Ground Water

Prepared By:
Md. Raquibul Hasan Rajib
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Pabna University of Science & Technology
 Hydrologic Cycle

Hydrosphere: All the water at or near the surface of the

earth
Amount of water essentially constant and moves between
different reservoirs
100 million billion gallons move through Hydrologic Cycle
Oceans account for ~96%, Fresh water lakes and streams
for only 0.016% of all water
Distribution of Water
Water Distribution on Earth
 Hydrologic Cycle

• Water in the hydrologic cycle moves through the atmosphere, crust,

oceans, lakes, and streams. (numbers are in thousands of cubic km/yr)

• Runoff is fresh rain water that flows into rivers and streams
Hydrologic Cycle
 Ground Water
• Ground Water lies beneath the ground surface, filling
pores in sediments and sedimentary rocks and fractures
in other rock types
• Represents 0.6% of the hydrosphere (35x the water in
all lakes and rivers combined)
– Resupplied by slow infiltration of
precipitation
– Cleaner than surface water
– Accessed by wells
 Ground Water Movement

• Movement of ground water through

pores and fractures is relatively slow
(cms to meters/day) compared to
flow of water in surface streams
– Flow velocities in cavernous limestones
can be much higher (kms/day)
• Flow velocity depends upon:
– Slope of the water table
– Permeability of the rock or sediment
The Water Table
 The Water Table

• Subsurface zone in which all rock

openings are filled with water is the
saturated zone
• Water table, top of the saturated zone
– Water level at surface of most lakes and
rivers corresponds to local water table
• Above the water table is an unsaturated
Saturated region called the vadose zone
Zone
 The Water
Table

• Unsaturated zone: through which water moves downward and whose pore space
is not completely filled.
• Saturated zone: in which water collects and whose pore space is completely filled.
• The plane of separation between these two zones is the water table.
 Water Table Topography
Darcy’s law
• Hydraulic Gradient: Slope of the ground water table
• Rate of flow is proportional to the hydraulic gradient

slope = hydraulic gradient

 The Water Table

• A perched water table is above and separated from main water

table by an unsaturated zone
– Commonly produced by thin lenses of impermeable rock (e.g., shales or
clays) within permeable ones
The Water Table
The Water Table
 Porosity and Permeability
• Porosity - the percentage of rock consists of voids or openings that
– Volume of empty space in a rock
– A rock’s ability to hold water
– Loose sand has ~30-50% porosity
– Compacted sandstone may have only 10-20% porosity
• Permeability - the capacity of a rock to transmit fluid through pores
and fractures
– Interconnectedness of pore spaces
 Porosity and Permeability
• Most sandstones and conglomerates are porous and permeable
• Granites, schists, unfractured limestones are impermeable

The City of Scotts Valley and

surrounding areas rely solely on
groundwater from the Santa
Margarita Groundwater Basin
for their water supply. Scotts
Valley Water District (District)
is responsible for provision and
management of water and has
been active in developing
strategies to optimize water
resources.

Highly permeable sandstone deposits that

crop out above a proposed recharge basin
site in Scotts Valley
 Porosity and Permeability
•Shales tend to be porous but not permeable.

Outcrop in Svalabard where Conoco Phillips is trying to find safe

ways to dispose of CO2 emissions – in permeable sandstone layers
bounded by impermeable shale layers.
 Springs and Streams
• Spring - a place where water flows
naturally from rock or sediment
onto the ground surface
• Gaining streams - receive water
from the saturated zone
– Gaining stream surface is local water table
• Losing streams - lose water to the
saturated zone
– Stream beds lie above the water table
– Maximum infiltration occurs through streambed,
producing permanent “mound” in the water table
beneath dry channel
 Aquifers and Aquitards
• Aquifer - body of saturated rock
or sediment through which
water can move easily
– Sandstone
– Conglomerate
– Well-jointed limestone
– Highly fractured rock
• Aquitard - rock/sediment that
retards ground water flow
due to low porosity and/or
permeability
– Shale, clay, unfractured crystalline rocks
 Aquifers

• Aquifers can be unconfined or confined by impermeable rock

layers called aquicludes.
• In an unconfined aquifer, water flows freely. The water table
tends to approximate the topography of the landscape.
• In a confined aquifer, water flow is restricted by impermeable
layers called aquicludes. Their presence can have two
consequences:
Aquitard / aquiclude
– retards the flow of groundwater (it’s almost never really zero)
 Unconfined Aquifer

Unconfined Aquifer
• Has a water table, and is only partly filled with water
• Rapidly recharged by precipitation infiltrating down to the
saturated zone
 Confined Aquifers

• Confined Aquifer
– Completely filled with water under pressure (hydrostatic head)
– Separated from surface by impermeable confining layer/aquitard
– Very slowly recharged
 Artesian Wells
Water flowing downhill beneath an aquiclude may be under pressure.
This is artesian flow. Drilling into it will create an artesian well,
through which water will flow spontaneously.
 Artesian Wells

– Water may rise to a level above the top of a confined aquifer,

producing an artesian well
◼Artesian System: Water rises above the level in
aquifer because of hydrostatic pressure
◼Potentiometric surface: Height to which water
pressure would raise the water.
 Ground Water Contamination
• Infiltrating water may bring contaminants down to
the water table, including (but not limited to):
– Pesticides/herbicides
– Fertilizers
– Landfill pollutants (bug poison cans, broken
thermometers, oven cleaner cans)
– Heavy metals
– Bacteria, viruses and parasites from sewage, cattle
industry
– Industrial chemicals (PCBs, TCE)
– Acid mine drainage
– Radioactive waste
– Oil and gasoline
 Ground Water Contamination

• Contaminated ground water can be extremely difficult and

expensive to clean up (decades and millions $)
Ground Water Contamination

Contamination from leakage in

*Landfills
*Animal feed lots (bacteria, viruses,
parasites
*Industrial toxic waste
 Nuclear Waste Disposal
Yucca Mountain, Nevada

Nuclear waste disposal site

180 km NW of Las Vegas
Low rainfall, depth above water table
Approved by President G.W. Bush 2002
 Balancing Withdrawal
and Recharge
• If ground water is withdrawn more rapidly
than it is recharged, the water table will
drop
– Dropping water table can lead to ground
subsidence
• surface of the ground drops as buoyancy from
ground water is removed, allowing rock or
sediment to compact and sink
– Subsidence can crack foundations, roads and
pipelines
– Areas of extremely high ground water pumping
(such as for crop irrigation in dry regions) have
subsided 7-9 meters
 Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst

• Caves - naturally-formed underground

chambers
– Acidic ground water dissolves limestone along
joints and bedding planes
• Caves near the surface may collapse and
produce sinkholes
• Rolling hills, disappearing streams, and
sinkholes are common in areas with karst
topography
 Hot Water Underground

• Hot springs - springs in which the water is warmer

than human body temperature
– Ground water heated by nearby magma bodies or
circulation to unusually deep (and warm) levels within
the crust
– Hot water is less dense than cool water and thus rises
back to the surface on its own
• Geysers - hot springs that periodically erupt hot
water and steam
– Minerals often precipitate around geysers as hot water
cools rapidly in the air
 Geothermal Energy

• Geothermal energy is produced using natural

steam or superheated water
– No CO2 or acid rain are produced (clean energy
source)
– Some toxic gases given off (e.g., sulfur compounds)
– Can be used directly to heat buildings
– Superheated water can be very corrosive to pipes
and equipment
 Wells

• What happens when this well is heavily

pumped?
• What happens when a new well here is
heavily pumped?
 Flow
direction can
change
 Ground-water Flow to Wells
• Well - a deep hole dug or drilled into
the ground to obtain water from an
aquifer
– Wells in unconfined aquifers, water Insert new Fig.
11.8 here
level before pumping is the water table
– Water enters well from pore spaces
within the surrounding aquifer creating
a cone of depression
– Water table can be lowered by
pumping, a process known as
drawdown
Consequences of Ground Water Withdrawal

◼ Lowering of Water Table

◼ Cone of depression: Circular lowering of water immediately
around a well
Consequences of Ground Water Withdrawal
–overlapping cones of depression causes lowering of regional water table
–Water mining: rate of recharge too slow for replenishment in human life time
Consequences of Ground Water Withdrawal….

• Compaction and Subsurface

subsidence
– Building damage, collapse
– flooding and coastal erosion e.g.,
Venice, Galveston/Houston (80 sq
km permanently flooded), San
Joaquin Valley (9m subsidence)
– Pumping in of water no solution
Compaction and Subsurface subsidence
Land subsidence in San
Joaquin Valley ,
California
 Flow types
Steady flow and Unsteady flow

• Unsteady flow - flow in which head changes with time

• Steady Flow -flow in which head does not changes with

time, equilibrium
 Defination T, S, Ss
Transmissivity
The rate at which water of a specific density and viscosity is transmitted
through a unit width of an aquifer or confining bed under a unit hydraulic
gradient. (1)
• T = Kb (m2/d) ; b = saturated thickness K = Hyd.conductivity

Storativity /(Storage Coefficient) (S)

• The volume of water that a permeable unit will adsorb or expel from the storage
per unit surface area per unit change in head.

• Confined aquifer S ≤ 0.005

• Unconfined S≈Sy in the range of 0.02-0.30
Static Water Level [SWL] (ho) is the equilibrium water
level before pumping Commences

• Pumping Water Level [PWL] (h) is the water level

during pumping

• Drawdown (s = ho - h) is the difference between SWL

and PWL

• Well Yield (Q) is the volume of water pumped per unit

Time

• Specific Capacity (Q/s) is the yield per unit drawdown

Steady Flow to a Well in a Confined Aquifer
Q

Q = Aq Ground surface
Pre-pumping
dh head
= (2  rb)K Pumping
dr Drawdown curve well
Observation
wells
dh Q
r = Confining Layer
dr 2T
h0
h = h1 at r = r1
r1 hw
b h2
h1

h = h2 at r = r2 Confined
aquifer
r2 Q

Bedrock
rw
Q r
h2 = h1 + ln( 2 )
2T r1
Theim Equation
In terms of head (we can write it in terms of drawdown also)
Steady Flow to a Well in a Confined Aquifer

Example - Theim Equation

Q
• Q = 400 m3/hr Ground surface
• b = 40 m.
• Two observation wells, Pumping
well
1. r1 = 25 m; h1 = 85.3 m
2. r2 = 75 m; h2 = 89.6 m
Confining Layer
• Find: Transmissivity (T)
h0 r1 hw
b h
2 h1
Confine r2 Q
d
Q r aquifer
h2 = h1 + ln( 2 )
2T r1
Bedrock
rw

Q  r2  400 m 3 /hr  75 m 
T= ln  = =
2
2 (h2 − h1 )  r1  2 (89.6 m − 85.3m)  25 m 
ln 16.3 m /hr
Steady Flow to a Well in a Confined Aquifer

Steady Radial Flow in a Confined Aquifer

• Head
Q ln  r 
h = h0 +  
2T  R 

• Drawdown
s = h0 − h
 Q  r 
= h0 − h0 + ln  
 2 T  R 

Q ln  R 
s=  
2T  r 

Theim Equation In terms of drawdown (we can write it in terms

of head also)
Steady Flow to a Well in a Confined Aquifer

Example - Theim Equation

Q

• 1-m diameter well Ground surface

• Q = 113 m3/hr Drawdown Pumping

• b = 30 m well

• h0= 40 m
• Two observation wells, Confining Layer

h0 r1 hw
1. r1 = 15 m; h 1 = 38.2 m b h
2 h1
2. r2 = 50 m; h 2 = 39.5 m Confined Q
r2
• Find: Head and drawdown in the aquifer

well Bedrock
rw
Q  R
s(r ) = ln 
2 T  r 

Q  r2  113m 3 /hr  50 m 
T= ln  = =
2
2 (s1 − s2 )  r1  2 (1.8m − 0.5 m) 15 m 
ln 16.66 m /hr

Adapted from Todd and Mays, Groundwater Hydr

Steady Flow to a Well in a Confined Aquifer

Example - Theim Equation

Q
Ground surface

Drawdown
@ well
Q r
h2 = h1 + ln( 2 )
Confining Layer
2T r1
h0 r1 hw
b h
2 h1
Confine r2 Q
d
aquifer
Bedrock
rw

Q rw 113m 3 /hr 0.5 m

hw = h2 + ln( ) = 39.5 m + ln( ) = 34.5 m
2T r2 2 *16.66 m /hr 50 m
2

sw = h0 − hw = 40 m − 34.5 m = 5.5 m Drawdown at the well

Adapted from Todd and Mays, Groundwater Hydr

Steady Flow to a Well in an Unconfined Aquifer
dh
Q = Aq = (2rh)K
dr Q
Ground surface
2
dh
= rK
Pre-pumping
Water level
Pumping
dr Water Table well

( )= Q
Observation
d h2 wells

r
dr K h0 r1 hw
h

h = h0 at r = R Unconfined
2 h1
r2 Q
aquifer
Q ln R 
h02 − h 2 =  
K r 
 Bedrock
rw

Q r
h 2 (r) = h02 + ln  h 1 and h2 = aquifer
K  R
saturated thickness; can be
b1 and b2
Unconfined aquifer
Steady Flow to a Well in an Unconfined
Aquifer
Q r
h2 (r) = h02 +
Q
ln 
K  R 
Ground surface
Prepumping
Water level
Pumping
Water Table well
2 observation Observation
wells
wells:
h 1 m @ r1 m h0 r1 hw
h 2 m @ r2 m h
2 h1

h2 = h2 + Q lnr2 
Unconfined r2 Q
aquifer

2 1
K  r1  Bedrock
rw

Q  r2 
K= ln 
( )
 h2 − h1  r1 
2 2
Steady Flow to a Well in an Unconfined Aquifer

Example – Two Observation Wells in an

Unconfined Aquifer
Q

• Given: Prepumping
Ground surface

Water level
– Q = 300 m3/hr Pumping
Water Table well
– Unconfined aquifer Observation
wells
– 2 observation wells,
• r1 = 50 m, h = 40 m h0 r1 hw
• r2 = 100 m, h = 43 m h
2 h1
Unconfined r2 Q
aquifer

• Find: K Bedrock
rw

Q  r2  300 m 3 /hr / 3600 s /hr 100 m 

K= ln  = ln  = 7.3x10 −5 m /sec
(
 h22 − h12 ) 
 r1   (43m) 2 − (40 m) 2  50 m  