8.

3
 All about software
 Systems software encompasses computer programs that manage or control the computer's
hardware, while users interact with applications software.
 Two main categories of systems software:
1. Operating systems
2. Utility programs

 Operating systems act as an interface between hardware and user applications, facilitating user
interaction with digital devices like computers, mobile phones, tablets, and gaming consoles.
 Utility programs are additional software programs that assist in ensuring the smooth functioning
of digital devices, performing specific tasks selected by the user.
 Operating systems' key roles:
o Provides an interface between the user and the computer
o Controls hardware devices e.g. printer, mouse, screen, keyboard
o Transfers programs and data into and out of computer memory
o Organizes time
o Manages security on a digital device
o Manage errors in processing
o Allows the user to save files
 Utility programs examples:
o Antivirus lets the user know whether there are any harmful programs on their
computer and helps to remove them
o Firewall prevents unauthorized access to the user’s computer
o Data compression reduces the size of files to help save storage space on the
computer
o Disk defragmentation reorganizes files on the computer’s storage area to make them
easier to access
o Screensaver animated image or background that appears on screen when the
computer has not been used for a period of time
o Back up used to make a copy of selected file
 Using binary to store text
 Text entered into a digital device is stored as 1s and 0s.
 Each character is represented by a unique combination of 1s and 0s.
 Character set: all letters, numbers, punctuation, and special characters available on a device.
 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a common 7-bit code
representing characters on a standard keyboard.
 Each ASCII code consists of 8 bits, with the 8th bit originally used for error detection.
 When a key is pressed, a group of 8 binary digits is generated, varying electrical pulses between
high and low to represent 1s and 0s.
 Example: 'H' = 01001000, 'i' = 01101001, so 'Hi' is represented as 01001000 01101001.

 Using binary to store numbers

 Binary code for the number '0' is 00110000.
 Computers store numerical values in binary format for calculations.
 Binary number system uses symbols 1 and 0.
 Denary (decimal) number system uses digits 0-9.
 Denary numbers are based on place value: ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.

 Denary is also called base 10 because it has 10 digits (0-9) and is based on powers of 10.
 Binary, having only two digits (0 and 1), uses place-value headings that increase in multiples of 2.
 For example, in denary, the place values are ones, tens, hundreds, etc., increasing by powers of
10. In binary, the place values are ones, twos, fours, eights, etc., increasing by powers of 2.
 Converting denary to binary

 Binary inside
 Computers represent data, including letters, numbers, images, and sound, using combinations of
1s and 0s.
 Digital devices utilize electrical signals to represent binary digits, with each device containing
millions of tiny binary switches called transistors.
 These switches can only have two states: ON (1) or OFF (0), allowing them to encode information
in binary format.

 How it all happens

 Processing in digital devices occurs through millions of tiny circuits called logic gates.
 Logic gates make decisions based on the values input into them and are designed to carry out
logical operations.
 Logic gates have one or more inputs and produce a single output based on these inputs.
  Inputs to logic gates are always in digital format, represented as either 1 (TRUE/ON) or 0
(FALSE/OFF).
 Truth tables are used to represent the output of a logic gate for each possible combination of
inputs.
 For an AND gate, which has two inputs, the output is 1 (TRUE/ON) only when both inputs are 1;
otherwise, the output is 0 (FALSE/OFF).

 Where is it all stored

 Storage devices are necessary for users to store and access their data on digital devices.
 Secondary storage devices are used for long-term storage of data.
 Primary memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is used to store programs and
data currently in use. It provides fast access to the processor.
 RAM allows the processor to work quickly by providing quick access to data and program
instructions.
 Read-only memory (ROM) is another type of primary memory used to store essential data and
instructions needed to start up a digital device.
 ROM often contains the boot-up program, which is responsible for locating and loading the
operating system into RAM during the startup process.
Main features of RAM and ROM

RAM ROM
- Volatile; this means the data is lost when the - Non-volatile; this means the data is not lost
computer is switched off when the computer is switched off
- Can be read from and written to - Can be read from but cannot be written to
- Holds the computer programs and data when (the user is unable to change the contents of
the computer is running ROM)
- If many programs are running on a computer - Holds programs and instructions that the
at the same time, this can slow the computer computer needs to be able to start up
down because too many data items and - The contents of ROM are programmed by the
instructions are being moved into and out of computer manufacturer
RAM

 Compression facts
 High-quality graphic images and sound require a significant amount of data, leading to large file
sizes when stored on digital devices or transmitted over the internet.
 Compression methods are used to reduce file sizes by reducing the number of 1s and 0s used to
store the data.
 Compressed files require less storage space and result in shorter data transmission times and
smaller bandwidth requirements.
 However, data compression also has disadvantages, such as the need for decompression before
viewing the file and the risk of data loss during the compression process.
 Run-length encoding (RLE) is a compression algorithm that replaces repeated values in a file with
a character and a number to reduce file size. The character represents the value being replaced,
and the number indicates the length of each run.
 RLE is effective when there are many similarities in the characters being recorded, resulting in
smaller compressed files.

 Developing device learning

 Modern digital systems utilize artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning to understand user
tasks more effectively.
 Machine learning involves teaching computers to perform tasks based on data and past
experiences rather than relying solely on programmed instructions.
 Examples of machine learning applications include digital home assistants suggesting alarms
based on past settings, TV subscription channels recommending shows based on past
preferences, and navigation devices inferring home and work/school addresses.
 Autonomous programming combines AI and machine learning to enable computer hardware
devices to solve problems without human intervention.
 Autonomous robots operate independently, responding to obstacles using sensors and adapting
their actions accordingly.
 Examples of autonomous devices include robotic vacuum cleaners or lawnmowers navigating
around obstacles in their environment.
 In industries like assembly lines, robots use imaging systems to evaluate tasks and determine the
most efficient steps to complete them.
 Robots are also employed in customer service roles, interacting with customers and learning
from these interactions to improve their performance.
 Rover robots, such as those used in space exploration, collect data from hazardous environments
for scientific investigation.
 Augmented reality
 Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that superimposes digital content onto the user's view of
the real world.
 While AR is often associated with entertainment applications like gaming, it also has practical
uses in various industries.
 In medical training, AR devices allow students to explore human anatomy in 3D format,
enhancing their learning experience.
 AR technology is utilized in online shopping, enabling consumers to visualize how products would
look in their homes or customize items like cars.
 Travelers can use AR to virtually explore destinations, including inaccessible locations such as
space or inside a volcano.
 AR has educational benefits by providing interactive learning experiences that make complex
concepts more accessible and engaging for students.
 Gaming experiences can be enhanced with AR interactions on devices like mobile phones,
creating more immersive and enjoyable gameplay.
Keywords
 artificial intelligence (AI): the study of machines and algorithms designed to carry out tasks in a way that is
similar to humans
 augmented reality (AR): a simulation that superimposes digital images on the user’s real-world
environment and allows the user to interact with those images
 telecommunication: the transfer of information in the form of video and/or sound using cables, radio or
satellite
 augmented-reality (AR) glasses: glasses or goggles that add information, normally in the form of 3D images
or videos, to the user’s real-world environment by placing a computer-generated image over the user’s
real-world image viewed through the glasses
 systems software: the software that helps a user run the computer
 program: the instructions that tell a computer system how to complete a task
 hardware: the physical parts of a computer that you can touch and see, e.g. the processor, storage devices,
input devices, output devices
 applications software: the software that users access to carry out tasks
 operating system: the systems software that manages hardware and software, giving the user an interface
to operate the computer
 utility program: a program used to help maintain a digital device
 interface: how a user interacts with a product
 online: connected to the internet
 data: raw facts and figures
 platform: the combination of hardware and software used to complete a digital task
 character set: all the letters, numbers, punctuation symbols and special symbols that can be represented
on a device
 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): a 7-bit binary code that represents all the
keys on a standard keyboard
 binary: the number system that uses just two digits: 0 and 1; also known as ‘base 2’
 spreadsheet: an application that uses rows and columns to organise data and carry out calculations using
that data
 binary number format: using 1s and 0s to represent numbers
 denary format: a number system that uses the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 to represent every numerical
value
 place value: the numerical value a digit has as a result of its position in a number, e.g. the number 2410
represents (2 × 10) + (4 × 1)
 base 10: another term for the ‘denary number system’ as it is based on 10 digits
 most significant bit (MSB): the digit at the left-hand side of the number; the bit with the largest place value
 least significant bit (LSB): the digit at the right-hand side of a number; the bit with the smallest place value
 flowchart: a visual representation of an algorithm
 algorithm: step-by-step instructions to solve a particular problem
 transistor: a tiny switch that can be activated by electrical signals – if the transistor is ON, it represents 1;
when it is OFF, it represents 0
 logic gate: an electronic switch used in digital devices, which produces an output of 1 or 0 (TRUE or FALSE)
 circuit board: a small board with electrical circuits attached
 truth table: a table used to evaluate the outcome of a logical expression
 secondary storage device: any storage device used to store programs or data for a long period of time to
allow the user to access them at a later stage
 primary memory: storage to hold programs and data currently in use on a digital device
 random access memory (RAM): a form of memory that stores tasks that are currently running, which the
operating system controls
 read-only memory (ROM): stores the data and instructions needed to start up a digital device
 boot-up program: the program that locates the computer’s operating system in secondary storage and
loads it into RAM so that the processor can provide the user with a way of using the digital device; another
name for this program is the ‘BIOS’ (Basic Input/Output System)
 volatile: describes a type of memory (RAM) that loses the data in it when the computer is switched off
 data item: a single piece of data
 non-volatile: describes a type of memory (ROM) that does not lose the data in it when the computer is
switched off
 hardware specification: a document that details the main components of a digital device
 live video stream: continual images and sound that are broadcast via the internet as they are being filmed
 interactive graphics: graphic images (often animated) that a user can interact with using a device such as a
mouse, keyboard or joystick
 data-transmission time: the amount of time from the beginning to the end of a message being sent
 bandwidth: a measure of the maximum number of bits that can be transmitted over a network or cable in
a specified amount of time
 compression: reducing the size of a file by removing some data items
 WinZip: compression software designed for use with Windows, macOS, iOS and Android operating systems
 run-length encoding (RLE): a specialised algorithm used to support the compression of image files
 web server: a computer that stores web pages that can be accessed by other devices using the internet
 machine learning: when AI systems are able to use data to make a decision without the help of a human
 autonomous programming: computer hardware and complex AI software working together to solve a
problem without any human interaction
 augmented reality (AR): a simulation that superimposes digital images on the user’s real-world
environment and allows the user to interact with those images