed Peter
cures the end stop to the tube at the top edge and joins Paul’s internal model shop with the data to develop bob-
the tube and threaded portion of the flange nut at the bot- bin prototypes from the thermoplastic. In addition, de-
tom. Alignment of these components becomes critical be- signers decided to mold the formerly metallic mounting
bracket as part of the plastic housing.
Once designs were finalized, Pellegatto sent the CAD
file to a local stereolithography shop, which built demon-
stration models using a 3D Systems unit. Two copies
each of three molded components—the bobbin, valve
body, and overmolded housing—were produced for
about $3,000. Finally, after sample parts were approved
by the customer, hard tooling was developed using re-
vised CAD files. This venture into “desktop manufactur-
ing” saved enormous amounts of design cycle time, ac-
cording to Pellegatto. ■

Redesign and simplification of the solenoid valve coil and

sleeve assembly (left) is easily compared with the coil-on-
bobbin assembly. The extended and molded one-piece The three components created in plastic include the
bobbin eliminates the use of two machined parts, two welds, overmolded valve housing with integral bracket (red), the
and one quality operation while providing an improved bobbin on which the coil is wound, and the valve body with
magnetic circuit, reduced weight, and lower cost. which the solenoid valve is connected (blue).

Source: “CAD and Stereolithography Speed Solenoid Design,” Machine Design, August 13, 1993, p. 80. Photos courtesy of Thomas J. Pellegatto, Senior Design
Engineer, Peter Paul Electronics Co. Inc., New Britain, CT 06050–1180.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 381

8.2.2 Horizontal Plane of Projection 8.2.4 Orientation of Views from Projection Planes
The top view of an object shows the width and depth di- The views projected onto the three planes are
mensions. (Figure 8.9) The top view is projected onto the shown together in Figure 8.11. The top view is always
horizontal plane of projection, which is a plane sus- positioned above and aligned with the front view, and the
pended above and parallel to the top of the object. right side view is always positioned to the right of and
aligned with the front view, as shown in the figure.
8.2.3 Profile Plane of Projection
The side view of an object shows the depth and height di- 8.3 ADVANTAGES OF MULTIVIEW DRAWINGS
mensions. In multiview drawings, the right side view is
the standard side view used. The right side view is pro- In order to produce a new product, it is necessary to
jected onto the right profile plane of projection, which know its true dimensions, and true dimensions are not
is a plane that is parallel to the right side of the object. adequately represented in most pictorial drawings. To
(Figure 8.10) illustrate, the photograph in Figure 8.12 is a pictorial
perspective image. The image distorts true distances,
which are essential in manufacturing and construction.
Figure 8.13 demonstrates how a perspective projection
distorts measurements. Note that the two width dimen-
sions in the front view of the block appear different in
length; equal distances do not appear equal on a per-
spective drawing.
Height In the pictorial drawings in Figure 8.14, angles are also
distorted. In the isometric view, right angles are not
shown as 90 degrees. In the oblique view, only the front
surfaces and surfaces parallel to the front surface show
true right angles. In isometric drawings, circular holes ap-
Width
pear as ellipses; in oblique drawings, circles also appear
as ellipses, except on the front plane and surfaces parallel
Figure 8.8 Single View
to the front surface. Changing the position of the object
A single view, in this case the front view, drawn on paper or
computer screen makes the 3-D object appear 2-D; one
will minimize the distortion of some surfaces, but not all.
dimension, in this case the depth dimension, cannot be Since engineering and technology depend on exact
represented since it is perpendicular to the paper. size and shape descriptions for designs, the best approach

of f
ne eo
Pla ection l) Lin t Width
h
j
pro izont
a sig
r
(ho
Top
view

Depth

Top View

Perpendicular to plane

Figure 8.9 Top View

A top view of the object is created by projecting onto the horizontal plane of projection.
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382 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.10 Profile View Depth

A right side view of the object is created by tion
projecting onto the profile plane of projection. jec
pro
e of ile)
n f
Pla (pro

Height

Line
o
sigh f
t

w
Perpendicular to plane vie
ide
Rs
Right side view

Top view

WI
DT
H

Front view Right side view

Figure 8.11 Multiview Drawing of an Object Lines of sight Lines of sight

For this object three views are created: front, top, and right Front Side
side. The views are aligned so that common dimensions are
shared between views. WIDTH
0 1 2 3 4 2

HL
SP SP
1 2 3 4 5

WIDTH
Front Side
What you see What you see

Figure 8.13 Distorted Dimensions

Perspective drawings distort true dimensions.

Figure 8.12 Perspective Image

The photograph shows the road in perspective, which is how
cameras capture images. Notice how the telephone poles appear
shorter and closer together off in the distance. (Photo courtesy of
Anna Anderson.)
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 383

is to use the parallel projection technique called ortho- 8.4 THE SIX PRINCIPAL VIEWS
graphic projection to create views that show only two of
the three dimensions (width, height, depth). If the object The plane of projection can be oriented to produce an in-
is correctly positioned relative to the projection planes, finite number of views of an object. However, some
the dimensions of features will be represented in true size views are more important than others. These principal
in one or more of the views. (Figure 8.15) Multiview views are the six mutually perpendicular views that are
drawings provide the most accurate description of three- produced by six mutually perpendicular planes of projec-
dimensional objects and structures for engineering, man- tion. If you imagine suspending an object in a glass box
ufacturing, and construction requirements. with major surfaces of the object positioned so that they
In the computer world, 3-D models replace the multi- are parallel to the sides of the box, the six sides of the
view drawing. These models are interpreted directly from
the database, without the use of dimensioned drawings.
(Figure 8.16) See Chapter 7.

Right angle does

3
not measure 90°

3
4 2

1 4

Right angle
does not Figure 8.16 CAD Data Used Directly by Machine Tool
Isometric measure 90° Oblique This computer-numeric-control (CNC) machine tool can
interpret and process 3-D CAD data for use in manufacturing,
Figure 8.14 Distorted Angles to create dimensionally accurate parts. (Courtesy of Intergraph
Angular dimensions are distorted on pictorial drawings. Corporation.)

38
19
3X ø5

R 9.5

4 ø 10
ø 14 R 9.5

R7

8 11.1

57

Figure 8.15 Multiview Drawing

Multiview drawings produce true-size features, which can be used for dimensionally accurate representations.
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384 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Multiple parallel
lines of sight

HOR
IZO
NTA
H L PL
ANE
F
TOP
VI EW
WID
TH

F P
H
PT
DE

HEI
GH
T

FRO W
NT VIE
VIE
W SIDE
HT
RIG

Observer at
infinity FRO NE
NTA P LA
L PL ILE
ANE OF
PR

Figure 8.17 Object Suspended in a Glass Box, Producing the Six Principal Views
Each view is perpendicular to and aligned with the adjacent views.

box become projection planes showing the six views. ing the lines of sight 90 degrees in an appropriate di-
(Figure 8.17) The six principal views are front, top, left rection from the front view. With CAD, the front view
side, right side, bottom, and rear. To draw these views on is the one created by looking down the Z axis (in the
2-D media, that is, a piece of paper or a computer moni- negative Z viewing direction), perpendicular to the X
tor, imagine putting hinges on all sides of the front glass and Y axes.
plane and on one edge of the left profile plane. Then cut The top view shows what becomes the top of the ob-
along all the other corners, and flatten out the box to cre- ject once the position of the front view is established.
ate a six-view drawing, as shown in Figure 8.18. With CAD, the top view is created by looking down the
The following descriptions are based on the X, Y, Y axis (in the negative Y viewing direction), perpendicu-
and Z coordinate system. In CAD, width can be as- lar to the Z and X axes.
signed the X axis, height assigned the Y axis, and The right side view shows what becomes the right
depth assigned the Z axis. This is not universally true side of the object once the position of the front view is
for all CAD systems but is used as a standard in this established. With CAD, the right side view is created by
text. CAD Reference 8.1 looking down the X axis from the right (in the negative X
The front view is the one that shows the most fea- viewing direction), perpendicular to the Z and Y axes.
tures or characteristics. All other views are based on The left side view shows what becomes the left side
the orientation chosen for the front view. Also, all of the object once the position of the front view is estab-
other views, except the rear view, are formed by rotat- lished. The left side view is a mirror image of the right
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 385

F
P
Hor
izon
tal p
lane

Top
H v iew

WID F
TH

H
F DEPT
P
HEI
GH
T

Fro
nt v
iew
view
R side

Fro
ntal
plan
e plane
Profile

Top

DEPTH DEPTH
Z
WIDTH
EQUAL EQUAL
X H
F
WIDTH

HEIGHT
F P P F F P

Y Y Y Y
Rear L side Front R side
X Z X F Z
X H
Z
DEPTH DEPTH

Bottom

Figure 8.18 Unfolding the Glass Box to Produce a Six-View Drawing

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386 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

side view, except that hidden lines may be different. Practice Exercise 8.1
With CAD, the left side view is created by looking down Hold an object at arm’s length or lay it on a flat surface.
the X axis from the left (in the positive X viewing direc- Close one eye, then view the object such that your line of
tion), perpendicular to the Z and X axes. sight is perpendicular to a major feature, such as a flat side.
The rear view shows what becomes the rear of the Concentrate on the outside edges of the object and sketch
what you see. Move your line of sight 90 degrees, or rotate
object once the front view is established. The rear view is
the object 90 degrees, and sketch what you see. This
at 90 degrees to the left side view and is a mirror image process will show you the basic procedure necessary to cre-
of the front view, except that hidden lines may be differ- ate the six principal views.
ent. With CAD, the rear view is created by looking down
the Z axis from behind the object (in the positive Z view-
ing direction), perpendicular to the Y and X axes. 8.4.1 Conventional View Placement
The bottom view shows what becomes the bottom of The three-view multiview drawing is the standard used in
the object once the front view is established. The bottom engineering and technology, because many times the
view is a mirror image of the top view, except that hid- other three principal views are mirror images and do not
den lines may be different. With CAD, the bottom view add to the knowledge about the object. The standard
is created by looking down the Y axis from below the ob- views used in a three-view drawing are the top, front, and
ject (positive Y viewing direction), perpendicular to the right side views, arranged as shown in Figure 8.19. The
Z and X axes. width dimensions are aligned between the front and top
The concept of laying the views flat by “unfolding the views, using vertical projection lines. The height dimen-
glass box,” as shown in Figure 8.18, forms the basis for sions are aligned between the front and profile views,
two important multiview drawing standards: using horizontal projection lines. Because of the relative
1. Alignment of views. positioning of the three views, the depth dimension can-
2. Fold lines. not be aligned using projection lines. Instead, the depth
dimension is measured in either the top or right side view
The top, front, and bottom views are all aligned vertically and transferred to the other view, using either a scale,
and share the same width dimension. The rear, left side, miter line, compass, or dividers. (Figure 8.20)
front, and right side views are all aligned horizontally The arrangement of the views may only vary as
and share the same height dimension. shown in Figure 8.21. The right side view can be placed
Fold lines are the imaginary hinged edges of the glass adjacent to the top view because both views share the
box. The fold line between the top and front views is la- depth dimension. Note that the side view is rotated so
beled H/F, for horizontal/frontal projection planes; the that the depth dimension in the two views is aligned.
fold line between the front and each profile view is la-
beled F/P, for frontal/horizontal projection planes. The
distance from a point in a side view to the F/P fold line is 8.4.2 First- and Third-Angle Projection
the same as the distance from the corresponding point in Figure 8.22A shows the standard arrangement of all six
the top view to the H/F fold line. Conceptually, then, the views of an object, as practiced in the United States and
fold lines are edge-on views of reference planes. Nor- Canada. The ANSI standard third-angle symbol shown
mally, fold lines or reference planes are not shown in en- in the figure commonly appears on technical drawings
gineering drawings. However, they are very important to denote that the drawing was done following third-
for auxiliary views and spatial geometry construction, angle projection conventions. Europe uses the first-
covered in Chapters 11 and 12. CAD Reference 8.2 angle projection and a different symbol, as shown in
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 387

Figure 8.22B. To understand the difference between (Figure 8.24) Familiarity with both first- and third-
first- and third-angle projection, refer to Figure 8.23, angle projection is valuable because of the global nature
which shows the orthogonal planes. Orthographic pro- of business in our era. As an example, Figure 8.25
jection can be described using these planes. If the first shows an engineering drawing produced in the United
quadrant is used for a multiview drawing, the results States for a German-owned company, using first-angle
will be very different from those of the third quadrant. projection.

Projection line TOP RIGHT SIDE

DEPTH
(Z) DEPTH
Projection line

WIDTH DEPTH
(X) (Z)

Central view
HEIGHT
(Y)

Multiple parallel Related views

projectors

Figure 8.19 Three Space Dimensions

The three space dimensions are width, height, and depth. A
single view on a multiview drawing will only reveal two of the FRONT
three space dimensions. The 3-D CAD systems use X, Y, and Z
to represent the three dimensions. Figure 8.21 Alternate View Arrangement
In this view arrangement, the top view is considered the central
view.

MITER LINE
1

45°
0

0 1

(A) Scale (B) Dividers (C) Miter Line

Figure 8.20 Transferring Depth Dimensions from the Top View to the Right Side View, Using Dividers, a Scale, or a
45-Degree Triangle and a Miter Line
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388 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

TOP

REAR LEFT FRONT RIGHT

BOTTOM

(A) U.S. Standard

BOTTOM

RIGHT FRONT LEFT REAR

TOP

(B) European Standard

Figure 8.22 Standard Arrangement of the Six Principal Views for Third- and First-Angle Projection
Third- and first-angle drawings are designated by the standard symbol shown in the lower right corner of parts (A) and (B). The
symbol represents how the front and right-side views of a truncated cone would appear in each standard.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 389

PR the hole in the block is an example of a feature shown

OF
ILE
PL
in one view and aligned on parallel projectors in the ad-
AN
E jacent view.
Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 1:
A NE Alignment of Features
L PL
TA Every point or feature in one view must be aligned on a
ON
FR
S
QUECO
parallel projector in any adjacent view.
AD ND
RA
NT The distance between the views is not fixed, and it can
QUFIRS vary according to the space available on the paper and
AD T
RA
N AN
E the number of dimensions to be shown.
T PL
QUTHIR AL
AD D O NT
RA RIZ
NT HO
8.4.4 Related Views
F
QUOUR
AD TH
RA Two views that are adjacent to the same view are called
PR NT
OF
ILE related views; in related views, distances between com-
PL
AN
E
mon features are equal. In Figure 8.26, for example, the
distance between surface 1 and surface 2 is the same in
the top view as it is in the right side view; therefore, the
Figure 8.23 The Principal Projection Planes and top and right side views are related views. The front and
Quadrants Used to Create First- and Third-Angle right side views in the figure are also related views, rela-
Projection Drawings tive to the top view.
These planes are used to create the six principal views of first-
and third-angle projection drawings. Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 2:
Distances in Related Views
Distances between any two points of a feature in related views
must be equal.

8.4.3 Adjacent Views 8.4.5 Central View

Adjacent views are two orthographic views placed next The view from which adjacent views are aligned is the
to each other such that the dimension they share in com- central view. In Figure 8.26, the front view is the central
mon is aligned, using parallel projectors. The top and view. In Figure 8.21, the top view is the central view.
front views share the width dimension; therefore, the top Distances and features are projected or measured from
view is placed directly above the front view, and vertical the central view to the adjacent views.
parallel projectors are used to ensure alignment of the
shared width dimension. The right side and front views
8.4.6 Line Conventions
share the height dimension; therefore, the right side view
is placed directly to the right of the front view, and hori- The alphabet of lines is discussed in detail in Chapter
zontal parallel projectors are used to ensure alignment of 3, Section 3.4, and illustrated in Figure 8.27. The tech-
the shared height dimension. niques for drawing lines are described in detail in Sec-
The manner in which adjacent views are positioned tion 3.5.
illustrates the first rule of orthographic projection: Because hidden lines and center lines are critical ele-
Every point or feature in one view must be aligned on a ments in multiview drawings, they are briefly discussed
parallel projector in any adjacent view. In Figure 8.26, again in the following sections. CAD Reference 8.3
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390 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

E
AN
PL
AL
O NT
FR

Third-Angle Projection RIG NE

HT P LA
( U.S. ) PLPROF AL
AN IL O NT
E E
RIZ
2nd HO
E RIG 1st
AN HT 3rd
PL
AL PLPROF 4th
O NT AN IL First-Angle Projection
RIZ E E ( Europe )
HO

E
AN
L PL
TA
ON
FR

W
VIE IEW
P TV
TO RON
F

E
ID
S
T
HEW
IGVI
R

RIGHT SIDE
VIEW
W
VIE
ONT W
FR P VIE
TO

(A) Third-Angle Projection (B) First-Angle Projection

Figure 8.24 Pictorial Comparison between First- and Third-Angle Projection Techniques
Placing the object in the third quadrant puts the projection planes between the viewer and the object. When placed in the first
quadrant, the object is between the viewer and the projection planes.
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Figure 8.25 First-Angle Projection
Engineering Drawing Produced in the United
States for a European Company
(Courtesy of Buehler Products, Inc.)

TOP

Figure 8.26 Alignment of Views

Three-view drawings are aligned horizontally and vertically on Related views
engineering drawings. In this view arrangement, the front view
is the central view. Also notice that surfaces 1 and 2 are the Vertical
same distance apart in the related views: top and right side. parallel 2
Equal
projectors

2
2

1 1

FRONT RIGHT SIDE

Horizontal
Central view
parallel
projectors
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392 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

.6 mm
VISIBLE LINE

HIDDEN (DASHED) LINE .3 mm

.3 mm
CENTER LINE
Dimension line

1.25 .3 mm Cutting plane line

DIMENSION & EXTENSION LINES 2 Visible line

.3 mm
PHANTOM LINE Extension line

.6 mm 2 Hidden (dashed) line

.6 mm

CUTTING PLANE LINES

.3 mm
CONSTRUCTION LINE

.3 mm
SECTION LINES

Construction line
Center line

Figure 8.27 Alphabet of Lines

ANSI standard lines used on technical drawings are of a specific type and thickness.

Hidden Lines In multiview drawings, hidden features dashed parallel lines in the top and front views represent
are represented as dashed lines, using ANSI standard line the limiting elements of the hole drilled through the ob-
types. (See Figure 8.27) ject but not visible in these views. The hole is visible in
Dashed lines are used to represent such hidden fea- the right side view. The single vertical dashed line in the
tures as: front view represents the hidden edge view of surface C.
Surface C is visible in the side view and is on edge in the
Holes—to locate the limiting elements.
top and front views.
Surfaces—to locate the edge view of the surface.
Most CAD systems may not follow a standard prac-
Change of planes—to locate the position of the
tice for representing hidden lines. The user must decide if
change of plane or corner.
the drawn hidden lines effectively communicate the de-
For example, Figure 8.28 shows dashed lines repre- sired information. CAD Reference 8.4
senting hidden features in the front and top views. The
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 393

Small dashes
cross at the
center
C

SURFACE
C Extends past
edge of object
8mm or 3/8"

A
C

1
C
B

Figure 8.28 Hidden Features

The dashed lines on this drawing indicate hidden features. The
vertical dashed line in the front view shows the location of Figure 8.29 Center Lines
plane C. The horizontal dashed lines in the front and top views
show the location of the hole. Center lines are used for symmetrical objects, such as
cylinders. Center lines should extend past the edge of the
object by 8 mm or c′′.

Center Lines Center lines are alternating long and are examples of such objects. For example, a cone
short thin dashes and are used for the axes of symmetri- can be described with a front and a top view. A
cal parts and features, such as cylinders and drilled profile view would be the same as the front view. (Figure
holes (Figure 8.29), for bolt circles (Figure 8.30D), and 8.32) CAD Reference 8.7
for paths of motion (Figure 8.30E). Center lines should
not terminate at another line or extend between views Three-View Drawings The majority of objects require
(Figure 8.30C). Very short, unbroken center lines may three views to completely describe the objects. The fol-
be used to represent the axes of very small holes (Fig- lowing steps describe the basics for setting up and devel-
ure 8.30C). oping a three-view multiview drawing of a simple part.
Some CAD systems have difficulty representing cen-
ter lines using standard practices. This is especially true
of the center lines for circles. Other CAD systems auto- Creating a Three-View Drawing
matically draw the center lines to standards. CAD
Reference 8.5 Step 1. In Figure 8.33, the isometric view of the part repre-
sents the part in its natural position; it appears to be rest-
ing on its largest surface area. The front, right side, and
One- and Two-View Drawings Some objects can be ade- top views are selected such that the fewest hidden lines
quately described with only one view. (Figure 8.31) A would appear on the views.
sphere can be drawn with one view because all views Step 2. The spacing of the views is determined by the total
will be a circle. A cylinder or cube can be described width, height, and depth of the object. Views are carefully
with one view if a note is added to describe the missing spaced to center the drawing within the working area of
feature or dimension. Other applications include a thin the drawing sheet. Also, the distance between views can
vary, but enough space should be left so that dimensions
gasket or a printed circuit board. One-view drawings are
can be placed between the views. A good rule of thumb
used in electrical, civil, and construction engineering. is to allow about 1.5′′ (36 mm) between views. For this
CAD Reference 8.6 example, use an object with a width of 4′′, height of 3′′,
Other objects can be adequately described with and a depth of 3′′. To determine the total amount of
two views. Cylindrical, conical, and pyramidal shapes space necessary to draw the front and side views in
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394 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

SPACE

CENTER LINE IN
LONGITUDINAL
VIEW FOR HOLES

(A) (B)

TOO SMALL TO
BREAK THE
CENTER LINE

BOLT CIRCLE

NO SPACE

SPACE
SPACE

(C) (D)

PATH OF MOTION

(E)

Figure 8.30 Standard Center Line Drawing Practices for Various Applications
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 395

THK
LENGTH DIAMETER LENGTH

WIDTH
O.D. I.D. I.D.
O.D.

THICKNESS=X.X

Washer Bushing Sphere PC Board Plot Plan

Figure 8.31 One-View Drawings

Applications for one-view drawings include some simple cylindrical shapes, spheres, thin parts, and map drawings.

R1 W
L W2

R3
O.D. I.D.
ø1

R2 ø1
W1
Cylindrical parts Cams

ø H

Conical parts

Figure 8.32 Two-View Drawings

Applications for two-view drawings include cylindrical and conical shapes.
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396 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

using construction lines. Details that cannot be projected

TOP
directly must be measured and transferred or projected
using a miter line. For example, dividers can be used to
measure and transfer details from the top view to the
right side view. (Figure 8.34D) A miter line can also be
constructed by drawing a 45-degree line from the inter-
section of the top and side view and drawing the projec-
tion lines as shown in Figure 8.34C.
Step 5. Locate and lightly draw hidden lines in each view.
For this example, hidden lines are used to represent the
limiting elements of the holes.
Step 6. Following the alphabet of lines, darken all object
lines by doing all horizontal, then all vertical, and finally
RI
all inclined lines, in that order. Darken all hidden and
T GH center lines. Lighten or erase any construction lines that
ON SID T
FR E
can be easily seen when the drawing is held at arm’s
length. The same basic procedures can be used with 2-D
Figure 8.33 Selecting the Views for a Multiview Drawing
CAD. However, construction lines do not have to be
The object should be oriented in its natural position, and views erased. Instead, they can be placed on a separate layer,
chosen should best describe the features. then turned off. CAD Reference 8.8

8.4.7 Multiviews from 3-D CAD Models

The computer screen can be used as a projection plane
alignment, add the width (4′′) of the front view and the
depth (3′′) of the side view. Then add 1.5′′ to give 8.5′′ as displaying the 2-D image of a 3-D CAD model. The user
the total amount of space needed for the front and side can control the line of sight and the type of projection
views and the space between. If the horizontal space on (parallel or perspective). Most 3-D CAD software pro-
the paper is 10′′, subtract 8.5′′ to get 1.5′′; divide the re- grams have automated the task of creating multiview
sult by 2 to get 0.75′′, which is the space left on either drawings from 3-D models. With these CAD systems,
side of the two views together. These distances are the 3-D model of the object is created first. (See Figure
marked across the paper, as shown in Figure 8.34A.
8.33.) Most CAD programs have predefined viewpoints
In a similar manner, the vertical positioning is deter-
mined by adding the height of the front view (3′′) that correspond to the six principal views. (Figure 8.35)
to the depth of the top view (3′′) and then adding The views that will best represent the object in multiview
1.5′′ for the space between the views. The result is are selected, the viewpoint is changed, a CAD command
7.5′′. The 7.5′′ is subtracted from the working area of converts the projection of the 3-D model into a 2-D
9′′; the result is divided by 2 to get 0.75′′, which is the drawing, and the first view is created. (Figure 8.36) This
distance across the top and bottom of the sheet. (Fig- view is then saved as a block or symbol. The second
ure 8.34B)
view is created by changing the viewpoint again and then
Step 3. Using techniques described previously in this text,
converting the new projection to a 2-D drawing of the
locate the center lines in each view, and lightly draw the
arc and circles. (Figure 8.34C)
object. (Figure 8.37) These steps are repeated for as
Step 4. Locate other details, and lightly draw horizontal,
many views as are necessary for the multiview drawing.
vertical, and inclined lines in each view. Normally, the After the required number of 2-D views are created,
front view is constructed first because it has the most de- the views are arranged on a new drawing by retrieving
tails. These details are then projected to the other views the blocks or symbols created earlier. Care must be taken
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 397

10.00
.75 4.00 1.50 3.00

.75

TOP
3.00
VIEW

9.00

1.50

3.00 FRONT RIGHT SIDE

VIEW VIEW

(A) (B)

Dividers used to transfer

depth dimensions
between the top and right
side views
Miter
Line

(C) (D)

Figure 8.34 Steps to Center and Create a Three-View Multiview Drawing on an A-Size Sheet
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398 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.35 Predefined Multiviews on a CAD System

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 REVISIONS DRAWING NO.: DATE:

TITLE: DRAWN BY:

SHEET OF

Figure 8.36 Changing the Viewpoint on a 3-D CAD Model to Create a Front View
This view is captured, then placed in a title block and border line.

REVISIONS DRAWING NO.: DATE:

TITLE: DRAWN BY:

SHEET OF

Figure 8.37 Changing the Viewpoint on the 3-D Model to Create a Right Side View
This view is captured, then placed in a title block and border line.
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400 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

REVISIONS DRAWING NO.: DATE:

TITLE: DRAWN BY:

SHEET OF

Figure 8.38 Creating a Multiview Drawing of the 3-D Model

The previously captured views are brought together with a standard border and title block to create the final drawing.

to bring the views in at the proper scale and correct align- (Figure 8.39) This will create views with a mini-
ment. The views must then be edited to change solid mum number of hidden lines. Figure 8.40 shows
lines to hidden lines and to add center lines. Other an example of poor positioning: the surfaces of
changes may be required so that the views are drawn to the object are not parallel to the glass planes, re-
accepted standards. (Figure 8.38) CAD Reference 8.9 sulting in many more hidden lines.
2. Define the front view. The front view should
show the object in its natural or assembled state
8.5 VIEW SELECTION and be the most descriptive view. (Figure 8.41)
For example, the front view of an automobile
Before a multiview drawing is created, the views must be would show the automobile in its natural position,
selected. Four basic decisions must be made to determine on its wheels.
the best views: 3. Determine the minimum number of views needed
1. Determine the best position of the object. The ob- to completely describe the object so it can be pro-
ject must be positioned within the imaginary glass duced. For our example, three views are required
box such that the surfaces of major features are ei- to completely describe the object. (Figure 8.42)
ther perpendicular or parallel to the glass planes. 4. Once the front view is selected, determine
which other views will have the fewest number
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 HOR
IZO
NTA
L PL
ANE
TOP
VIE
W

E
SID
FRO
NT I G HT
VIE R IEW
W V

FRO NE
NTA LA
L PL ILEP
ANE OF
PR

Figure 8.39 Good Orientation

Suspend the object in the glass box such that major surfaces are parallel or perpendicular to the sides of the box (projection planes).

HOR
IZO
NTA
L PL
ANE
TOP
VI EW

No!

FRO IDE
NT
VIE H TS
W RIG IEW
V

E
FRO AN
NTA E PL
L PL FIL
ANE O
PR

Figure 8.40 Poor Orientation

Suspending the object in the glass box such that surfaces are not parallel to the sides produces views with many hidden lines.
401
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402 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

of hidden lines. In Figure 8.43, the right side

view is selected over the left side view because
it has fewer hidden lines.

Practice Exercise 8.2

Using any of the objects in Figure 8.94 in the back of this
Natural Position chapter, generate three multiview sketches. Each sketch
should use a different view of the object as the front view.
What features of the object become hidden or visible as you
change the front view?

8.6 FUNDAMENTAL VIEWS

OF EDGES AND PLANES
Unnatural Position
No! In multiview drawings, there are fundamental views for
edges and planes. These fundamental views show the
Figure 8.41 Natural Position edges or planes in true size, not foreshortened, so that true
Always attempt to draw objects in their natural position. measurements of distances, angles, and areas can be made.

NO!

Figure 8.42 Minimum Number of Views

Select the minimum number of views needed to completely describe an object. Eliminate views that are mirror images of other views.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 403

No!

Figure 8.43 Most Descriptive Views

Select those views which are the most descriptive and have the fewest hidden lines. In this example, the right side view has fewer
hidden lines than the left side view.

8.6.1 Edges (Lines)

is inclined and foreshortened in the top and right side
An edge is the intersection of two planes and is repre- view, but is true length in the front view because it is
sented as a line on multiview drawings. A normal line, parallel to the frontal plane of projection.
or true-length line, is an edge that is parallel to a plane An oblique line is not parallel to any principal plane
of projection and thus perpendicular to the line of sight. of projection; therefore, it never appears as a point or in
In Figure 8.44, edge 1–2 in the top and right side views is true length in any of the six principal views. Instead, an
a normal edge. oblique edge will be foreshortened in every view and will
Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 3: always appear as an inclined line. Line 1–2 in Figure
True Length and Size 8.45 is an oblique edge.
Features are true length or true size when the lines of sight
are perpendicular to the feature. Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 4:
Foreshortening
An edge appears as a point in a plane of projection to Features are foreshortened when the lines of sight are not
which it is perpendicular. Edge 1–2 is a point in the perpendicular to the feature.
front view of Figure 8.44. The edge appears as a point
because it is parallel to the line of sight used to create
8.6.2 Principal Planes
the front view.
An inclined line is parallel to a plane of projection A principal plane is parallel to one of the principal
but inclined to the adjacent planes, and it appears fore- planes of projection and is therefore perpendicular to
shortened in the adjacent planes. In Figure 8.44, line 3–4 the line of sight. A principal plane or surface will be
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404 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

TO
P VI
EW
iew
p V ht
To f sig to

H
O
e o lar

R
IZ
Lin ndicu

O
N
e 1–2

TA
r p
pe line

L
P
LA
N
E
2
w
Vie ht
nt
Fro of sig ne
2 e li 1
Lin llel to
a ra 2 3
p 1–
4

3 4
IEW
TV
ON
FR FR RI
ON GH
TA TS
LP ID
E EV
LA AN IE
1
TOP
NE
E PL W
IL
OF
PR

1,2 1 2
3 3

4
4

FRONT RIGHT SIDE

Figure 8.44 Fundamental Views of Edges

Determine the fundamental views of edges on a multiview drawing by the position of the object relative to the current line of sight
and the relationship of the object to the planes of the glass box.

true size and shape in the view where it is parallel to the tation is an important characteristic in multiview draw-
projection plane and will appear as a horizontal or verti- ings. Principal planes are categorized by the view in
cal line in the adjacent views. In Figure 8.46, surface A which the plane appears true size and shape: frontal,
is parallel to the frontal projection plane and is there- horizontal, or profile.
fore a principal plane. Because surface A appears true A frontal plane is parallel to the front plane of pro-
size and shape in the front view, it is sometimes re- jection and is true size and shape in the front view. A
ferred to as a normal plane. In this figure, surface A frontal plane appears as a horizontal edge in the top view
appears as a horizontal edge in the top view and as a and a vertical edge in the profile views. In Figure 8.46,
vertical edge in the right side view. This edge represen- surface A is a frontal plane.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 405

H
O
R
IZ
O
N
TA
L
P
LA
N
E
1

FR
ON
TA E
L AN
PL PL
AN ILE
E OF
PR

1 1

2 2

Figure 8.45 Oblique Line

Oblique line 1–2 is not parallel to any of the principal planes of projection of the glass box.

8.6.3 Inclined Planes

A horizontal plane is parallel to the horizontal planes
of projection and is true size and shape in the top (and An inclined plane is perpendicular to one plane of pro-
bottom) view. A horizontal plane appears as a horizontal jection and inclined to adjacent planes and cannot be
edge in the front and side views. In Figure 8.46, surface viewed in true size and shape in any of the principal
B is a horizontal plane. views. An inclined plane appears as an edge in the view
A profile plane is parallel to the profile (right or left where it is perpendicular to the projection plane and as a
side) planes of projection and is true size and shape in the foreshortened surface in the adjacent views. In Figure
profile views. A profile plane appears as a vertical edge 8.46, plane D is an inclined surface. To view an inclined
in the front and top views. In Figure 8.46, surface C is a plane in its true size and shape, create an auxiliary view,
profile plane. as described in Chapter 11.
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406 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

HOR
IZO
B NTA
L PL
ANE
D
TOP
VIEW E

D
A
E D
A C
E
E C

FRO E
NT SID
VIE IGHT
W R IE W
V

E
FRO AN
NTA E PL
L PL FIL
ANE O
PR

Edge View of C
B D

Edge View of A TOP

Edge View of B

Edge View of B
Edge View of D

Edge D
View
of A
A
E E

FRONT RIGHT SIDE

Figure 8.46 Fundamental Views of Surfaces

Surface A is parallel to the frontal plane of projection. Surface B is parallel to the horizontal plane of projection. Surface C is parallel
to the profile plane of projection. Surface D is an inclined plane and is on edge in one of the principal views (the front view). Surface
E is an oblique plane and is neither parallel nor on edge in any of the principal planes of projection.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 407

8.6.4 Oblique Planes 8.7.1 Points

An oblique plane is not parallel to all the principal A point represents a specific position in space and has no
planes of projection. In Figure 8.46, plane E is an oblique width, height, or depth. A point can represent
surface. An oblique surface does not appear in its true
size and shape, or as an edge, in any of the principal The end view of a line.
views; instead, an oblique plane always appears as a fore- The intersection of two lines.
shortened plane in the principal views. A secondary aux- A specific position in space.
iliary view must be constructed, or the object must be ro- Even though a point does not have width, height, or
tated, in order to create a normal view of an oblique depth, its position must still be marked. On technical
plane. (See Chapter 12.) drawings, a point marker is a small symmetrical cross.
(See Chapter 6.)
Practice Exercise 8.3
Using stiff cardboard, cut out the following shapes: 8.7.2 Planes
• Rectangle.
A plane can be viewed from an infinite number of van-
• Circle.
tage points. A plane surface will always project as either
• Trapezoid. a line or an area. Areas are represented in true size or are
• Irregular shape with at least six sides, at least two of which foreshortened and will always be similar in configuration
are parallel to each other.
(same number of vertices and edges) from one view to
Sketch the following multiviews of each shape: another, unless viewed as an edge. For example, surface
• The line of sight perpendicular to the face. B in Figure 8.48 is always an irregular four-sided poly-
• Rotated 45 degrees about the vertical axis. gon with two parallel sides (a trapezoid), in all the princi-
• Rotated 90 degrees about the vertical axis.
pal views. Since surface B is seen as a foreshortened area
• Rotated 45 degrees about the horizontal axis.
in the three views, it is an oblique plane.
• Rotated 90 degrees about the horizontal axis. Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 5:
• Rotated 45 degrees about both the vertical and horizontal Configuration of Planes
axes. Areas that are the same feature will always be similar in
Which views represent true-size projections of the surface? configuration from one view to the next, unless viewed on
In what views is the surface inclined, oblique, or on edge? edge.
What is the shape of a circle when it is foreshortened? For
the inclined projections, how many primary dimensions of In contrast, area C in Figure 8.48 is similar in shape in
the surface appear smaller than they are in true-size projec- two of the orthographic views and is on edge in the third.
tion? What is the relationship between the foreshortened di- Surface C is a regular rectangle, with parallel sides la-
mension and the axis of rotation? Identify the parallel edges beled 3, 4, 5, and 6. Sides 3–6 and 4–5 are parallel in
of the surface in the true-size projection. Do these edges both the top view and the right side view. Also, lines 3–4
stay parallel in the other views? Are these edges always and 5–6 are parallel in both views. Parallel features will
seen in true length?
always be parallel, regardless of the viewpoint.

Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 6:

8.7 MULTIVIEW REPRESENTATIONS Parallel Features
Parallel features will always appear parallel in all views.
Three-dimensional solid objects are represented on 2-D
A plane appears as an edge view or line when it is par-
media as points, lines, and planes. The solid geometric
allel to the line of sight in the current view. In the front
primitives are transformed into 2-D geometric
view of Figure 8.48, surfaces A and D are shown as edges.
primitives. Being able to identify 2-D primitives and the
3-D primitive solids they represent is important in visual- Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 7:
izing and creating multiview drawings. Figure 8.47 Edge Views
shows multiview drawings of common geometric solids. Surfaces that are parallel to the lines of sight will appear on
edge and are represented as a line.
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408 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Rectangular prism Cone Sphere

Pyramid Cylinder Prism and cube

Truncated cone Partial sphere Prism and partial cylinder

Prism and negative

Prism and cylinder
cylinder (hole)

Figure 8.47 Multiview Drawings of Solid Primitive Shapes

Understanding and recognizing these shapes will help you understand their application in technical drawings. Notice that the cone,
sphere, and cylinder are adequately represented with fewer than three views.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 409

TO
P VI
EW

iew
p V ht
To f sig o
e o t To
Lin INED 2
PE Lin p Vi
CL eC RP e o ew
IN rfac EN f si
su g
su DICU ht

A
3 rfa L
1 ce AR
2 D to
G G
6 B
C
A w 4
Vie ht
nt
Fro of sig to
e L H 5
F Lin ALLE

D
B A R ce C E
P rfa
E su
3 T
4 ON
FR EW F RI
VI G
w VI HT
D Vie
C
ro nt ight EW SI
DE
F of s
e L to
Lin ALLE
R e D
1 6 5 PA rfac
H su
TOP

A A
1,2 6,3 6,1 2
G 3
B
C B
G
D D
C 4
5
5,4 H
H E
E
F F

FRONT RIGHT SIDE

Figure 8.48 Rule of Configuration of Planes

Surface B is an example of the Rule of Configuration of Planes. The edges of surface C, 3–4 and 5–6, are examples of the Rule of
Parallel Features.

A foreshortened plane is neither parallel nor perpen- slowly, the plane will become more foreshortened until it dis-
dicular to the line of sight. There are two types of fore- appears from your line of sight and appears as a line or
shortened planes, oblique and inclined, as described in edge. This exercise demonstrates how a flat plane can be
represented on paper in true size, foreshortened, or as a line.
Sections 8.6.3 and 8.6.4. Surface B is foreshortened in all
views of Figure 8.48.

8.7.3 Change of Planes (Corners)

Practice Exercise 8.4
A change of planes, or corner, occurs when two nonpar-
Hold an object that has at least one flat surface (plane) at
allel surfaces meet, forming a corner, line, or edge. (Fig-
arm’s length. Close one eye, and rotate the object so that
your line of sight is perpendicular to the flat surface. What ure 8.48 Line 3–4) Whenever there is a change in plane,
you see is a true-size view of the plane. Slowly rotate the ob- a line must be drawn to represent that change. The lines
ject while focusing on the flat plane. Notice that the flat plane are drawn as solid or continuous if visible in the current
begins to foreshorten. As you continue to rotate the object view or dashed if they are hidden.
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410 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

8.7.4 Angles size. For example, in Figure 8.49A, the 135-degree

angle is measured as 135 degrees in the front view,
An angle is represented in true size when it is in a nor-
which is parallel to the plane containing the angle. In
mal plane. If an angle is not in a normal plane, then
Figure 8.49B, the angle is measured as less than true
the angle will appear either larger or smaller than true
size in the front view because the plane containing the
angle is not parallel to the frontal plane and is fore-
shortened. Right angles can be measured as 90° in a
foreshortened plane if one line is true length. (Figure
8.49C)

8.7.5 Curved Surfaces

Curved surfaces are used to round the ends of parts and
to show drilled holes and cylindrical features. Cones,
FORESHORTENED
cylinders, and spheres are examples of geometric primi-
SURFACE tives that are represented as curved surfaces on techni-
cal drawings.
135° Only the far outside boundary, or limiting ele-
NOT 90° ment, of a curved surface is represented in multiview
TRUE TRUE
SIZE SURFACE drawings. For example, the curved surfaces of the cone
ANGLE
and cylinder in Figure 8.50 are represented as lines in the
(A) (B) (C) front and side views. Note that the bases of the cone and
cylinder are represented as circles when they are posi-
Figure 8.49 Angles tioned perpendicular to the line of sight.
Angles other than 90 degrees can only be measured in views
where the surface that contains the angle is perpendicular to the
line of sight. A 90-degree angle can be measured in a
foreshortened surface if one edge is true length.

Area
Area

Limiting
Limiting elements
elements
Axis Axis
(Center line) (Center line)

Area
Area
Cone Cylinder

Figure 8.50 Limiting Elements

In technical drawings, a cone is represented as a circle in one view and a triangle in the other. The sides of the triangle represent
limiting elements of the cone. A cylinder is represented as a circle in one view and a rectangle in the other.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 411

T T
ON ON
FR FR

No line
indicates Line indicates no
tangency tangency

Figure 8.51 Tangent Partial Cylinder

Figure 8.52 Nontangent Partial Cylinder
A rounded-end, or partial, cylinder is represented as an arc when
the line of sight is parallel to the axis of the partial cylinder. No When the transition of a rounded end to another feature is not
line is drawn at the place where the partial cylinder becomes tangent, a line is used at the point of intersection.
tangent to another feature, such as the vertical face of the side.

Practice Exercise 8.5 Minor axis

True length
Hold a 12-ounce can of soda at arm’s length so that your center lines Ellipse
(foreshortened)
line of sight is perpendicular to the axis of the can. Close
one eye; the outline of the view should be a rectangle. The
two short sides are edge views of the circles representing
the top and bottom of the can. The two long sides represent
the limiting elements of the curved surface. Hold the can at Major axis
(true length)
arm’s length such that your line of sight is perpendicular to
the top or bottom. Close one eye; the outline should look
like a circle.
Cylinder viewed at Cylinder viewed at
90° to its top 45° to its top
Partial cylinders result in other types of multiview surface surface

representations. For example, the rounded end of the ob-

Figure 8.53 Elliptical Representation of a Circle
ject in Figure 8.51 is represented as an arc in the front
An elliptical view of a circle is created when the circle is
view. In the adjacent views, it is a rectangle because the viewed at an oblique angle.
curve is tangent to the sides of the object. If the curve
were not tangent to the sides, then a line representing a
change of planes would be needed in the profile and top
views. (Figure 8.52) (Figure 8.54) However, when the view is tilted, one of
An ellipse is used to represent a hole or circular fea- the center lines is foreshortened and becomes the minor
ture that is viewed at an angle other than perpendicular axis of an ellipse. The center line that remains true
or parallel. Such features include handles, wheels, length becomes the major axis of the ellipse. As the
clock faces, and ends of cans and bottles. Figure 8.53 viewing angle relative to the circle increases, the length
shows the end of a cylinder, viewed first with a perpen- of the minor axis is further foreshortened. (Figure 8.54)
dicular line of sight and then with a line of sight at 45 Ellipses are also produced by planes intersecting right
degrees. For the perpendicular view, the center lines circular cones and circular cylinders, as described in
are true length, and the figure is represented as a circle. Section 6.6.
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412 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Edge of circle Minor Diameter

Major Diameter

Line of sight 90° Line of sight 80°

Foreshortened
80°

(A) What you see: TRUE SIZE (B) What you see: ELLIPSE

Minor Diameter
Major Diameter Minor Diameter
Major Diameter

Line of sight 45° Fore-

Line of sight 30° Fore-
shortened
45° 30° shortened

(C) What you see: ELLIPSE (D) What you see: ELLIPSE

Figure 8.54 Viewing Angles for Ellipses

The size or exposure of an ellipse is determined by the angle of the line of sight relative to the circle.

8.7.6 Holes large diameter and the small diameter of the hole. Fig-
ure 8.55F shows a threaded hole, with two hidden lines
Figure 8.55 shows how to represent most types of ma-
in the front view and a solid and a hidden line in the
chined holes. A through hole, that is, a hole that goes all
top view.
the way through an object, is represented in one view as
two parallel hidden lines for the limiting elements and is
shown as a circle in the adjacent view. (Figure 8.55A) A 8.7.7 Fillets, Rounds, Finished Surfaces, and Chamfers
blind hole, that is, one that is not drilled all the way
through the material, is represented as shown in Figure A fillet is a rounded interior corner, normally found on
8.55B. The bottom of a drilled hole is pointed because all cast, forged, or plastic parts. A round is a rounded exte-
drills used to make such holes are pointed. The depth of rior corner, normally found on cast, forged, or plastic
the blind hole is measured to the flat, as shown, then 30- parts. A fillet or round can indicate that both intersecting
degree lines are added to represent the drill tip. surfaces are not machine finished. (Figure 8.56) A fillet
A drilled and counterbored hole is shown in Figure or round is shown as a small arc.
8.55C. Counterbored holes are used to allow the With CAD, corners are initially drawn square, then
heads of bolts to be flush with or below the surface of fillets and rounds are added using a FILLET command.
the part. A drilled and countersunk hole is shown in CAD Reference 8.10
Figure 8.55D. Countersunk holes are commonly used Fillets and rounds eliminate sharp corners on objects;
for flathead fasteners. Normally, the countersink is rep- therefore, there is no true change of planes at these places
resented by drawing 45-degree lines. A spotfaced hole on the object. However, on technical drawings, only cor-
is shown in Figure 8.55E. A spotfaced hole provides a ners, edge views of planes, and limiting elements are rep-
place for the heads of fasteners to rest, to create a resented. Therefore, at times it is necessary to add lines
smooth surface on cast parts. For countersunk, counter- to represent rounded corners for a clearer representation
bored, and spotfaced holes, a line must be drawn to of an object. (Figure 8.57) In adjacent views, lines are
represent the change of planes that occurs between the added to the filleted and rounded corners by projecting
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 413

ø 22.17 (Diameter) ø 19 (Diameter) ø 29 (Drill diameter)

22.23 29 (Depth) ø 29 (Counterbore diameter)
14 (Counterbore depth)

Dia C bore dia

Depth
C bore depth
30°

Drill
diameter

(A) Through hole (B) Blind hole (C) Drilled and counterbored hole

ø 14 ø 16 (Drill diameter)
(Drill diameter) ø 32 (Spotface diameter) ø .25 - 20 UNC 2B
Vø 29 × 82° (Countersink
diameter an
angle drawn
at 90°)
Thread note

C s k a n g le
S face dia. Dia.
Csk dia.

Depth of
spotface
usually not
given

Drill diameter

(D) Drilled and countersunk hole (E) Drilled and spotfaced hole (F) Threaded hole

Missing
Lines

(G) No! (H) No!

Figure 8.55 Representation of Various Types of Machined Holes

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414 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Rough
Round
Rough
Fillet

Rough
t Rough
Fille

Removed rough Removed rough

surface surface
Sharp Sharp
und corner
Ro corner
Finished Finished

Rough
Finished
Figure 8.56 Representation of Fillets and Rounds
Fillets and rounds indicate that surfaces of metal objects have not been machine finished; therefore, there are rounded corners.

Projected to
adjacent view to
locate line

Figure 8.57 Representing Fillet and Rounded Corners

Lines tangent to a fillet or round are constructed and then extended, to create a sharp corner. The location of the sharp corner is
projected to the adjacent view to determine where to place representative lines indicating a change of planes.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 415

No!
No!

Yes!
Yes!

Figure 8.58 Examples of Representations of Fillet and Rounded Corners

Lines are added to parts with fillets and rounds, for clarity. Lines are used in the top views of these parts to represent changes of
planes that have fillets or rounds at the corners.

60° 60°
3 1 3
16 8 16
3 Edge view of
8 finished surface

Finish marks

Figure 8.59 Finish Mark Symbols

Finish marks are placed on engineering drawings to indicate machine-finished surfaces.

from the place where the two surfaces would intersect if can be internal or external and are specified by a linear
the fillets or rounds were not used. (Figure 8.58) This is a and an angular dimension. With CAD, chamfers are
conventional practice used to give more realistic repre- added automatically to square corners using a CHAM-
sentation of the object in a multiview drawing. FER command. CAD Reference 8.11
When a surface is to be machined to a finish, a finish
mark in the form of a small v is drawn on the edge view
8.7.8 Runouts
of the surface to be machined, that is, the finished sur-
face. Figure 8.59 shows different methods of represent- A runout is a special method of representing filleted sur-
ing finish marks and the dimensions used to draw them. faces that are tangent to cylinders. (Figure 8.61) A runout
A chamfer is a beveled corner used on the openings is drawn starting at the point of tangency, using a radius
of holes and the ends of cylindrical parts, to eliminate equal to that of the filleted surface with a curvature of ap-
sharp corners. (Figure 8.60) Chamfers are represented as proximately one-eighth the circumference of a circle. Ex-
lines or circles to show the change of plane. Chamfers amples of runout uses in technical drawings are shown in
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416 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.62. If a very small round intersects a cylindrical

surface, the runouts curve away from each other. (Figure
8.62A) If a large round intersects a cylindrical surface,
the runouts curve toward each other. (Figure 8.62C)
CAD Reference 8.12

8.7.9 Elliptical Surfaces

If a right circular cylinder is cut at an acute angle to the
axis, an ellipse is created in one of the multiviews. (Fig-
ure 8.63) The major and minor diameters can be pro-
jected into the view that shows the top of the cylinder as
an ellipse. The ellipse can then be constructed using the
methods described in Section 6.6.3. (Figure 8.64)

Internal Chamfer External Chamfer

Figure 8.60 Examples of Internal and External Chamfers

Chamfers are used to break sharp corners on ends of cylinders and holes.

Point of
tangency

A Detail A

Line

No fillets No fillets No fillets No fillets

No line Runout No line

Runout

Fillets Fillets Fillets Fillets

Figure 8.61 Runouts

Runouts are used to represent corners with fillets that intersect cylinders. Notice the difference in the point of tangency with and
without the fillets.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 417

Flat Flat Rounded Rounded

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Flat Rounded Flat

(E) (F) (G)

(H) (I) (J) (K) (L)

Figure 8.62 Examples of Runouts in Multiview Drawings

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418 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

MAJOR
DIAMETER

MINOR
1
DIAMETER
2
3

4
1 1
2 2
3 3

4 4

Figure 8.63 Right Circular Cylinder Cut to Create an

Ellipse
An ellipse is created when a cylinder is cut at an acute angle to Figure 8.64 Creating an Ellipse by Plotting Points
the axis. One method of drawing an ellipse is to plot points on the curve
and transfer those points to the adjacent views.

8.7.10 Irregular or Space Curves

Irregular or space curves are drawn by plotting points
along the curve in one view and then transferring or
projecting those points to the adjacent views. (Figure
8.65) The intersections of projected points locate the
path of the space curve, which is drawn using an irregu-
1
lar curve. With CAD, a SPLINE command is used to
2
draw the curve. 3
4
5
6
8.7.11 Intersecting Cylinders
7
When two dissimilar shapes meet, a line of intersec- 8
9
tion usually results. The conventional practices for
10
representing intersecting surfaces on multiview draw- 1
1
2 2
ings are demonstrated in Figure 8.66, which shows 3 3
two cylinders intersecting. When one of the intersect- 4 4
5 5
ing cylinders is small, true projection is disregarded. 6 6
(Figure 8.66A) When one cylinder is slightly smaller 7 7
8 8
than the other, some construction is required. (Figure 9 9
10 10
8.66B) When both cylinders are of the same diameter,
the intersecting surface is drawn as straight lines. (Fig-
ure 8.66C) Figure 8.65 Plotting Points to Create a Space Curve
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 419

No curve r=R

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 8.66 Representing the Intersection of Two Cylinders

Representation of the intersection of two cylinders varies according to the relative sizes of the cylinders.

Tangent no
line

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 8.67 Representing the Intersection between a Cylinder and a Prism

Representation of the intersection between a cylinder and a prism depends on the size of the prism relative to the cylinder.

8.7.12 Cylinders Intersecting Prisms and Holes 8.8 MULTIVIEW DRAWING VISUALIZATION
Figure 8.67 shows cylinders intersecting with prisms.
Large prisms are represented using true projection (Fig- With sufficient practice, it is possible to learn to read
ure 8.67B and C); small prisms are not (Figure 8.67A). 2-D engineering drawings, such as the multiview draw-
Figure 8.68 shows cylinders intersected with piercing ings in Figure 8.69, and to develop mental 3-D images
holes. Large holes and slots are represented using true of the objects. Reading a drawing means being able to
projection (Figure 8.68B and D); small holes and slots look at a two- or three-view multiview drawing and
are not (Figure 8.68A and C). form a clear mental image of the three-dimensional ob-
ject. A corollary skill is the ability to create a multiview
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420 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(A) Small Hole (B) Large Hole

(C) Small Slot (D) Large Slot

Figure 8.68 Representing the Intersection between a Cylinder and a Hole

Representation of the intersection between a cylinder and a hole or slot depends on the size of the hole or slot relative to the cylinder.

drawing from a pictorial view of an object. Going from Styrofoam. The two basic techniques for creating these
pictorial to multiview and multiview to pictorial is an models are cutting the 3-D form out of a rectangular
important process performed every day by technologists. shape (Figure 8.70) and using analysis of solids (Figure
The following sections describe various techniques for 8.71) to divide the object into its basic geometric primi-
improving your ability to visualize multiview drawings. tives and then combining these shapes. (See Section 8.8.8
Additional information on visualizing 3-D objects is for more information on analysis of solids.)
found in Chapter 5.

Practice Exercise 8.6

8.8.1 Projection Studies Figure 8.70 shows the steps for creating a physical model
from a rectangular block of modeling clay, based on a multi-
One technique that will improve multiview drawing visu-
view drawing.
alization skills is the study of completed multiviews of
various objects, such as those in Figure 8.69. Study each Step 1. Create a rectangular piece of clay that is propor-
object for orientation, view selection, projection of visi- tional to the width, height, and depth dimensions shown
ble and hidden features, tangent features, holes and on the multiview drawing.
rounded surfaces, inclined and oblique surfaces, and Step 2. Score the surface of the clay with the point of the
dashed line usage. knife to indicate the positions of the features.
Step 3. Remove the amount of clay necessary to leave the
required L-shape shown in the side view.
8.8.2 Physical Model Construction Step 4. Cut along the angled line to remove the last piece
of clay.
The creation of physical models can be useful in learning Step 5. Sketch a multiview drawing of the piece of clay.
to visualize objects in multiview drawings. Typically, Repeat these steps to create other 3-D geometric
these models are created from modeling clay, wax, or forms.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 421

(A) (B) (C) (D)

(E) (F) (G) (H)

(I) (J) (K) (L)

(M) (N) (O) (P)

(Q) (R) (S) (T)

(U) (V) (W) (X)

Figure 8.69 Examples of the Standard Representations of Various Geometric Forms

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422 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Orthographic (A) (B)

(C) (D) (E)

Figure 8.70 Creating a Real Model

Using Styrofoam or modeling clay and a knife, model simple 3-D objects to aid the visualization process.

8.8.3 Adjacent Areas

Given the top view of an object, as shown in Figure 8.72,
sketch isometric views of several possible 3-D forms.
Figure 8.73 shows just four of the solutions possible and
demonstrates the importance of understanding adjacent
areas when reading multiview drawings. Adjacent areas
are surfaces that reside next to each other. The boundary
between the surfaces is represented as a line indicating a
change in planes. No two adjacent areas can lie in the
same plane. Adjacent areas represent
1. Surfaces at different levels.
Figure 8.71 Analysis of Solids 2. Inclined or oblique surfaces.
A complex object can be visualized by decomposing it into 3. Cylindrical surfaces.
simpler geometric forms.
4. A combination of the above.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 423

Going back to Figure 8.72, the lines separating sur- tion of planes, and Rule 6, parallel features.) Similar
faces A, B, and C represent three different surfaces at dif- shape or configuration is useful in visualizing or creating
ferent heights. Surface A may be higher or lower than multiview drawings of objects with inclined or oblique
surfaces B and C; surface A may also be inclined or surfaces. For example, if an inclined surface has four
cylindrical. This ambiguity emphasizes the importance of edges with opposite edges parallel, then that surface will
using more than one orthographic view to represent an appear with four sides with opposite edges parallel in any
object clearly. orthographic view, unless viewing the surface on edge.
By remembering this rule you can visually check the ac-
curacy of an orthographic drawing by comparing the
8.8.4 Similar Shapes
configuration and number of sides of surfaces from view
One visualization technique involves identifying those to view. Figure 8.74 shows objects with shaded surfaces
views in which a surface has a similar configuration and that can be described by their shapes. In Figure 8.74A,
number of sides. (See Section 8.7.2, Rule 5, configura- the shaded surface is L-shaped and appears similar in the
top and front views, but is an edge in the right side view.
In Figure 8.74B, the shaded surface is U-shaped and is

A
B
?
C

Top Isometric

? ?
Front Right side

Figure 8.72 Adjacent Areas Figure 8.73 Possible Solutions to Figure 8.72
Given the top view, make isometric sketches of possible 3-D
objects.

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Figure 8.74 Similar-Shaped Surfaces

Similar-shaped surfaces will retain their basic configuration in all views, unless viewed on edge. Notice that the number of edges of
a face remains constant in all the views and that edges parallel in one view will remain parallel in other views.
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424 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

configured similarly in the front and top views. In Figure

1
8.74C, the shaded surface is T-shaped in the top and
front views. In Figure 8.74D, the shaded surface has
4
eight sides in both the front and top views.

3 6 5
8.8.5 Surface Labeling
2
When multiview drawings are created from a given pic-
7 torial view, surfaces are labeled to check the accuracy of
the solution. The surfaces are labeled in the pictorial
9
8 view and then in each multiview, using the pictorial view
as a guide. Figure 8.75 is the pictorial view of an object,
with the visible surfaces labeled with a number; for ex-
ample, the inclined surface is number 5, the oblique sur-
face is number 8, and the hole is number 4. The multi-
5 view drawing is then created, the visible surfaces in each
view are labeled, and the results are checked against the
7 pictorial.

1
8 8.8.6 Missing Lines

1
Another way of becoming more proficient at reading and
1
drawing multiviews is by solving missing-line problems.
3
Figure 8.76 is a multiview drawing with at least one line
4 4 missing. Study each view, then add any missing lines to
the incomplete views. Lines may be missing in more than
5
6 one of the views. It may be helpful to create a rough iso-
3 5
6 7 7
metric sketch of the object when trying to determine the
8 2 8
location of missing lines.
2 9
9

Figure 8.75 Surface Labeling

To check the accuracy of multiview drawings, surfaces can be
labeled and compared with those in the pictorial view.

A A

Missing feature Completed multiview

Figure 8.76 Missing-Line Problems

One way to improve your proficiency is to solve missing-line problems. A combination of holistic visualization skills and
systematic analysis is used to identify missing features.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 425

8
8.8.7 Vertex Labeling
9 7
It is often helpful to label the vertices of the isometric
10
view as a check for the multiview drawing. In the isomet-
12
6
ric view in Figure 8.77, the vertices, including hidden
11
14
ones, are labeled with numbers, then the corresponding
5
3 vertices in the multiviews are numbered. In the multi-
13 4 views, hidden vertices are lettered to the right of the
2 numbered visible vertices. For example, the vertices of
1 A surface A are numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4. In the front view,
Top view
surface A appears on edge, and vertices 1 and 4 are in
front of vertices 3 and 2. Therefore, in the front view, the
8,14 7,6 3,2
vertices of surface A are labeled 4, 3 and 1, 2.

A 8.8.8 Analysis by Solids

9 10
A common technique for analyzing multiview drawings
is analysis by solids, in which objects are decomposed
12,13 11,5 4,1
into solid geometric primitives such as cylinders, nega-
tive cylinders (holes), square and rectangular prisms,
9,8 10,7 10,9 7,8
cones, spheres, etc. These primitives are shown in Figure
8.47 earlier in this chapter. Their importance in the un-
11,12
12 11 derstanding and visualization of multiview drawings can-
4,3
4,5 3,6
not be overemphasized.
5,6
A A Figure 8.78 is a multiview drawing of a 3-D object.
Important features are labeled in each view. Planes are
13,14 1,2 1,13 2,14 labeled with a P subscript, holes (negative cylinders) with
Front view Right side an H subscript, and cylinders (positive) with a C subscript.

Figure 8.77 Numbering the Isometric Pictorial and the

Multiviews to Help Visualize an Object
Analysis by Solids

Step 1. Examine all three views as a whole and then each

view in detail. In the top view is a rectangular shape la-
beled AP and three circles labeled GH, HC, and IH. On the
left end of the rectangular area are dashed lines repre-
senting hidden features. These hidden features are la-
Locating Missing Lines in an
beled DP, EC, and FH.
Incomplete Multiview Drawing
Step 2. In the front view is an L-shaped feature labeled BP.
Step 1. Study the three given views in Figure 8.76. At opposite ends of the L-shaped area are dashed lines
Step 2. Use analysis by solids or analysis by surfaces, as representing hidden features and labeled GH and FH. On
described earlier in this text, to create a mental image of top of the L-shaped area is a rectangular feature with
the 3-D form. dashed lines representing more hidden features. The
Step 3. If necessary, create a rough isometric sketch of the rectangular feature is labeled Hc and the hidden feature
object to determine the missing lines. is labeled IH.
Step 4. From every corner of the object, sketch construc- Step 3. In the right side view are two rectangular areas,
tion lines between the views. Because each projected and a U-shaped area with a circular feature. The rectan-
corner should align with a feature in the adjacent view, gular feature adjacent to and above the U-shaped area is
this technique may reveal missing details. For the fig- labeled CP and has hidden lines labeled GH. The rectan-
ure, corner A in the right side view does not align with gular feature above CP is labeled HC and contains dashed
any feature in the front view, thus revealing the location lines labeled IH. The U-shaped area is labeled DP, and the
of the missing line. arc is labeled EC. The circular feature in the U-shaped
area is labeled FH.
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426 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

HC
IH AP

CP

FH

EC GH
DP
BP

IH IH
Z AP Z AP
HC HC
GH

CP BP CP

DP
DP
FH BP GH

EC FH
EC

Figure 8.78 Visualizing a Multiview Drawing Using Analysis by Solids

This general examination of the views reveals some area HC is a cylinder because it appears as a circle in
important information about the 3-D form of the object. one view and as a rectangle in the other two views.
Adjacent views are compared with each other, and paral-
Step 7. The circle IH in the top view is aligned with dashed
lel projectors are drawn between adjacent views to help
lines IH in the front view and is inside cylinder HC. This in-
further analysis of the object.
dicates that circle IH in the top view is a negative cylinder
Step 4. In the top view, rectangular area AP extends the full (hole) centered within cylinder HC. The dashed line la-
width of the drawing, can only be aligned with area BP in beled Z in the front and right side views shows the depth
the front view, and appears as an edge in the front and of the negative cylinder IH.
right side views. Area BP in the front view is aligned with
Step 8. In the top view, the dashed lines at the left end of
area CP in the right side view. BP appears as a vertical
rectangular area A P represent one or more feature(s)
edge in the right side view and a horizontal edge in the
below the main body of the part. Hidden line DP in the top
top view. The conclusion is that areas AP, BP, and CP are
view is aligned with visible line DP in the front view, and
top, front, and right side views, respectively, of a rectan-
dashed lines FH in the top view are directly above dashed
gular prism, which is the main body of the part.
lines F H in the front view. Area E C in the top view is
Step 5. Circular area GH in the top view is aligned with the aligned with area EC in the front view. So the features hid-
hidden lines labeled GH in the front view. Because these den in the top view must be DP and EC in the front view.
hidden lines go from top to bottom in the front view, it is DP and EC in the front view are aligned with DP and EC in
concluded that the circle represents a hole. This can be the right side view. The right side view appears to be the
verified by the dashed lines GH in the right side view. most descriptive view of these features. In this view, area
Step 6. In the front view, rectangular area H C projects EC is a partial cylinder represented by arc EC. The side
above the main body of the part; therefore, it should be view also reveals that dashed lines FH in the top and front
visible in the top view. This rectangular area is in align- views represent the diameter of hole FH. Therefore, area
ment with circular area HC in the top view and with rectan- DP and partial cylinder EC are a U-shaped feature with a
gular area HC in the right side view. The conclusion is that hole whose width is revealed in the front and top views.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 427

TO
VI P
EW
IH
HC

AP
CP
EC

GH
DP B
FH P RI
NT GH
FROW T
V I E VI SID
EW E

Figure 8.79 A Pictorial View of the Multiview Drawing in Figure 8.78, Revealing Its Three-Dimensional Form

Analysis by solids should result in a clear mental image

of the 3-D form represented in a 2-D multiview drawing. B
Figure 8.79 is a pictorial view of the object in the multi-
view drawing, and it should be similar to the mental image A
created after following the preceding eight steps.

8.8.9 Analysis by Surfaces

Figure 8.79 lends itself to analysis by solids because
there are no inclined or oblique surfaces. With inclined D

and oblique surfaces, such as those shown in Figure 8.80,

analysis by surfaces may be more useful. E
C F
Analysis by Surfaces

Step 1. Examine all three views in Figure 8.80. There are

Figure 8.80 Visualizing a Multiview Drawing Using
no circular or elliptical features; therefore, all the areas
Analysis by Surfaces
must be bounded by planar surfaces. In the top view,
areas A and B are separated by lines; therefore, they are
not in the same plane. The same is true for areas C and D are the same feature. Similarly, areas A and C are
D in the front view and areas E and F in the right side aligned and are similar in shape, so they could be the
view. The reason for this is that no two contiguous (adja- same feature. However, before accepting these two pos-
cent) areas can lie in the same plane. If they were in the sibilities, the side view must be considered.
same plane, a line would not be drawn to separate them. Step 3. Area D aligns with area F, but they are not similar
This is an example of Rule 8. in shape; area F is three-sided and area D is six-sided.
Step 2. The lines of projection between the top and front Therefore, areas D and F are not the same feature. In the
views indicate that area B corresponds to area D. Areas right side view, area D must be represented as an edge
B and D are also similar in shape in that they both have view separating areas E and F; therefore, area D is the in-
six sides, thus reinforcing the possibility that areas B and clined plane in the right side view. Area C aligns with
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428 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

B=D F

E
A

B=
D
C

F D
C E
D=B
A A F

C E
C E F

Figure 8.82 A Pictorial View of Figure 8.80, Revealing Its

Figure 8.81 Conclusions Drawn about Figure 8.80 Three-Dimensional Form

area E, but they are not similar in shape; area C is four-

sided, and area E is three-sided. In the right side view,
area C must be represented as an edge view and is the
vertical line on the left side of the view.
Step 4. Areas E and F are not represented in the top or
front views; therefore, areas E and F are edge views in
the front and top views. (Figure 8.81) Because areas E
and F are visible in the right side view, they are at the
right end of the front and top views. Therefore, they must
be located at the right end of the object.
Center line Break line
Step 5. Based on alignment and similarity of shape, sur-
faces B and D must be the same surface. Figure 8.83 A Partial View Used on a Symmetrical Object
Step 6. Area A in the top view is an edge view represented The partial view is created along a center line or a break line.
as a horizontal line in the front and side views. Area C in
the front view is a horizontal edge view in the top view
and a vertical edge view in the right side view. Areas A
and C are therefore not the same.

8.9.1 Partial Views

Figure 8.82 is a pictorial view of the object. Areas B
A partial view shows only what is necessary to com-
and D are the same inclined plane, area A is a horizontal
pletely describe the object. Partial views are used for sym-
plane, and areas C, E, and F are vertical planes.
metrical objects, for some types of auxiliary views, and
Principles of Orthographic Projection Rule 8: for saving time when creating some types of multiview
Contiguous Areas drawings. A break line (shown as a jagged line) or center
No two contiguous areas can lie in the same plane. line for symmetrical objects may be used to limit the par-
tial view. (Figure 8.83) If a break line is used, it is placed
where it will not coincide with a visible or hidden line.
8.9 ANSI STANDARDS FOR Partial views are used to eliminate excessive hidden
MULTIVIEW DRAWINGS lines that would make reading and visualizing a drawing
difficult. At times it may be necessary to supplement a
Standards form the common language used by engineers partial view with another view. For example, in Figure
and technologists for communicating information. The 8.84, two partial profile views are used to describe the
standard view representations developed by ANSI for mul- object better. What has been left off in the profile views
tiview drawings are described in the following paragraphs. are details located behind the views.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 429

8.9.2 Revolution Conventions jection of a plate with a bolt circle. Notice that the pro-
file view becomes difficult to read because of so many
At times, a normal multiview drawing will result in
hidden lines. As shown in Figure 8.86, revolution con-
views that are difficult to visualize and read. This is espe-
ventions dictate that only two of the bolt circle holes
cially true of objects with ribs, arms, or holes that are not
must be represented in the profile view. These two bolt
aligned with horizontal and vertical center lines. Figure
circle holes are aligned with the vertical center line in
8.85 shows an object with ribs and holes that are equally
the front view and are then represented in that position
spaced, with the two bottom holes not aligned with the
in the profile view.
center line of the object. True projection produces an
Figure 8.87 shows another example of revolution
awkward profile view that is difficult to draw because all
conventions. The inclined arms in the figure result in a
but one rib are foreshortened. (Figure 8.85A) ANSI stan-
foreshortened profile view, which is difficult and time
dard revolution conventions allow the profile view to be
consuming to draw. Revolution conventions allow the
drawn as shown in Figure 8.85B. You must visualize the
arms to be shown in alignment with the vertical center
object as if the ribs are revolved into alignment with the
line of the front view to create the profile view shown in
vertical center line in the front view. This will produce a
the figure.
profile view that is easier to visualize and draw.
Objects similar to those described in the preceding
Revolution conventions can also be used on parts
paragraphs are frequently represented as section views.
that have bolt circles. Figure 8.86 shows the true pro-
When revolution techniques are used with section
views, the drawings are called aligned sections. (See
Chapter 14.)
Revolution conventions were developed before CAD.
With the advent of 3-D CAD and the ability to extract
views automatically, it is possible to create a true-projec-
tion view, such as that shown in Figure 8.87, quickly and
easily. You are cautioned that, even though a view can be
automatically produced by a CAD system, this does not
Figure 8.84 Use of Two Partial Profile Views to Describe necessarily mean that the view will be easy to visualize
an Object and Eliminate Hidden Lines by the user.

(A) True projection (B) Preferred

Figure 8.85 Revolution Convention Used to Simplify the Representation of Ribs and Webs
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430 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

True projection Preferred True projection

Preferred

Figure 8.86 Revolution Convention Used on Objects with Figure 8.87 Revolution Convention Used to Simplify the
Bolt Circles to Eliminate Hidden Lines and Improve Representation of Arms
Visualization

Practice Exercise 8.7

In Figures 8.85 through 8.87, a new revolved view was cre-
ated to replace a true projection in the profile view. This was
A
done in order to represent the features of the object more
clearly. Sketch new front views as if the new profile views
represented true projections. View A
Scale - 4/1

8.9.3 Removed Views Figure 8.88 A Scaled Removed View (View A)

At times, it is important to highlight or enlarge part of
a multiview. A new view is drawn that is not in align-
ment with one of the principal views, but is removed Rule 1: Every point or feature in one view must be
and placed at a convenient location on the drawing aligned on a parallel projector in any adjacent
sheet. A removed view is a complete or partial ortho- view.
graphic view that shows some details more clearly. A Rule 2: Distances between any two points of a fea-
new viewing plane is used to define the line of sight ture in related views must be equal.
used to create the removed view, and both the viewing
Rule 3: Features are true length or true size when the
plane and the removed view are labeled, as shown in
lines of sight are perpendicular to the feature.
Figure 8.88.
Rule 4: Features are foreshortened when the lines of
sight are not perpendicular to the feature.
Rule 5: Areas that are the same feature will always
8.10 SUMMARY
be similar in configuration from one view to the
next, unless viewed as an edge.
Multiview drawings are an important part of technical
graphics. Creating multiview drawings takes a high de- Rule 6: Parallel features will always appear parallel
gree of visualization skill and considerable practice. Mul- in all views.
tiview drawings are created by closely following ortho- Rule 7: Surfaces that are parallel to the lines of sight
graphic projection techniques and ANSI standards. The will appear as lines or edge views.
rules of orthographic projection are listed here for your Rule 8: No two contiguous areas can lie in the same
reference. plane.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 431

Questions for Review

1. Define orthographic projection. 6. Define fold lines.

2. How is orthographic projection different from 7. List the space dimensions found on a front view,
perspective projection? Use a sketch to highlight top view, and profile view.
the differences. 8. Define a normal plane.
3. Define multiview drawings. Make a simple multi- 9. Define an inclined plane.
view sketch of an object. 10. Define an oblique plane.
4. Define frontal, horizontal, and profile planes. 11. List the eight rules of orthographic projection.
5. List the six principal views.

Problems

Number each visible surface in each of the multi-

Integrated Design Communications Problem
views to correspond to the numbers given in the
Gear reducer assignment 6
pictorial view.
Each member of the team will take his or her assigned part(s)
and the design sketches created earlier and will begin to cre- 8.3 (Figure 8.91) Given the front view shown in the fig-
ate multiview drawings of those parts, using hand tools or ure, design at least six different solutions. Sketch your
CAD. If 3-D models were created earlier and the CAD soft- solutions in pictorial and in front and side views.
ware is capable, extract the multiviews from the models, as 8.4 (Figure 8.92) Given the two views of a multiview
described in this chapter. When creating the multiviews, re- drawing of an object, sketch or draw the given
member to choose the most descriptive views and to leave
views, freehand or using instruments or CAD, and
enough space between the views to add dimensions later.
then add the missing view. As an additional exer-
cise, create a pictorial sketch of the object.
8.1 (Figure 8.89) Draw or sketch the front, top, and
8.5 (Figure 8.93) Given three incomplete views of a
right side views of the object shown in the pictor-
multiview drawing of an object, sketch or draw the
ial. Number each visible surface in each of the
given views, freehand or using instruments or
multiviews to correspond to the numbers given in
CAD, and then add the missing line or lines. As an
the pictorial view.
additional exercise, create a pictorial sketch of the
8.2 (Figure 8.90) Draw or sketch the front, top, and object.
right side views of the object shown in the pictorial. 5

4 6
3

15
14

4
3

2 13
12 7 16
11 12
2
26
7 6
1 8
18
10

1
16 19 17
8 13 9
22 20
21
5

24

15
11 17
9 14 25
10 23

Figure 8.89 Solid Object for Problems 8.1, 8.11, and 8.12 Figure 8.90 Solid Object for Problem 8.2
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432 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

f. Same as (e), except raise the cylinder along the

line of sight of the top view.
g. Same as (a), except remove a square feature
rather than a round hole. Compare this with
the views in (a).
h. Same as (a), except place the center 2 squares
to the right. Enlarge the drill to a diameter of 5
squares; 7 squares; 9 squares.
i. Find the midpoints of the top and right side
edges of the front view. Draw a line connect-
ing these points and project it along the line
of sight for the front view to create a cutting
EXAMPLE plane. Remove this corner of the cube.
j. Same as (i), except rotate the cutting plane to
Figure 8.91 Front View for Problem 8.3 be 15°, 30°, 60°, and 75° to the horizontal.
Compare the dimensions of the inclined sur-
face projections at each of these angles (in-
cluding the original 45° angle).
8.6 (Figure 8.94) Sketch, or draw with instruments or
k. Same as (i), except move the cutting plane to-
CAD, multiviews of the objects shown in the
ward the lower left corner of the front view, in
pictorials.
2-square increments. When is the inclined sur-
8.7 (Figures 8.95 through 8.184) Sketch, draw with face the largest?
instruments or CAD, or create 3-D CAD models l. Same as (i), except the cutting plane is defined
for the parts shown. by the midpoints of the top and right side
8.8 On square grid paper, sketch a series of multi- edges of the front view and the midpoint of the
views of a cube, at least eight squares on a side. top edge of the right side view.
Visualize the following modifications to the cube m. Same as (l), except move the cutting plane in
and draw the resulting multiviews: 2-square increments toward the opposite cor-
a. Looking at the front view, drill a hole 3 ner of the cube.
squares in diameter and parallel to the line of 8.9 Same as 8.8 (a through k), except use a cylinder 8
sight. squares in diameter, 8 squares deep, and seen in
b. Take the result of (a) and drill another hole 2 its circular form in the front view.
squares in diameter to the right of the first 8.10 Using any of the objects shown in the exercises in
hole. the back of this chapter, decompose the objects
c. Take the result of (a) and drill another hole 3 into primitive geometric shapes. Color code these
squares in diameter above the first hole. shapes to show whether they represent positive
d. Take the result of (a) and drill a hole 5 squares material added to the object or negative material
in diameter in the same location as the first removed from it. This can be done by:
hole, but only half-way through the cube.
e. Instead of drilling a 3-square diameter hole • Drawing isometric pictorial sketches of the
through the object, create a cylinder projecting objects.
2 squares out of the cube and parallel to the • Overdrawing on top of photocopies of the
line of sight of the front view. Compare this drawings.
with the views in (a). • Tracing over the drawings.
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 433

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9)

(10) (11) (12)

Figure 8.92 Two-View Drawings of Several Objects for Problem 8.4

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434 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(13) (14) (15)

(16) (17) (18)

(19) (20) (21)

(22) (23) (24)

Figure 8.92 Continued

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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 435

(25) (26) (27)

(28) (29) (30)

(31) (32) (33)

(34) (35) (36)

Figure 8.92 Continued

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436 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9)

(10) (11) (12)

Figure 8.93 Three Incomplete Views of a Multiview Drawing of an Object for Problem 8.5
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 437

(13) (14) (15)

(16) (17) (18)

(19) (20) (21)

(22) (23) (24)

Figure 8.93 Continued

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438 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

(7) (8) (9)

(10) (11) (12)

Figure 8.94 Pictorials of Several Objects for Problems 8.6 and 8.13
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 439

(13) (14) (15)

(16) (17) (18)

(19) (20) (21)

(22) (23) (24)

Figure 8.94 Continued

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440 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

(25) (26) (27)

(28) (29) (30)

(31) (32) (33)

(34) (35) (36)

Figure 8.94 Continued

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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 441

1.0

3.
0

00
.0
5.0

0
0
0

6.
7
.5

.0

00
4

0
2
50

.0
0
1.
ø 2.00
50

2
.0
0
1.

2X 4.00
ø .7
.50 5
0
1.0 2.00
0 .50

5
4.5

.7
3.50 1.00
.50

Figure 8.96 Wedge Support

Figure 8.95 Tool Block

.25
60° .570

.160
ø .25 40°

.125

.12
5
R .1875
R .340
R .560
ø 1.00

.0918
Figure 8.98 Ratchet Stop

Figure 8.97 Ratchet

8.11 Using either a photocopy or a tracing of the object surface in all three views. Label it the same as
in Figure 8.89, color, number, or letter each face you did in the pictorial. Then, pick another sur-
(surface) of the object. Pick a surface that will be face that shares an edge with the one you just
seen in its true size and shape in the front view sketched, and sketch the new surface in the three
and sketch its representation in the three primary views. Repeat the process until you have sketched
multiviews. Use projection lines to align the all the faces contiguous with the original one.
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442 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

How many of these faces are contiguous with

4.50
each other? How many are also seen in their true
.375
.75
size and shape in the front view? In other views?
ø .313
1.000
8.12 Using the object in Figure 8.89, identify the nor-
R .063
mal, inclined, and oblique planar surfaces. Either
.062
R 1.118
letter, number, or color code the surfaces on a
5°
1.00
tracing paper copy or a photocopy of the pictorial.
R .844 .50
R .906 .375 THIC
K
a. Create a multiview of the object and identify
45°
the same surfaces in all three views. In which
views are individual surfaces seen in their true
Figure 8.99 Lever size and shape? In which views are individual
surfaces foreshortened? (Which dimension is
foreshortened?) In which views are individual
features seen as edges?
ø .45 b. For the inclined surfaces, identify which edges
8
show up as normal or non-normal (angled)
edges on normal surfaces. How does the in-
.02 X
45°
clined surface appear in the view where a non-
normal edge is present?
R .3
c. For the oblique surfaces, are there any normal
15
edges? Is there any view in which any of these
44 surfaces are seen as edges?
ø .1255
. d. Visualize a view which would allow an in-
.780
clined or oblique surface to be seen in its true
.25 size and shape, and try to sketch that view.
What happens to the surfaces which were nor-
mal in the principal views?
59
R. 8.13 Using any of the objects from Figure 8.94, sketch
0
.06 .37
5 .75 them on tracing paper or make a photocopy. Sketch
cutting planes which would divide all or part of
.630 .06 each object into symmetrical halves. Sketch multi-
views of each half of each object.
Figure 8.100 Coupling
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 443

50
ø 3.
00
4.62
5 ø 7.
5
.37
ø2 00
4.00
ø2
.00 ø 4.
.50
ø1

3 6
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0 0
9
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0
.70
R .5
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X4
2.12
5 .03
5X
Figure 8.102 Half Pin

Figure 8.101 Retainer

0 .40
.00 6
53
1
ø1 ø.
F ER
AM °
CH 45 AP
.03
1 3 X 18 T
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0 .06 25-
ø .31
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ø.
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8

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ø . 8 Thi
.625 .01
0
25
ø ..438 R
R1
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0 CK
ø .4
47-
.68 MIN
8 IMU
.93 M
8

Figure 8.104 Latch Nut

Figure 8.103 Timing Knob

R
R. 2 .25
75 X ø. 0
0 62
50
5
.12
25 10
S .1 8°
DIU
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RA
03

D 3.4
4

2.2 BEN 37
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00

2.0
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1.

.75
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25

00
4.

ø .5
50
6.
00

8.
00

1.5 3.0 0
00 0 1.5 0
3.0

Figure 8.105 Top Bracket Figure 8.106 Snubber

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444 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

ø.
50
00 ø1
ø. .24
43 98
70 ø2
.25
0
ø.
37
4
.50 8
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ø1
RA .312
ISE 3 X
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7
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1.6
25
0
4
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0.3

000
1.0 4 .06
34 25
0.7 4 X4
31
ø. 5°

ø.
25
0 Figure 8.108 Spacer
45°
5x
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Figure 8.107 Dial Extension

2X
ø
20
.6
0

10
70

0.
.0

00
0

68
.0
0

70
.0
32

0 75
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19

0
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R
0

6. .55
40
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ø.
06
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15 80
.8 .43
0 ø.
20

31 .31
.0

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0

26 3 3 3
4. 0.
00 13 ø. .31
30

20
R .3
.0

06
0

3 50
METRIC 5.0
0 ø .5 ø
R .3
2 X . 75-2
1.2 37 4
5

Figure 8.109 Motor Plate

Figure 8.110 Handle

ø 1.
812
5
Sø 2.3783
Sø 2.0000

60°

1.1250

R1
.00
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0 R .814
60°
.36
60 .6250

1.0 R.
0 25
00

Figure 8.111 Release

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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 445

Figure 8.112 Evaporator CENTRAL AXIS TUBE

CENTRAL AXIS
#6
#3

#2 Central axis tube height = 11.000"

Central axis tube I.D. = 7.250"
Central axis tube O.D. = 8.000"
Central axis tube flange dia = 10.000"
#7
Central axis tube flange width = .500"
All flange diameters = tube diameter + 1.5"
All flange widths = .500"
All tube I.D.'s = Tube diameter - .500"

#8

#5
#4 #1

Angle of elevation Length of tube from end of

Elevation from base Azimuth angle from tube Offset distance from from the base of Outer diameter of
Tube # flange to apparent intersection
(on the central axis) #1 (around central axis) central axis the part tube
with central axis
1 4.000" 0° 0.000" 0° 14.000" 3.000"
2 7.000" 180° 0.000" 0° 11.000" 2.500"
3 7.000" 110° 0.000" 30° 9.250" 3.500"
4 4.000" 70° 2.000" -45° 9.500" 1.750"
5 2.750" 310° 0.500" -10° 5.000" 1.750"
6 9.125" 310° 0.750" 0° 5.500" 1.750"
7 4.625" 205° 0.125" 0° 6.000" 1.750"
8 4.500" 230° 0.250" -30° 7.500" 1.750"

13
00 8.78
Figure 8.114 L-Slide 9.50

8
.343 A

.74 2.3
09 59
4

ø 1.1
356
A
R

Sø
1.
75

2.0
00
00

.05
92 .125

R
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0

50
1.

0
69 7
17
ø

.437
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24

1
82

R
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0
7
1.

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96
11

25
31
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1.
71

.21
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1.0
34

.15 88 .43 .71

23

1.

62 75 87 00
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88
08

13
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22 T ø .4 5
.7
ø .8 INN EETH- 000
75 E P
.06 R AN ITCH
ø .5
0° ø 1.0 2 D A
T6 .13 5 X 45 ROOT NGLE
SE XIS X 3 ° CHA DIAM 90°
00 03 .9732
O FF L A 0° C MFE ET
A E .1639
25 TR HA R
MF AT B RS AS .0781
.06 EN ER O 1.7399
ø2 DC AT TTOM SHOW
TOP N
3X OUN .1092
1.5787
AR .0312
R .3750 .5244 .4062

Figure 8.113 Swivel 5° .8438 .2171

.0312

.6188 35° .4544 .0168

.1362 .4801
.8688
.8794

SECTION A-A
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446 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

3.6
.8 X 45° Figure 8.115 Manifold
ø 1.2

.6 5.0
3.2

3.

CL
3
4.
5
2.2

R 3.
2. 4
2.4

1
3.0
4.8

2.
2
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10

3.
2.2

9.
0
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6.

0
7
ø ø0
1. 3.6
6
1 . 2X
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18
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5° 2.4

9.

4.
4

7
1.0
0

1.6
8 0
13 21. 30.
.6 3.8 33.
2

Figure 8.116 Seat Figure 8.117 Propeller

R 2.2
.37 5
ø 84
1.5
0 1.1 ø 552
3 .50 86
2.6 C 1.2 58
3 L 5
°
1.8 12 120
8
2X
.63
ø.
88
R2
6 ø 16
4.
63

.25
2.
88

15
2.

°
00
1.
75

1.1
ø 32

13
3

6
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5

24

.25
28
6.
88

120 ø 68
7.

11
38

5 °

60 ø5
3.2 8X 45°
5 8 X B.C.
ø 2
4
90

94
METRIC

R
.2
5

3X
R
22 ø
.5

.1
8
0

9
45°
.2
2X

3X
5
R

ø2
30

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70
5

0
82 .13
70

1.
54

25

28
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ø

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24
R
16

84
42

.13 .13
.44 .19 .63
.75 5 .13
59

METRIC 1.2
15

42
0

8
1.3
3
1.6 6
16 2.0 2.81
0
3.0 8
3.3
Figure 8.118 Cutoff Figure 8.119 Folder
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 447

R
36
ø

.7
ø
ø

57
88

.6
52

24

8
9
3.
43
.035

75
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16
13

82
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0
00 .625 0

55
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°
53
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35
35 0

°
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ø

1.
20
12

56 50
1.
77

25
37
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R
R

58
0

48
12

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5 .375

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86
12

7
5
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.2
10

34
4
R

3X
14

36
0 8
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R
49
12
68 0°
48 ø.6 05
32 24 ø.45
9
.37

1.
METRIC

25
94 50
.64

00
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.75 89 0
.625
0 78 R .125

Figure 8.120 Spline Pilot NOTE: ALL CHAMFERED

.468
8 .51
EDGES .125 X 45° U.O.S. 0 03
.125
FILLETS & ROUNDS R .0625 0
.250
0
.250 0
.625 ø.3 ø.
4 46 60
.50 1 9
00

00
3.25
Figure 8.122 Index
0
.20
.20 ø .4 0 Figure 8.121 Sensor
.05
X ø .6
45 .30 00
° .80 ø 2. 0
.2

20
ø 1.
00
ø 2. .30
1.
1.
2.

15°
20
70
30

R
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8

40
ø 1.
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.20
8

1.

00
38

ø 4. ø ø 3 75
2. .0
00 0
75
1.

ø 3.
22
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ø
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9
15

ø
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ø
6

4.

3.
63

50
R

R
Slinger
3.

Figure 8.123
2.
63

87
84
R
2.
25 2.

5
36 2.7
ø
69

ø2 84 2
88 R .1
56
R8 4B
LAD .37
116 ø1 ES
92 EQ
SP
R1 3
00 ø3 1.1 .75
1.
75

3
ø8 .75
1768
R

R8
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R 16 0
R

R7
1

8 BL 8
ADE
SE
QS R1
04 Figure 8.124 Spray Arm
P
104 104

12 R1
2
ø 55
2
ø 1ø 228
METRIC 2
60
ø2 8
R2 90
0
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448 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.125 Arm Support

R
2.
6

.4
4
2.
36

.9
4
ES
H SID

3.
OT

6
NB

.4
4
O
TAB 1

12
5 R .3

.3
R .2

8
8
ø .3
ø
8.
0 2X

.94

2.
3

25
1.1
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3

8
2.6

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0
ø .5

5
1.3 .25 4.3
1
10

3.
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6 .50 .25

11
ø
14

.0
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8
68.
9 1.8 .88 8
2.3
4
4.4

4 5.3
8
12.

5.
2
1
14.
7
9 15.
17.
11.5
5.2 Figure 8.126 Control Back
18
.4
R
1.
8
R
9.
2

METRIC

8
8
R5

0
R3
ø2 5X
8 ø 56
ø
80

4X
ø6 19
3
R5
8
8

ø1
90
°

2 12
8

72°
34 ø 12 5X
R
4

ø 24
16

3
22

R
11

63
2

METRIC
66

80
88

ø5
ø4 2
4 METRIC
Figure 8.128 Gear Index

Figure 8.127 Inlet

8
1.3
ø1 3.3
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4X

ø
ø

2.
26
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0

1.
13

4.
63

2.0
0
8
1.8
2.
38

ø.
63
R
1.
13

R
7.
50

.2
2.

5
4.
38

13

.6
3
1.

1.6
25

3
.63

Figure 8.129 Speed Spacer Figure 8.130 Shaft Support

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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 449

ø
ø

.6
.6

2
3

.6

.7
3

1.
5

1.
1.

00

75
76
1.
00
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0
1.0

.3
8 .88 1
1.
75

1.5

. 25
0 1.3 .50
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.50
0

R 1.3
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3.5 8
5
0 1.6
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8

Figure 8.131 Stop Base

Figure 8.132 Tool Holder

18 3
2X
ø .6 0
0
ø 1.0
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16 37
R
20°
68

0
1.0
17

1.2 5
5 1.7 .63 1.38 50
21 2.
42

R
9

3
1.1
13

0
2.0
R

0
15 1.0
2

19 R
ø

.24
16

2 0
1.5
R

0 5
2.2
21

ø 1.0

METRIC 00
13 25 ø 2.
R.
15

5
°

3.7
12

17

0 °
ø .57 X 82
Figure 8.133 CNC Clamp 3 ø ..830
1.6
.25
R2
5
3 ø .7
1.6
3
1.1

0
.40 1.6
.6

.50 Figure 8.134 Pen Block

0

0
1.1 R1
.90

.90
.30
R3
0
R .5
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2X
ø
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3

.40 0
2X
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0
2.

ø
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3.

0
00
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9

1.

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00

0
60 6.3
2X ø 0

2.1
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0
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1
.
C

5
5
L

0
ø. 1.9
ø 180 2.5
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0
1.
1.

1.0
8

0
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1
1.

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75

5.0 .88
2.
2.

00

0
00

.30 .80 1.7

5 3.2
5 .63
0
1.3
ø
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4

0
2.0
0
ø

3.1
1.
75

FILLETS & ROUNDS R .13

Figure 8.135 Index Support Figure 8.136 Cover Guide

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450 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

ø.
50
0

R
.3
2.

.3

75
25

13
0
.87
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0
R
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7
1.

1.
37

37
5

30 .25

5
° .93
8 0

2X
ø
1.

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12

0
5

2X
ø
1.

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50

88
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0
0

0
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8
2.

3.0
25

00
0

.6

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25

0 0
.56
3
4X

Figure 8.138 Bearing Block

R
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5

Figure 8.137 Dial Bracket

ø

ø.
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25

90

.50 1.2
6
ø
1.

0
00

.53 .30 ø ..410

0

7
.43
.41
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R .32
1.4 2.2 .50
50 38
1.2 1
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R .40 60
.93 °
7 ø.
30
.37 .56
1.

5
81

3
3

1.0
3X

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1.2
63

5
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R

6
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7
3.
1.0
3X

18 4
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1.
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00

.49
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0
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6

.31 .66
3

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6
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1.
50

1.
06

44
5

.25
3

Figure 8.139 Pulley Support Figure 8.140 Centering Clip

52 6B
2 LA
DE
S 1.1
EQ 8
43
8 SP 75
39
ø.
3
R .18
84 R
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R R
21 .37
5
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0

CL 1.0
12 R 0
0 45
5
SR 2.2
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15
R

3
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0

11
1 1.0
R 19 0
23 5 1.0
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0 5
R
30
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2.
5

50

4.0
0
1.

.27
33

17
12
6

4 2.0 5
5

0
18 ø.
9 25
METRIC

Figure 8.141 Impeller Figure 8.142 Adjustable Guide

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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 451

Figure 8.143 Auger Support

1.
.6

75
1.

90

1.

0
06

62
0

5
4.0 .12
5

.3
8

.7

75
60
.25 R
0 .25
0
.45
R
.75

1.5

1.
0 1.0

62
2X 00

5
ø.
37
5
.62 1.7
2X 5 50
R
.50
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1.0 2.4 4 00
0 0 .50
7 0
1.7
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0

2.
62
5
.5

2.
0

00
2.0 .50

0
3.

.3
0

.7
0

37

75

50
5
.50

.6
25
2.
74

.6
7
3.
74

2.
00

2.

Figure 8.144 Pump Base

45

FILLETS & ROUNDS R .13

Figure 8.145 Bar Hinge Figure 8.146 Dryer Clip

7 5
2.3
3 ø .3 2.1
1

4X
ø
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8

0
1.0

3.
2

00
1.4

1.
2

75
1.4
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4X

2. 5
40
R

.6
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.9
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.50

3
4
25

7
1.3 0 0
R .5 2.3
8 .3

.4

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8

3
ø
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C

0
E
N
R

T
E
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R
2.1

E
8 R

D
2.0 .50

.6
2.3

3
3
1.2 0 .4
8
2X ø .75 .60
R
1.0
6
2X ø .50
7
2.3 .15

1.25 R
.5 1.4
TY 0
11°
9 5
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2.3
0

P 5
1.00 R .7
2 .71
1.2
83 0
° .77 .70
3.
20

.87
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2.
1.

40
40
4.

95°
00

R .50
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.12
0

1.1
1 .75
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1.21 4X ø 2X R .50
R 1.5
2.00

2.
80

1.00

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20° .50
.71 3.80
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R .56
.55 1.48
R .75 R .60
.60 .50 1.20
1.40
ø .20ø .30 X 82°

R .40 .125
4X R

5.00

Figure 8.147 Blade Base

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452 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.148 Dryer Tube

4X
R
4X

.2
18

50
.12

R
1.
75
5
.08

3.
00
2.
1.

31
50
1.3

07
75
44
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ø1 723
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ø
0

2.
0

50
4X
13

0
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ø
ø3

.4
0
117

45
000 R 1.1
ø 4.
.50
0 40° .17
88
R1
50
ø .7
8X 4

4.0
8X

00 29
.30
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5°

50

R2
43
°
ø
4.
35

022
78

3.7
R

7 5
1.

R .8
00
0

50 50
.12 00 ø .7
ø .5
R
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3X 0°
50

ø
12
4.
1.0 3X
85
00 4.000 78
5°

R
1.
80
3

.37
50 Figure 8.149 Index Adapter
12
0°

9
R .0

5.7
4 .37 .76
ø
2. E
R
A

23 D
IS

A
.0
3
ø 4X

(.
52
1. 4
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78 5°

)
VI .18 .11)
EW 0) (R 1
2.

(R .7

(2
23

.2
3)
3.8
2. 1.9
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9
40 1
2

VIEW A-A
CL .67
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0

A 3
.11 R .1
R1 0 39

R T
R .7 °

1. H
B .56 H S
8

O
ø .3

12 SI
R T
8 2X
R .3

B
O

D
E
S
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ID
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R1
35° R 0
1.2 ø .1
.9
0

.10 9 2X
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1

3.4
3.
01

9
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2.

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63

.75
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R
5

.95 1.5
6
ø

1.6 .39
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0 .14
0

R 25
1.7 .2
0 BO 6 °
1.
24

.18 TH 25
.9

2 °
5

1.

3.4 SID
57

8 4.0 2.8 3 ES
2.7 5 9 58
.36 ° .55
R
4X
R
.5
8

NOTE: ALL FILLETS & ROUNDS

Figure 8.150 Connecting Rod .09 U.O.S.

.03
R1
D
CE
INS SPA
8 F ALLY
ø
1.

U
EQ
00

.71
0
ø .5.37
1.

8
ø

1.0
37
08

4 54

2.
1.

.4 1.

00

1 .31
ø
ø

8°
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2.
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03
.64 R.
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5

.62 .07
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0
1.5
0
36

.08
4.
ø
00
1.

ø2
3.

.25
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.75
2X
ø
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0

0
3.0 5
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6
3. 0° 44

1.1
9 .

2.
.

0
4X ø

.C

1.1
00
B

1.
4X

0
41

5
0

5 1.3
.12
ø

. 6 0
1
.1
25

Figure 8.151 Retaining Cap Figure 8.152 Locating Block Figure 8.153 Spin Drive
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 453

.54 2X
OF ø 5.
F 0
AR SET 0
O
CE UN 90°
.12 NT D
5 RA
ø 1. LA ø1
60 XI
S .06 .50
25
8X ø .25 X
19
°
ø 3.00

.50
1.00
8X
R .2
5 ø 1.
00 1.12
ø 7.

ø
2.
57 1.50

50
8X 2
7°
.11

ø
.34

2.
19
Figure 8.155 Spherical Spacer
Figure 8.154 Solar Mill

R 36

1.6
3 .11 4
2X
ø .2 R 394
5 3 18
ø .6 R .5 R9
16
5
1.4 .81 .33 238 R 18
3
0 PROFILE A
1.8

P
92

R
O
.20 .90

F
IL
E
A
.33
.57

37
8
9
ø .4
.98 1.7
.30 METRIC

42
20

2
.49 6
.57
40
R.
.29

Figure 8.156 Tool Pad Figure 8.157 Air Foil

Figure 8.159 Anchor Base

3.0
6 ø .9
4
4.
50

1.5 1.5
3 1.4 9
3 .80
.3
8

.38
12

2X
5°

ø. .91
1.2 25 6 0
5 1.5 1.3
.26
5
1.2 4X
ø .2 ø .38
2X
1.9 .88 .19 .56 9
4 99°
R
51

.25 2.7
°

2
.25 9 R.
2.6 38
ø.
62
1.1
ø1 3
.13
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2.5
2.0 .37 4.5 .47
0
0 .72 9 ø
C 1.3 1.7
3.4
8X 7 ENTE 1 8
9 RE 2.8
ø 1.1 D 6
ø . .25 .56
FILLETS & ROUNDS R .06 44
X .47
82
°
Fillets and Rounds R .09
Figure 8.158 Locating Base
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454 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.161 Dryer Gear

ø
1.
10
ø
.2
8

4X 9 0 B
4X 4.6
0

ø ° .C.
2X 1.6

.2

ø
0

ø
R

1.

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2.8

50
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0
5

3
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ø
5.
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88
1.
38
ø
1.
63
ø
2.0

5.
0

03
9
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5°
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.2
4

4X
ø
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°

.5
0
R
2.

32
00

ø
6X 6 2

5.
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6X 2.5

46
ø ° .C.

5
ø

.5
0 B

.88

ø
1.
60
2.
.25
Evaporator Cover

11
Figure 8.160

3.
48
4.

1.
44

1.
74

2.
50

24
.6
6

.3
7
.4
8
Figure 8.163 Relay Clip

ø
Figure 8.162 Heater Clip

.3 4
ø

4
.8
.8
6
4.1
0 74
°
3.4
5
ø ø
1. 1.
07 34

.17
1.

.4
43

3.

4
48

10° .68
1.

ø
25

1.
5°

71
ø
6X

3.
1.

37
07

2.

.2
50

ø
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2.
90
2. 5
61
4.

45
7

°
.5

.17
9

15
.87
10

.8

°
8°

12
.3

12 .5

X 30 .C
2

4X 9 5 B

ø ° .
.7

4X 2.5

2
2

ø ° .C.

.17
ø

.1
R
.3

.3

5
5
0
1

B
X
.4
2
LG

ø.
00 50
1.5 0
1
.1
8

1.3
5
0
1

1.2
.1
1

.5
9
ø
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.39
75

ø.
37
5 .16 8°
1.5 .31
25 R 16
0
.10
.73
0 .34
.59 1.0 R1
R .42
ø

.25 8
.5

1.1
00

R 7
.62
5 1.3
.49
.79
39 6
R. 1.3
ø ø1

2.5
1.

6
ø

00
ø

.06
2.

.59
2.
50

25
00

3X 1

.5
3X

7
ø
.1 °
2

25
0

Figure 8.164 Clip Release Figure 8.165 Caster Mount

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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 455

ø
1.
37
ø
50

5
.6
5

88
1.2 .62
R

1.1
25
0 .50
.50 .50
0
.96
9 ø 0 00

1.
1.0

19
.5
500

63
.

.7
50
.31 5
3 .62

3
1

2.
.4

00
.50

0
0

.56 3.5
3 00 8
.75 .93
0 4.0
00
1.8
76 50 80
2.2 2.3

Figure 8.166 Slide Base Figure 8.167 Retainer Clip

Figure 8.168 Lens Clip 14°

Figure 8.169 Strike Arm

.020

R
0
50.5

7.
50
.250
.125

ø
1.5

3.
0

50
.031
5
.12 94 .062
.0
3 .125 1.5 0
.31 12 13.0
.3 12

0
13 5

.188 4.0 .00

21
.

.0
0
.0

0
.03
94

VIEW A 4.0
0 5.00
.250
.1
56

.188 0
10.0
0
.2

12.0
03

A ø 3.5
.0

5.00
94

0
18.5
2.

METRIC
50

0
25.0
0

.3
75

.3
75
.2
50

.06
3

Figure 8.171 Clamp Down

.0
102
14
12

7.

89.0
00
7.

43.0
00

63
.5

17.0
0

°
25

8.13
.0
0

4X
4X

R
ø

10
8.
4.

.0
30
00

0
8.
9.

30
15

THICKNESS 4
12
.0

21.0
96
.0
10

0
.0

METRIC
0

17
.0
41
.0
9.

10
90

2.
0
42
.0

Figure 8.170 Offset Plate METRIC

8°

ø
16
.0
4X

ø
12
R

.0
2.
0
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456 PART 2 Fundamentals of Technical Graphics

Figure 8.172 Shelf Stud

ø
1.
25
0
ø
.1
25
.2
5

5
62
1.5 25

1.
.7
.56

94
56

.5
00

23
3
54

.5
0

00
.02

.9
.75

26
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2
24
1
5

R
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00
56
5
ø.

.3
74
68

1
.5
7

00

1.
.29

13
04
1.

58
69

4.

00

°
25
R 57

05
.18 .55
78

3.
1.

86
.1

97
.0

02
25
48

22
ø. .100 THICK

6
18
75
74
.43

Figure 8.173 Manifold Plate

Figure 8.174 Switch Clip

50
0 6X
ø .2
0
2.5 1 .12
5
50
.25 R .2
.11 0 75
84 1.8
R. 5 0 0
.
10 50
93 R .2

0
.25 00
.86 R .5
04
00
6.0
00
4.0

00
R. .43
02 1.0
.35 230 R.
25 187
2

Figure 8.175 Protector

25
Figure 8.177 Angled Support R .6
2 .125
5.5
00
0 2.5 25
3.00 00
.75
.12 ø .6
5
0 0
1.00
R

.500
1.

0
R 3.02
00
0

1.0
2.00
0 .500 ø. 00 BE
25 2X N
ø. .06 D R
50 25 AD
.750 0 70°
IUS

.50
0
7.
00
.5
00

.500
8.
00

.500
Bearing Plate
1.

Figure 8.176
50

.7
5
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 CHAPTER 8 Multiview Drawings 457

.125 .1715
.188
Figure 8.179 Drive Collar
60
ø .4 .094
0
.50 OV
E
Sø RO
0G ø .563 6
.06 25 .15
.0
8
50 .07
ø .2
-2B
NC
2U
6-3 76
.2
ø .100
.144

.313 .1095

5°
.400 0 X4 .031
0.1 ø .188

Figure 8.178 Diffuser Knob

Figure 8.181 Burner Cap

R 25
1.4 1.1
13
0
ø1 .75
.25 5
0 .37 8X
ø
.18
75 ø .37
25 BO .06 5
.6 TH 25
61 SI X 4
1.6 DE 5°
S
6
2.20
°
74
.69
66
ø
4.
50

0 .56
0

.50 25

00

6.
8.0

00
3

0
.5

.14
00

10 00 .500
X

4.0
.5

00 00 5
.437
ø

00

9.0 1.0
4.

N
00

E
C
0

625
R .0

Figure 8.180 Pump Base ø.

25
0 0
ø
.2
81
.3

2
.2
74

81
9

2
ø
.5
48

.1
2

53
5

.1
26
6
ø
.3
75
0

1.
.2

78
81
ø

18
2
.6
63
3

Figure 8.183 Float Extension

0
1.0
ø

Figure 8.184 Drive Base

.5
00

0
.50
2.2
50
ø
1.
25
.6

0
25

5.

R
00

.12
.7

5
50

2X
ø
.7
50
6X
ø .06 IDE
B

ø HS
O

.5 25 S
T

00 X

2X
R
45

.6
°

0
25

.25

Figure 8.182 Grate

.75
0
1.
37

.250
1.
5

6
25
▲
▲

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