Aquaculture Facility Selection and Design

MS006
By: Loh Jiun Yan, PhD 1
 Chapter outline:

1) Aquaculture Production Systems

2) Site Selection
3) Physical Properties of Water
4) Water Requirement for Aquaculture Ponds
5) Pond Designs and Construction
6) Cage culture, Design and Construction
7) Tanks, Raceways, Net Pens and Construction

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 Quiz (5%)

Mid-term Exam (10%)

Assignment (20%)

Laboratory (25%)

Final exam (40%)

100 %
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 Do and Don’t
Do:
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absent, MC or official documentation must be presented during the following
lecture.
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 Aquaculture
• Definition of aquaculture: “farming of aquatic organisms
including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants.
Farming implies some sort of intervention in the rearing
process to enhance production, e.g. regular stocking, feeding,
protection from predators, etc.” (FAO)

• History: Fish culture began at 4,000 B.C. in Egypt. Common

carp & brown trout culture began in Europe during the
Middle Ages (19th century).

• After World War II, aquaculture gained much attention as a

potentially large scale industry.
• In the 1960’s, aquaculture became a
significant commercial practice in Asia
where it had mainly been used as a
small-scale means of local community
food production for thousands of
years.

• In 1970 aquaculture operations

composed 3.9 percent of all fish
production, compared to 27.3 percent The pioneer fish culturist,
in 2000. Seth Green, 1864
 The Future of Aquaculture
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eff-
Z0NdwzY

Aquaculture: The Way of the Future

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ZjmsOCj
-B8

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 Inland pond culture
• The earliest type of aquaculture to be practiced, dating back
several thousand years.
• Wastes, including solids, organic matter, and nutrients that
are discharged can be released into settling ponds or
constructed wetlands to further reduce their impact.
• In low or zero discharge pond systems, the pond itself
develops a sort of ecosystem.
 Pond Ecosystem
• Natural biological,
chemical, and physical
processes in ponds remove
much of the wastes from
the water.
• Factors: Biotic & abiotic
• Biotic factors: all living
organism
• Abiotic factors:
environmental features
Small Ecosystem

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Commercial Inland culture systems
Large Scale Cage Culture Systems

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 Current Trend
• Current trend: Global production of fish from aquaculture has
grown substantially in the past decade, reaching 52.5 million
tonnes in 2008, compared with 32.4 million tonnes in 2000.
• According to FAO, starting from 2012 more than 50% of global
food fish consumption is originated from aquaculture.
• The Asia–Pacific region dominates the aquaculture sector
(89%global production), China alone contributing 62% of
global production. Out of 15 leading aquaculture-producing
countries, 11 in Asia–Pacific region.
• In the modern aquaculture industry, alternative hatchery
practices include:
Why
Sustainable?!!
Ecological
Aquaculture

Closed
and Low Organic
Discharge Aquaculture
System Sustainable
Modern
Aquaculture
These alternative practices
have been successfully
Mollusc
implemented in different
Polyculture areas of the world.
Farming
 Ecological Aquaculture
• Definition: An alternative model of aquaculture research and
development that brings the technical aspects of ecological
principles and ecosystems thinking to aquaculture.
• These principles integrate natural and social ecology, planning
for community development, and concerns for the wider
social, economic, and environmental contexts of aquaculture.
• There are six main principles:
a) to preserve the form and function of natural resources;
b) to ensure trophic level efficiency (using animal wastes and
plants, rather than fishmeal as sustenance);
c) to ensure that chemicals and nutrients from the system are not
discharged as pollutants;
d) to use native species so as not to contribute to “biological
pollution”;
e) to ensure that the system is integrated into the local economy
f) to ensure food production and employment; and to share the
practices and information on a global scale
The aquaponic system

[1] past nutrient dispensers [2] and, by the

end of the weeks-long trip, the plants are
ready for harvest. Below them swim high-
protein tilapia [3], whose ammonia-laden
waste sinks to a gravel bed [4], where
bacteria convert it to nitrogen. The system
pumps this nitrogen-rich water to the
plants, which consume the nitrogen and
return clean water to the fish.
 Organic aquaculture
• Definition: Manage food production as an integrated, whole
system that is an ‘organism’ whose individual parts mesh
together into one whole production system.
• Must comply with all of the same regulations that other
organic certified producers do.
• Some substances or practices are prohibited from organic
operations, e.g. antibiotics, genetically modified organisms,
use of chemicals and drugs etc
• To improve the production of their fish, farmers optimize the living
conditions, through lower stocking densities and cleaner, healthier
water.

• Basic principles of organic aquaculture:

a) to encourage natural biological cycles in the production of
aquatic organisms;
b) using feed that is not intended or appropriate for human
consumption;
c) using various methods of disease control;
d) not using synthetic fertilizer or other chemicals in production;
e) using polyculture techniques whenever possible
• Limitations: farming carnivorous fish with a diet of wild fish,
management and recycling of wastes, escapes of fish, and
controlling diseases and parasites.
• Inspection and certification systems are used to verify organic
production system.
 Polyculture/integrated aquaculture
• Definition: Methods of raising diverse organisms within the
same farming system, where each species utilizes a distinct
niche and distinct resources within the farming complex.
• This may involve the rearing of several aquatic organisms
together or it could involve raising aquatic organisms in
conjunction with terrestrial plants and/or animals.

IMTA (Integrated
Multi-trophic
Aquaculture)
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Integrated aquaculture
provides mutual benefits to
all organisms.
• Polyculture systems are not a new concept, they have been
used for centuries.
• For over one thousand years fish farmers in China have
produced four of the most widely cultivated fish species
together in the same pond: silver carp (a phytoplankton filter
feeder), grass carp (a herbivorous plant feeder), common carp
(an omnivorous feeder), and bighead carp (a zooplankton
filter feeder).
• Potential culture e.g. the integration of seaweed, fish &
abalone culture,& polyculture of shrimp and tilapia
Closed and Low Discharge System

Recirculating systems
• Three basic components: culture
chamber, settling chamber & biological
filter
• Recirculating systems conserve water
and allow producers to control all of the
environmental factors, however, can be
costly to operate.
• Solar, wind and geothermal power are
being considered as alternative source of
energy in aquaculture.
• Recirculating systems have less of an impact upon the
environment because of their closed nature.
• Wastes and uneaten feed are not simply released into the
ambient environment in the manner that they are with net
pens and exotic species and diseases are not introduced into
the environment.
• Can be built at anywhere, including in urban settings where
they can use existing structures and be placed close to
markets, thereby reducing transportation costs.
 A vertical farm design modeled after the Capitol
Records building in Los Angeles features a prominent
renewable energy source: a rotating solar panel that,
like a sunflower, gyrates to face the sun.

Dickson Despommier, a professor at Columbia University,

created the vertical farm concept with 82 graduate students.
He says that the skyscrapers could protect a city's food
supply from floods and droughts, and from pathogens that
attack crops.
Photo: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
 Planning for aquaculture

“Target species, number & size”

• The type, design & size of a production system is determined

by the selected species, their numbers & final desired size.
• The selection of species is mostly driven by market demand &
value of product.
 Production flexibility

• Hatchery should be equipped with water supply system for

egg incubation, hatching & for early rearing.
• Increase / decrease water temp. during incubation offers a
practical & economic way to manipulate the time required to
reach the target size.
• Proper use of photoperiods, water temp., hormones either
singly / combination, allow out-of-season spawning.
• Facilities should best balance between capital cost, labor,
energy requirement & production as well as manageability of
the facility.
 Feeding, energy & labor efficiency

• Feed, energy & labor are the most expensive components.

• Almost 60 – 80% of total production cost.
• High cost of feed, thus important to accomplish high degree
of feed efficiency.
• Amount of feed, frequency, method of feed application are
important.
• Feed lost must be kept in min. 20% feed reported lost in cage
culture.
• High percent feed costs are indicated high production cost.

Question??
A feed costs of RM5.50/kg & a feed conversion
of 1.2. So what is the production costs of the
fish/kg?

FCR = Feed given / Animal weight gain

• The energy contributes 2 – 20% to the production cost.
• Energy required for paddle wheel, pumping, heating, lighting
etc.
• Labor costs normally range at 10 - 60%.
 Hatchery Production
Culture environment
• Physical (wind, sun etc), chemical (NH3, CO2 etc) & biological
(predators, pathogen etc) factors interact making difficult to
manage water quality.

Oxygen
• Only a portion of DO is used by fish – available oxygen (AO)
• How much O2 required is depend on fish metabolic rate,
primarily temp. & fish size.
 Intakes of Oxygen
Inhaling (left); exhaling (right)
• For fish - around 10% calories expended for breathing.

• For human - around 2% at the resting metabolic rate.

• O2 saturated water only 1/30 the O2 content of air.

• When fish forced to swim at moderate speed, the body size

increases.

• Exposure of salmonids to water currents,

leads to behavioral changes e.g. aggressive,
benefits growth.
Osmoregulatory mechanism of F/S water fishes

Mechanisms of osmoregulation by teleost fishes.

Freshwater teleosts are hyperosmotic to the
surrounding solution, so they face osmotic gain of
water and diffusional loss of NaCl across the
permeable gill epithelium. These potentially
disruptive osmotic and ionic movements are
compensated for by excretion of relatively large
volumes of a dilute urine, and active uptake of
NaCl across the gill epithelium.

Marine teleosts are hyposmotic to seawater, so

they face osmotic loss of water and diffusional
gain of NaCl across the gill. Compensatory
mechanisms include ingestion of seawater,
intestinal absorption of NaCl and water, excretion
of small volumes of blood-isotonic urine (after
tubular reabsorption of Na, Cl, and water), and
active secretion of NaCl across the gill epithelium.
Passive ion movements are denoted by dashed
arrows; active by solid arrows.
• F/w fishes increase O2 intake, Na+ loss through diffusion from
gills.
• Fishes exchange NH3 and CO2 through gills.
• DO will always be 1st factor limiting the carry capacity in fish
system.
Carbon Dioxide
• As a byproduct of metabolism.
• Each O2 consumed generates about 1.4 units of CO2.
• O2 consumption related directly to feed consumed -> CO2
increases.
• CO2 reaction controlled pH & alkalinity.
• As CO2 dissolves, it forms free CO2 gas (toxic), carbonic acid
(H2CO3) & nontoxic ions bicarbonate (HCO3-) & carbonate
(CO3-2).
• If CO2 increases to a level where fish can’t excrete CO2, CO2
builds up in the blood (hypercapnia)
• pH of blood is lowered (acidosis) -> affects RBC binds with O2.
• Excretion of CO2 in gills is in the form of HCO3-
All biological aspects need to be
considered prior AQUACULTURE
PLANNING AND PRODUCTION

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 Aquaculture Production System
Extensive production
• Natural ponds is mostly associated with this method.
• Dynamic ecosystems that respond to & interact with physical,
chemical & biological factors.
• Various parameters e.g. sunlight, temp., wing & rainfall are
beyond control.
• Normally need fertilization to the pond systems.
Intensive production
• Controllable culture system e.g. water
quality & quantity of fish.
• Space & flow requirements, carrying
capacities & facility designs based on
available data.
• These production systems largely
depend on understanding of the
environmental requirement of the
species.
• Disease can be controlled through
vaccination, therapeutant, sanitation &
biosecurity measures.
 Profit & Gain
Growth rate
• Expressed as weight gain & length gain.
• Weight gain is exponential; length gain is linear & relatively
constant for a particular temp.
• Exponential weight gain & linear growth for length occur
during early life of fish.
• As it approaches to maturation, more of energy is channeled
into reproductive activities.
Growth Rate calculation:
L = (W / K)1/3
Where, W = Weight (g)
L = Length (cm)
K = A condition factor or Coefficient of Condition
or, K = (Wg) / L3
 Condition Factor or Coefficient of
Condition "K factor”
• The value of K is influenced by age of fish, sex, season, stage of
maturation, fullness of gut, type of food consumed, amount of
fat reserve and degree of muscular development.
• In some fish species, the gonads may weigh up to 15% or more
of total body weight. With females, the K value will decrease
rapidly when the eggs are shed.
• The K value can be used to assist in determining the stocking
rate of fish in a particular water. If the K value reaches an
unacceptably low level in a water which is totally or partly
dependent on stocking, the stocking rate can be reduced
accordingly until the K value improves and reaches an
acceptable level. 46
 The fish growth estimation
Example:
On 1 Nov, a sample of 240 fish weighs 5.465kg. The water temp. is a
constant 180C. From the past hatchery records, it is known that the fish
have a condition factor of 0.011 & their average daily growth is 0.056cm.
Will it be possible to produce 20cm fish by next 1 Apr?

1. Average fish is 5.465 kg / 240 fish = 0.02277 kg / fish

= 22.77 g / fish
Example:
On 1 Nov, a sample of 240 fish weighs 5.465kg. The water temp. is a
constant 180C. From the past hatchery records, it is known that the fish
have a condition factor of 0.011 & their average daily growth is 0.056cm.
Will it be possible to produce 20cm fish by next 1 Apr?

1. Average fish is = 22.77 g / fish

2. The average calculated length of fish on 1 Nov is,
L = (W / K)1/3
(22.77 g / 0.011 cm/g) 1/3 = 12.42 cm
Example:
On 1 Nov, a sample of 240 fish weighs 5.465kg. The water temp. is a
constant 180C. From the past hatchery records, it is known that the fish
have a condition factor of 0.011 & their average daily growth is 0.056cm.
Will it be possible to produce 20cm fish by next 1 Apr?

1. Average fish is = 22.77 g / fish

2. The average calculated length of fish on 1 Nov is = 12.42 cm
3. From 1 Nov to 31 March = 151 days
Example:
On 1 Nov, a sample of 240 fish weighs 5.465kg. The water temp. is a
constant 180C. From the past hatchery records, it is known that the fish
have a condition factor of 0.011 & their average daily growth is 0.056cm.
Will it be possible to produce 20cm fish by next 1 Apr?

1. Average fish is = 22.77 g / fish

2. The average calculated length of fish on 1 Nov is = 12.42 cm
3. From 1 Nov to 31 March = 151 days
4. The average increase in fish length from 1 Nov to 31 March = 151 ×
0.056cm = 8.456cm
Example:
On 1 Nov, a sample of 240 fish weighs 5.465kg. The water temp. is a
constant 180C. From the past hatchery records, it is known that the fish
have a condition factor of 0.011 & their average daily growth is 0.056cm.
Will it be possible to produce 20cm fish by next 1 Apr?

1. Average fish is = 22.77 g / fish

2. The average calculated length of fish on 1 Nov is = 12.74cm
3. From 1 Nov to 31 March = 151 days
4. The average increase in fish length from 1 Nov to 31 March = 8.456cm
5. Average length on 1 April will be 12.74 cm + 8.456 cm = 21.19 cm
Thus, 20-cm fish can be produced by 1 April!!
• Another common way to measure growth performance is by
the specific growth rate (SGR) in percent per day:

SGR = 100 [(Ln Wt – Ln WL) / t]

Where,
Ln Wt = the natural logarithm of the weight at time t,
Ln WL = the natural logarithm of the initial weight.
 Specific Growth Rate (SGR)
Example:

The length increase of channel catfish from 26.0 cm on 1 Apr to 32.3 cm

on 30 Apr, what is its SGR in percent per day? If the condition factor (K) is
0.0085.

SGR = 100 [(Ln Wt – Ln WL) / t]

Example:

The length increase of channel catfish from 26.0 cm on 1 Apr to 32.3 cm

on 30 Apr, what is its SGR in percent per day? If the condition factor (K) is
0.0085.

SGR = 100 [(Ln Wt – Ln WL) / t]

1. Convert length to weight, K = (Wg) / L3 or Wg = L3 × K
WL = 26.03 × 0.0085 = 149.4 g
Wt = 32.33 × 0.0085 = 286.4 g
Example:

The length increase of channel catfish from 26.0 cm on 1 Apr to 32.3 cm

on 30 Apr, what is its SGR in percent per day? If the condition factor (K) is
0.0085.

SGR = 100 [(Ln Wt – Ln WL) / t]

1. Convert length to weight, WL = 149.4 g; Wt = 286.4 g
2. SGR = 100 [(Ln 286.4 – Ln 149.4) / 29]
= 100 [(5.657 – 5.006) / 29]
= 2.24 cm/ day

Can fish grows at 2.2cm/day?

 Feed Consumption
Fish Feeding & Feed Conversions
• Measured by feed conversion ratios (FCR) or feed conversion
efficiencies (FCE).
• Measure of an animal's efficiency in converting feed mass into
increased body mass.
• FCR is calculated from the number of kilos of feed that are
used to produce one kilo of whole fish.
 FCR
• Biological FCR is the net amount of feed used to produce one kg
of fish.
• While the economic FCR takes into account all the feed used,
meaning that the effects of feed losses and mortalities.
• In farm, the FCR will be close to 1. This is extremely low when
compared with land animals.
• FCR depends majorly on temp. & species.

FCR = Food feed/Weight gain

FCR
Example:

A population of 10,000 of Tilapia have been fed 4% of their body weight /

day for a total of 20 days. The individual mean weight of the Tilapia was 15
g at the start of the feeding period, & 23 g when the fish were sampled
after 20 days.

WHAT IS THE FCR???

Example:

A population of 10,000 of Tilapia have been fed 4% of their body weight /

day for a total of 20 days. The individual mean weight of the Tilapia was 15
g at the start of the feeding period, & 23 g when the fish were sampled
after 23 days.

1) Feed fed = 10,000 (fish) × 15 g × 20 (days) × 0.04 (%) / 1000 g

= 120 kg
Example:

A population of 10,000 of Tilapia have been fed 4% of their body weight /

day for a total of 20 days. The individual mean weight of the Tilapia was 15
g at the start of the feeding period, & 23 g when the fish were sampled
after 23 days.

FCR = Food feed/Weight gain

1) Feed fed = 120 kg
2) Weight gain = (23 – 15) × 10,000 / 1000 g = 80 kg
Example:

A population of 10,000 of Tilapia have been fed 4% of their body weight /

day for a total of 20 days. The individual mean weight of the Tilapia was 15
g at the start of the feeding period, & 23 g when the fish were sampled
after 23 days.

FCR = Food feed/Weight gain

1) Feed fed = 120 kg
2) Weight gain = 80 kg
Example:

A population of 10,000 of Tilapia have been fed 4% of their body weight /

day for a total of 20 days. The individual mean weight of the Tilapia was 15
g at the start of the feeding period, & 23 g when the fish were sampled
after 23 days.

FCR = Food feed/Weight gain

1) Feed fed = 120 kg
2) Weight gain = 80 kg
3) FCR = 120 / 80 = 1.5
This should be written as the ratio 1.5 : 1. or 1.5 kg
food feed : 1 kg of weight gain.
 FCR & FCE
FCR FCE
The actual quantity of feed eaten by The ability of the fish to convert the
the fish and the equivalent weight it feed eaten to body flesh or weight
gained over a given period of time;
for example, from stocking to harvest
Is primarily a function of the quality Dependent on the quality of the fish,
of the feed and to some extent the (fingerlings/juveniles) stocked and
quality of the fish, the condition or environment it is
(fingerlings/juveniles) stocked and raised
the condition or environment it is
raised.

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 FCE
• FCE is the reciprocal of the FCR converted to a % value:

• FCE (%) = Weight gain / food consumed × 100

• Using back the Tilapia example:

FCE = 80 / 120 × 100

= 66.6 %
Next Lesson, Site Selection

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