SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE INCORPORATED

Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay

www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
[email protected]

School President: 0917-127-1826/ 0917-127-1902 Academic Dean: 0906-439-3454

Registrar‘s Office: 0935-342-0564 Guidance Coach: 0949-751-0953
SHS Principal: 09508014326 DSA: 0935-119-0287

GE 1
MATHEMATICS IN THE
MODERN WORLD

LEARNER’S MODULE
FOR UNIT-FINAL
TEACHER CONTACT NO. COURSE AND SECTION
SEMELYN C. SANDE 0997-762-5930

STUDENT’S NAME:_______________________________________________________
YEAR AND SECTION:_____________________________________________________
CONTACT NUMBER:_____________________________________________________
ADDRESS:_____________________________________________________________

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT
Week 1-2 Aug. 23- Sept. 04, 2021
SECTION 1: THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
Mathematics in our World
Patterns and Numbers in Nature in the World
The snowflakes, honeycomb, tigers stripe, the sunflower
snail, the world population---------------------------------6-14
Fibonacci Sequence-----------------------------------------15-17
Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities
In the world, Mathematics helps control nature and
occurrences in the, World for our own ends,Mathematics
has numerous applications in the world making it
indispensable------------------------------------------------17-19
Week 3 Sept. 6-11, 2021
Mathematical Language and Symbols
Characteristics of Mathematical language---------------20-21
Expression Vs. Sentence-------------------------------- --22-23
Four basic concepts of sets---------------------------------24-29
Elementary Logic and Levels of Formality-------------29-32
WEEK 4: U N I T E X A M Sept. 16-18, 2021
PRELIM
Week 5-6 Sept. 20-Oct. 02, 2021
Problem Solving and Reasoning
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning---------------------33-34
Intuition, Proof and certainty-----------------------------35-36
Polya‘s four Steps in Problem Solving
Problem Solving Strategies, Mathematical Problems
involving Patterns and Recreational problems using
mathematics---------------------------------------------------36-38

2
Week 7 Oct. 4-9, 2021
SECTION 2 MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL (Part 1)
DATA MANAGEMENT
Data: Gathering and Organizing Data---------------------39-43
Measures of Central Tendency:---------------------------44-53
Measures of Dispersion: -----------------------------------54-56
Measures of Relative position------------------------------54-63
Probabilities and Normal Distributions and linear
Regression and Correlation---------------------------------64-78
WEEK 8: P R E L I M E X A M Oct. 14-16, 2021
MIDTERM
Week 9-10 Oct. 18-30, 2021
SECTION 2 MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL (Part 2)
I- GEOMETRIC DESIGNS
Recognizing and analysing geometric shapes-----------79-82
Transformations---------------------------------------------83-85
Patterns and Diagrams--------------------------------------86
Designs , Arts and Culture---------------------------------86
II. CODES
Binary codes--------------------------------------------------87-92
Integers in Computers---------------------------------------92-93
Logic and computer addition-------------------------------93-94
Text data------------------------------------------------------95
Error and error correction and Error detector Code
-----------------------------------------------------------------96-97
Hamming Codes---------------------------------------------97-98
Week 11 Nov. 1-6, 2021
SECTION 3 MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL (PART 2)
III. LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Linear inequalities-----------------------------------------99-101
Geometry of Linear Programming---------------------102-103
3
 Simplex Method-------------------------------------------104-105
WEEK 12: M I D T E R M E X A M Nov. 11-13, 2021
PRE-FINAL
Week 13-14 Nov. 15-27, 2021
SECTION 3 MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL (PART 2)
IV. THE MATHEMATICS OF FINANCE
Simple and Compound Interest--------------------106-107
Credit Cards and Consumer Loans------------------108
Stocks, Bonds and Mutual Funds-----------------108-110
Home Ownership-------------------------------------111
V. APPORTIONMENT AND VOTING
Introduction to apportionment---------------------112-113
Introduction to Voting--------------------------------114
Weighted Voting System---------------------------114-115
Week 15-16 Nov. 29-Dec.11, 2021
SECTION 3 MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL (PART 2)
VI. LOGIC
Logic statement and quantifiers------------------116-121
Truth tables and taulogies-------------------------122-124
Conditional and Biconditional--------------------125
Symbolic Arguments-------------------------------125-126
Arguments and Euler Diagrams-------------------126-130
VII. THE MATHEMATICS OF GRAPHS
Graphs and Euler Circuits-------------------------131-133
Weighted Graphs------------------------------------133-134
Euler‘s Formula-------------------------------------134
Graph Coloring--------------------------------------134-136
WEEK 17: P R E – F I N A L E X A M Dec. 16-19, 2021

4
 FINAL
Week 18 Jan. 3-8, 2022
SECTION 3 MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL (PART 2)

VIII. MATHEMATICAL SYSTEMS

Modular Arithmetic---------------------------------137-138
Application to mathematical system--------------139-140
Group Theory----------------------------------------141-143
WEEK 19: F I N A L E X A M Jan. 13-15, 2022
References--------------------------------------------------------------- ---144
CHED Accredited Courses ------------------------------------------- ---145
STII Training Center ----------------------------------------------------- 146
Senior High School Voucher Program ------------------------------ ---147

5
 SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE INCORPORATED
Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
SECTION UNIT
1 NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
Week 1-2
MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD Aug. 23-Sept. 04,2021

Module Overview

This module deals with the nature of mathematics, appreciation of its

practical, and aesthetic dimensions, and application of mathematical
tools in daily life.
This module begins with an introduction to the nature of mathematics as
an exploration of patterns (in nature and the environment) and as an
application of inductive and deductive reasoning. By exploring these
topics, students are encouraged to go beyond the typical understanding
of mathematic as merely a set of formulas but as a source of aesthetics in
patterns of nature, for example, and a rich language and itself (and of
science) governed by logic reasoning.

This module then proceeds to survey ways in which mathematics

provides a tool for understanding and dealing with various aspects of
present-day living, such as managing personal finances, making social
choices, appreciating geometric design, understanding codes used in
transmission and security, and dividing limited resources fairly. These
aspects will provide opportunities for actual doing mathematics in a
broad range of exercises that bring out the various dimensions of
mathematics as a way of knowing and test of student‘s understanding
and capacity.

6
SECTION 1
Patterns and Numbers in Nature in the World

What this module is about

The emergence of digital technology has sparked a monumental rise
in the rate at which we consume and produce data. As a rational
creature, we tend to identify and follow patterns, whether
consciously or subconsciously. Recognizing patterns feels natural, like
our brain is hardwired to recognize them. Early humans recognized the
repeating interval of day and night, the cycle of the moon, the rising and
falling of tides, and changing of seasons.

What you are expected to learn

This module is designed for you to recall basic statistical
concepts by:
1. Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world by:

1.1 describing the following characteristics that are present in the

natural world:
(1) symmetries;
(2) spirals;
(3) meanders;
(4) waves;
(5) foams;
(6) tessellations;
(7) cracks; and
(8) stripes
1.2 Listing down natural events or things around that exhibit either of
mentioned characteristics.
Pointing out the trend as illustrated in the Fibonacci Sequence.
Reference/s:
Statistics Teaching Guide Pages 1-6 for the Tertiary Level (
ed. Roberto Padua
Albert, J. R. G. (2008). Basic Statistics

7
 , Welfredo Patungan, Nelia Marquez), Published by Rex
Bookstore.
https://www.classzone.com/eservices/home/pdf/student/LA211HAD.pdf
https://www.wikijob.co.uk/content/aptitude-tests/test-types/abstract-
reasoning#abstract-reasoning-practice-test-2

Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets

Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do

How much do you know?

Instruction: what comes next? Write your answer in the
blank.

What will you do

Patterns are regular, repeated, or recurring or designs. Patterns are
commonly observed in natural objects, we see patterns everyday – from
the layout of the floor tiles, designs of skyscrapers, to the way we tie our
shoelaces. Studying patterns help students in identifying relationships
and finding logical connections to form generalizations and make
predictions.

8
Example no. 1
Let‘s take a look at this pattern:

?
________________

What is the next figure in the given pattern?

A B
It should be easy enough to note that the pattern is made up of different
shapes – first is square with solid square inside followed by triangle with
another triangle inside, followed by circle with solid circle inside. Hence
either A and B could be the answer given that they are both stars
therefore we will look at the shape inside if the next pattern should be
solid star or not. This leads to option B as the correct choice.
Example no. 2
What Number comes next?
What number comes next in 1,3,5,7,9, _____ ?
Solution.
Looking at the given numbers, the sequence is increasing, with each
term being two more than the previous term: 3 = 1 + 2; 5 = 3 + 3; 7 = 5
+ 2; 9 = 7 + 2. Therefore, the next term should be 11 = 9+2.
Snowflakes and Honeycombs
Recall the symmetry indicates that you can draw an imaginary line
across an object and the resulting parts are mirror images of each other.

9
The figure above is symmetric about the axis indicated by the dotted
line. Note that the left and right portion are exactly the same.
 This type of symmetry, known as line or bilateral symmetry, is
evident in most animals, including humans. Look in a mirror and
see how the left and right sides of your face closely match.

 Leonardo da Vinci‘s Vintruvian man showing the proportions and

symmetry of the human body.
 There are types of symmetry depending on the number of sides or
the faces that are symmetrical. Take a look at this image.

 Note that if you rotate the spiderwort and starfish above by several
degrees, you can still achieve the same appearance as the original
position.
 This is known as rotational symmetry.
 The smallest angle that a figure can be rotated while preserving the
original formation is called the angle of rotation. For the

10
 spiderwort, the angle of rotation is 120 degrees while the angle of
rotation for the starfish is 72 degrees.
Consider this image of a snowflake.

It can be observed that the patterns on a snowflake repeat 6 times,

indicating that there is a six-fold symmetry. To determine the angle of
rotation, we simply divide 360 degrees by 6 to get 60 degrees. Many
combinations and complex shapes of snowflakes may occur, which lead
some people think that ―no to are alike ―. If you look closely, however
and temperature on the ice crystal as it forms.

Another marvel of nature‘s design is the structure and shape of

honeycomb. People have a long wondered how bees, despite their small
size, are able to produce such arrangement while humans would
generally need the use of a rules and compass to accomplish the same
feat. It is observed that such formation enables the bee colony to
maximize their storage of honey using smallest amount of wax.
Tiger Stripes: Mathematical Models Explain Pattern, Orientation
How did tigers and zebras get their stripes? Tigers, for example, have
parallel stripes, evenly spaced and perpendicular to the spine. These
natural patterns essentially emerge when interacting substances create

11
waves of high and low concentrations of a pigment, chemical, or type of
cell, for example.

Sunflower

Sunflowers are beautiful, and iconic for the way their giant yellow heads
stand off against a bold blue sky.

The pattern of seeds within a sunflower follows the Fibonacci sequence,

or 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144...1

World Growth Population

As of 2020, it is estimated that the Philippine population is about 200

million. World leaders, sociologists, and anthropologist are interested in
studying population, including its growth.

12
Example:

The exponential growth model A = describes the population of

a city in the Philippines in thousands, t years after 1995.
a. What was the population of the city in 1995.
b. What will be the population in 2019.

Solution
a. Since our exponential growth model describes the population t
years after 1995, we consider 1995 as t = 0 and then solve for A,
our population size.

A=
A= Replace t with t = 0.
A= 30(1)
A= 30 =1
Therefore, the city population in 1995 was 30,000

13
 Let’s Summarize
Patterns are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs.
Patterns are commonly observed in natural objects, such as the
six-fold symmetry of snowflakes, the hexagonal structure and formation
of honeycombs, the tiger‘s stripes and hyena‘s spots, the number of
petals of flowers. Humans are hard wired to recognize patterns and by
studying them, we discovered the underlying mathematical principles
behind nature‘s designs.
Exponential Growth Model
Population Growth and bacterial decay can be modeled by the
exponential growth or decay formula

14
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

What Is The Fibonacci Sequence?

The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers where a number is the

addition of the last two numbers, starting with 0, and 1.

The Fibonacci Sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55…

Written as a rule, the expression is:

Xn = Xn-1 + Xn-

The Fibonacci Spiral And The Golden Ratio

 The Fibonacci sequence is often visualized in a graph such as the
one in the header of this article.
 Each of the squares illustrates the area of the next number in the
sequence.
 The Fibonacci spiral is then drawn inside the squares by
connecting the corners of the boxes.
The Origins Of The Fibonacci Sequence
 Fibbonaci (Leanardo Pisano Bogollo [3], Fibonacci was his
nickname) first introduced the series of numbers known as the
Fibonacci sequence in his book Liver Abaci [4] in 1202.
 Fibonacci was a member of an important Italian trading family in
the 12th and 13th century.
 Being part of a trading family, mathematics was an integral part of
the business. Fibonacci traveled throughout the Middle East and
India and was captivated by the mathematical ideas from his
travels.
 His book, Liver Abaci, was a discourse on the mathematical
methods in commerce that Fibonacci observed during his travels.
Fibonacci is remembered for two important contributions to Western
mathematics:

15
 1. He helped spread the use of Hindu systems of writing numbers
in Europe (0,1,2,3,4,5 in place of Roman numerals).
2. The seemingly insignificant series of numbers later named the
Fibonacci Sequence after him.
Fibonacci discovered the sequence by posing the following question:
If a pair of rabbits is placed in an enclosed area, how many rabbits will
be born there if we assume that every month a pair of rabbits produces
another pair and that rabbits begin to bear young two months after their
birth?
 Start: At the start no rabbits are born, as the initial pair has not
had time to be pregnant and born (0).
 The first month: One pair of rabbits are born (1).
 The second month: Again, one pair of rabbits are born as the
new rabbits have not yet matured to bear young (1).
 The third month: Two pairs of rabbits reproduce, and one pair is
not ready, so two pairs of rabbits are born (2).
 The fourth month: Three pairs of rabbits reproduce and 2 pairs
of rabbits are not ready, so three pairs of rabbits are born (3).
 The fifth month: Five pairs of rabbits produce and three are not
ready, so five pairs of rabbits are born (5).
 And so on.

The Fibonacci Sequence is the series of numbers:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...

The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it:

 the 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1),

 the 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+2),
 the 5 is (2+3),
 and so on!


16
Example: So term number 6 is called x6 (which equals 8).

So we can write the rule:

The Rule is xn = xn−1 + xn−2 where:

 xn is term number "n"

 xn−1 is the previous term (n−1)
 xn−2 is the term before that (n−2)

Mathematics helps organize patterns and regulations in the World

 Mathematics helps organize patterns and regulations in the world.

 Mathematics will stay in our life forever because it is part of our
journey. It simply organizes patterns and regularities in the world
by the means of it exist in everything that our eyes see.
 Our world will not be formed with the help of mathematics as the
source of measuring something that is existing.
 The contribution of Fibonacci sequence is very essential by means
of having the perfect measurement in doing something such as
paintings, pictures or anything that has something to do with
measurements.
 Mathematics is nearly characterized by the use of difficult proofs.

17
Mathematics can help predict the behavior of nature and
phenomena in the world
 Mathematics we are able to forecast calamities such as hurricanes,
floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and landslides
etc.
 Using mathematical tools we create models which correspond to
what we can measure and observe in the world of reality.
 Such as calamities, volcanic Eruption, hurricane, earthquake,
flood, landslide.

Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for

our own ends

 Mathematics helps us to become interconnected, also with the

nature that we and other living and non- living things are on it.
 It can also help us to organize things to find a better one that is
compatible with one another, to help predict and find answers
that make our lives better.
 Mathematics can also help us to think rationally and deal with
various things systematically and smoothly, and mathematics
can help us to control nature and occurrences in the world for
our own ends.
Mathematics Has Numerous Applications in The World, Making It
Indispensable
 When hearing the word ‗Math‘ one would inadvertently think of
the words calculus, algebra, statistics etc.
 Mundane daily tasks such as cooking require us to accurately
measure ingredients in order to achieve maximum satisfaction for
our desired dish.
 Listening to music is one of the things that we take pleasure in.
Whether you are into rock, classical music, or pop, math still have
an influence on music.

18
  As the famous Greek philosopher and mathematician, Phythagoras
once said, ―there is geometry in the humming of strings, there is
music in the spacing of spheres.‖

What have you learned?

Test 1 Write the Letter of the correct answer before the number.

1. 61 57 53 ___ 45 41 A. 52 B. 51 C. 49

2. Use the pattern to find the units digit of 412

41 = 4 42 = 16 43 = 64 44 = 256 45 = 1,024

A. 16,777,216 B. 41,233,455 C.16 , 321, 333

3. If x + 3 is the rule, what are the next three numbers? … 7, 10,

13, ____, ____, ____,
A. 16,19,25 B. 16,19,23 C. 16,19,22

4. What is the next number in the sequence 3, 15, 75, 325,

____,
A. 1,975 B.1,875 C. 1675

5. x2 is the rule; continue the pattern. … 2, 4, 16, ____, ____

A. 256, 65, 536 B. 446, 45,546 C. 335, 55,453
Test 2: Solve for Exponential growth and Exponential decay.
1. Substitute the given values in the formula to find the
missing quantity.
A. P = 680,000, r = 12% per year, t= 8 years
B. A= 1,240,000; r = 8% per year; t = 30 years
C. A= 786,000; P = 247,000; t= 17 year

19
 SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE
INCORPORATED
Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
SECTION NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
1 Week 3
II. MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS Sept. 6-11, 2021
Speaking Mathematically

What this module is about

The aim of this chapter is to introduce you to a mathematical way of
thinking that can serve you in a wide variety of situations. Often
when you start work on a mathematical problem, you may have
only a vague sense of how to proceed. You may begin by looking at
examples, drawing pictures, playing around with notation, rereading the
problem to focus on more of its details, and so forth.
This chapter will introduce you to some of the special language that is a
foundation for mathematical thought, the language of variables, sets,
relations, and functions. Think of the chapter like the exercises you
would do before an important sporting event. Its goal is to warm up your
mental muscles so that you can do your best.

What you are expected to learn

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:
2. Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of
mathematics by:
5.1 Describing the characteristics of mathematical language.
5.2 Identifying similarities and differences between mathematical
expressions from a mathematical sentence.
Describing the conventions in the mathematical language.
3. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language by:

20
3.1 Identifying the relationship of mathematical language to any other
languages.
3.2 Describing the nature of mathematics as a language.
around that exhibit either of mentioned characteristics.
Pointing out the trend as illustrated in the Fibonacci Sequence.
Reference/s:
Statistics Teaching Guide Pages 1-6 for the Tertiary Level ( ed. Roberto
Padua
Albert, J. R. G. (2008). Basic Statistics
Welfredo Patungan, Nelia Marquez), Published by Rex Bookstore.
https://www.classzone.com/eservices/home/pdf/student/LA211HAD.pdf
http://maths.mq.edu.au/numeracy/web_mums/module4/Worksheet410/m
odule1.pdf.
https://euclid.ucc.ie/MATHENR/MathCircles_files/Booklet_all.pdf
https://www.mathopolis.com/questions/q.html?id=366&t=mif&qs=366_
367_368_1051_1052_1053_9070_2424_2425_2426&site=1&ref=2f736
574732f736574732d696e74726f64756374696f6e2e68746d6c&title=496
e74726f64756374696f6e20746f2053657473#
Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets
Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

THE LANGUAGE OF
MATHEMATICS
The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds
of thoughts that mathematicians like to express. It is:
• precise (able to make very fine distinctions);

• concise (able to say things briefly);

• powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative ease).

21
MATHEMATICS: expressions versus sentences

ENGLISH:nouns
versus sentences
In English, nouns are used to name things we want to talk about
(like people, places, and things); whereas sentences are used to
state complete thoughts. A typical English sentence has at least
one noun, and at least one verb. For example, consider the
sentence
Carol loves mathematics.
Here, ‗Carol‘ and ‗mathematics‘ are nouns; ‗loves‘ is a verb.

 The mathematical analogue of a ‗noun‘ will be called an

expression.
 Thus, an expression is a name given to a mathematical object of
interest.
 The mathematical analogue of a ‗sentence‘ will also be called a
sentence.
ENGLISH MATHEMATICS
name given to an object NOUN (person, EXPRESSION
of interest: Examples:
place, thing)
5,2+3,12
Examples: Carol,
Idaho, book
a complete thought: SENTENCE SENTENCE
Examples: Examples:
The capital of Idaho is 3+4= 7
Boise. The capital of 3+4=8
Idaho is Pocatello.

22
Symbols

23
FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS OF SETS
What is a set? Well, simply put, it's a collection.
For example, the items you wear: hat, shirt, jacket, pants, and so on.
This is known as a set.

Notation-There is a fairly simple notation for sets. We simply list each

element (or "member") separated by a comma, and then put some curly
brackets around the whole thing:

The curly brackets { } are sometimes called "set brackets" or "braces".

This is the notation for the two previous examples:
{socks, shoes, watches, shirts, ...}
{index, middle, ring, pinky}

Notice how the first example has the "..." (three dots together).
The three dots ... are called an ellipsis, and mean "continue on".
So that means the first example continues on ... for infinity.
So:
 The first set {socks, shoes, watches, shirts, ...} we call an infinite
set,
 the second set {index, middle, ring, pinky} we call a finite set.
But sometimes the "..." can be used in the middle to save writing long
lists:
Example: the set of letters:
{a, b, c, ..., x, y, z}
In this case it is a finite set (there are only 26 letters, right?)

Numerical Sets-So what does this have to do with mathematics? When

we define a set, all we have to specify is a common characteristic. Who
says we can't do so with numbers?

24
Set of even numbers: {..., −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, ...}
Set of odd numbers: {..., −3, −1, 1, 3, ...}
Set of prime numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...}
Positive multiples of 3 that are less than 10: {3, 6, 9}

And we can have sets of numbers that have no common property, they
are just defined that way. For example:
{2, 3, 6, 828, 3839, 8827}
{4, 5, 6, 10, 21}
{2, 949, 48282, 42882959, 119484203}
Universal Set
At the start we used the word "things" in quotes.

 We call this the universal set. It's a set that contains everything.
Well, not exactly everything. Everything that is relevant to our
question.

Equality
Two sets are equal if they have precisely the same members.
Example: Are A and B equal where:
 A is the set whose members are the first four positive whole
numbers
 B = {4, 2, 1, 3}
Let's check. They both contain 1. They both contain 2. And 3, And 4.
And we have checked every element of both sets, so: Yes, they are
equal!
And the equals sign (=) is used to show equality, so we write:
A=B
Example: Are these sets equal?
 A is {1, 2, 3}
 B is {3, 1, 2}
Yes, they are equal!
They both contain exactly the members 1, 2 and 3.
It doesn't matter where each member appears, so long as it is there.

25
Subsets

When we define a set, if we take pieces of that

set, we can form what is called a subset.

Example: the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

A subset of this is {1, 2, 3}. Another subset is {3,

4} or even another is {1}, etc.

But {1, 6} is not a subset, since it has an element (6) which is not in the
parent set.

In general:

A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is in B.

So let's use this definition in some examples.

Example: Is A a subset of B, where A = {1, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 3, 2}?

1 is in A, and 1 is in B as well. So far so good.

3 is in A and 3 is also in B.

4 is in A, and 4 is in B.

That's all the elements of A, and every single one is in B, so we're done.

Yes, A is a subset of B

The Empty Set

How many subsets does the empty set have? You could choose:

 the whole set: {}

 the empty set: {}

But, hang on a minute, in this case those are the same thing!
26
So the empty set really has just 1 subset (which is itself, the empty set).
It is like asking "There is nothing available, so what do you choose?"
Answer "nothing". That is your only choice. Done.

A Set With One Element

The set could be anything, but let's just say it is: {apple}

How many subsets does the set {apple} have?

 the whole set: {apple}

 the empty set: {}

And that's all. You can choose the one element, or nothing.

So any set with one element will have 2 subsets.

A Set With Two Elements

Let's add another element to our example set:

{apple, banana}

How many subsets does the set {apple, banana} have?

It could have {apple}, or {banana}, and don't forget:

 the whole set: {apple, banana}

 the empty set: {}

So a set with two elements has 4 subsets.

A Set With Three Elements

How about:

{apple, banana, cherry}

27
OK, let's be more systematic now, and list the subsets by how many
elements they have:
Subsets with one element: {apple}, {banana}, {cherry}
Subsets with two elements: {apple, banana}, {apple, cherry}, {banana,
cherry}
And:
 the whole set: {apple, banana, cherry}
 the empty set: {}

In fact we could put it in a table:

Number
List of
subsets

zero elements {} 1

one element {apple}, {banana}, {cherry} 3

{apple, banana}, {apple, cherry}, {banana,

two elements 3
cherry}

three
{apple, banana, cherry} 1
elements

Total: 8

(Note: did you see a pattern in the numbers there?)

Sets with Four Elements (Your Turn!)
Now try to do the same for this set:
{apple, banana, cherry, date}

Here is a table for you:

List Number
of

28
 subsets

zero
{}
elements

one
element

two
elements

three
elements

four
elements

Total:

(Note: if you did this right, there will be a pattern to the numbers.)

ELEMENTARY LOGIC AND LEVELS OF FORMALITY

LOGIC: STATEMENTS, NEGATIONS, QUANTIFIERS,

NEGATION VARIABLES
STATEMENTS
A statement is a declarative sentence having truth value.
Examples of statements:
 Today is Saturday.
 Today I have math class.
 1 + 1 = 2 3 < 1 What's your sign?
 Some cats have fleas.
 All lawyers are dishonest.
29
  Today I have math class and today is Saturday.
 1 + 1 = 2 or 3 < 1
SYMBOLS FOR STATEMENTS
 It is conventional to use lower case letters such as p, q, r, s to
represent logic statements. Referring to the statements listed above,
let
 p: Today is Saturday.
 q: Today I have math class.
 r: 1 + 1 = 2 s: 3 < 1
 u: Some cats have fleas.
 v: All lawyers are dishonest
Propositions and Connectives
● A Proposition (or statement) is a sentence that is either true or
false (without additional information).
● The logical connectives are defined by truth tables (but have
English language counterparts) .

QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
 The words "all" "some" and "none" are examples of quantifiers.
 A statement containing one or more of these words is a quantified
statement. Note: the word "some" means "at least one."

30
 EXAMPLE 2.1.1 According to your everyday experience, decide
whether each statement is true or false:
1. All dogs are poodles. (False because we know that there is at least
one dog that is not a poodle)
2. Some books have hard covers.( False because we know that there is
at least one dog that is not a poodle)
TRY YOUR OWN!
Write whether each statement is true or false:
__________1. No U.S. presidents were residents of Georgia.
__________2. Some cats are mammals.
__________3. Some cats aren't mammals.
NEGATIONS OF QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
 If p is a statement, the negation of p is another statement that is
exactly the opposite of p.
 The negation of a statement p is denoted ~p ("not p").
 A statement p and its negation ~p will always have opposite
truth values; it is impossible to conceive of a situation in which
a statement and its negation will have the same truth value
Fact: "None" is the opposite of "at least one."
For example: The negation of "Some dogs are poodles" is "No dogs are
poodles."

Notice that "Some dogs are poodles" is a statement that is true

according to our everyday experience, and "No dogs are poodles" is a
statement that is false according to our everyday experience
EXERCISE 1:Write the negation of the following sentences.
1. Today is Saturday.
2. All goats are mammals.
31
LEVELS OF FORMALITY

What have you learned

Test 1 Write the Letter of the correct answer.
1. Which one of the following sets is infinite?
A. The set of whole numbers less than 10
B. The set of prime numbers less than 10
C. The set of integers less than 10
D. The set of factors of 10
2. A is the set of factors of 12. Which one of the following is not a
member of A?
A. 3 C. 4
B. 5 D. 6
3. X is the set of multiples of 3
Y is the set of multiples of 6
Z is the set of multiples of 9
Which one of the following is true?
(⊂ means "subset")
A. X ⊂ Y C.X ⊂ Z
B. Z ⊂ Y D. Z ⊂ X

END OF UNIT PERIOD

32
 SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE INCORPORATED
Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
SECTION PRELIM
1 NATURES OF MATHEMATICS
Week 5-6
III. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING Sept. 20-Oct. 02, 2021

What this module is about?

Most occupation require good problem-solving skills. For instance,
architects and engineers must solve many complicated problems as
they design and construct modern buildings that are aesthetically
pleasing, functional, and that meet stringent safety requirements. Two
goals of this chapter are to help you become a better problem solver and
to demonstrate that problem solving can be enjoyable experience.
What you are expected to learn
This module is designed for you to:
1.1 Use different types of reasoning to justify statements
and arguments made about mathematics,and mathematical
concepts
1.2 Write clear logical proofs
1.3 Solve problems involving patterns and recreational
problems following polyas four steps
1.4 Organize ones methods and approaches for solving problems.

DEDUCTIVE vs. INDUCTIVE REASONING

Problem Solving
• Logic – The science of correct reasoning.
• Reasoning – The drawing of inferences or conclusions from
known or assumed facts.

33
 When solving a problem, one must understand the question, gather all
pertinent facts, analyze the problem i.e. compare with previous problems
(note similarities and differences), perhaps use pictures or formulas to
solve the problem.
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning – A type of logic in which one goes from a
general statement to a specific instance.
The classic example
All men are mortal. (major premise)
Socrates is a man. (minor premise)
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)
Inductive Reasoning
 Inductive Reasoning, involves going from a series of specific cases
to a general statement.
 The conclusion in an inductive argument is never guaranteed.
Example:
 What is the next number in the sequence 6, 13, 20, 27,…
 Here‘s the sequence again 6, 13, 20, 27,…
 Look at the difference of each term.
 13 – 6 = 7, 20 – 13 = 7, 27 – 20 = 7
 Thus the next term is 34, because 34 – 27 = 7.
 However what if the sequence represents the dates. Then the next
number could be 3 (31 days in a month).
 The next number could be 4 (30 day month)
 Or it could be 5 (29 day month – Feb. Leap year)
 Or even 6 (28 day month – Feb.)
 There is more than one correct answer.

34
What is a proof?
A proof is a sequence of logical statements, one implying another, which
gives an explanation of why a given statement is true.
How is the mathematical "prove" related to the old, colloquial "prove"?
We accuse students of the high crime of "not even knowing what a proof
is." Yet we, the math teachers, don't know it either, if "know" means
give a coherent, factual explanation.
In principle, it's another. We show students what proof is in practice.
We tell them what it is in principle. The two meanings aren't identical.
Problem A: What does meaning number 1 have to do with meaning
number 2? Problem B: How come so few notice Problem A is it
uninteresting? Embarrassing? Problem C: Does it matter? Problem C is
easier than A and B.
Intuition
If we look at mathematical practice, the intuitive is everywhere. We
consider intuition in the mathematical literature and in mathematical
discovery.
Since intuition is an essential part of mathematics, no adequate
philosophy of mathematics can ignore intuition.
The word intuition, as mathematicians use it, carries a heavy load of
mystery and ambiguity.
Sometimes it's a dangerous, illegitimate substitute for rigorous proof.
Sometimes it's a flash of insight that tells the happy few what others
learn with great effort.

35
Certainty
2+2=4
It is possible to distinguish four different strands
(1) mathematical methods are reliable, they give us the correct result;
(2) mathematical methods are reliable in the sense that they do not lead
to contradictory results;
(3) mathematical methods are reliable (genuinely reliable) only when we
have a proof of the consistency of them; and
(4) the inferences of logic are reliable. I shall now turn to a discussion of
these four strands, by turning them into suggestions as to how one could
understand certainty. In addition to these, I will also consider the idea –
not among the strands identified in Hilbert‘s writings – that
mathematical truths are eternal.
Problem Solving Strategies
Polya’s How to Solve It?
 George P lya was a great champion in the field
of teaching effective problem solving skills.
 He was born in Hungary in 1887, received his Ph.D. at the
University of Budapest, and was a professor at Stanford University
(among other universities).
 He wrote many mathematical papers along with three books, most
famously, ―How to Solve it.‖
 P lya died at the age 98 in 1985.

On 1945, P lya published the short book How to Solve It, which gave a
four-step method for solving mathematical problems:

1. First, you have to understand the problem.

2. After understanding, then make a plan.

36
 3. Carry out the plan.
4. Look back on your work. How could it be better?

Example:

Mr. Jones has a total of 25 chickens and cows on his farm. How many of
each does he have if all together there are 76 feet?

Step 1: Understanding the problem

We are given in the problem that there are 25 chickens and cows.
All together there are 76 feet.
Chickens have 2 feet and cows have 4 feet.
We are trying to determine how many cows and how many chickens Mr.
Jones has on his farm.
Step 2: Devise a plan
Going to use Guess and test along with making a tab
Many times the strategy below is used with guess and test.
Make a table and look for a pattern:
Procedure: Make a table reflecting the data in the problem. If done in an
orderly way, such a table will often reveal patterns and relationships that
suggest how the problem can be solved.
Step 3: Carry out the plan:
Number of Number of Total number
Chickens Cows chicken feet cow feet of feet
20 5 40 20 60
21 4 42 16 58
Notice we are going in the wrong direction! The total number of feet is
decreasing!
19 6 38 24 62

37
 Better! The total number of feet are increasing!

15 10 30 40 70
12 13 24 52 76

Step 4: Looking back:

Check: 12 + 13 = 25 heads
24 + 52 = 76 feet

DO IT YOUR OWN?

Answer it following using the Polya‘s strategies.

1.Karen is thinking of a number. If you double it, and subtract 7, you
obtain 11. What is Karen‘s number?

2. Jose is thinking of a number.

The number is not odd.
The sum of the digits is divisible by 2.
The number is a multiple of 11.
It is greater than 5 times 4.
It is a multiple of 6
It is less than 7 times 8 +23

What is the number?

38
 SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE
INCORPORATED
Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL (PART 1)
Week 7
SECTION 2
DATA MANAGEMENT Oct. 4-9, 2021

What this module is about

This module deals with the Measures of central tendency, or
averages, are used in a variety of contexts and form the basis of
statistics.

What you are expected to learn

This module is designed for you to:
 Use a variety of tools to process and manage numerical data
 Use the methods of linear regression and correlation to predict the
value of a variable given a certain conditions
 Advocate the use of statistical data in making important decisions.
Reference/s:
Statistics Teaching Guide for the Tertiary Level (ed. Roberto
Padua
Albert, J. R. G. (2008). Basic Statistics, Welfredo Patungan, Nelia
Marquez), Published by Rex Bookstore.
https://www.mathsisfun.com/mean.html
https://www.purplemath.com/modules/meanmode.htm
https://www.britannica.com/science/mean
Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets
Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You
39
 How much do you know?

Find the Average Weight of 20 students.

 Student 1 weighs 41 kg
 Student 2 weighs 47 kg
 Student 3 weighs 56 kg
 Student 4 weighs 48 kg
 Student 5 weighs 51 kg
 Student 6 weighs 53 kg
 Student 7 weighs 56 kg
 Student 8 weighs 44 kg
 Student 9 weighs 41 kg
 Student 10 weighs 47 kg
 Student 11 weighs 56 kg
 Student 12 weighs 46 kg
 Student 14 weighs 41 kg
 Student 15 weighs 47 kg
 Student 16 weighs 56 kg
 Student 17 weighs 46 kg
 Student 18 weighs 41 kg
 Student 19 weighs 47 kg
 Student 20 weighs 56 kg
AVERAGE : _____________________________

GATHERING AND ORAGANIZING DATA: REPRESENTING

DATA USING GRAPHS AND CHARTS, INTERPETING
ORGANIZED DATA

Organizing and Graphing Data

 Statistics as a subject provides a body of principles and

methodology for designing the process of data collection,
summarizing and interpreting the data, and drawing conclusions or
generalities.

40
  statistical observation and data finding organizing,
 displaying and describing statistical data sets making decision,
 inferences, predictions and forecasts based on given data sets
Statistics can be divided into two areas:
 descriptive statistics – consists of methods for organizing,
displaying and describing data using tables, graphs, and summary
measures.
 inferential statistics – consists of methods that use sample results to
help make decisions or predictions about a population.
 Population consists of all elements – individuals, items, or objects
– whose characteristics are being studied.
 The population that is being studied is also called target
population. A unit is a single entity (usually a person or an object)
whose characteristics are of interest
Elementary Statistical Terms
 A sample from a statistical population is a proportion (a subset) of
the population selected for study.
 A survey that includes every member of the population is called
census. The technique of collecting information from a proportion
of the population is called sample survey.
 A sample that represents the characteristics of the population as
closely as possible is called a representative sample.
 A sample can be random – A sample drawn in such a way that
each element of the population has a chance of being selected.
 If all samples of the same size selected from a population have the
same chance of being selected, we call it simple random sampling.
Such a sample is called a simple random sample.
 Non-random – The elements of the sample are not selected
randomly but with a view of obtaining a representative sample.

41
  A variable is a characteristic under study that assumes different
values for different elements. The value of variable for an element
is called an observation or measurement.
 A data set is a collection of observations on one or more variables.
The number of observations we call a sample size and denote
usually n.
Main Types of Data (variables)
We distinguish two basic types of data (variables)
 qualitative or categorical data – A variable that cannot
assume a numerical value but can be classified into two or
more non-numeric categories is called a qualitative or
categorical variable, the data collected on such a variable are
called qualitative data.
 qualitative or numerical data – A variable that can be
measured numerically is called a quantitative variable.
 The data collected on a quantitative variable are called
quantitative data.
 discrete variable – usually integer numbers continuous
variable-real numbers
 qualitative or categorical variables: color of cars (black, red,
green,. . . ), marital status of people (unmarried, married,
divorced, widow–widower), sex (male, female), etc.
 qualitative or numerical data – discrete: number of
typographical errors in newspapers, number of persons in a
family, number of cars owned by families, etc.
 qualitative or numerical data – continuous: length of a jump,
height, weight, survival time, etc.

42
Organizing and Graphing Data – Categorical Data
Data are usually organized in the form of a frequency table shows the
counts (frequencies) of individual categories. Our understanding of the
data is further enhanced by calculation of proportion (relative frequency)
of observations in each category.
Relative frequency = Frequency in the category
Total number of observations.
Do it your own?
Create atleast 2 examples about organizing and graphing data using the
formula stated above. Show the process of how you solved your
problems.
RESPONSES FREQUENCY RELATIVE
FREQUENCY
SUPPORT

OPPOSE

NEUTRAL

TOTAL

43
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY, MEAN , MEDIAN ,
MODE AND WEIGHTED MEAN
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Central Tendency
a measure that tells us where the middle of a bunch of data lies most
common on mean , median and mode.
Mean
The Mean is the average of the numbers or a calculated "central"
value of a set of numbers.
To calculate: Add up all the numbers, then divide by how many
numbers there are.
Example: find the Mean {3, 7, 5, 13, 20, 23, 39, 23, 40, 23, 14, 12, 56,
23, 29}
The sum = 330
There are fifteen numbers
Mean = 330 / 15 = 22
Example: find the Mean {3, -7, 5, 13, -2}
The sum = 3 - 7 + 5 + 13 - 2 = 12
There are 5 numbers
Mean = 12 ÷ 5 = 2.4

How to solve Mean for Ungrouped Data

1.Collect and count your data. For any set of data values, the mean is a
measure of central value. Depending on the type of data, the mean tells
you the central value of that data. To find the mean, you must first
collect your data, either through an experiment of some sort or just from
an assigned problem.
 For this example, use the assigned data set of 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 4, 8
and 12. This set is small enough to count by hand to find that there
are eight numbers in the set.
 In statistical work, the variable N or n is commonly used to
represent the number of data values.
2.Find the sum of the data values. The first step of finding the mean is
calculating the sum of all the data points. In statistical notation, each
44
value is generally represented by the variable x. The sum of all values is
symbolized as ∑x. The capital Greek letter sigma signifies finding the
sum of the values. For this sample data set, the calculation is:
 ∑x = 6 + 7+ 10 + 12 + 13 + 4 + 12 = 72
1. Divide to find the mean. Finally, divide the sum by the
number of values. The Greek letter mu, µ, is commonly used
to represent the mean. Therefore, the calculation of the mean
is:
How to solve Mean for Ungrouped Data
Set up a table. To keep your data in good order and to help with the
calculations, it is helpful to create a three-column table. Label the first
column x. Label the second column x - µ. Label the third column | x- µ |
Fill the first column with the data points for your calculation.

2. Calculate the deviation of each data point.

In the second column, which you have labeled , you will report the
deviation or difference between each data point and the mean of the set.
Find this value simply by subtracting the mean from each data value.[5]
For the sample data set, these deviations will be:

45
To check the validity of your calculations, the sum of the values in this
deviation column should be 0. If you add them up and get something
other than 0, then either your mean is incorrect or you made an error in
calculating one or more of the deviations.

3. Find the absolute value of each deviation. When you calculate the
deviation of each data point from the mean, you are concerned only with
the size of the difference, and not whether the difference is positive or
negative. What you really need, then, in mathematical terminology, is
the absolute value of the difference. Absolute value is designated
symbolically with the vertical bars | |.[6]
 Absolute value is a mathematical tool used to measure distance or
size, regardless of direction.

46
  To find absolute value, just drop the negative sign from each
number in the second column. Thus, fill the third column with the
absolute values as follows:

Calculate the mean of the absolute deviations. After completing your

three-column table, find the mean of the absolute values in the third
column. As you did to find the mean of the original data points, add the
deviations together and divide the sum by the number of values.
For this data set, this final calculation will be:

47
What have you learned?

Median
The middle number (in a sorted list of numbers).
To find: place the numbers you are given in numerical
order and find the middle number.
> Example: find the Median of {13, 23, 11, 16, 15, 10, 2}6.
– First, order the numbers, least to greatest
– Next, identify the middle number

48
Estimating the Median from Grouped Data

Let's look at our data:

Seconds Frequency

51 – 55 2

56 – 60 7

61 – 65 8

66 – 70 4

49
The median is the middle value, which in our case is the 11 th one, which
is in the 61 - 65 group:
We can say "the median group is 61 - 65"
But if we want an estimated Median value we need to look more closely
at the 61 - 65 group.
We call it "61 - 65", but it really includes values from 60.5 up to (but not
including) 65.5.
Why? Well, the values are in whole seconds, so a real time of 60.5 is
measured as 61. Likewise 65.4 is measured as 65.
At 60.5 we already have 9 runners, and by the next boundary at 65.5 we
have 17 runners. By drawing a straight line in between we can pick out
where the median frequency of n/2 runners is:

And this handy formula does the calculation:

Estimated Median = L + (n/2) − BG × w

where:

 L is the lower class boundary of the group containing the median

 n is the total number of values
 B is the cumulative frequency of the groups before the median
group
 G is the frequency of the median group
 w is the group width

50
For our example:

 L = 60.5
 n = 21
 B=2+7=9
 G=8
 w=5

Estimated Median= 60.5 + (21/2) − 98 × 5

= 60.5 + 0.9375
= 61.4375

What have you learned

Find the median number of traffic accidents each day.

51
 Mode
The number which appears most often in a set of numbers.
Example: in {6, 3, 9, 6, 6, 5, 9, 3} the Mode is 6 (it occurs most
often).

What if there is more than one mode?

You CAN have more than one mode.

Example: {1, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9}
– 3 appears three times, as does 6.
– So there are two modes: at3 and 6
Having two modes is called "bimodal".
Having more than two modes is called "multimodal".
What if there is NO mode?
You CAN have a set without a mode. Example: {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
No number appears more than once.
So there is NO mode.
Try the following:
Find the Mean, Median, and Mode for the following:
1) {2, 3, 5, 6, 13, 5, 1}

2) {201, 199, 201, 200, 199}

3) {8, 7, 5, 19}
4) {3, 7, 21, 23, 63, 27, 29, 95, 23}

52
MEASURES OF DISPERSION, RANGE STANDARD
DEVIATION AND VARIANCE
Measures of Dispersion
Tell you how widely spread out the values are Most common are Range,
Standard Deviation, and Variance
Range
The range of a data set is the difference between the
maximum and minimum values in the set
Example:
In {4, 6, 9, 3, 7} the lowest value is 3, and the highest is 9.

So the range is 9-3 =6 that is our range

53
Try the following:
Find the Range for the following:
1) {2, 3, 5, 6, 13, 5, 1}
2) {201, 199, 201, 200, 199}
3) {8, 7, 5, 19}
4) {3, 7, 21, 23, 63, 27, 29, 95, 23}

Variance

The average of the squared differences from the Mean (symbol is σ2)
,To calculate the variance follow these steps:

 find the Mean (average of the numbers)

 then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the result (the
squared difference)
 then work out the average of those squared differences
Example: find the variance {600, 470, 170, 430, 300}

54
STANDARD DEVIATION:
The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread out numbers
are (what is the standard difference between values in the set?) Its
symbol is σ (the greek letter sigma)
The formula- the square root of the Variance
From our last example:
 The variance, σ2 = 21,704
 The standard deviation,σ = √21,704 = 147.3227749 ≈
147.3228
Problems:

1. Consider the following three data sets A, B and C.

A = {9,10,11,7,13}
B = {10,10,10,10,10}
C = {1,1,10,19,19}
a) Calculate the mean of each data set.
b) Calculate the standard deviation of each data set.
c) Which set has the largest standard deviation?
d) Is it possible to answer question c) without calculations of the
standard deviation?

55
Solutions
1.
a. mean of Data set A = (9+10+11+7+13)/5 = 10
mean of Data set B = (10+10+10+10+10)/5 = 10
mean of Data set C = (1+1+10+19+19)/5 = 10
b. Standard Deviation Data set A
= √[ ( (9-10)2+(10-10)2+(11-10)2+(7-10)2+(13-10)2 )/5 ] = 2
Standard Deviation Data set B
= √[ ( (10-10)2+(10-10)2+(10-10)2+(10-10)2+(10-10)2 )/5 ] =
0
Standard Deviation Data set C
= √[ ( (1-10)2+(1-10)2+(10-10)2+(19-10)2+(19-10)2 )/5 ] =
8.05
c. Data set C has the largest standard deviation.
d. Yes, since data Set C has data values that are further away
from the mean compared to sets A and B.

DO IT YOUR OWN:
A. Find the following for the set X={2, 5, 8, 21, 45, 26, 5, 10}
Mean:
Median
Mode
Range
variance

56
MEASURES OF RELATIVE POSITIION, Z-SCORES,
PERCENTILES, QUARTILES AND BOX AND WHISKER
PLOTS
Quartiles

What this module is about

From the definition of median that it‘s the middle point in the axis
frequency distribution curve, and it is divided the area under the curve
for two areas have the same area in the left, and in the right. From this
may be divided the area under the curve for four equally area and this
called quartiles, in the same procedure divided the area for ten equally
pieces of area is called deciles, finally where divided the area for
hundred equally pieces of area is called percentiles.

How much do you know

Illustrate the graph shown below.

57
 What will you do
Quartiles in statistics are values that divide your data into
quarters. However, quartiles aren’t shaped like pizza slices;
Instead they divide your data into four segments according to
where the numbers fall on the number line. The four quarters that
divide a data set into quartiles are:
1. The lowest 25% of numbers.
2. The next lowest 25% of numbers (up to the median).
3. The second highest 25% of numbers (above the median).
4. The highest 25% of numbers.
As quartiles divide numbers up according to where their position is
on the number line, you have to put the numbers in order before
you can figure out where the quartiles are.
Find Quartiles: Examples
Example: Divide the following data set into quartiles:
2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 22, 13, 14, 16, 65, 45, 12.
Step 1: Put the numbers in order: 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12 13, 14, 16, 22,
45, 65.
Step 2: Count how many numbers there are in your set and then
divide by 4 to cut the list of numbers into quarters. There are 12
numbers in this set, so you would have 3 numbers in each quartile.
2, 5, 6, | 7, 10, 12 | 13, 14, 16, | 22, 45, 65
If you have an uneven set of numbers, it‘s OK to slice a number
down the middle. This can get a little tricky (imagine trying to
divide 10, 13, 17, 19, 21 into quarters!), so you may want to use
an online interquartile range calculator to figure those quartiles out
for you. The calculator gives you the 25th Percentile, which is the
end of the first quartile, the 50th Percentile which is the end of the
second quartile (or the median) and the 75th Percentile, which is
the end of the third quartile. For 10, 13, 17, 19 and 21 the results
are:
25th Percentile: 11.5
50th Percentile: 17

58
 75th Percentile: 20
Interquartile Range: 8.5.
Why do we need quartiles in statistics? The main reason is to perform
further calculations, like the interquartile range, which is a measure of
how the data is spread out around the mean.
What is an Upper Quartile?
The upper quartile (sometimes called Q3) is the number dividing the
third and fourth quartile. The upper quartile can also be thought of as
the median of the upper half of the numbers. The upper quartile is also
called the 75th percentile; it splits the lowest 75% of data from the
highest 25%.
Calculating the Upper Quartile
You can find the upper quartile by placing a set of numbers in order and
working out Q3 by hand, or you can use the upper quartile formula. If
you have a small set of numbers (under about 20), by hand is usually the
easiest option. However, the formula works for all sets of numbers, from
very small to very large. You may also want to use the formula if you
are uncomfortable with finding the median for sets of data with with odd
or even numbers.
Sample question:Find the upper quartile for the following set of
numbers:
27, 19, 5, 7, 6, 9, 15, 12, 18, 2, 1.
By Hand
Step 1: Put your numbers in order: 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 19, 27
Step 2: Find the median: 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 19, 27.
Step 3: Place parentheses around the numbers above the median.
1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, (12, 15, 18, 19, 27).
Step 4: Find the median of the upper set of numbers. This is the upper
quartile:
1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, (12, 15, 18 ,19 ,27).
Using the Formula
The upper quartile formula is:
Q3 = ¾(n + 1)th Term.
The formula doesn‘t give you the value for the upper quartile, it gives
you the place. For example, the 5th place, or the 76th place.
59
Step 1: Put your numbers in order: 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 19, 27.
Note: for very large data sets, you may want to use Excel to place your
numbers in order. See: Sorting Numbers in Excel.
Step 2: Work the formula. There are 11 numbers in the set, so:
Q3 = ¾(n + 1)th Term.
Q3 = ¾(11 + 1)th Term.
Q3 = ¾(12)th Term.
Q3 = 9th Term.
In this set of numbers (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 19, 27), the upper
quartile (18) is the 9th term, or the 9th place from the left.

What have you learned

Find the value of the following Quartile.

Q1 -
Q2 -
Q3 -

60
Deciles

What this module is about

From the definition of median that it‘s the middle point in the axis
frequency distribution curve, and it is divided the area under the curve
for two areas have the same area in the left, and in the right. From this
may be divided the area under the curve for four equally area and this
called quartiles, in the same procedure divided the area for ten equally
pieces of area is called deciles, finally where divided the area for
hundred equally pieces of area is called percentiles

What will you do

In descriptive statistics, the term ―decile‖ refers to the nine values that
split the population data into ten equal fragments such that each
fragment is representative of 1/10th of the population. In other words,
each successive decile corresponds to an increase of 10% points such
that the 1st decile or D1 has 10% of the observations below it, then
2nd decile or D2 has 20% of the observations below it and so on so forth.
There are several formulae in vogue to calculate decile, and this method
is one of the simplest one where each decile is calculated by adding one
to the number of data in the population, then divide the sum by 10 and
then finally multiply the result by the rank of the decile i.e. 1 for D1, 2
for D2… 9 for D9.
Di = i * (n + 1) / 10 th data
where n = Number of data in the population or sample
i is the ith decile can be represented as,
st
 1 decile, D1 = 1 * (n + 1) / 10 th data
nd
 2 decile, D2 = 2 * (n + 1) / 10 th data
and so on..
Steps to Calculate Decile
Step 1: Firstly, determine the number of data or variables in the
population or sample which is denoted by n.
Step 2: Next, sort the all data or variables in the population in ascending
order.

61
Step 3: Next, based on the decile that is required, determine the value by
adding one to the number of data in the population, then divide the sum
by 10 and then finally multiply the result by the rank of the decile as
shown below.
ith decile, Di formula = i * (n + 1) / 10 th data
Step 4: Finally, on the basis of the decile value figure out the
corresponding variable from among the data in the population.
Find Deciles: Examples
Let us suppose that John has been given a set of unsorted data
points. He has been asked to sort the number and cut them into
10 equal sections. So, help John do the task of sorting the
following 23 random numbers valued from 20 to 78 and
presenting then as deciles. The raw numbers are:24, 32, 27, 32,
23, 62, 45, 77, 60, 63, 36, 54, 57, 36, 72, 55, 51, 32, 56, 33, 42, 55,
30

Firstly, sort the 23 random numbers in the ascending order like below,
23, 24, 27, 30, 32, 32, 32, 33, 36, 36, 42, 45, 51, 54, 55, 55, 56, 57, 60,
62, 63, 72, 77
Similarly, we can calculate each decile as shown above,
Now, D1 = 1 * (n + 1) / 10 th data = 1 * (23 + 1) / 10
= 2.4th data i.e. between digit no. 2 and 3
which is = 24 + 0.4 * (27 – 24) = 25.2
Again, D2 = 2 * (23 + 1) / 10 th data
= 4.8th data i.e. between digit no. 4 and 5
which is = 30 + 0.8 * (32 – 30) = 31.6
Again, D3 = 3 * (23 + 1) / 10 th data
= 7.2th data i.e. between digit no. 7 and 8
which is = 32 + 0.2 * (33 – 32) = 32.2
Again, D4 = 4 * (23 + 1) / 10 th data
= 9.6th data i.e. between digit no. 9 and 10
which is = 36 + 0.6 * (36 – 36) = 36
Again, D5 = 5 * (23 + 1) / 10 th data
= 12th data i.e. digit no. 12
which is 45
62
( Try yourself for D6,D7,D8,D9 )

Let‘s Summarize
It is very important to understand the concept of decile
because it is widely used in the field of portfolio management to
assess the performance of a portfolio. The ranking helps to compare the
performance of an asset with other similar assets. The decile method is
also used by the government to determine the income distribution or
level of income equality in a nation. This method of dividing data is
used as part of many statistical and academic studies in the fields of
economics and finance.

What have you learned

Find the value of the following Decile.

D1 -
D2 -
D3 -
D4 –
D5 –
D6 –
D7 –
D8 –
D9 –
63
 Percentiles

What this module is about

From the definition of median that it‘s the middle point in the axis
frequency distribution curve, and it is divided the area under the curve
for two areas have the same area in the left, and in the right. From this
may be divided the area under the curve for four equally area and this
called quartiles, in the same procedure divided the area for ten equally
pieces of area is called deciles, finally where divided the area for
hundred equally pieces of area is called percentiles

What will you do

If all you are interested in is where you stand compared to the rest of the
herd, you need a statistic that reports relative standing, and that statistic
is called a percentile. The kth percentile is a value in a data set that splits
the data into two pieces: The lower piece contains k percent of the data,
and the upper piece contains the rest of the data (which amounts to [100
– k] percent, because the total amount of data is 100%). Note: k is any
number between 0 and 100.

To calculate the kth percentile (where k is any number between zero and
one hundred), do the following steps:
1. Order all the values in the data set from smallest to largest.
2. Multiply k percent by the total number of values, n.
This number is called the index.
3. If the index obtained in Step 2 is not a whole number, round it up to the
nearest whole number and go to Step 4a. If the index obtained in Step 2
is a whole number, go to Step 4b.
4. 4a.Count the values in your data set from left to right (from the smallest
to the largest value) until you reach the number indicated by Step 3.
The corresponding value in your data set is the kth percentile.
5. 4b.Count the values in your data set from left to right until you reach the
number indicated by Step 2.

64
The kth percentile is the average of that corresponding value in your data
set and the value that directly follows it.
For example, suppose you have 25 test scores, and in order from lowest
to highest they look like this: 43, 54, 56, 61, 62, 66, 68, 69, 69, 70, 71,
72, 77, 78, 79, 85, 87, 88, 89, 93, 95, 96, 98, 99, 99.
To find the 90th percentile for these (ordered) scores, start by
multiplying 90% times the total number of scores, which gives 90% ∗ 25
= 0.90 ∗ 25 = 22.5 (the index).
Rounding up to the nearest whole number, you get 23.
Counting from left to right (from the smallest to the largest value in the
data set), you go until you find the 23rd value in the data set. That value
is 98, and it‘s the 90th percentile for this data set.
Now say you want to find the 20th percentile.
Start by taking 0.20 x 25 = 5 (the index); this is a whole number, so
proceed from Step 3 to Step 4b, which tells you the 20th percentile is the
average of the 5th and 6th values in the ordered data set (62 and 66).
The 20th percentile then comes to (62 + 66) ÷ 2 = 64.
The median (the 50th percentile) for the test scores is the 13th score: 77.
The steps shown here demonstrate one way of calculating percentiles,
but there are several other acceptable methods.
Do not be too alarmed if your calculator or a friend gives you a value
close to but different from what these steps would give.
A percentile is a comparison score between a particular score and the
scores of the rest of a group.
It shows the percentage of scores that a particular score surpassed.
For example, if you score 7575 points on a test, and are ranked in
the 8585 th percentile, it means that the score 7575 is higher
than 85%85% of the scores.
The percentile rank is calculated using the formula
R=P100(N)R=P100(N)
where PP is the desired percentile and NN is the number of data points.

65
Example 1:
If the scores of a set of students in a math test
are 2020 , 3030 , 1515 and 7575 what is the percentile rank of the
score 3030 ?
Arrange the numbers in ascending order and give the rank ranging
from 11 to the lowest to 44 to the highest.
Number15203075 Rank1234
Use the formula:
3=P100(4)3=P2575
Therefore, the score 3030 has the 75 th percentile.
Note that, if the percentile rank RR is an integer, the P th percentile
would be the score with rank RR when the data points are arranged in
ascending order.
If R is not an integer, then the PP th percentile is calculated as shown.
Let I be the integer part and be the decimal part of D of R .
Calculate the scores with the ranks II and I+1I+1 .
Multiply the difference of the scores by the decimal part of RR .
The PP th percentile is the sum of the product and the score with the
rank II .
Example 2:
Determine the 3535 th percentile of the
scores 7,3,12,15,14,47,3,12,15,14,4 and 2020 .
Arrange the numbers in ascending order and give the rank ranging
from 11 to the lowest to 77 to the highest.
NumberRank314273124145156207Number34712141520Rank1234567
Use the formula:
R=35100(7) =2.45R=35100(7) =2.45
The integer part of RR is 22 , calculate the score corresponding to the
ranks 22 and 33 . They are 44 and 77 .
The product of the difference and the decimal part
is 0.45(7−4)=1.350.45(7−4)=1.35 .
Therefore, the 3535 th percentile is 2+1.35=3.352+1.35=3.35 .

66
 What have you learned?

Find the value of the following Quartile.

P10 -
P77 -
P23 -
P62 -
P36 –
P28-
P58 –
P88-
Please complete the Module Review Activity.
Upon completion of the Review Activity, please
complete the Module Quiz. Please note that all
modules in this course build on one another; as
a result, completion of this module. Quiz are
required before moving on to next module.
You can complete the review activities and
quizzes as many times as you like.

67
 PROBABILITIES AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Standard normal distribution

Normal distributions do not necessarily have the same means and

standard deviations. Each data set or distribution of scores will have
their own mean, standard deviation and shape - even when they follow a
normal distribution.
A normal distribution with a mean of 0 (u=0) and a standard deviation of
1 (o= 1) is known a standard normal distribution or a Z-distribution.

 The standard normal distribution (graph below) is a mathematical-

or theoretical distribution that is frequently used by researchers to
assess whether the distributions of the variables they are studying
approximately follow a normal curve.
 Every score in a normally distributed data set has an equivalent
score in the standard normal distribution. This means that the
standard normal distribution can be used to calculate the exact
percentage of scores between any two points on the normal curve.
 Statisticians have worked out tables for the standard normal curve
that give the percentage of scores between any two points. In order
to be able to use this table, scores need to be converted into Z
scores.

68
Linear Regression And Correlation,Least Square lines, linear
correlation coefficient

What is this module is about?

This course then proceeds to survey ways in which mathematics
provides a tool for understanding and dealing with various aspects of
present-day living, such as managing personal finances, making social
choices, appreciating geometric design, understanding codes used in
transmission and security, and dividing limited resources fairly. These
aspects will provide opportunities for actual doing mathematics in a
broad range of exercises that bring out the various dimensions of
mathematics as a way of knowing and test of student‘s understanding
and capacity. Enjoy learning this module and go over the discussion and
examples if you don‘t have not yet mastered a concept.

What you are expected to learn

This module is designed for you to know Mathematics
In The Modern World concepts by:
Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets
Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do

69
 How much do you know?
1. It is a linear approach to modeling the relationship between a
scalar response (or dependent variable) and one or more
explanatory variables (or independent variables).
a. Linear regression
b. Simple linear regression
c. Multiple linear regression
d. All of the above
2. It is a measure of relationship between two mathematical variables
or measured data values, which includes the Pearson correlation
coefficient as a case.
a. Correlation c. Trigonometry
b. Statistics d. Geometry
3. A first step in this determination is to collect some data, data
involving two variables are called______________?
a. Sampling c. Bivariate Data
b. Drawing d. Collecting
4. It is a set of bivariate data is the line that minimizes the sum of the
squares of the vertical deviations from each data point to the line.
a. Scatter diagram c. plotting
b. Least-square regression line d. Plot diagram
5. A measure the strength and direction of the linear relationship
between two variables x and y.
a. interpolation
b. Linear correlation coefficient
c. coefficient
d. extrapolation

70
 What will you do?
LESSON 1 DEFINITION OF LINEAR REGRESSION
AND CORRELATION

The science of statistics deals with the collection, analysis,

interpretation, and presentation of data. We see and use data in our
everyday lives.

Important Terms in LINEAR REGRESSION AND CORRELATION

When performing a research studies, scientists often wish to know two

variables are related. If the variables are determined to be related, a
scientist may then wish to find an equation that can be used to model the
relationship. A first step in this determination is to collect some data.
Data involving two variables are called bivariate data.

Example:

Time between 27 22 23 23 20 27 21 22 25 24
eruptions(in 2 7 7 8 3 0 8 6 0 5
seconds), x
duration of
eruption (in
seconds), y 89 79 83 82 81 85 78 81 85 79

71
THE FORMULA FOR THE LEAST-SQUARES LINE

The equation of the least-squares line for the n ordered pairs (x1, y1),
(x2, y2), (x3, y3), …..(xn, yn) is ŷ = ax + b, where
∑ ∑ ∑
and b = y – ax
∑ ∑

To apply this formula to the data for Old Faithful, we first to find the
value of summation.
∑ ∑ ∑
∑
Use the values to find the value of a,
∑ ∑ ∑
∑ ∑

=0.1189559666

We then find the values of x and ӯ,

∑ ∑
x= ӯ=

and use them to find the y- intercept, b.

b= ӯ – ax
= 82.2 – 0.1189559666(238.6)
= 53.81710637
To determine the strength of a linear relationship between two variables,
statisticians use a statistic called the linear correlation coefficient, which
denoted by the variable r and defined as follows.

72
Linear Correlation Coefficient

For the n ordered pairs (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), …..(xn, yn), the linear
correlation coefficient r given by

∑ ∑ ∑
√ ∑ ∑ √ ∑ ∑

TRY THIS OUT

Determine what the key terms refer to in the following study.

EXAMPLE NO. 1

A. ADULT MEN
Stride length 2.5 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.5
(m)
Speed (m/s) 3.4 4.9 5.5 6.6 7.0 7.7 8.3 8.7

Use the equation of the least-squares line from example 1 to predict the
average speed of an adult man for each of the following stride lengths.
Round your results to the nearest tenth of a meter per second.
a. 2.8 m b. 4.8 m

EXAMPLE NO. 2

b. Camel
Stride length 2.5 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.2
(m)
Speed (m/s) 2.3 3.9 4.4 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.1 7.6

73
Use the equation of the least-squares line from stride lengths. Round
your results to the nearest tenth of a meter per second.
a. 2.7
b. 4.5

(After answering, see the solution in the next page)

Example No. 1 Solution

a. From example 1, the regression equation is y = 2.730263158x –

3.316447368. substitute 2.8 for x and evaluate the resulting
expression.
y = 2.730263158x – 3.316447368
= 2.730263158(2.8) – 3.316447368 = 4.328

b. From example 1, the regression equation is y = 2.730263158x –

3.316447368. substitute 4.8 for x and evaluate the resulting
expression.

y = 2.730263158x – 3.316447368
= 2.730263158(4.8) – 3.316447368 = 9.789

Example No. 2 Solution

a. From example 1, the regression equation is y = 3.1296296296x –

5.547222222. Substitute 2.7 for x and evaluate the resulting
expression.
y = 3.1296296296x – 5.547222222
= 3.1296296296(2.7) – 5.547222222 = 2.903

b. From example 1, the regression equation is y = 3.1296296296x –

5.547222222. Substitute 4.5 for x and evaluate the resulting
expression.

y = 3.1296296296x – 5.547222222
74
 = 3.1296296296(4.5) – 5.547222222 = 8.536

LESSON 2 Linear Correlation Coefficient

Linear Correlation Coefficient
A measure the strength and direction of the linear relationship between
two variables x and y. It is a linear approach to modeling the relationship
between a scalar response (or dependent variable) and one or more
explanatory variables (or independent variables).
If the linear correlation coefficient r is positive, the relationship between
the two variables has a positive correlation. In this case, if one variable
increases, the other variable also tends to increase. If r is negative, the
linear relationship between the variables has a negative correlation. In
this case, if one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease.

POSITIVE NEGATIVE
3.5 1.2
3 1
2.5 0.8
2
0.6
1.5
1 0.4
0.5 0.2
0 0
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 0 2 4 6 8

75
 Let‘s Summarize
LINEAR REGRESSION
It is a linear approach to modeling the relationship between a
scalar response (or dependent variable) and one or more
explanatory variables (or independent variables).
Correlation
It is a measure of relationship between two mathematical variables
or measured data values, which includes the Pearson correlation
coefficient as a case
Least- squares Regression Line
It is a set of bivariate data is the line that minimizes the sum of the
squares of the vertical deviations from each data point to the line.
Numerical coefficient
variables that take on values that are indicated by numbers
Linear correlation coefficient
A measure the strength and direction of the linear relationship
between two variables x and y.
Positive correlation
If the linear correlation coefficient r is positive, the relationship
between the two variables
Negative Correlation
if one variable increases, the other variable also tends to increase.
If r is negative, the linear relationship between the variables

STRONG POSITIVE STRONG NEGATIVE

3.5 1.2
3 1
2.5 0.8
2
0.6
1.5
1 0.4
0.5 0.2
0 0
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 0 2 4 6 8

76
 POSITIVE NEGATIVE
1.2
4
1
3 0.8
0.6
2
0.4
1 0.2
0
0 0 5 10
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3

NO CORRELATION
5
4
3
2
1
0
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3

What have you learned?

Test 1 Write the Letter of the correct answer
1. All of the ordered pairs lie on a line with positive slope, r is ?
a. 1 c. 3
b. 2 d. 4
2. All of the ordered pairs lie on a line with positive slope, r is ?
a. -4 c.-2
b. -3 d. -1
3. A first step in this determination is to collect some data, data
involving two variables are called______________?
c. Sampling c. Bivariate Data
d. Drawing d. Collecting

77
 4. It is a measure of relationship between two mathematical variables
or measured data values, which includes the Pearson correlation
coefficient as a case.
a. Correlation c. Trigonometry
b. Statistics d. Geometry
5. A measure the strength and direction of the linear relationship
between two variables x and y.
a. Interpolation c. coefficient
b. Extrapolation d. Linear correlation
coefficient
Test 2 Determine what the key terms refer to in the following study.
X 1 2 3 5 6
Y 7 5 3 2 1

a. Draw a scatter diagram for the data.

b. Find n, ∑ ∑ ∑ , ∑ ,∑
c. find a, the slope of the least-squares line, and b, the y- intercept of
the least-squares line.
d. Use the equation of the least-square line to predict the value of y
when x = 3.4

END OF PRELIM PERIOD

78
 SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE
INCORPORATED
Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
SECTION MIDTERM
III MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL (PART 2)

WEEK 9
I. GEOMETRIC DESIGNS Oct. 18-23,2021

What this module is about?

Geometric Designs Geometry can help enhance ones artistic
prowess as well as enrich ones own culture. Geometrical
design (GD) is a branch of computational geometry. It deals with the
construction and representation of free-form curves, surfaces, or
volumes]and is closely related to geometric modelling. Core problems
are curve and surface modelling and representation.

What you are expected to learn?

This module is designed for you to:

 Apply geometric concepts , especially isometries and describing

and creating designs
 Contribute to the enrichment to Filipino culture and arts using
concepts of geometry

79
Reference/s:
 Geometric Shapes: List, Definition, Types of Geometric Shapes
(toppr.com)
 Aufmann, R. N., Lockwood, J. S., Nation, R. D., & Clegg, D. K.
(2013).
 Mathematical excursions (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA:
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
 De Las Peñas, M. L. A. N., & Salvador-Amores, A. V. (2016).
Mathematical and anthropological analysis of northern Luzon
funeral textile.
 Philippine Journal of Science, 145, 89–103.
 Haute Culture. (2016, March 2). Textile tribes of the
philippines: Yakan weaving, weddings and wears.
Retrieved May 3, 2017, from
http://hauteculturefashion.com/
 yakan-tribe-textiles-mindinao-philippines/
 Taylor, R. P. (2002). Order in Pollock‘s chaos. Scientific
American, 287(6), 116–121.
 Taylor, R. P., Micolich, A. P., & Jonas, D. (1999). Fractal
analysis of Pollock‘s drip paintings. Nature, 399, 422.
 Vogel, C. (2006, November 2). A Pollock is sold, possibly for a
record price.
 The New York Times. Retrieved July 29, 2012, from
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/02/arts/design/
02drip.html?
r=1&adxnnl=1&ref=arts&adxnnlx=1163031599
 -revbGMuaIhdTP4qLonq8BA&oref=slogin
Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets
Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do

80
 How much do you know?
1. Is circle a polygon? Answer with a reason
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. What are the basic geometric shapes?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________
3. What is a polygon?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________
Recognizing and analysing Geometric Shapes
Geometric Shapes can be defined as figure or area closed by a boundary
which is created by combining the specific amount of curves, points, and
lines.
List of Geometric Shapes:
1. Square
2. Circle
3. Rectangle
4. Triangle
5. Polygons
6. Parallelogram

Square-A square is a four-sided figure which is created by connecting

4 line segments. The line segments in the square are all of the equal
lengths and they come together to form 4 right angles.

81
Circle

On the other hand, a circle which is another shape of geometry has no

straight lines. It is rather a combination of curves that are all connected. In
a circle, there are no angles to be found.

Rectangle
Similar to a square, a rectangle is also created by connecting four line
segments. However, the only difference between a square and a rectangle
is that in a rectangle, there are two line segments which are longer than the
other two line segments.

So, in geometry, a rectangle is also described as an elongated square.

Also, in a rectangle, the four corners come together to form four right
angles.

Triangle
Triangle comprises three connected line segments. Unlike, a rectangle or a
square, in a triangle, the angles can be of distinct measurements. They
aren‘t always the right angles.

82
Transformation

To transform something is to change it. In geometry, there are specific

ways to describe how a figure is changed. The transformations you will
learn about include:
Translation
Rotation
Reflection
Dilation
Renaming Transformations
It is common practice to name shape using capital letters.

83
It is common practice to name transformed shapes using the same letters
with a― ‖ symbol:

A ―slides‖ an object a fixed distance in a given direction. The original

object and its translation have the, and they face in the same direction.
Translations are slides.

Rotation
A is a transformation that turns a figure about a fixed point called the
center of rotation.

This rotation is 90 degrees counter clockwise.

84
Reflection
A reflection can be seen in water, in a mirror, in glass, or in a shiny
surface. An object and its reflection have the same shape and size, but
the figures face in opposite directions.

What happens to points in a Reflection?

 Name the points of the original

triangle.
A (2,-3) B (5,-4) C (2,-4)
 Name the points of the reflected
triangle.
A‘ (2,3) B‘ (5,4) C‘ (2,4)
TESSELLATIONS
Basically, a tessellation is a way to tile a floor (that goes on forever)
with shapes so that there is no overlapping and no gaps.

85
Patterns and Diagrams
There are three (non-trivial) classes of symmetrical patterns that
may be found in textile:
1.A finite pattern is a repeated pattern that does not admit any
translational symmetries. It admits either only rotational
symmetries or both rotational and reflectional symmetries
2.A frieze pattern is a symmetric pattern along a strip that has
translational symmetries in one direction
3.A plane crystallographic pattern is a repeated pattern that has
translational symmetries in two directions
Geometric arts,designs and culture

Fractals
A fractal is a geometric figure in which a self-similar motif
repeats itself on an ever-diminishing scale.

How much do you learned?

Write your answer in the space provided.
___________________1. It is a geometric figure in which a
self-similar motif repeats itself on an ever-diminishing scale.
___________________2. It is a repeated pattern that has translational
symmetries in two directions
___________________3. It is is a repeated pattern that does not admit
any translational symmetries.
___________________4. can be seen in water, in a mirror, in glass, or
in a shiny surface.
___________________5. a transformation that turns a figure about a
fixed point

86
 SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE INCORPORATED
Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
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MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL (PART 2)
SECTION Week 10
III
II. CODES Oct. 25-30,2021

What this module is about?

In modern times, once the ―digital revolution‖ came along, there
was a need for a new coding system which would be suitable for
computers and other electrical-digital devices. The system that was
chosen was the binary system, in which all numbers are coded using
only the digits 0 and 1. Binary symbology is very important in the
computer world. The digits 0 and 1 are called bits. They are translated
into electric current flows – the bit 1 symbolises the fact that there is a
flow, and the bit 0 symbolises that there is no flow inside the computer.
The sequence of these electric symbols is the ―language‖ of the
computer, and using it the computer can perform the instructions we
give it.

What you are expected to learn

This module is designed for you to recall basic coding skills
by:
1. Use coding schemes to encode and decode
different types in information for identification, privacy
and security purposes.
2. Exemplify honesty and integrity when using privacy
purposes
Reference/s:
https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/maths-puzzles/0/steps/14000

87
What have you learned?
Fill the code of the binary table
DECIMAL BINARY CODE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
88
BINARY CODES
The binary number system

We write numbers today as ‗strings‘ made up of the digits

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0.
973 is really:
9 x 102 + 7 x 101 + 3 x 100 = 9 x 100 + 7 x 10 + 3 x 1 = 973.

In the binary system, the location of the digits determines their value
according to powers of 2. The binary system is a base 2 system, using only
the digits 0 and 1. These digits are multiplied by 2 0=1 when in the column
on the extreme right, by 21=2, when in the next column to the left, by 2 2=4,
when in the next column to the left and so on.

Translating binary to decimal and vice-versa

To translate a binary number into decimal, multiply the rightmost digit by 1

(20), the second digit to the left by 2 (21), the third digit to the left by 4 (22),
the fourth digit by 8 (23) and so on. Example: the number 1011 in binary is
the decimal 11:
1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21+ 1 x 20 = 1 x 8 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 1= 11

Exercise 1:
Direction: Translate the binary to decimal
1. N = 616310 (Six Thousand One Hundred and Sixty Three) in
a decimal format is equal to:
Binary codes types:
 Weighted codes
1. BCD (8421)
2. 6311
3.2421
4. 642-3

89
BCD code (8421 code) - Simplest form: each decimal digit is replaced by
its binary equivalent.

90
Example 3: convert 0110100000111001(BCD) to its decimal equivalent.
Solution: Divide the BCD number into four-bit groups and convert each to
decimal

Example 4: Convert the following decimal and binary numbers to BCD.

a) 564810
b) 100011012
Solution:
a) 564810 =0101 0110 0100 1000
b) 100011012=14110=0001 0100 0001

Exercises 2:Chose the letter of the correct answer:

_______1. The binary equivalent of the decimal number 98 is
A. 1100010 C.11001000
B. 1110010 D.1100110
_______2. Base 10 of 47 is equivalent to the base 2 of
A. 11101 C.111101
B. 111011 D. 101111
_______3. 33 base 10 is equal to which binary number?
A. 10001 C.100001
B. 101101 D.100100
_______4. To convert decimal number to binary, we need to divide the
given base 10 number by
91
 A. 4 C.3
B. 5 D.2
_______5. What is the equivalent binary number for 25 base 10?
A. 11001 C.100111
B. 110010 D.100101
INTEGERS IN COMPUTER
In this session we examine the constraints of representing whole numbers
by a finite by a finite number of bits and implication of arithmetic.

The possibility of representing negative number by ticks away from the top
of the clock
9999+1 =0000
9999+2=0001
9999=3218=1(0000)-1+3218=3217
Four bits Integers on constraints on addition
0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 -8
1001 -7
1010 -6
1011 -5
1100 -4
1101 -3
1110 -2
1111 -1
Example:
92
 0101 (5)
1.
+1101 (-3)
0010 2
LOGIC AND COMPUTER ADDITION
Boolean Addition
When adding two numbers, if the sum of the digits in a given position
equals or exceeds the modulus, then a carry is propagated. For example, in
Boolean addition, if two ones are added, the sum is obviously two (base 10),
which exceeds the modulus of 2 for Boolean numbers (B = Z2 = {0,1}, the
integers modulo 2). Thus, we record a zero for the sum and propagate a
carry valued at one into the next more significant digit, as shown in Figure
3.1.

Boolean Subtraction

When subtracting two numbers, two alternatives present themselves. First,

one can formulate a subtraction algorithm, which is distinct from addition.
Second, one can negate the subtrahend (i.e., in a - b, the subtrahend is b)
then perform addition. Since we already know how to perform addition as
well as twos complement negation, the second alternative is more practical.

93
Figure 3.2 illustrates both processes, using the decimal subtraction 12 - 5 =
7 as an example.

Overflow

Overflow occurs when there are insufficient bits in a binary number

representation to portray the result of an arithmetic operation. Overflow
occurs because computer arithmetic is not closed with respect to addition,
subtraction, multiplication, or division. Overflow cannot occur in addition
(subtraction), if the operands have different (resp. identical) signs.

94
TEXT DATA
 Data type or simply type is an attribute of data which tells
the compiler or interpreter how the programmer intends to use the
data.
 Most programming languages support basic data types
of integer numbers (of varying sizes), floating-point numbers (which
approximate real numbers), characters and Booleans.
 A data type constrains the values that an expression, such as a variable
or a function, might take.
TYPES OF TEXT DATA
The five types are:
 Syntactic
A type is a purely syntactic label associated with a variable when it is
declared. Such definitions of "type" do not give any semantic meaning
to types.
 Representation
A type is defined in terms of its composition of more primitive
types—often machine types.
 Representation and behaviour
A type is defined as its representation and a set
of operators manipulating these representations.
 Value space
A type is a set of possible values which a variable can possess. Such
definitions make it possible to speak about
(disjoint) unions or Cartesian products of types.
 Value space and behaviour
A type is a set of values which a variable can possess and a set
of functions that one can apply to these values.

95
ERROR AND ERROR CORRECTION
Data can be corrupted during transmission (from source to receiver). It may
be affected by external noise or some other physical imperfections. In this
case, the input data is not same as the received output data. This
mismatched data is called ―Error‖.

Types Of Error Detecting Codes

In a data sequence, if 1 is changed to zero or 0 is changed to 1, it is called
―Bit error‖.
There are generally 3 types of errors occur in data transmission from
transmitter to receiver. They are
• Single bit errors
• Multiple bit errors
• Burst errors
Single Bit Data Errors
 The change in one bit in the whole data sequence is called ―Single bit
error‖.
 Occurrence of single bit error is very rare in serial communication
system.
 This type of error occurs only in parallel communication system, as
data is transferred bit wise in single line, there is chance that single
line to be noisy.

96
Multiple Bit Data Errors
If there is change in two or more bits of data sequence of transmitter to
receiver, it is called ―Multiple bit error‖. This type of error occurs in both
serial type and parallel type data communication
networks.

REPITITION AND HAMMING CODE

 Hamming code is a linear error-correcting code named after its
inventor, Richard Hamming.
 Hamming codes can detect and correct single-bit errors, and can detect
(but not correct) double-bit errors.
Hamming (7,4) code- It encodes 4 data bits into 7 bits by adding three
parity bits. Hamming(7,4) can detect and correct single-bit errors but can
only detect double-bit errors.

Hamming(8,4) code-The Hamming(7,4) can easily be extended to an (8,4)

code by adding an extra parity bit on top of the (7,4)

97
Hamming(11,7) code

How much do you learned?

Write your answer in the space provided below.
__________________1. a purely syntactic label associated with
a variable when it is declared.
__________________2. which a variable can possess. Such definitions
make it possible to speak about (disjoint) unions or Cartesian products of
types.
__________________3. occurs when there are insufficient bits in a binary
number representation to portray the result of an arithmetic operation.
__________________4. It may be affected by external noise or some other
physical imperfections.
__________________5. This type of error occurs only in parallel
communication system, as data is transferred bit wise in single line, there is
chance that single line to be noisy.

II. Fill the missing value below

0000
1
2

0100
0101
6
0111
-8
98
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www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
Mathematics as a Tool (Part 2)
SECTION Week 11
III
III. LINEAR PROGRAMMING Nov. 1-6, 2021

Module Overview
Data science has many applications, one of the most prominent among them
is optimization. We all tend to focus on optimizing stuff. Optimization
focuses on getting the most desired results with the limited resources you
have.
There are all sorts of optimization problems available, some are small, some
are highly complicated. While going through them, you‘ll find a specific
category called linear programming problems. In this article, we‘ve
discussed what they are and how you can work on them.
What you are expected to learn
This module is designed for you to :
 Use mathematical concepts and tools such as in finance , voting ,
logic , finance and linear programming
Reference/s: (3) New Messages! (upgrad.com)
3.2a. Solving Linear Programming Problems Graphically | Finite Math
(lumenlearning.com)
Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets
Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do

99
 How much do you know?
1.What is Linear Programming?
2. Give some fundamental terms of linear programming
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
___________________________
3.What are the steps to formulate a linear programming problem?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

LINEAR INEQUALITIES
Linear inequalities are defined as expressions in which two values are
compared using the inequality symbols. The five symbols that are used to
represent inequality are listed below:

100
Rules in Solving Linear Inequalities

Examples:
A. 3x < 7+3
We can simplify 7+3 without affecting the inequality: 3x < 10
B. x + 3 < 7

If we subtract 3 from both sides, we get: x + 3 − 3 < 7 − 3

x<4

And that is our solution: x < 4 -In other words, x can be any value less than
4.

C.12 < x + 5

If we subtract 5 from both sides, we get:

12 − 5 < x + 5 − 5

7<x

That is a solution!

But it is normal to put "x" on the left hand side so let us flip sides (and the
inequality sign!):

x>7

Do you see how the inequality sign still "points at" the smaller value (7) ?

And that is our solution: x > 7

101
D. 3y < 15

If we divide both sides by 3 we get:

3y/3 < 15/3

y<5

EXERCISE 1. Solve the following linear inequalities

1. 9y < 81
2. 12y < 108
3. 20 < x + 10
4. 18 < x + 3
5. 5x < 9+3
GEOMETRY OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING
A linear programming problem involves constraints that contain
inequalities. An
inequality is denoted with familiar symbols, <, >, ≤, and ≥. Due to
difficulties with strict inequalities (< and >), we will only focus on ≤ and≥.

Example 1

An airline offers coach and first-class tickets. For the airline to be

profitable, it must sell a minimum of 25 first-class tickets and a minimum of
40 coach tickets. The company makes a profit of $225 for each coach ticket
and $200 for each first-class ticket. At most, the plane has a capacity of 150
travelers. How many of each ticket should be sold in order to maximize
profits?
Solution
The first step is to identify the unknown quantities. We are asked to find the
number of each ticket that should be sold. Since there are coach and first-
class tickets, we identify those as the unknowns. Let,
x = # of coach tickets
102
y = # of first-class tickets
Next, we need to identify the objective function. The question often helps us
identify the objective function. Since the goal is the maximize profits, our
objective is identified.
Profit for coach tickets is $225. If
x coach tickets are sold, the total profit for these tickets is 225x.
Profit for first-class tickets is $200. Similarly, if
y first class tickets are sold, the total profit for these tickets is 200y.
The total profit, P, is
P = 225x + 200y
We want to make the value of
as large as possible, provided the constraints are met. In this case, we have
the following constraints:
 Sell at least 25 first-class tickets
 Sell at least 40 coach tickets
 No more than 150 tickets can be sold (no more than 150 people can fit
on the plane)
We need to quantify these.
 At least 25 first-class tickets means that 25 or more should be sold.
That is, y ≥≥ 25
 At least 40 coach tickets means that 40 or more should be sold. That
is, x ≥ 40
 The sum of first-class and coach tickets should be 150 or fewer. That
is x + y ≤ 150
Thus, the objective function along with the three mathematical constraints
is:
Objective Function: P = 225x + 200y
Constraints: y ≥ 25; x ≥ 40; x + y ≤ 150

DO IT YOUR OWN
Solve the problem and show your solution.
1. A farmer can plant up to 8 acres of land with
wheat and barley. He can earn $5,000 for every
acre he plants with wheat and $3,000 for every
acre he plants with barley. His use of a
necessary pesticide is limited by federal
103
regulations to 10 gallons for his entire 8 acres.
Wheat requires 2 gallons of pesticide for every
acre planted and barley requires just 1 gallon
per acre.
What is the maximum profit he can make?

SIMPLEX METHOD
The Simplex method is an approach to solving linear programming models
by hand using slack variables, tableaus, and pivot variables as a means to
finding the optimal solution of an optimization problem.
Step 1: Standard Form
To transform a minimization linear program model into a maximization
linear program model, simply multiply both the left and the right sides of

the objective function by -1.

Step 2: Determine Slack Variables
If the model is in standard form, the slack variables will always have a +1
coefficient. Slack variables are needed in the constraints to transform them
into solvable equalities with one definite answer.

Step 3: Setting up the Tableau

A Simplex tableau is used to perform row operations on the linear
programming model as well as to check a solution for optimality.

104
How much do you know?
Solve the following problem and show your solution
1. The Bead Store sells material for customers to make their own jewelry.
Customer can select beads from various bins. Grace wants to design her
own Halloween necklace from orange and black beads. She wants to make a
necklace that is at least 12 inches long, but no more than 24 inches long.
Grace also wants her necklace to contain black beads that are at least twice
the length of orange beads. Finally, she wants her necklace to have at least 5
inches of black beads.
Find the constraints, sketch the problem and find the vertices (intersection
points)
2. Simplify 2−6(4−7)2 2−6(4−7)2 without using a calculator.
3. Evaluate 6x−46x−4 when x=−2x=−2.
4. The variable in the linear equation 3x−12=03x−12=0 is x and the solution
is x=4.
5. Solve the linear inequality = 7x−2=1

END OF MIDTERM PERIOD

105
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www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
PRE-FINAL
Mathematics as a Tool (Part 2)
SECTION Week 13
III
IV. The Mathematics of Finance Nov. 15-20,2021

Overview
Financial mathematics describes the application of mathematics and
mathematical modelling to solve financial problems. it is sometimes
referred to as quantitative finance, financial engineering, and computational
finance. The discipline combines tools from statistics, probability, and
stochastic processes and combines it with economic theory.
What you are expected to learn
This module is designed for you to recall basic concepts of financial
mathematics by:
 Support the use of mathematics in various aspects and endeavours in
life.
 Reference/s:
Simple Interest and Compound Interest Problems and Solutions
(examsbook.com)

Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets

Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do

106
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND INTEREST
SIMPLE INTEREST
Examples :

1) Ariel takes a loan of $8,000 to buy a used truck at the rate of 9 % simple
Interest.Calculate the annual interest to be paid for the loan amount.

Solution:
From the details given in the problem Principle = P = $8,000 and R = 9% or
0.09 expressed as a decimal.

As the annual Interest is to be calculated, the time period T =1.

Plugging these values in the simple Interest formula,

I=PxTxR

= 8,000 x 1 x 0.09

= 720.00
Annual Interest to be paid = $720
2.) Steve invested $ 10,000 in a savings bank account that earned 2% simple
interest. Find the interest earned if the amount was kept in the bank for 4
years.

Solution:
Principle
P= 10,000TimePeriodT=4yearsandRateofInterest=210,000TimePeriodT=4y
earsandRateofInterest=2 800

107
Interest earned for the investment = $ 800

COMPUND INTEREST

1.A principal of $2000 is placed in a savings account at 3% per annum

compounded annually. How much is in the account after one year, two
years and three years?

Solution
When interest is compounded annually, total amount A after t years is given
by: A = P(1 + r) t, where P is the initial amount (principal), r is the rate and t
is time in years.
1 year: A = 2000(1 + 0.03) 1 = $2060
2 years: A = 2000(1 + 0.03) 2 = $2121.80
3 years: A = 2000(1 + 0.03) 3 = $2185.45

2. What would $1000 become in a saving account at 3% per year for 3 years
when the interest is not compounded (simple interest)? What would the
same amount become after 3 years with the same rate but compounded
annually?

Solution
Not compounded: A = P + P(1 + r t) = 1000 + 1000(1 + 0.03 · 3) = $1090
Compounded: A = P(1 + r) t = 1000(1 + 0.03) 3 = $1092.73
Higher return when compounded.
108
CREDIT CARDS AND CONSUMER LOANS
Steps to calculate credit card interest:

1. Look Up the APR on Your Credit Card: The interest rate (known
as APR) you pay on your credit card is part of your monthly bill. It is
calculated on a daily basis, so your APR must be converted to a daily
rate. The math equation for that is annual percentage rate (APR) ÷ 365
(number of days in the year). Let‘s say your APR is 16%. OK, so we
go 0.16 (your APR) ÷ by 365. That gives us a daily periodic rate of
0.00044.
2. Calculate Your Average Daily Balance: Interest is assessed on your
average daily balance. The math on that is total billing amount ÷
number of days in billing cycle. To figure that out, look back at your
statement. Start with the unpaid balance (the amount of money carried
over from the previous month‘s statement). Add up each debit entry
and divide it by the number of days in your credit card‘s billing
period. That‘s the average daily balance.
3. Multiply Your Daily Periodic Rate by the Average Daily
Balance: The math on this one is daily period rate times x average
daily balance. Let‘s say your average daily balance was $1,200. So,
we go 0.00044 (daily periodic rate) x $1,200 (average daily balance)
and that equals $0.53.
4. Multiply by the Number of Days in Your Billing Cycle: If it‘s a 30-
day billing cycle, that‘s $0.53 multiplied by 30 and it equals $15.90.
So, you will be charged $15.90 in interest for this billing cycle

STOCKS , BONDS AND MUTUAL FUNDS

The Difference Between Bonds vs Stocks vs Mutual Funds

What Is a Stock?

With a stock, there is a great deal of uncertainty around the future return of
stocks. It‘s not a contractual obligation, it‘s an ownership share. When I buy
a stock, they don‘t have a legal contract saying they need to pay me a
109
certain rate. There are dividends, but if they are not paid, then little to
nothing happens on the corporate side.

What Is a Bond?

A bond is a contractual obligation with an issuer that requires them to pay

me, otherwise, they are legally in default. If I‘m buying a government bond,
I‘m lending money to the federal government. If they don‘t pay me back,
they‘re technically in default. It is the same situation with a company: I lend
money to a company, they‘re contractually obligated to pay me back. That‘s
a corporate bond. The less creditworthy the company, the higher the rate of
return I will require. This is because they are less likely to pay me back or
in other words, I have less confidence that they will have the ability to pay
me back.

Why Would I Buy Bonds?

When I buy bonds, I‘m buying bonds for three reasons:

Income

 Diversification
 Safety
Income: Income from bonds comes in the form of a coupon. Bonds pay,
generally, semi-annual interest.
Diversification: More often than not, bonds move in the opposite direction
of stocks. If stocks are going up, bonds may not perform as well. When
stocks fall, or when they‘re in a bear market, bonds tend to do OK.
Safety: I mentioned that sometimes bonds fall, or they don‘t do as well as
stocks, but a bad year in the bond market is very different than a bad year in
the stock market.
MUTUAL FUNDS
Mutual funds and exchange-traded funds are not investments, in the sense
that a stock or a bond is. Stocks and bonds are asset classes.

110
Home Ownership

The state of owning one's primary residence. Homeownership gives the own
er a stake in his/her neighborhood or town's longterm stability, and is a signi
ficant investment. The U.S. federal government thus attempts to encourage
homeownership by allowing owners to deduct the interest on their mortgage
s from their taxable income.

How much do you learned?

Solve the following problems and show your solution

1. If $3000 is placed in an account at 5% and is compounded quarterly

for 5 years. How much is in the account at the end of 5 years?
2. $1200 is placed in an account at 4% compounded annually for 2 years.
It is then withdrawn at the end of the two years and placed in another
bank at the rate of 5% compounded annually for 4 years. What is the
balance in the second account after the 4 years.
3. In how much time will the simple interest on 3,500at the rateof
93,500 at 10.5% p.a for 4 years?
4. P = 20, Amount= 21,800 and time T = 2 years. Find the rate.
5. What principal you have to deposit in a 4.5% saving account
compounded monthly in order to have a total of $10,000 after 8 years?
6. A principal of $120 is deposited in a 7% account and compounded
continuously. At the same time a principal of $150 is deposited in a
5% account and compounded annually. How long does it take for the
amounts in the two accounts to be equal?

111
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Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
SECTION Mathematics as a Tool (Part 2)
III Week 14
V. APPORTIONMENT AND VOTING Nov. 23-27,2021

Overview
Vote! In a democracy, the rights and duties of citizenship are captured in
that simple one-word mantra. We vote in presidential elections,
gubernatorial elections, local elections, school bonds, stadium bonds,
American Idol selections, and initiatives large and small.
What you are expected to learn
This module is designed for you to recall basic concepts of
APPOINTMENT AND VOTING mathematics by:
 Support the use of mathematics in various aspects and endeavours in
life.
Reference/s:
MMCAdv-VotingLecture-ErnestoDiaz-20120111.pptx
(wordpress.com)
Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets
Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do

What will you do?

INTRODUCTION TO APPORTIONMENTT

Apportionment is the problem of dividing up a fixed number of things

among groups of different sizes. In politics, this takes the form of allocating
a limited number of representatives amongst voters. This problem,
presumably, is older than the United States, but the best-known ways to
112
 solve it have their origins in the problem of assigning each state an
appropriate number of representatives in the new Congress when the
country was formed.

 4.4: Webster‘s Method

Daniel Webster (1782-1852) proposed a method similar to Jefferson‘s
in 1832. It was adopted by Congress in 1842, but replaced by
Hamilton‘s method in 1852. It was then adopted again in 1901. The
difference is that Webster rounds the quotas to the nearest whole
number rather than dropping the decimal parts.
 4.5: Huntington-Hill Method
In 1920, no new apportionment was done, because Congress couldn‘t
agree on the method to be used. They appointed a committee of
mathematicians to investigate, and they recommended the Huntington-
Hill Method.
4.6: Lowndes‘ Method
William Lowndes (1782-1822) was a Congressman from South
Carolina (a small state) who proposed a method of apportionment that
was more favorable to smaller states.
4.7: Apportionment of Legislative Districts
In most states, there are a fixed number of representatives to the state
legislature.
INTRODUCTION TO VOTING
Voting Theory
• First half is voting;
• Second half is counting.
• Arrow‘s impossibility theorem: A method for determining election results
that is democratic and always fair is a mathematical impossibility.
Plurality Method
Candidate with the most first-place votes (called the plurality candidate)
wins
• Don‘t need each voter to rank the candidates - need only the voter‘s first
choice

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WEIGHTED VOTING SYSTEM

A weighted voting system is one in which the participants have varying

numbers of votes. One of the most common examples of a weighted voting
system is the U.S. Electoral College. Under the Electoral College system,
the number of votes for each state is based upon that state's population.
California, one of the most populous states, can cast 54 electoral votes while
Alaska may cast only 3 votes.

Each voter fills out the above ballot with their preferences, and what
follows is the results of the election.
Voter Makya Nadira Ochen Paki Quinn Riley
1st choice S S C C S S
2nd choice M M M M M M
3rd choice C C S S C C
This is known as a preference schedule.
Preference Schedule: A table used to organize the results of all the
preference ballots in an election.
Example 7.1.37.1.3: The Winner of the Candy Election—Plurality
Method

Number of voters 3 1 4 1 9
M M C C S
1st choice
9 3 12 3 27
C S M S M
2nd choice
6 2 8 2 18
3rd choice S C S M C
114
 3 1 4 1 9

Adding up these points gives,

M = 9 + 3 + 8 + 1 + 18 = 39
C = 6 + 1 + 12 + 3 + 9 = 31
S = 3 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 27 = 38

How much do you learned?

Write your answer in the space provided below
__________________1.A voting situation where voters are not
necessarily equal in the number of votes they control.
_________________2. A vote with only two choices. (usually yes/no)
_________________3. The voters (symbolized by P1, P2, P3, etc.)
_________________4.The number of votes a player controls.
_________________5.The smallest number of votes required to ―pass‖ a
motion.

115
 SIBUGAY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE INCORPORATED
Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
MATHEMATICSAS A TOOL (PART 2)
SECTION
Week 16
III
VI. LOGIC Nov.29-Dec.04, 2021

LOGIC STATEMENT AND QUANTIFIERS

What is this module is about?

This module deals with decision making in our daily lives involving
mathematics. We can learn about mathematicians who are serious of
study of symbolic logic. Every language contains different types of
sentences, such as statement, questions, and commands. You may not know
if the sentence is true, but you do know that the sentence is either true or it
is false, and that it is not both true or false. Thus, you know that the
sentence is a statement.

What you are expected to learn

This module is designed for you to:
1. You may learn about logic statement and quantifiers;

1.1 Distinguishing between logic statement and quantifiers.

1.2 Distinguishing between simple statement and compound statement.
1.3 Determine valid conclusions based on given assumptions and analyze
electronic circuits.
2. Determine the Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols;
2.1 You will learn about Truth Value of a Conjunction
2.2 You will learn about Truth Value of a Disjunction
116
2.3 Analyze information and the relationship between statements.
Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets
Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do
How much do you know?
1. What is Logic? Site an example of a Logic.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_____________________
2. In your own idea, what is a statement?.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_____________________________
3. Differentiate the Simple Statement and Compound Statement?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

What will you do?

To understand the logic from a holistic point of view, every student
should understand the two broad branches of logic statements. Often, the
types of work we do hide many aspects of symbolic logic. However, it is
essential to understand the whole idea of statistical analysis for you to feel
117
the beauty of it. All these branches of Logistic statements follow a specific
scientific approach which makes them equally essential to every student.
DESCRIPTIVE LOGIC
Logic is the science of correct reasoning, they often use logic to
communicate more effectively, construct valid argument, analyze legal
contracts, and make decisions.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
One of the first mathematicians to make a serious study of symbolic logic.
He tried to advance the study of logic from a merely philosophical subject
to a formal mathematical subject.
Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) and George Boole (1815-1864)
Contributed to the advancement of symbolic logic as a mathematical
discipline.
George Boole (1815-1864) Published
The Mathematical Analysis of Logic in 1848
An Investigation of The Laws of Thoughts in 1854
LOGIC STATEMENTS
Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements,
questions, and commands. For instance,
―Is the test today?‖ is a question.
―Go get the newspaper‖ is a command.
―This is a nice car‖ is an opinion.
―Denver is the capital of Colorado‖ is a statement of fact.

118
The symbolic logic that Boole was instrumental in creating applies only to
sentences that are statements as defined below.
A statement
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both true and false.
Example 1: Identify Statements
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
b. How are you?
c. 99+ 2 is a prime number.
d. X + 1 = 5.
Solution:
a. Florida is one of the 50 states in the United States, so this sentence is
true and it is a statement
b. The sentence ―How are you?‖ is a question; it is not a declarative
sentence. Thus, it is not a statement.
c. You may know whether 99 + 2 is a prime number; however, you do
know that it is a whole number larger than 1, so it is either a prime
number or it is not a prime number. The sentence is either true or it is
false, and it is not both true and false, so it is a statement.
d. X + 1 = 5 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for
x = 4, and it is false for any value of x. for any given value of x, it is
true or false but not both.
SIMPLE STATEMENTS AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A
compound statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.

119
Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if, …
then, and if and only if creates a compound statement.
George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple
statements and symbols ˄, ˅, ˜, , and , to represent connectives.
Statement Connective Symbolic form Type of
statement
Not p Not ˜p Negation
p and q And p˄q Conjunction
p or q Or p˅q Disjunction
If p, then q If.. then p q Conditional
p if and only if If and only if p q Biconditional
q

THE TRUE VALUE OF A CONJUNCTION

The conjunction p ˄ q is true if and only if both p and q are true.
THE TRUE VALUE OF A DISJUNCTION
The disjunction p ˅ q is true if and only if p is true, or both p and q are
true.
Examples:
1. Let p, q, and r represent the following.
p: you get a promotion
q: you complete the training
r: you will receive a bunos
a. Write (p ˄ q) r as an English sentence

120
 b. Write ―if you do not complete the training, then you will not get the
promotion and you will not receive a bonus.‖ In symbolic form.
Sulotion:
a. Because the p and q statements both appear in the parenthesis in the
symbolic form, they are placed to the left ofthecomma in the
englishsentence.
(p ˄ q) r
If you get a promotion and you complete the training, then you will
receive a bonus.
b. Because the not p and the not r statements are both to the right of the
comma in the English sentence, they are grouped together in
parenthesis in the symbolic form
If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion
and you will not receive a bonus. ˜q (˜p ˄ ˜r)

Let’s Summarize

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)

One of the first mathematicians to make a serious study of symbolic logic.
He tried to advance the study of logic from a merely philosophical subject
to a formal mathematical subject.
Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) and George Boole (1815-1864)
Contributed to the advancement of symbolic logic as a mathematical
discipline.
A statement
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both
true and false.
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound
statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.

121
TRUTH TABLES, EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS AND
TAUTOLOGIES
What is this module is about?
In this module, we consider methods of constructing truth tables for
statement that involves a combination of conjunctions, disjunctions,
and/or negations. If the given statement involves only two simple
statement, the standard truth table form.
What you are expected to learn?
This module is designed for you to :
Recognize the classification of variables by:

2.1 Identifying the Truth Tables

2.2 Identifying the Equivalent Statement
2.3 Identifying the Tautologies

Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets

Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do
What will you do?
The truth table, Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction
Logic and Truth Tables
Truth tables are logical devices that predominantly show up in
Mathematics, Computer Science, and Philosophy applications. They
are used to determine the truth or falsity of propositional statements
by listing all possible outcomes of the truth-values for the included
propositions.
122
 Proposition - A sentence that makes a claim (can be an assertion or a
denial) that may be either true or false.

Examples – ―Roses are beautiful.‖

―Did you like the movie?‖

Conjunction – an ―and‖ statement. Given two propositions, p and q, ―p and

q‖ forms a conjunction. The conjunction ―p and q‖ is only true if both p
and q
are true. The truth table can be set up as follows…

Examples – Determine whether the Conjunction is True or False.

a. The capital of Ireland is Dublin and penguins live in Antarctica.

b. A square is a quadrilateral and fish are reptiles.

123
Disjunction – an ―or‖ statement. Given two propositions, p and q, ―p or
q‖ forms a disjunction. The disjunction ―p or q‖ is true if either p
or q is true or if
both are true. The disjunction is false only if both p and q are both
false.
The truth table can be set up as follows…

Examples - Determine whether the Disjunction is True or False.

a. A triangle has 3 sides or 4 sides.

b. All men are tall or all women are short

124
CONDITIONAL, BICONDITIONAL AND REALATED
STATEMENTS
Conditional Propositions – A statement that proposes something is true
on the condition that something else is true. For example, ―If p then
q‖* , where p is the hypothesis (antecedent) and q is the conclusion
(consequent).

*Alternate wording for Conditionals: ―q if p‖, ―p implies q‖, ―q whenever

p‖, ―q is necessary for p‖, ―p will lead to q‖, ―p is sufficient for q‖.
Examples – Determine whether the Conditional Proposition is True or False.
a. If dolphins swim in the ocean, then birds fly in the sky.

b. If Los Angeles is in Oregon, then the Mississippi river flows

backwards.

SYMBOLIC ARGUMENTS
Symbolic Arguments

 A symbolic argument consists of a set of premises and a conclusion.

 It is called a symbolic argument because we generally write it in
symbolic form to determine its validity.
125
  An argument is valid when its conclusion necessarily follows from a
given set of premises.
 An argument is invalid or a fallacy when the conclusion does not
necessarily follow from the given set of premises.
Example :
1. Determining the Validity of an Argument with a Truth Table Determine
whether the following argument is valid or invalid.
If you watch Good Morning America, then you see Robin Roberts. You did
not see Robin Roberts. ∴ You did not watch Good Morning America.
Solution Let p: You watch Good Morning America.
q: You see Robin Roberts. In symbolic form, the argument is p → q ~p ∴ ~p
The argument is [(p → q) ⋀ ~q] → ~p.
2. Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid.
If you are on Facebook, then you see my pictures.
If you see my pictures, then you know I have a dog.
∴ If you are on Facebook, then you know I have a dog.
Solution Let p: You are on Facebook. q: You see my pictures.
r: You know I have a dog.
In symbolic form, the argument is p → q q → r ∴ p→ r It is the law of
syllogism and is valid.

ARGUMENTS AND EULERS

We can interpret a deductive argument visually with an Euler diagram, which
is essentially the same thing as a Venn diagram. This can make it easier to
determine whether the argument is valid or invalid.

Consider the deductive argument ―All cats are mammals and a tiger is a cat,
so a tiger is a mammal.‖ Is this argument valid?

Solution

126
The premises are:

All cats are mammals.

A tiger is a cat.

The conclusion is:

A tiger is a mammal.

Both the premises are true. To see that the premises must logically lead to the
conclusion, we can use a Venn diagram. From the first premise, we draw the
set of cats as a subset of the set of mammals. From the second premise, we
are told that a tiger is contained within the set of cats. From that, we can see
in the Venn diagram that the tiger must also be inside the set of mammals, so
the conclusion is valid.

Analyzing arguments with Euler diagrams

To analyze an argument with an Euler diagram:

1) Draw an Euler diagram based on the premises of the argument

2) The argument is invalid if there is a way to draw the diagram that makes
the conclusion false

3) The argument is valid if the diagram cannot be drawn to make the

conclusion false
127
4) If the premises are insufficient to determine the location of an element or a
set mentioned in the conclusion, then the argument is invalid.

128
 What have you learned?
I. Determine whether the Statement is a Proposition (Yes) or
not (No).
a. Mathematics is easy.
b. What is the temperature outside?
c. Rock climbing is fun!

II. Determine whether each Conjunction/Disjunction is True

or False.
a. Horses are mammals and frogs are amphibians.
b. Mark Twain was a famous athlete or actor.
c. All birds cannot fly or all mammals can swim.
III. Determine whether each Conditional Proposition is True or
False.
a. If triangles are polygons, then circles are ellipses.
b. If 2x4=8, then 2+4=8.
c. If Babe Ruth was in the NFL, then Madonna played in the
NHL.
II. Write the letter of the correct answer.
1. Select the statement that is the negation of "Today is Monday
and it isn't raining."
A. Today isn't Monday and it isn't raining.
B. Today isn't Monday or it isn't raining.
C. Today isn't Monday or it is raining.
D. Today isn't Monday and it is raining. E. Today is Friday and it
is snowing
2. Select the statement that is the negation of "I'm careful or I
make mistakes."
A. I'm not careful and I don't make mistakes.
B. I'm not careful or I don't make mistakes.

129
 C. I'm not careful and I make mistakes.
D. I'm not careful or I make mistakes.
E. I never make mistakes
3. Select the statement that is the negation of "I walk or I chew
gum."
A. I don't walk and I chew gum.
B. I don't walk or I chew gum.
C. I don't walk and I don't chew gum.
D. I don't walk or I don't chew gum.
E. I walk until I step on chewed gum
4. Select the statement that is the negation of "I'm mad as heck and
I'm not going to take it anymore."
A. I'm not mad as heck and I'm not going to take it anymore.
B. I'm not mad as heck or I'm not going to take it anymore.
C. I'm not mad as heck and I am going to take it anymore.
D. I'm not mad as heck or I am going to take it anymore
5. Select the statement that is the negation of "All of the businesses
are closed."
A. Some of the businesses are closed.
B. Some of the businesses are not closed.
C. None of the businesses are closed.
D. All of the businesses are open.
E. All of my clothes are business like.

Please complete the Module Review Activity.

Upon completion of the Review Activity, please
complete the Module Quiz. Please note that all
modules in this course build on one another; as
a result, completion of this module. Quiz are
required before moving on to next module.
You can complete the review activities and
quizzes as many times as you like.

130
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Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
SECTION MATHEMATICSAS A TOOL (PART 2)
III
Week 16
VII.THE MATHEMATICS OF GRAPHS Dec.6-11, 2021

GRAPHS AND EULERS CIRCUITS

What is this module is about?

In mathematics, graph theory is the study of graphs, which are
mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between
objects. A graph in this context is made up of vertices (also
called nodes or points) which are connected by edges (also
called links or lines).
What you are expected to learn
This module is designed for you to: You may learn about :
 Determine whether a graph has an Euler path and/ or circuit
 Use Fleury‘s algorithm to find an Euler circuit
 Add edges to a graph to create an Euler circuit if one doesn‘t exist
Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets
Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do

131
An Euler path, in a graph or multigraph, is a walk through the graph
which uses every edge exactly once. An Euler circuit is an Euler path
which starts and stops at the same vertex. Our goal is to find a quick way
to check whether a graph (or multigraph) has an Euler path or circuit.

How much do you learned?

1. List the degrees of each vertex of the graphs above. Is there a
connection between degrees and the existence of Euler paths and
circuits?

2. Is it possible for a graph with a degree 1 vertex to have an Euler

circuit? If so, draw one. If not, explain why not. What about an
Euler path?
3. What if every vertex of the graph has degree 2. Is there an Euler
path? An Euler circuit? Draw some graphs.

 A walk in a graph is a sequence of vertices such that every

vertex in the sequence is adjacent to the vertices before and after
it in the sequence. If the walk travels along every edge exactly
once, then the walk is called an Euler path (or Euler walk).
 If, in addition, the starting and ending vertices are the same (so
you trace along every edge exactly once and end up where you
started), then the walk is called an Euler circuit (or Euler
tour)..
There will be a route that crosses every bridge exactly once if and only if
the graph below has an Euler path:

132
Weighted Graph
Weighted graph= a graph whose edges have weights.
Example;

The weight of an edge can represent.

 Cost or distance = the amount of effort needed to travel from

one place to another
 Capacity = the maximim amount of flow that can
be transported from one place to another

Euler's Formula
For any polyhedron that doesn't intersect itself, the
 Number of Faces
 plus the Number of Vertices (corner points)
 minus the Number of Edges
always equals 2
This can be written: F + V − E = 2

Try it on the cube:

A cube has 6 Faces, 8 Vertices, and 12 Edges,
so:
6 + 8 − 12 = 2

133
Example With Platonic Solids
Let's try with the 5 Platonic Solids:
F+V-
Name Faces Vertices Edges
E
Tetrahedron 4 4 6 2
Cube 6 8 12 2
Octahedron 8 6 12 2
Dodecahedron 12 20 30 2
Icosahedron 20 12 30 2
Graph Coloring

 Graph colouring problem is to assign colors to certain elements

of a graph subject to certain constraints.
 Vertex colouring is the most common graph coloring problem.
Applications of Graph Coloring:
The graph coloring problem has huge number of applications.
1) Making Schedule or Time Table: Suppose we want to make am
exam schedule for a university. We have list different subjects and
students enrolled in every subject. Many subjects would have common
students (of same batch, some backlog students, etc).
2) Mobile Radio Frequency Assignment: When frequencies are
assigned to towers, frequencies assigned to all towers at the same
location must be different. How to assign frequencies with this
constraint? What is the minimum number of frequencies needed?
3) Register Allocation: In compiler optimization, register allocation is
the process of assigning a large number of target program variables
onto a small number of CPU registers.
4) Bipartite Graphs: If a given graph is 2-colorable, then it is
Bipartite, otherwise not.
5) Map Coloring: Geographical maps of countries or states where no
two adjacent cities cannot be assigned same color.

134
ACTIVITY 1:
Draw a graph coloring in a short bond paper in a creative way applying
its application.
Rubrics
Name:_______________________________ Section:___________
Date:________________________________

Exceeds Meets Approaches No

Expectations Expectations Expectations attempt

Requirement Project Project Project addresses

s addresses the addresses the only parts of the
given prompt prompt project prompt or
AND completely. does not
contains Project parts accomplish the
additional work project goal.
creative together to
elements. accomplish a
goal.
Reflections Detailed Comments Project comments
and comments and/or and/or reflection
Comments and/or reflection are incomplete or
reflection communicate do not
communicate an in-depth demonstrate a
a thorough understandin thorough
understandin g of how understanding of
g of the tools project parts project
and concepts work goals/components.
used in the together to
program. meet project
goals.
Technical The project The project The project

135
Execution correctly correctly demonstrates
utilizes utilizes some gaps in
technical technical technical
elements elements knowledge or
from the from the misunderstandings
current current of concepts.
lesson AND lesson.
correctly
makes use of
coding
concepts
from
previous
lessons.
Developmen The student The student The student does
t Process accomplishes accomplishes not productively
project goals project goals manage work
within the within the time. The student
time time needs frequent
allowed. The allowed. The redirection in
student is student order to complete
helpful to provides assigned tasks.
others during assistance
project and/or
development feedback to
and/or other
feedback students
cycles. when
prompted.

Comments: Lesson Grade:

__________________
END OF PRE-FINAL PERIOD

136
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Lower Taway, Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay
www.sibugaytech.edu.ph
Email Address: [email protected]
Telefax: (062)222-2469, Mobile No.: 09285033733
PRE-FINAL
MATHEMATICSAS A TOOL (PART 2)
SECTION
III Week 18
VIII. MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM Jan.3-8, 2022

What you are expected to learn

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:
 Know what is mathematical system
 Value the application of mathematical system in a real life
situation
Reference/s: Modular Arithmetic (onlinemath4all.com)
Material/s: Books, eBook, activity sheets
Pedagogy/Strategy: Explicit Instruction
Description: Modelling Steps - I do
- We do
- You do
What will you do?
Modular Arithmetic
When we divide two integers, say 'X' and 'Y', we will have an equation
that looks like the following :
X/Y = Q remainder R
Here,
X is the dividend
Y is the divisor
Q is the quotient
R is the remainder

137
Sometimes, we would be interested to know only the remainder when X
is divided by Y.
For such cases, the operator called modulo (abbreviated as mod) will be
used.
Using the same X, Y, Q and R as above, we can have
X mod Y = R
We say this as X modulo Y is equal to R, where Y is referred to as the
modulus.
For example,
18/7 = 2 remainder 4
18 mod 7 = 4
Visualizing Modulus with Clocks
Observe what happens when a number is increased by one and divided
by 4.
0/4 = 0 remainder 0
1/4 = 0 remainder 1
2/4 = 0 remainder 2
3/4 = 0 remainder 3
4/4 = 1 remainder 0
5/4 = 1 remainder 1
6/4 = 1 remainder 2
7/4 = 1 remainder 3
8/4 = 2 remainder 0
To find the result of X mod Y, we can do the following steps.
Step 1 :
Construct this clock for size Y.
Step 2 :
Start at 0 and move around the clock X steps.
Step 3 :
Wherever we land is our solution.
(If the number is positive, we step clockwise, if it's negative, we step
counter-clockwise.)

138
 Examples
Example 1 :
Compute :
8 mod 4
Solution :
8 is greater than 4.
When 8 is divided by 4, the remainder is 0.
8/4 = (2x4) + 0
So,
8 mod 4 = 0

Example 2 :
Compute :
14 mod 3
Solution :
14 is greater than 3.
When 14 is divided by 3, the remainder is 2.
14/3 = (4x3) + 2
So,
14 mod 3 = 2
APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM
 Mathematical Systems
A mathematical system consists of a set of elements and one or more
binary operations to connect these elements.
Unary Operation
A unary operation is an operation on a single element.
e.g. Squaring 4
finding the square root of 9
Symbols
A binary operation is an operation that combines two elements of a set to
give a single element.
e.g. multiplication 3 x 4 = 12

matrix subtraction

139
Properties of Systems
Suppose a system consists of a set S and the binary operation *. The
system can have the following properties.
Property Description Examples

Set S is closed if all of the

Closure elements of set S combine to a * b = c where a, b, c S
give an answer also in set S

An identity element leaves

Identity a*i=a
every element of the set S i * a = a where i is the identity
element
unchanged. element.

An element and its inverse

Inverse a*b=I
combine to give the identity b * a = i where a and b are
element
element. inverses.

An operation is commutative
Commutative if the order in which the
a*b=b*a
property elements are combined does
not change the result.

An operation is associative if,

Associative when combining the elements,
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
property the grouping of the elements
does not change the result.

Given two operations * and •,

Distributive
then * is distributive over • as a * (b • c) = (a * b) • (a * c)
property
in the example.

140
Examples
Example 1 Answers

Give examples to show the following properties for the

system (I, +):
a. Closure 5 + -2 = 3, 3 I

3 + 0 = 3,
b. Identity element
0 is the identity element.

3 + -3 = 0,
c. Inverse
3 and -3 are inverses.

d. Commutativity 3 + -2 = -2 + 3

e. Associativity (3 + 4) + 5 = 3 + (4 + 5)

GROUP THEORY

Groups
Groups are mathematical systems that possess certain properties.
A mathematical system (S, *) is a group if it possesses the following
properties:
a. Set S is closed under the operation *.
b. There is an identity element in set S.
c. Every element has an inverse in set S.
d. The associative property applies to the system.
Tables
Many systems can be shown in tables. For the system ({a, b, c}, *)
2nd

141
 * a b C

a a b C
1st
b b c A

c c a B

For a system to be a group, every element must occur only once in each
row and column of the table. The group properties can easily be tested
from these tables.
a. Closure Every element in the table is in the set {a, b, c}
b. Identity element Look for a column that is in the same order as the
original set. i.e. a is the identity element.
c. Inverses Look for the identity element in each row.
a * a = a,
b * c = a,
c*b=a
This shows that each element has an inverse.
d. Associative property It is difficult to show that every combination of
elements is associative. Check an example:
(a * b)
Example = a * (b * c)
*c

therefore b*c = a*a

therefore a = A

Conclusion
{a, b, c}, *) is a group. As the group also shows commutativity it is
called an Abelian orcommutative group.

142
 How much do you learned?

Exercise 1 Answers
Give at least 1 examples to show the following properties for the system (I,
+):
a. Closure
b. Identity element
c. Inverse
d. Commutativity
e. Associativity
Compute the following:

1. Compute :3 mod 7

2. 15 mod 3

END OF FINAL PERIOD

143
REFERENCE/S:
Reference/s:
Mathematics in the Modern World Pages 13-16
https://www.classzone.com/eservices/home/pdf/student/LA211HAD.pdf
MODULE 14
Mathematics In The Modern World
2018 Rex Book Store Inc
2018, 2013 Cengage Learning
Mathematical Excursions, 14th Edition by Richard N. Aufmann, Joanne
S. Lockwood, Richard D. Nation and Daniel K. Clegg
MODULE 15
Mathematics In The Modern World
2018 Rex Book Store Inc
2018, 2013 Cengage Learning
Mathematical Excursions, 14th Edition by Richard N. Aufmann, Joanne
S. Lockwood, Richard D. Nation and Daniel K. Clegg

Prepared by:

SEMELYN C. SANDE
Instructor

Recommending Approval:

NANCY C. MAGBANUA
Academic Dean

Approved by:
EUFEMION D. JAVIER, JR. DDM.
School President

144
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147