Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Robotics History

Important Points and Summary

Learning Outcomes

• Understand the history and evolution of robots.

• Identify different types of robots.
• Explain artificial robots and differential drives.
• Describe KISMET, the expression robot.

Introduction to Robotics

• Definition: A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator for various

tasks.
• Characteristics:
o Mechanical Arm: For manipulation.
o Sensors: To detect inputs.
o Intelligence: For autonomous decision-making.

Basic Laws of Robotics

1. No harm to humans: Robots must not harm humans or allow harm through inaction.
2. Obey orders: Robots must obey human commands unless they conflict with the first
law.
3. Self-preservation: Robots must protect their existence unless it conflicts with the
first two laws.

History of Robotics

• 1921: Term "robot" introduced by Carel Kapek.

• 1940-46: Isaac Asimov's "I, Robot."
• 1954: First programmable robot by George Devol.
• 1961: Unimate, the first industrial robot.
• 1966: Shakey, the first mobile robot with reasoning abilities.
• 1985: Rodney Brooks' research on behavioral robotics.
• 1990s: KISMET, the expression robot.
• 2000s to Present: Advances like robotic pets, Honda's ASIMO, LEGO robots, and
Mars rovers.

Types of Robots

• Artificial Robots: Mimic human or animal behaviors for complex tasks.

• Differential Drives: Independent wheel drive system for flexible movement.
• KISMET: A robot using facial expressions to interact with humans.

Applications of Robotics

• Household Robots: Roomba (vacuum cleaner) and Scooba (floor cleaner).

 • Industrial Robots: AGVs, ASRS, CNC machines for precision manufacturing.
• Entertainment and Education: Robots in movies and educational kits like LEGO
Mindstorms.

Misunderstandings in Robotics

• Confusion between industrial robots, remote-controlled systems, and automation.

Chapter 2: Basic Components of Robot System

Important Points and Summary

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Identify the components of industrial robots.

• Understand the functions of robots in industries.

Introduction

Industrial robots are designed to perform repetitive tasks with precision and efficiency.
Understanding their basic components is crucial for comprehending how they operate and
their roles in various applications.

Components of Industrial Robots

1. Vehicle: The base or platform that supports the entire robot.

2. Manipulator: The arm of the robot, which can move and position the end-effector.
3. Power Supply: Provides the necessary energy to power the robot's components.
4. Controller: The brain of the robot, which processes inputs and controls the robot's
movements.

Manipulator Configuration

The manipulator typically consists of several key parts:

• Base: The fixed part that attaches to the ground or a stable surface.
• Shoulder: The joint connecting the base to the arm.
• Elbow: The joint that provides the arm with additional degrees of freedom.
• Wrist: The joint that allows for rotation and precise positioning of the end-effector.
• End-Effectors: The tools or devices attached to the wrist, used to interact with
objects.

Functions of Robots in Industries

 • Automation: Performing repetitive tasks without human intervention.
• Precision: High accuracy in tasks such as assembly, welding, and painting.
• Efficiency: Operating continuously without fatigue, leading to increased productivity.
• Safety: Performing dangerous tasks in hazardous environments, reducing the risk to
human workers.

Summary

This chapter covers the basic components of industrial robots and their configurations. It
explains the functions of robots in industrial settings, highlighting their roles in automation,
precision, efficiency, and safety.

Chapter 3: End Effectors

Important Points and Summary

Types of End Effectors:

• Grippers: Devices that grasp and hold objects. Types include mechanical grippers,
vacuum or suction cups, magnetic grippers, adhesive grippers, hooks, and scoops.
• Tools: Devices that perform operations on a workpiece. Types include spot-welding
tools, arc-welding tools, spray-painting nozzles, and rotating spindles for drilling and
grinding.

Wrist Joint Motions:

• Pitch: Up and down movement.

• Yaw: Back and forth movement.
• Roll: Rotational movement.

Calculating Gripper Payload:

• Force and torque calculations are crucial for determining the gripper's ability to hold
and manipulate objects.

Formulas for Calculating Gripper Payload:

1. Force due to weight:

𝐹𝑊 = 𝑊 ⋅ 𝐺𝐹

where W is the weight of the part and G is the gravitational acceleration.

2. Force with maximum acceleration:

𝐹𝐴 = 𝑊 ⋅ 2.2

3. Normal force:

𝐹𝑁 = 𝐹𝐴 ⋅ 𝜇
 where μ is the coefficient of friction.

4. Force with factor of safety:

𝐹𝑆 = 𝐹𝑁 ⋅ 𝑆

where S is the safety factor.

5. Torque due to motion:

𝑇 = 𝐹𝐴 ⋅ 𝑑

where d is the distance for grasping.

Summary: This chapter covers the different types and functions of end effectors used in
robotics. It explains the various tools and grippers, their applications, and the importance of
calculating gripper payload for effective operation.

Chapter 3a: Basic Parameters and DOF

Important Points and Summary

Basic Parameters:

• Work Envelope: The reachable work area of the robot.

• Payload: The maximum weight a robot can handle.
• Accuracy: How close the actual position is to the pre-set position.
• Precision: The repeated measurement at a pre-set position.
• Repeatability: How close the actual position is to its previous position.
• Reliability: Consistency in performance.

Degrees of Freedom (DOF):

• Defined as the number of independent parameters or movements needed to define the

position in free-space. A maximum of 6 DOFs: 3 for translation (x, y, z) and 3 for
rotation (roll, pitch, yaw).

Types of Motion:

• Linear Motion: Straight-line movement.

• Rotational Motion: Circular movement.
• Complex Motion: Combination of linear and rotational.

Links and Joints:

• Links: Rigid bodies with nodes for attachment.

• Joints: Connections allowing motion between links.

Types of Joints:
 • Lower Pairs: Motion through area contact.
• Higher Pairs: Motion through line or point contact.

Formulas for DOF:

1. Basic DOF Formula:

DOF = 3L − 2J − 3G

where L is the number of links, J is the number of joints, and G is the ground.

2. Kutzbach Equation:

DOF = 3(L − 1) − 2J1 − J2

where J1 is the number of full joints and J2 is the number of half joints.

Summary: This chapter covers the basic parameters and degrees of freedom in robotics,
including the types of motion, links, and joints. It explains how these parameters define the
robot's capabilities and movement.

Chapter 4: Electrical Motors Applications in Robots

Important Points and Summary

Types of Actuators:

• Hydraulic: Uses fluid power for high force and fast response, suitable for heavy parts
but large and costly.
• Pneumatic: Uses compressed air for smaller, less expensive robots with limited
degrees of freedom.
• Electric: Uses electric motors, preferred for small to medium robots due to good
positioning accuracy and cleaner environment.

Types of Electrical Drives:

• AC Motors: High power, complex control profiles.

• DC Motors: Accurate position and velocity control.
• Stepper Motors: Measured rotation, high precision.
• Servo Motors: Used in closed-loop systems for dynamic load changes.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

• Hydraulic:
o Advantages: High force, servo control, fast response.
o Disadvantages: Large space, potential oil leaks, not suitable for high-speed
cycling, expensive setup.
• Pneumatic:
o Advantages: High power density, insensitive to environmental factors, no
return line needed.
 o Disadvantages: Speed stability issues, air leakage, reduced efficiency, noise
pollution.
• Electric:
o Advantages: Fast and accurate, inexpensive, quick setup, suitable for
sophisticated motion control.
o Disadvantages: Reduced torque due to gears, overheating, need for control
systems.

Motor Selection Criteria:

• Speed, weight, size, cost, and control accuracy required for the application.

Summary: This chapter covers the different types of actuators and electrical drives used in
robotics. It explains their advantages, disadvantages, and applications, along with criteria for
selecting the appropriate motor for specific tasks.

Chapter 5: Principles of Robot Control and Programming ABB

Important Points and Summary

Principles of Robot Control:

• Safety Functions: Emergency stop, enabling device, safeguard, reduced speed,

interlock, hold to run.
• Basic Safety Regulations: Emergency stop (IEC 204-1 10.7), enabling device (ISO
11161 3.4), safeguard (ISO 10218 3.2.17), reduced speed (ISO 10218 3.2.8), interlock
(ISO 10218 3.2.8), hold to run (ISO 10218 3.2.7).

Robot-Studio Basics:

• Operation Mode: Safety regulations and device management.

• IRC5 Controller: Introduction and usage of ABB's robot controller.

Programming ABB Robot Arm:

• Creating Programs: Using Robot-Studio software.

• Jogging the Robot: Basic movements and calibration.
• Move Instructions: Implementing linear (Move L) and joint (Move J) movements.
• Velocity and Zones: Setting speed and operational zones.

Summary: This chapter covers the principles of robot control and programming using ABB
systems. It explains safety functions, basic regulations, and the usage of Robot-Studio
software for programming ABB robot arms.

Chapter 7: Robot Application, Safety, and Maintenance, Classification and

Justification
Important Points and Summary

Robot Maintenance:

• Preventive Maintenance: Periodic checks to detect and fix small problems before
they escalate.
• Emergency Maintenance: Immediate repairs when robots break down unexpectedly.

Robotic Safety:

• Safety Considerations: Implemented from the start of a robotics project.

• Injury Prevention: Using sensors and machine vision systems to avoid human
injury.

Classification of Robots:

• By Arm Configuration, Controller, Power Supply, Technology Level, Task,

Design, and LERT System: Linear, Extensional, Rotational, Twisting motions.

Manipulator Configurations:

• Cartesian, Cylindrical, Spherical, Articulated, SCARA Robots: Each with specific

applications, advantages, and disadvantages.

Justification of Robot Usage:

• Economic Justification: Based on payback period, depreciation cost, maintenance

cost, staffing cost, and return on investment.

Summary: This chapter covers robot applications, safety, maintenance, classification, and
justification. It explains different maintenance types, safety measures, robot classifications,
and the economic justification for using robots in various industries.

Chapter 8: Sensors in Robots

Important Points and Summary

What is a Sensor?

• Definition: A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from
the physical environment.
• Needs of Sensor in Robotics:
o Source of Information: Essential for robots to interact with their
environment.
o Checking/Inspection: Ensuring processes are carried out correctly.
o Problem Detection: Identifying issues in processes.
 o Increase Robot Versatility: Allowing robots to perform a wider range of
tasks.

Daily Life Examples of Sensor Usage:

• Boiler/kettle, lift car door, burglar alarm, car door lock, voice recognition, retina &
thumbprint scan, etc.

Types of Sensors:

1. Contact Sensors:
o Description: Device in contact with the part to be sensed.
o Example: Limit switches.
2. Non-contact Sensors:
o Description: Detects product without being in contact.
o Advantages: Does not interfere with other processes.
o Example: Proximity sensor.
3. Analog Sensors:
o Description: Complex sensors providing more information.
o Applications: Temperature measurement, force measurement.
o Example: Temperature sensor, strain gauge.
4. Digital Sensors:
o Description: Easiest to use with only 2 states (ON & OFF).
o Advantages: Inexpensive.
o Example: Optical sensors, field sensor.

Optical Sensors:

• Function: Uses light to sense objects.

• Types:
o Light Sensing: Sensor is ON when the beam is unobstructed.
o Dark Sensing: Sensor is ON when the beam is obstructed/blocked.
o Reflective Sensing: Emitter and receiver are in the same package; light
bounces from the product to the receiver.
o Thru Beam Sensing: Emitter and receiver are in separate packages.
o Retro-Reflective Sensing: Emitter and receiver are in the same package; light
bounces from the reflector to the receiver.
o Fiber Optic Sensing: Light from the emitter passes through an optical fiber to
the receiver.
o Colour Mark Sensing: Uses different wavelengths of light to detect different
colours.
o Laser Sensing: Used for precision quality inspection and long-distance
tracking.

Radar:

• Description: RAdio Detection And Ranging.

• Applications: Air traffic control, radar astronomy, air-defense systems, aircraft anti-
collision systems, ocean surveillance systems, meteorological precipitation
monitoring, guided missile target locating systems, and ground-penetrating radar.
Ultrasonic Sensing:

• Function: Uses sound waves to detect or measure something.

• Applications: Distance measurement, object size detection.

Sonar Sensor:

• Function: Uses sound waves to detect objects, primarily in navigation and

underwater.
• Applications: Navigation, object detection, high performance on the ground and in
water.

Field Sensors:

• Inductive Sensors:
o Function: Senses metallic (ferrous) objects based on electromagnetic
induction.
• Capacitive Sensors:
o Function: Senses both metallic and non-metallic objects based on electrostatic
capacitance.

Temperature Sensors:

• Types:
o Thermocouples: Create an EMF based on temperature differences.
o Thermistors: Have resistance proportional to their temperature.
o RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors): Contain resistors that change
resistance with temperature.
▪ Advantages of RTDs: Wide temperature range, good accuracy, good
interchangeability, long-term stability, uses platinum.

Internal & External Sensors:

• Internal Sensors:
o Position Sensor: Measures position (linear or angular).
▪ Example: Potentiometer.
o Velocity Sensor: Measures acceleration relative to freefall.
▪ Example: Accelerometer.
o Torque & Acceleration Sensor: Measures force and acceleration.
▪ Examples: Piezoelectric sensors, strain gauges.
• External Sensors:
o Tactile Sensor: Measures parameters of contact between the sensor and an
object.
o Vision Systems: Use cameras to gather visual information.

BIO Signal Sensors:

• Types:
o ECG (Electro-Cardiogram): Measures heart activity.
o EMG (Electro-Myogram): Measures muscle movement.
 o EOG (Electro-Oculogram): Measures eye movement.
o EEG (Electro-Encephalogram): Measures brain activity.

Vision Systems:

• Function: Use cameras to gather and process visual information, converting it into
digital information.

Voice Recognition:

• Function: Allows robots to respond to verbal commands and provide speech outputs.

Artificial Intelligence:

• Intelligent Robots: Robots capable of performing complex tasks with seemingly

human intelligence.
• Fuzzy Logic: A problem-solving control system mimicking human decision-making.
• Neural Networking: Systems modeled after the human brain for processing
information and learning from patterns.

Level of AI in Robotics:

• Alpha-level Intelligence: Non-learning intelligence.

• Beta-level Intelligence: Elementary learning capability.
• Gamma-level Intelligence: Ability to generalize from past experiences.

Chapter 9: Robot Arm Kinematics and Dynamics

Important Points and Summary

Robot Arm Kinematics:

• Forward Kinematics: Given joint angles, determine the end effector's position.
• Inverse Kinematics: Given the end effector's position, determine the joint angles.

Kinematic Equations:

• Homogeneous Transformation Matrix: Represents translation and rotation between

coordinate frames.
o For a frame transformation, the matrix is:
 •
o where R is the rotation matrix and ddd is the translation vector.

Robot Arm Dynamics:

• Dynamics: Mathematical formulation of motion, dealing with force/torque at joints.

Formulas:

• Rotation Matrices:

Summary: This chapter covers robot arm kinematics and dynamics, explaining forward and
inverse kinematics, the use of homogeneous transformation matrices, and the mathematical
formulation of motion.

Chapter 10: Robot Arm Kinematics and Dynamics - Inverse Kinematics

Important Points and Summary

Inverse Kinematics:

• Definition: Determining joint angles required to position the end effector at a

particular position.
• Approaches: Common solutions include ‘Elbow-up’ and ‘Elbow-down’
configurations.

Formulas for Inverse Kinematics:

1. Forward Kinematic Equations: Used to find the end effector's position based on
joint angles.
2. Inverse Kinematic Equations: Used to find joint angles based on the desired
position of the end effector.

Example:

• Given the lengths of two segments of a robot arm and a target position, calculate the
required joint angles using forward and inverse kinematic equations.
Summary: This chapter focuses on inverse kinematics for robot arms, detailing methods for
calculating the joint angles necessary to achieve a desired end effector position.

Chapter 11-12: Velocity Kinematics

Important Points and Summary

Velocity Motion Model:

• Scalar and Vector Analysis: Understanding motion in terms of scalar quantities

(magnitude only) and vectors (magnitude and direction).

Jacobian Matrix:

• Purpose: Relates the velocities of the robot's joints to the end effector's velocity.
• Calculation:
o For a manipulator with n joints, the Jacobian J is a 6×nmatrix that relates joint
velocities q˙ to the end-effector linear and angular velocities ν as:

o The Jacobian matrix J can be partitioned into linear velocity components Jv

and angular velocity components Jω:

•
o For a joint iii, the contributions to the Jacobian are:
▪ If joint i is prismatic (translational), the i-th column of Jv is the unit
vector along the axis of translation, and Jω is zero.
▪ If joint iii is revolute (rotational), the i-th column of Jvis the cross
product of the rotation axis and the vector from the joint to the end
effector, and the i-th column of Jω is the unit vector along the rotation
axis.

Summary: This chapter covers velocity kinematics, focusing on the velocity

motion model and the use of the Jacobian matrix to relate joint velocities to
end effector velocities.