Fishing Boats of The World 1 - Jan Olof Traung 1975
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vladFISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
FISHING BOATS
OF THE
WORLD
Edited by
JAN-OLOF TRAUNG
Naval Architect, Fisheries Division, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
Published by
FISHING NEWS (BOOKS) LIMITED
23 ROSEMOUNT AVENUE, WEST BYFLEET, SURREY, ENGLAND
First Published 1955
1st Reprint 1958
2nd Reprint ]966
3rd Reprint 1969
4th Reprint 1975
Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations
1969-1974
ISBN 85238 073 9
The views expressed in the papers and discussions are those
of the contributors and not necessarily those of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
PB1NTIP IN ORBAT BRITAIN BY THE WH1TBFRIARB PRE88 Lilt.
LONDON AND TON BRIDGE
CONTENTS
Page Page
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
No.
xi Portugal ........
.....
No.
63
ABBREVIATIONS
PREFACE D. B. Finn
xvi
xvii
Rowing and
.......
.........
Larger boats
sailing boats 63
65
INTRODUCTION . A. C. Hardy xix
Spain
.....
Specific beaching
... problems
66
68
......
Solutions by the Lifeboat Institutions
Solutions by the Navy
68
69
Part I
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING
BOAT TYPES
Building materials
General beach problems
.....
Mechanical propulsion of beach fishing boats
.....
. 69
71
72
Some American fishing launches Small fishing boats in Portugal
The
The
Gaspe boat ....
Howard 1. Chape He
...
1
1
Joaquim Gormicho Boavida 73
....4
Cape Island boat . 3 SURFACE FISHING
The Seabright skiff .
At sushi Takagi 80
Japanese pelagic fishing boats
The Sharpie launch . 5 Mackerel pole and line fishing boats . . 80
The Scow or Garvcy 6
Skipjack pole and line fishing boats
.
. 81
.83
Beach landing Scow or Garvey for trapfishing
Use of V-bottoms
Hooper Island launches
...
....
. 7
7
8
Tuna long liners
Whale catchers
British Columbia (Canada)
......
. .
fishing vessels
84
Pilot houses and steering shelters
Safety problems . .
.
... 10
1 1
....
Robert F. Allan 92
Engines
Pacific gillnetters . . . //. C. Hanson
11
13
Government
Types .
regulations
Materials and construction methods ... .94
92
92
Bombay fishing boats
Description of fishing craft
.
.
S. B. Setna
.17
17 Gill-netters
Trollers .... . 94
.96
Mechanical problems
Difficulties surmounted ..... . 17
.19
Long (under 1 5 tons)
liners
Seiners (under 1 5 tons)
... .
. . 97
99
Bigger catches
Labour-saving equipment
Maintenance of engines
. .
20
.21
21
Packers
Trawlers
......
Seiners (over 15 tons)
........
.
.100
99
102
Training 6f crew 23 Pacific trailers . . . . H. C. Hanson 107
Financial aid
Navigation permits ...... 23
24
Operational influences on tuna clippers
..... James F. Petrich 113
West Pakistan fishing craft
M. Rahimullah Qureshi, Henry Magnusson and Carrying .......
Fishing trim and stability
live bait
.....
114
116
Description of Pakistan fishing boats
Hora (Gharat Hora)
...
Jan-Ohf Traung 25
25
28
A touch of ......
Refrigeration of the catch
its spirit
Pacific tuna clippers . . . H. C. Hanson
116
117
118
Bedi boats 28
Naval architecture 32
Description of the radial measurement method . . 41 BOTTOM FISHING
Denmark ....
European beach landing craft Hans K. Zimmer 51
51
The owner's viewpoint
Deep sea trawlers .......
......
. . . Basil Parkes 122
122
Beach fishing places
....
Launching and beaching
51
51
Middle water trawlers
Near water trawlers ...... 123
The boats
England ....
The Yorkshire coble .
55
57
57
The development of
The plans ........
the New England trawler
Dwight S. Simpson 127
131
Launching and beaching
The Hastings
Netherlands ....lugger .
59
61
63
Japanese drag net boats
Large trawlers .......
Smaller trawlers and Danish seiners
. Atsushi Takagi
. . .142
137
137
fvl
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
Page Page
No. No.
BOAT TYPES BOTTOM FISHING (continued) MATERIALS
French motor trawlers .
Particulars of the various types
Forms and seakindliness
.
....E. R. Gueroult 143
144
144
New materials for construction and operation
Insulating materials
E. C. Goldsworthy 223
225
Resistance and propulsion 148 Miscellaneous equipment 225
Propellers 149 Accommodation 226
Auxiliaries 149 Shore handling 226
Engine room installation 149 Teredos and fouling H. Kuhl 227
Fish hold insulation 149
Future designs 149 FISH HOLDS
Some notes on large trawlers H . E. Jaeger 151 Jacketed, refrigerated fish holds
Stability
Propulsion
....
Principal dimensions
....
151
151
152
W. A. MacCallum
Refrigeration requirements expressed in tons of ice
Description of jacketed installations
230
230
231
Fuel consumption
Weight estimation
Fish room
.
considerations
153
153
153
linings
Electricpower requirements
.......
Operating characteristics of fish hold installations
Hold
....
232
232
232
Future pen construction 232
Dutch coastal fishing boats . . W. Zwolsman 154
Protection of insulation against humidity P. Bain 233
German fishing vessels . . . H. Kannt 166
ECONOMICS
Spanish fishing vessels
Jose Ma. Gonzalez-Llanos y Canmcho 171 Economic influence on design of fishing craft
Modern " pareja " boats 171 C. Beever 234
Far-distant fishing 177 Demand
Incentives
Resources
........ 235
235
236
COMBINATION FISHING Finance 236
Pacific combination fishing vessels H. C. Hanson 187 Education and training 236
Small combination boats
Medium-sized combination boats
Large combination vessels
.... 191
194
197
How costings rationalize construction
Anders N. Christensen
The advantages of co-ordinated estimates and cost
238
Machinery for combination 100 ft. (30.5 m.) trawler accounts 238
and tuna clipper 202 Calculation system 239
Irish fishing boats . . John Tyrrell 203
Standard 50 ft. (15m.) boat
.......
Standard 60 ft. (18.3 m.) boat
Construction
204
209
210
DISCUSSION
Comments by some of the authors
Different types
.... 242
243
247
Beach landing 253
Icelandic fishing boats Bardur G. Tomasson 211 Research vessels 255
V-bottom 259
RESEARCH VESSELS Material 260
Lamination 262
Fishery research and experimental vessels Handling fish at sea 263
Governmental fishery programmes
Programme characteristics
....
G. L. Kesteven 213
213
214
Economics 265
Vessel requirements 214
Part H NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
Research vessel design aspects . Francis Minot 216
Oceanographic vessels 216 HULL SHAPE
Seakeeping ability
Reliability
Range and speed
216
217
218
Tank testing technique .
Short description of the equipment
Measuring technique
....
W.A.P.vanLammeren 269
270
272
Arrangement of main laboratory and working deck . 219 Resistance tests 272
Centre well 219 Propulsion tests 273
Laboratories 220 Open-water propeller tests 274
Winches and gear-handling equipment . 220 Steering tests 274
Explosives magazine 221 Rolling tests 276
Noise control
Habitability
Proposed type
221
221
221
Wake tests
Cavitation tests with propellers
Captation tests with profiles
....
.
276
277
279
Fisheries research vessels 221 Trials 280
[vi]
CONTENTS
Page Page
No. No.
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE HULL SHAPE (continued) Part HI ENGINEERING
Some tank tests . . .
Jan-Olof Traung 281
Datasheets 281 ENGINES 390
Models 311
Discussion of the 312
Oil engines for trawlers . . G. S. Hepton 390
tests
312
Drifter trawlers 390
Comparison of the tests
Honest comparison 314
Middle water and Faroe craft 390
Deep sea trawlers 391
Comparison with other fishing boat tests . . .318 Fresh water cooling 391
Proposed stability criteria .
George C. Nickum 320 Auxiliaries 391
Electrical power 391
Loading and change of trim on small trawlers Lubrication 391
Walter J. Mclnnis 323 Fuels 391
Behaviour of trawlers at sea
Loss of speed in heavy weather
Stability during the trip
.
....
Walter Mockel 326
327
328
Injection equipment
Propellers
392
392
Rolling and pitching periods 330 Motorization in Chile . . . Paul Ziener 393
Rolling and pitching angles
Sailing small ships in a following sea
331
334
The commercial aspects
Cost of operation
The technical aspects
....... 393
394
395
SAFETY AT SEA
Safety at sea ... Wm. C. Miller 337
The motor fuels
Galvanic action and electrolysis
Propeller efficiency
.... 396
396
396
Personnel 337
Seamanship
Ship requirements
337
338
339
Remarks on French trawler diesels
Engines for 42 m. (138 ft.) trawlers ....
....
Jean Faure 398
398
Ship equipment
Fire protection
Radio and radar
339
340
Engines for 38 m. (125 ft.) trawlers
Engines for 32 m. (105 ft.) trawlers
Engines for 28 m. (92 ft.) trawlers
....
....
398
398
398
Other equipment 341
Considerations on diesels A. Dussardier 399
Safety at sea regulations in Netherlands Small trawlers 399
J. G. de Wit 343
343 Deep sea trawlers . 400
Stability
Freeboard
Hatches ... .... 345
347 Heavy duty fishing engines R. G. Andersen 402
Drinking water tanks 349
History .....
Principal characteristics
.....
. 402
402
Accommodation
....
........
Loading and unloading equipment
Life-boats
349
349
350
Design
The controllable-pitch propeller
403
405
Numerical survey . 407
Problems of design and construction of fishing Semi-diesels versus diesels 407
boats .Leandro Fernandez Munoz
. 351
409
Freeboard
Life-boats and rescue equipment .... 351
351
Medium-speed diesels . D. E. Brownlow
Anchor gear
Standardization of auxiliary equipment
Wooden decks
352
352
352
High-speed diesels
Piston speeds
Injection system
.... William C. Gould 412
413
413
Use of radar
Navigation
Gallows
lights in pareja trawlers .... 352
352
352
Cooling systems
Vibrations
Reverse gears
.... 413
413
413
Crew accommodations 352 Bearing surfaces
Lubrication
Fuels
.... 414
414
414
DISCUSSION Intel-changeability of parts 414
Tank tests and resistance 353 Sizes of high-speed diesels 415
Stability 362 Auxiliary equipment 415
Sea kindliness. 369
Boats
Fire
....
Midship section
....
377
378
380
Semi-diesels versus diesels
Modern propulsion plants
. IvarStokke 416
Training 381 K. Schmidt and Th. Schumacher 419
420
Rules ....
Insurance company's fault 384
385
V-built two-cycle engines
Air-cooled engines 421
[vii]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
Page Page
No. No.
ENGINEERING ENGINES (continued) DECK GEAR
Japanese diesels Vessels and gear . . . . A. von Brandt 474
/. Takahashi, M. Akasaka and K. Tanaka 424 Recent developments in deck gear Carl B. Carlson 476
Whale catchers
Otter trawlers
424
425 Pumps for unloading menhaden
Pumps for brailing menhaden
....
..... 476
476
Two-boat trawlers 425
Powered seine reels in the salmon fishery 476
Small trawlers 425
Application of chill tanks in the shrimp fishery 479
....
.
Large tuna clippers 425
Air controls for winches 480
Small or medium tuna clippers 426
Electric drive for trawl winches
Gas turbine propulsion . A. Augustin Normand 428 Maurice Grqftiaux 481
Description and principle of operation 428 Flexibility and manoeuvring . . . 481
Adaptation to a trawler 429 Safety and easy maintenance . 481
Electric winches . . 481
PROPULSION
Vibration in small ships
...
James Whitaker 433
Hydraulic trawl winches
Pressure ... . Paul Guinard 483
483
Hull vibrations .
Possible forms of vibration .
433
433
Driving fluid
Choice of equipment ..... 483
483
Symptoms
Forces causing vibration
Transmission of forces
.... 433
434
434
An example of an installation for a 75
Considerations of the hydraulic transmission applied to
trawl winches
h.p. winch 484
485
Estimation of hull frequency 434 Hans Huse 488
Hydraulic deck equipment Vestre
Experimental determination of hull frequency 435
Live-bait equipment Carl B. Carlson 494
Methods of stiffening to raise natural frequency 435
Shafting vibrations ...
Comparison of high- and low-speed engines . 435
435
Cuba
Hawaii .
Pacific albacore fishery
.... .
.
494
494
494
Whirling 435
Torsional vibrations
One- and two-node frequencies
436
436
Tuna clippers
Bait tank design . .... 494
494
Symtoms
The danger points
436
436
Pumps and piping
Bait fishing boats and gear
.
.... . . 496
496
Influence of engine design and layout 436 Hatch covers and mast without shrouds P. Bain 498
Importance of propeller and shafting
Desirability of isolation of forward end drives
Correct tuning
437
437
437
New type " Bipod " mast ....
Watertight metal covers for fish-hold hatches 498
498
Derrick arrangement of a trawler
Comparison of high- and low-speed engines 437 Mario Costantini 502
Comparison of two- and four-cycle engines 437
Japanese long lining K. Yagi 503
The fishing technique . 504
CONTROL DEVICES
DISCUSSION . 505
Fixed blade and controllable-pitch propellers
/. A. van Aken 438 Trawl winches 505
Fixed blade propellers 438 Bait 511
Controllable-pitch propellers 440 Miscellaneous 512
Controllable-pitch propellers for trawlers
M. Rouchet 442
" Father and Son " and
Part IV FACTORY SHIPS
diesel-electric propulsion
Robert Kolbeck 444 Pacific Coast processing vessels
" "
Father and Son 444 George C. Nickum 513
Diesel-electric 445 Conversions . . . . . . . .514
Need for space 514
Multiple reduction gear propulsion 515
Quarters
Alexandre Chardome 449
Stability 516
The thrust-speed diagram 452
Bunker and water problems 516
Government regulations 518
DISCUSSION 456 Sanitation 518
Cooling 462 Salmon canning 519
Two-cycle versus four-cycle 463 Crab canning . . .
- . . . . 520
High, medium, low speeds 464 Filleting 522
Drive ....
Semi-diesel . 467
471
By-products
Freezing
522
522
[viii]
CONTENTS
Page Page
No. No.
FACTORY SHIPS Freezing at sea . . . . G. C. Eddie 549
Pacific Coast processing vessels (continued) Jul 551
Aspects of factory ship operations Mogens
Transferring and handling of catches . . . 524 Technical considerations 551
Storage 524 Cargo space 551
Moorings
Electric power
Ventilation and heating
524
524
526
Processing space
Water supply .......
Operation in rough sea
552
553
553
Refrigeration
Freezers
Icemaking
526
532
534
Fishing from factory ships
Mooring and transfer of catches
Quality of raw material
.
.
.....553
.
.
.
.554
. .
553
Insulations 534 Economic and social considerations . . . .554
Experiences with factory ship operation 556
The experimental freezer-trawler Delaware
. . .
Alterations to iish hold
C. G. P. OMershaw
.535
535
535
Salting aboard
Floating canneries
Freezer ships
......
.......
556
556
556
Refrigeration equipment . . . .
Brine tank and fish-freezing mechanism . . .535 Processing part of the catch . . . .558
Hold-cooling equipment 536 Fish meal installations . . . . . .558
Refrigeration plant . . . . . .537
Cold storage capacity and freezing rates . . .537 DISCUSSION 561
Freezer trawlers
Basic design
Operating crew
........
. . David B. Cunningham 538
538
539
U.S. Pacific Coast processing vessels
Occanlifc
Delaware ........
. . .561
562
563
Fishing operations
Trawl winch
... .
539
540
Fairfree and Fairtry
Other fish processing aboard ships .... 564
565
Factory deck ponds
Fish washing machines
Heading and gutting
.....
.
... .
540
540
540
Conclusions
REFERENCES
566
569
Filleting 541
Packing in trays .541 INDEX 575
Freezing and refrigeration holds . . . .541
.541
Packing in cartons
Insulated fish holds
Liver processing
.
....
. . . . .
.541
542
Fish meal plant 542
Notes on factory ships . . H. E. Jaeger 543
Liver conveyor system of a trawler
Mario Costantini 545
Arrangement of deck ponds and gutting benches . 545
Liver conveyor system 545
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Page Page
No. No.
AGUINALDO, James C . 363 BRADBURY, C. H. 459,463
c/o Kennard, Secretary of the Society of Naval Architects and Chief Engineer, Petters Ltd., Causeway Works, Statnes, Middle-
Marine Engineers, Markey Machinery Company Inc., 85 Horton sex, England.
Street, Seattle, 4, Wash., U.S.A.
BRARD, Professor R. 353, 361
AKASAKA, M. . 424
Ingenieur en Chef du G6nie Maritime; Professeur a 1'Ecole
Akasaka Iron Works Co. Ltd., No. 3, 6-Chome, Ginza, Chuo-ku, PoJytechnique et a 1'Ecole Nationale Suprieure du G6nie Mari-
Tokyo, Japan. time; Directeur du Bassin d'Essai des Carenes de la Marine,
34 rue Rayouard, Paris 16e, France.
ALLAN, J. F., D.Sc., M.I.N.A. 354, 369, 473
Superintendent, Ship Division, National Physical Laboratory,
BROMFIELD, 1 374
Teddington, Middlesex, England. 464, 466, 471, 472, 508, 509, 510, 511, 562, 566, 568
President, Bromfield Manufacturing Co. Inc., 246-288 Border
ALLAN, Robert F. 92, 360, 377 Street, East Boston 28, Mass., U.S.A.
Naval Architect, 2026 West 63rd Avenue, Vancouver 14, B.C.,
Canada. BROWNLOW, D. L. 258, 409, 465
Director and Chief Engineer, Mirrlees, Bickerton and Day Ltd.,
ANDERSEN, Bent G. .
469, 470, 473 Hazel Grove, Stockport, England
Managing Director, Tuxham A/S, 122 Trekronergade, Copen-
hagen Valby, Denmark. BRUCE, Georg 460, 469
Engineer-in-Chief, Seffle Motorverkstad, Seffle, Sweden.
ANDERSEN, R. G. 402
Chairman, Tuxham A/S, 122 Trekronergade, Copenhagen Valby, CARLSON, Carl B 476, 494
Denmark.
Chief, Gear Development and Research Program, Branch of
Commercial Fisheries, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, c/o Uni-
ASTRUP, N. Chr 355 versity of Miami, Marine Laboratory, Coral Gables, Flo.,
Scientific Officer, Skipsmodelltanken, Trondheim, Norway. U.S.A.
BAIN, P. L 233,498,512 CHAPELLE, Howard I. .1, 34, 243, 247, 251, 257,
Directeur Technique de la Societe MacGregor-Comarain, 260, 262, 263, 266, 358, 360, 373, 378, 383, 387, 458,
Neuilly-sur-Seine, France. 467,507,511
Lt.-Col., U.S.A.R.C., Naval Architect, Cambridge, Maryland,
BEEVER, C 234, 267 U.S.A.
Fisheries Economist, Fisheries Division, FAO, Rome, Italy.
CHARDOME, Alexandre . 449
BERGIUS, E. GEORGE . 457 Director of Beliard Crightpn and Co., Chantier Naval, 27 rue
The Bergius Company 254 Dobbies Loan, Glasgow C.4, Gerard David, Bruges, Belgium.
Ltd.,
Scotland.
CHRISTENSEN, Anders N. . . 238
BERTRAM, Captain H 255, 379 Managing Director, Ancas Traeskibsbyggeri, Prinsensgate 2,
Bundesministerium fur Ernahrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten, Oslo, Norway.
Neuer Wall 72, Hamburg 36, Germany.
BINDLOSS, John B. ......
Atlantic Marine Fisheries, Stonington, Conn., U.S.A.
267
CHRISTENSEN, Poul A.
Mechanical Engineer, President, Burmeister and
American Corporation, 17 Battery Place, New York
384, 464, 473
4,
Wain's
N.Y.,
U.S.A.
BOAVIDA, Joaquim Gormicho 73
CONHAGEN, A. . 509
Fishery Research Investigator, Gabinete de Estudos de Pesca,
Av. da Liberdade 211, 4, D, Lisbon, Portugal. President, Alfred Conhagen Inc., 429 West 1 7th Street, New York,
N.Y., U.S.A.
BOCHET, Pierre 463
COSTANTINI, Ing. Mario 502, 545
President Directeur General, Moteurs Badouin, 37 rue
Galilee, Paris 16, France. Direttore del Cantiere San Marco, Trieste, Italy.
BORDOLI, Dr. Ing. Gian Guido . .
380,385,461 COSTE, D 461
President, Rome Section of A.T.E.N.A., Ministry of Merchant Societ6 Industnellc Generate de Mecanique Appliques SIGMA,
Marine, Rome, Italy. 61 Avenue Franklin D. Roosevelt, Paris 8e, France.
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
Page Page
No. No.
CUNNINGHAM, D. B., M.I.N.A 538 GOLDSWORTHY, Commander E.G., Assoc. l.N.A. 223 .
Naval Architect, General Manager, Brooke Marine Ltd., Oulton 260, 263, 370, 378
Broad, Lowestoft, England. Marine Consultant, Estate Buildings, South Road, Weybridge,
Surrey, England.
DAHLLOF, F 459
Marine Engineer, Skandiaverken, Lysekil, Sweden. GONZALEZ-LLANOS Y CARUNCHO, Professor Jose Ma.
171,368
DE FEVER, Arthur . . .
358, 369, 374, 377, 380
Ingcniero Naval, Chairman, Association de Ingenieros Navales,
384,386,388,510,511 Madrid; Apartado 994, Ferrol del Caudillo, Spain.
Naval Architect, 701 E. Harbor Drive, P.O. Box 1049, San Diego,
Calif., U.S.A. GOULD, William C. . . .
258,260,359,412,
DE WIT, G. 460,461,462,465,507,510
J. 343, 358, 367, 370, 378
Vice President and General Manager, Diesel Engine Corporation,
Naval Architect, Scheepvaart-lnspectie, 4a District, 128 Banke- 27-20 122nd Street, College Point 56, N.Y., U.S.A.
straat, The Hague, Netherlands.
DIETLE, C. E. . . . 460, 46 1 , 464, 466, 47 1 GRAFTIAUX, Maurice . . . . .481
Ingenieur, Soci6te Sautter-Harle, 16, Avenue de Suffren, Paris
Manager, Diesel Division, Fairbanks Morse and Co., 600 S.
I5e, France.
Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111.. U.S.A.
DOXSHY, A. M. 380 GRAVENOR, A. L. , 464
Vice President, Walter Kidde and Co., 675 Main Street, Belle- Managing Director, Brit Engineering Co. Ltd., Bridport, Dorset,
ville, N.J., U.S.A. England.
DUSSARDIER, Andre . 399 GUEROULT, E. R., A.M. l.N.A. 143, 246, 259, 354,
.
Ingenieur Civil, Compagnie Sulzer, 19 rue Cognacq Jay, Paris 7e, 367, 375, 458, 463, 472, 512, 565, 568
France. Naval Architect, 3, rue de Logenbach, Pans 17e, France.
EACHO, S. A 261
GUINARD, Paul 483
President, Carlton Fisheries, Brownsville, Texas, U.S.A. Secretaire General des Pompes Guinard, 12, Avenue de SufTren,
Pans 15e France.
s
EDDiE,G.C.,B.Sc.,A.R.T.C.,A.M.I.Mech.E.,A.M.Inst.R.
257, 264, 549, 563, 565 HANSEN, Knud E 249
Mechanical Engineer, Department of Scientific and Industrial Naval Architect, Bredegade 37, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Research, Torry Research Station, Aberdeen, Scotland.
387 HANSON, H. C. . . . 13,107,118,187,
EDDY, R. L. Snr.
243, 251, 257, 259, 262, 362, 366, 374, 377, 384, 385,
Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries, 126 Civil Courts Building,
386, 387, 388, 459, 466, 472, 509, 511,512, 562, 567
New Orleans, La., U.S.A.
Naval Architect and Marine Engineer, Pier 52, Seattle 4, Wash.,
ERTL, Dr. Johann 463, 469 U.S.A.
Klockner-Humboldt-Deutz AG, Deutz-Mulheimerstr., Koln-
Deutz, Germany; now: Fichtel and Sachs AG, Schweinfurt a.M., HARCOURT-SMITH, Commander C., M.N. 370, 379, 507
Germany. Manager, Marine Department, Vernier Ltd., New Maiden,
Surrey, England.
ESTLANDER, Erik 253
Naval Architect, Postbox 76, Roskilde, Denmark. HARDY, Commander A. C., B.Sc., M.I.N.A., F.R.G.S.
vii, 251, 256, 379, 382, 383, 456, 466, 509, 512, 568
FAURE, Jean 398
1 10 Fenchurch Street, London, E.C.3, England.
Chef du Service Peche, Societ Generate de Constructions
Mecaniques, La Courneuve, France. HARPER Gow, L. M., M.B.E. . . .
564, 566
FERNANDEZ MUNOZ, Leandro . .
265, 351, 385 Director, Chr. Salvesen & Co., 29 Bernard Street, Leith, Scotland.
Ingeniero Naval, Pinar 10-5, Madrid, Spain.
HEPTON, G. S., Captain (E), O.B.E. . . .390
FINN, D. B., Ph.D., C.M.G., F.R.S.G. . . xvn Consulting Engineer, Hepton Brothers, St. Andrew's Dock,
Hull, England.
Director, Fisheries Division, FAO, Rome, Italy.
GEARY, Leslie E 363 HINES, William S 247, 383
Naval Architect, 4266 Engineer, Department of Trade and Industry, Halifax, Nova
Pacific Avenue, Long Beach 7, Calif.,
U.S.A. Scotia, Canada.
GILES, J. Laurent, M.I.N.A. 372 HODGES, S. A., M.I.N.A. . . .
367, 379, 385
Laurent Giles and Partners Ltd., 4 Quay Hill, Lymington, Hants, Ministry of Transport, Berkeley Square House, London W.I,
England. England.
GLANVILLE, Alan 467 H0JSGAARD, J. . . 472
Fisheries Engineer, FAO technical assistance programme expert, Chief Engineer, A/S Hundested Motorfabrik, Hundested,
now: c/o Devonshire Club, St. James's, London, S.W.I, England. Denmark.
[xii]
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Page Page
No. No.
HUET, G. O. 260, 262, 267, 359, 383, 385, 386, 388, 507
.
MACCALLUM, W. A., B.E.(Mech.), M.Sc., M.F.I.C. 230,
Naval Architect and Engineer, Higgins Inc., P.O. Box 8001, 263, 264, 265
New Orleans, La., U.S.A. Development Engineer, Fisheries Research Board of Canada,
Atlantic Fisheries Experimental Station, Halifax, Nova Scotia,
HUSE see VESTRE HUSE Canada.
HYLTON, P. H., Assoc. l.N.A. . . . 462,471 MclNNis, Walter J 323
Marine Sales Manager, Ruston and Hornsby Naval Architect, Eldrcdge-Mclnnis Inc., 131 State Street
Ltd., Lincoln,
Boston 9 Mass., U.S.A.
England.
JAEGER, Prof. Ir. H. E., M.I. N. A.
151, 246, 264, .
MAGNUSSON, Henry 25
367, 369, 472, 543, 563 Naval Architect, FAO technical assistance programme expert,
now: Prastvagen 15, Goteborg, Sweden.
Director of Research, Shipbuilding Department, Research Centre
for Shipbuilding and Navigation; Department of Naval Archi-
tecture, Technical University, Delft, Netherlands. MARDESIC, Pa vac 256
Naval Architect, Shipyard V, Kratulovic, Split, Yugoslavia.
JUL, Mogens 264,265,511,551,564,568
Chief, Technology Branch, Fisheries Division, FAO, Rome, MESSIEZ-POCHE, J. . . . 456,464,467,470
Italy; now Director, Slagtencrncs Laboratonum, Sdr. Rmgvej Ingenieur A et M, 15 Avenue Henry-Marcel, Maisons-Lafitte,
16, Roskilde, Denmark. (S-et-O.), France.
KANNT, Hans S 166,246 MILLER, William C. 337, 381, 383, 384,
Dipl. Ing., Director, Werft Seebeck, Bremerhaven-G, Bach- 385,386,388,510,511
strasse 6, Germany.
Marine and Aviation Surveyor, Marine Engineer, 577 Spreckeis
Building, San Diego 1, California, U.S.A.
KLNDALL, Ronald, M.l.N.A. 568
Burness, Kendall and Partners Ltd., 15 St. Helen's Place, MILLER, William P. . .25 1 260, 266, 457
. ,
London, H.C.3, hngland.
Chairman, Fishing Boat Builders' Association, Aberdeen; Jas. N.
Miller and Sons Ltd., East Shore, St. Monance, Fife, Scotland.
KESTFVFN, G. L., D.Sc 213
Chief, Biology Branch, Fisheries Division, FAO, Rome, Italy. MINOT, Francis 216, 257, 258, 259, 353, 369, 382
.
Naval Architect, Marine and Fisheries Research Institute Inc.,
KI.OKSS, H. K., M.l.N.A 357,375 Woods Hole, Mass., U.S.A.
Naval Architect, Maicrform, Lothrmgeistiasse 65, Bremen,
Germany. MOCKEL, Captain Walter 326, 370, 371 376
....
. . ,
Naval Architect, Hamburgische Schiflfbau Versuchsanstalt,
KOLBECK, Dipl. Ing. Robert 444 Bramfelderstrasse 164, (24) Hamburg 33, Germany.
Maschinenfabrik Augsburg Nurnberg A.G., Augsburg,
Germany. MOLLEKLEIV, Olai 469, 507
A/S De Forenede Motorfabnker, Bergen, Norway.
KRISTJONSSON, Hilmar 505, 507, 566
Fisheries Engineer, Technology Bianch, Fisheries Division, FAO, NICKUM, George C. 254, 258, 263, 265, 266, 320,
.
Rome, 357, 366, 368, 369, 371, 383, 384, 385, 388, 458, 506,
........
Italy.
509,513,561,566
KUHL, Dr. H 227 Naval Architect, W. C. Nickum and Sons, 300 Poison Building,
Bundesforschungsanstalt fur Fischerei, Institut fiir Kusten-u. Seattle, Wash., U.S.A.
Binnenfischerei, Laboratorium Cuxhafen, Bei der Alten Lieve, 1,
Cuxhaven (24a), Germany. NORMAND, A. Augustin, Jnr., M.l.N.A. . 428 .
Director, Les Chantiers et Ateliers Augustin Normand, Le Havre,
KULLENBERG, Dr. B. 259 France.
Gbteborg V, Sweden.
Oceanographic
LARSSON, Karl
Institute,
Hugo
Naval Architect, Stadsgarden
.....
10, Stockholm 10, Sweden.
470
OLDERSHAW, C. G. P
Mechanical Engineer, Fishery Technological Laboratory, Branch
of Commercial Fisheries, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Depart-
535
ment of the Interior, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
LtACH, T. S., M.C. 255, 457
Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, O'MEALLAIN, Seamus 265
3 Whitehall Place, London, S.W.I, England. Civil Engineer, Chairman, An Bord lascaigh Mhara, 67 Lower
Mount Street, Dublin, Ireland.
LEMBKE, Paul A. H. (VDI) . . . .250
Ing.-Buro SchifTbau, Hamburg 19, Tornquiststrasse 1, Germany. PARKES, BASIL 122
Managing Director, St. Andrew's Steam Fishing Company,
LINDBLOM, Jarl, A. M.l.N.A. 248, 262, 263, 355 Hull, England.
Naval Architect,
LOCHRIDGE, W
Abo (Turku), Finland.
565
PARKES, Fred ....
Chairman, The Boston Deep Sea
245,357,370,457
Fishing and Ice Co. Ltd.,
Chr. Salvesen & Co., 29 Bernard Street, Leith, England. Fleetwood, England.
[xiii]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
Page Page
No. No.
PENSO, Commander L. E. . 368, 369, 380, 386, 388 SHAPIRO, Dr. Sidney 511
Naval Architect, Merchant Marine Technical Division, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior,
Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington 25, U.S.A. Washington 25, D.C., U.S.A.
PETRICH, James F. 113, 247, 368, 371, 377, 509, 51 1, 561 ShLMAN, G. S., M.l.N.A 353
"Tftaval Architect, Western Boatbuilding Co., 2505 East Eleventh Naval Architect, R. A. Lister Ltd., Dursley, Glos., England.
Street, Tacoma, Wash., U.S.A.
SIMPSON, Dwight S., M.M.E 127
PICKETT, Commander 255, 258, 459, 473, 510
R. E. .
Naval Architect and Marine Engineer, 650 Centre Street, Newton
Marine Engineer, 68 Sunnyside Avenue, Brooklyn 7, N.Y., 58, Mass., U.S.A.
U.S.A.
SNYDER, GORDON C. 366
PUNCOCHAR, J. F 563
Naval Architect, FJohr and Company, Metal Fabricators,
Chief, North Atlantic Technological Research, Fishery Techno- 3920 6th Avenue, N.W., Seattle 7, Wash., U.S.A.
logical Laboratory, Branch of Commercial Fisheries, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
STEPHENS, Olin J, II 356,371,372,375,377,383,386
QURESHI, Dr. M. R 25 Naval Architect, Spark man and Stephens Inc., 79 Madison
Karachi Avenue, New York, N.Y., U.S.A.
Director, Central Fisheries Department, Saddar, 3,
Pakistan.
STOBINSKI, F. R. 508,510
RINGHAVER, L. C 248 Sales and Service Engineer, Alfred Conhagen Inc., 429 West
Box 658,
17th Street. New York. N.Y., U.S.A.
President, Diesel Engine Sales Inc., P.O. St. Augustine,
Fla., U.S.A.
STOFFEL, P. S., S.F.I.T. 472
RISHELL, Dr. C. A 262, 263 Eschcr Wyss, Paris, France.
Director of Research, Timber Engineering Co., 1319 18th Street,
N.W., Washington 6, D.C., U.S.A.
STOKKE, Dipl. Ing. Ivar 416,462
Docent, Laboratorium for Forbrenmngsmotorer, Norges
ROBAS, J. S 466,510 Tekniske Hogskole, Trondheim, Norway.
2161 S. Fletcher Avenue, Fernandina Beach, Ma., U.S.A.
SWINFIELD, Arthur M., A.M.I.N.A. 35
ROSENTHAL, K. G 472 Naval Architect, 23 Henley Marine Drive, Drummoyne, Sydney,
A/S Burmeister and Wain, Versailles, France.
N.S.W., Australia.
ROUCHET, M 442 TAKAGI, Professor Atsushi 80, 137
Ateliers ct Chantiers de Bretagne, Nantes (Loire-lnf.), France. Chief, Fishing Boat Section, Agency, 2-2 chome,
Fisheries
Kasumigaseki, Chiypdaku, Tokyo, Japan; now: Department of
Technology, University of Tokyo, 1 Motofuji-machi, Bunkyo-ku,
SCHAEFER, Dr. Milner 257
Director, Inter- American
...
Tropical Tuna
c/o
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, U.S.A.
Commission,
379
Tokyo, Japan.
TAKAHASHI, I. ......
Submanager, Niligata Diesel Engine Department, Niligata
424
SCHAT, A. P. .
Engineering Co. Ltd., Chiyodaku Kudan 1, Tokyo, Japan.
5, rue Poirier de Narcay, Paris, France.
TANAKA, K. 424
SCHERRL, Ministerialrat Dipl. Ing, Adolf . . 247 Hanshin Internal Combustion Engine Manufacturing Cc. Ltd.,
Berichtlich beeideter Sachverstandiger fur Scruff bau, Koschatweg Japan.
53, Krumpendorf am Worthersee, Karnten, Austria.
THILL Jnr., Philip 252, 260, 261, 355, 378, 506, 512
.
SCHMIDT, Oberingenieur Kurt . . . .419 Naval Architect and Architect, University of California, School of
Kloeckner-Humboldt-DeuU AG, Koln, Germany.
SCHMITT, Dr. Waldo ....
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
257 THURMER, A. .......
Architecture, Berkely 4, California, U.S.A.
Fisheries Adviser, Netherlands Government, Wassenaarseweg
568
18,
The Hague, Netherlands.
SCHNADEL, Prof. Dr. Ing. G. 362, 369, 378, 380, 385, 389
President of the Board of Directors, Germanischer Lloyd* TOMASSON, B. G., M.l.N.A. 211
Berlin; Professor at the Technical University, Hamburg; Presi- Naval Architect, Fiskifelag Box
Islands, P.O. 81, Reykjavik,
dent, Schiffbautechnische Gesellschaft, Neuer Wall 32 IV, Iceland.
Hamburg 36, Germany.
TRAUNG, Jan-Olof, A.M.I.N.A. 25, 242, 257, 267,
.
SCHUMACHER, Dipl. Ing. Theodor 419
281, 359, 360, 374, 377, 380, 386, 458, 468, 473, 512
Kloeckner-Humboldt-Deutz AG, Kbln, Germany.
Naval Architect, Fisheries Division, FAO, Rome, Italy.
SETNA, Dr. S. R 17
TYRRELL, John, M.l.N.A. . .
203, 251, 262
Director of Fisheries, Taraporevala Aquarium, Bombay 2, India:
now: Manager, Pi loo Minar, 15 Walton Road, Apollo Reclama- 266, 371, 458, 467
tion, Bombay, India. Naval Architect, John Tyrrell and Sons, Arklow, Ireland.
[xiv]
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Page Page
No. No.
VANAARSEN, Walter H 466 WEGMANN, A. J 382
c/o General Motors Continental, Noorderlaan, Antwerp, President, Bagille's Seafood Co., New Orleans, La., U.S.A.
Belgium; now: General Motors Overseas Operations, 1775
Broadway at 57th, New York 19, N.Y., U.S.A. WHITAKER, James, B.Sc.Eng.(Hons.), A.M.I. Mech.E.,
A.M.I.Mar.E., A.M.l.P.E. . . . 433,469
VAN AKEN, J. A 438 H. Widdop and Co. Ltd., Keighley, England.
Head of Propeller Design Department, Lips Propeller Works,
Drunen, Netherlands. WHITELEATHER, R. T. . 257, 258, 259, 372, 383,
385, 508, 509, 512
VAN LAMMEREN, Prof. Dr. Ing., W. A. P., M.I.N.A. 269, Assistant Chief, Branch of Commercial Fisheries, Fish and Wild-
353, 371 lifeService, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington 25,
Model Basin, Wageningen, Nether- D.C., U.S.A.
Superintendent, Wageningen
lands.
VAGI, K 503
VARRIALE, Ing. Leone 461,464 Izui Iron Works Co. Ltd., Muroto-machi, Aki-gum, Kochi-ken,
Japan.
Ansaldo, Genova-Sampierdarena, Italy.
VESTRE HUSE, Hans .... 488, 507, 509
Technical Director, Hydraulic A/S, Brattvaag, Norway.
ZlENER, Paul
Naval Architect; Lecturer
ing Center, Santiago, Chile;
FAO Latin American Fisheries Train-
now FAO technical
393
assistance
programme expert, c/o Fisheries Division, FAO, Rome, Italy.
VIBRANS, F. C., Jnr 469,472
Marine Engineer, Diesel Engineering Department, Fairbanks, ZIMMER, HansK 51,253,255,470
Morse and Co., Beloit, Wis., U.S.A. Naval Architect; FAO Consultant; now: Jaegermyren 13,
Bergen, Norway.
VON BRANDT, Oberregierungsrat Dr. A. .
474, 505
Direktor des Tnstituts fur Netz- und Materialforschung, Bundes- ZWOLSMAN, W. . . . 154,261,460,462
forschungsanstalt fur Fischerei, Hamburg 36, Neuer Wall 72,' Naval Architect, Hollandse Motorboot N.V., 2 Ketelstraat,
Germany. Amsterdam, Netherlands.
[XV]
ABBREVIATIONS
Am -
Area of midship section. L.W.L. = Length in water line.
B =* Beam in water line. M = Metacentre.
BHP Brake horse power. n =* Revolutions per minute.
Ci = Admiralty constant. Pc =- Effective (tow rope) horse power.
D = Draft, also displacement. r.p.m. = Revolutions per minute.
EHP = Effective (tow rope) horse power. RT =^ Tons of refrigeration.
G = Centre of gravity. SHP Shaft horse power.
CM Metacentric height. T - Draft.
GZ = Stability lever (arm). t = Period of roll, waves, etc.
g ^=-
Acceleration due to gravity. V =-
Speed in knots.
1HP = Indicated horse power. v = Speed in m./sec.
K - Keel. ci = Water plane coefficient.
KB -*=
Distance from keel to centre of buoyancy. i nE = Half angle of entrance.
KG = Distance from keel to centre of gravity. V Displacement in cu. m.
KM = Distance from keel to metacentre. V 4 Displacement in cu. ft.
L = Length in water line. A = Displacement, salt water, in metric tons.
L.B.P. =-
Length between perpendiculars. A 2 Displacement, salt water, in long tons.
LCB = Location of the centre of buoyancy. ^ = Block coefficient.
LCG Location of the centre of gravity. <p
= Prismatic coefficient.
L.O.A. =*
Length over-all. = Location of the centre of buoyancy.
L.p.p. = Length between perpendiculars. JHJ
= Midship section.
Note
Distinction should be made between short ton (2,000 lb.,
907.2 kg.), long ton (2,240 lb., 1,016 kg.) and metric ton (2,204.6 lb.,
1,000 kg.). When not otherwise indicated, conversions have been
made to metric ton. For practical reasons they can be regarded as
long tons.
[xvi]
PREFACE
organizations were created to perform tasks which can be accomplished better
INTERNATIONAL
by joint action amongst nations than by any one of them alone. Among other things, FAO was
created to bring action to bear upon the problems of achieving an equilibrium between an expand-
ing world population on the one hand and, on the other, food production, adequate distribution
and consumption.
The sea contains a renewable food resource which, though known and used by man from earliest
times, has until recently been comparatively neglected and one, moreover, which holds the possibility
of greater development. Because of this, it became the duty of FAO to pay attention to the fishing boat,
the instrument concerned in primary exploitation of food resources of the sea.
The present book an assembly of papers and discussions presented at FAO's International Fishing
Boat Congress 1953 in Paris, France, and Miami, U.S.A. furnishes an example of one of the functions
of an international organization.
It might have been possible for any one of the member-nations of FAO to have
arranged for and
carried through this Congress but it is unlikely that any one would have done so. The benefit accrues
to a whole community of nations and their nationals and it would not have been fair to impose the task
on any one nation or to expect it to furnish the driving force. The existence of FAO made this
unnecessary.
The basis for the Congress lay in the heretofore inarticulate feeling on the part of many naval
architects, engineers and fishermen that there should be improvement in the design and the engineering
of fishing vessels. Much effort had been devoted to design and experiment on large vessels but not
much had been done for the smaller fishing vessels except by a very few individuals, acting alone,
who were scattered in various parts of the world. Yet more than fifty per cent, of the investment of the
fishing industry is in its floating equipment.
This book isbased upon the experience of workers in many parts of the world, on critical discussion,
and the exchange of ideas. It is hoped that it will be useful not only to those who are in the forefront of
practical achievement but also to the many educational institutions where young designers and engineers
are preparing to assume responsible roles in the development of the expanding fishing industry.
The authors of the papers gave freely of their time. Their only compensation is that of knowing they
have made a significant contribution to development. I feel sure that this will bring satisfaction more
enduring than mere tangible reward.
The thanks of FAO are also due to the many people who worked for the success of this venture.
It is possible to mention only a few of them. One to be named must be Commander A. C. Hardy,
wHo first thought of organizing the Congress, who worked so hard to make it a success and who acted
as president of the Paris session. Another is Mr. H. C. Hanson, president of the Miami session, who
presented four papers, attended both sessions and was a most enthusiastic and helpful supporter.
Lastly, our thanks must be given to the Government of France (Ministere de la Marine Marchande)
and the Government of the United States of America (Fish and Wildlife Service). By their generous
invitations, they made possible the meetings in Paris and Miami and their officials did much to help
organize and run the Congress successfully.
D. B. FINN
Rome, Italy, April, 1955
[ xvii ]
INTRODUCTION
fishing boats of the world of all types, shapes and sizes, represent the largest single collective
THE investment in the world's fishing industry. Upon their efficiency of design and operation depends
the economy of millions of people and the lives of an untold number of fishermen. This book
contains the experience of specialists from most parts of the world in which fishing is carried out, and
it is a
symposium of to-day's knowledge of fishing boat design and construction.
In every part of the world designers attempt to produce the ideal fishing boat; opinions as to what
constitutes the ideal, however, vary considerably, in technical as in other matters. In this book
opinions are presented as they exist, and just as often as they occur. No attempt is made to talk
down to the reader or to tell him what he ought to do.
One of the most important aspects of fishing boat design is the study of hull shape, and there is
no doubt that many designs can be materially improved. For example, by a change in the distribu-
" "
tion of displacement, the same cubic or cargo capacity will be retained and the ships will not be
more expensive to build or operate. The result might be a better and faster boat in both calm and
rough water. Tt will be noticed that the FAO experts stress the importance of the correct selection of
prismatic coefficient; they are of the opinion that much remains to be done before there is general
appreciation of the importance of a sharp bow and full midship-section, for it is really contrary to
commonsense that a sharp forebody should produce a better sea-boat. But ... the laws of naval
architecture frequently seem to fly in the face of commonsense. The fact, for example, that less ballast
produces a more sea-kindly hull, even if the stability proper decreases, is a case in point. One of the
papers in this book describes an incident when a large wave pooped a trawler and flooded the fore-
deck. Had speed not been reduced on that occasion, but increased as commonsense would appear
to indicate, the investigator would have been drowned and this valuable contribution to FISHING
BOATS OF THE WORLD would not have been available.
Study of the chapters of the book make it very difficult to emphasize any particular contribution.
Those from Japan are valuable by virtue of their detailed nature. For financial reasons it was impos-
sible for a Japanese delegation to attend the meetings and to contribute to the discussion. Japan is
one of the few countries in which the government has thoroughly appreciated the importance of
fishing boat design. There is a large technical staff working on problems connected with it, and there
is even a special tank for testing fishing vessel models. Fishing, of course, is a life blood industry
for Japan.
The American contributions reveal a wealth of detail which is generally unknown and often unappre-
" "
ciated in Europe. They show a brutal honesty typical of the American open door policy which
never fails to attract admiration and friendship among technicians in other parts of the world.
It is to the discussions generally that I would direct the attention of readers. They occupy a large
part of the book and are really full of meat. They prove how much benefit can arise from an inter-
national meeting at its best. They prove how worth while it is to have sessions of a Congress in two
parts of the world a third and fourth session in the Far East and South America respectively would
;
have yielded even better results.
It was said many times that the Congress marked a big step forward in fishing boat design, and
this book which records it, is but a milestone on the way to further progress. Much remains to be
done before we can say categorically that fishing boat design as a whole, embracing all types and sizes,
has reached the same technical level as that for other types of ships. Much more experience remains to
be correlated and interpreted and much more to be discovered. One paper clearly shows how much
new knowledge can be obtained from actual measurements of the behaviour of trawlers at sea; such
activities could be well extended to boats of other nations. And it was gratifying to note that several
trawler owners were ready to put units from their fleets at the disposal of anyone interested in research.
Who can pay for such activities? It does not seem possible that FAO can afford it, yet recent losses
among the North European fishing fleet speak eloquently of the need of such research, and the
discussion about American boats in the Safety at Sea chapter confirms it.
[xix ]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
The speed of technical development which has so affected ordinary ships, whether passenger or
cargo liners, or tramps, has not passed by the fishing vessel, whether she be a large Grand Banks
schooner or a small crude in-shore vessel operating, say, from relatively isolated coastal spots, or
from the shores of one of the under-developed countries which it is part of FAO's task to assist.
While it is true that increasing mechanization means increasing first cost, yet mechanization must
take place if efficient fishing is to be carried out, and this can only be made effective on a rational basis
if there is a full and free interchange of information about the direction in which design is proceeding,
and potential processes for hull construction. For example, it is possible that, within the very near
future, a complete range of standard, quantity-produced, plastic hulls will be available, suitable for
some of the smaller classes of fishing vessels. A drifter trawler with this kind of construction is already
well past the design stage, and its logical propulsive unit is a standardized high-speed oil engine.
Study of the engineering section will indicate that, in general, fishermen in European countries are in
favour of the slow, direct-coupled, direct-reversing oil engine; whilst in the United States there is a
ready acceptance of reduction or reduction-reverse gears for ships of even quite respectable size.
It is true that in the continental countries of Europe a great deal has been done towards the develop-
ment of trawler drive with gear boxes and also with the father-and-son method. But it is evident
that even in such a common fishing type as the trawler there are considerable variations of opinion.
A bridge could and should be thrown between the different techniques, which are merely opposite
ends of an opinion about the same subject.
This book is very modern in the studies which it presents on fishing boat propulsion. There is even
a paper on the free piston gas generator, gasifier and turbine, a type of drive which has already been
applied with success in small warships and in two coasters. This may be a pointer to the future. We
do not take you in this book as far as atomic propulsion, nor indeed would we dare to do so because
most people would agree that, already, the personnel problems in fishing vessels are a sufficient
headache. Nevertheless, on a marine engineering note, it is essential to recall that the first atomic
driven vessel a submarine has already made its trials, and we do not know where atomic propul-
sion will take us within the next quarter of a century. If atomic power can be harnessed to some kind
of jet propulsion then it might solve many problems as far as large trawlers are concerned, and it might
also meet the increased demands for electricity. The use of electric fields to attract fish is already being
investigated but practical solutions have not yet been worked out to overcome the high power require-
ments in salt water. Atomic power might provide part of the answer to this problem.
Great credit is due to FAO for having arranged the Congress and for the large amount of work
which members of the Fisheries Division have put into the production of this book. Let us hope that
FAO will realize that what has been done so far is no more than a beginning and that the next step
is to arrange a second Congress. Thus we shall reach the second milestone. After all, world fishing
is world feeding.
A. C. HARDY
London^ March 1955
[xx]
SOME AMERICAN FISHING LAUNCHES
by
HOWARD I. CHAPELLE
craft, under 45 ft. (13.7 m.) in length, repre- afford to pay the small boat designer for extensive
SMALL
sent the largest single investment and the largest calculations or research.
of the
part fishing fleets of Canada and the United As the result of such limitations there is much use of
"
States but there has been little technical information simple approximations and short-cuts ". The margin
published concerning their hull design, construction and between successful design and failure is apparently much
powering. They provide, however, an interesting study narrower in small boats than in large vessels, so that
of the effects of economic factors on commercial boat slight departures in weight and trim become of great
design. importance. The recommended range in a coefficient,
The launches have been developed by trial and error for example, may not apply very well to the design of
to meet the demands of local conditions which are so small launches.
rigid that boats must be efficient to survive. As a type, There is very little steel construction of small fishing
they generally represent a very high level of design, but launches in North America and little likelihood that there
they can be usefully improved provided that any improve- will be in the near future because the available facilities
ment is based on a working knowledge of the local for building them are not suitable. But there are plenty
economic and physical factors. For example, introduc- of boat-yards to construct and maintain small wooden
tion of a larger, faster and more highly mechanized boat vessels and, where the fisheries wili not support a local
will not constitute improvement unless it can produce yard, fishermen build their own boats.
greater annual income and more financial security to the North American fishing launches have developed
owner, or increase his personal safety. Too often, almost entirely from two sources: (1 ) the old local sailing
attempts to improve a local fishing boat have resulted boat which has been adapted to motor propulsion.
only in an uneconomic increase in the costs of building, Some of these are now being replaced because they are
equipping, operating and maintaining it. not fast enough for fishermen today; (2) the high-speed
Small fishing launches do not lend themselves to the pleasure launch. Fishing launches developed by such
usual mode of academic analysis by mathematical com- craft are popular and gaining in numbers because-they
parisons because there is a great range in the hull-forms, are very fast, but some are unnecessarily expensive and
proportions and, in fact, all elements, and of course the even unsafe in heavy weather.
lack of accurate plans creates an almost insurmountable
difficulty. The standards used in large vessel design do
not apply to North American small power craft because THE GASPE BOAT
the prismatic coefficient is commonly well below the An example of a powered fishing boat developed entirely
lower limits used in large vessels. Model-testing (and the by slight modifications is an older sailing model, the
accumulation of the necessary data) is far too costly for Gaspe boat, fig. 1 This craft is used on the northern tip
.
any individual and there is, no organization
at present, of the Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec, Canada, known as the
or governmental body in North America with the neces- English shore. The popular size is about 35 ft. (10.7 m.)
sary funds, or the necessary information on the models in length and between 9 and 10 ft. (2.75 to 3.05 m.) in
that ought to be tested, to undertake investigations on an beam, with a draft of about 3J ft. (1 .07 m.). The hulls are
effective scale. The small naval craft that have been roughly built, without any attempt at a smooth finish,
tested in model basins are not of the hullforms nor of but are strong and lasting. The planking is either lap-
the weight-power-speed ratios applicable to small fishing strake (clench) or caravel; the former seems to be the
and commercial craft. Presentation of the results of most popular. The boats carry a simple schooner rig
jib, loose-footed foresail and boomed mainsail of
model-testing, or of modes of calculation based upon the
scientific investigation, must be in compact and simple gaff typeand are powered with a one or two cylinder
form to be of real value because the boat-owner cannot heavy duty gasoline engine manufactured in Nova
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 1
Scotia. Most have make-and-break ignition, are manually Power boats have been built on this general model
started, and give a speed of 5 to 7 knots. The boats although they retain a small schooner rig. All the boats
usually stay at sea only for two or three days and have are inexpensively built. The steam-bent frames are often
a record of safety in this area so subject to severe gales. saplings run twice through the saw so that they have
As they commonly work out of semi-exposed coves or flitch-edges, and the hulls, built of locally grown wood
small harbours they are well designed for beaching. The (spruce, birch, larch), are iron-fastened. No floor timbers
usual process is to discharge the stone ballast and haul are used, the heels of the frames being nailed to the top
the boat up on a grid made of two long spruce logs laid of the keel where they butt at the centreline of the hull.
at right angles to the shore, over which spruce poles There are usually two berths and a small stove in the
closely spaced are spiked, or pinned, with wooden tree- forecastle. The foresail has no boom, lug-fashion, and
nails. An iron bolt is passed through the hole, bow or the rigging is of the simplest nature but the boats are
stern, in the keel and a hauling line is secured to the ends most seaworthy and safe.
of the bolt or pin. A truck is often used to do the hauling Gaspe boats are economical to operate, and adequate
but in some places the old capstan or crab is still in use. for their work. An improvement in design would be to
No cradle or other support is used and the operation is lengthen the run to obtain greater speed under power.
rapid. The spruce-hole grids are still used in some ports A lighter engine of greater power would also be an
where the Government has furnished breakwaters. advantage. Retention of the sailing rig, for the present,
The similar boats used by the French Canadian fisher- seems desirable as the cost of fuel is high.
men on the Bay Chaleur side of the Gaspe Peninsula The Gaspe boat, with these modifications, would be
have more rake to the ends and their midsections show well suited for fisheries in primitive areas, such as the
some hollow at the garboards, combined with a rather coast of northern Labrador, in which case the possible
low and hard bilge. The topsides flare a good deal. They installation of a lightweight air-cooled manual-starting
range from 32 to 45 ft. (9.75 to 13.7 m.) in length, and diesel of, say, 15 h.p., might be examined. The engine
work from harbours fitted with breakwaters and are not used now is simple and reliable but is heavy and has
often hauled out on grids. They are lap-strake planked, high fuel consumption. The installation is often poorly
have engines similar to those used in the boats on the done and there is sometimes danger of gasoline explosion.
English Shore, are worked in the same manner and do Under the auspices of the Canadian Government,
long-lineand some net fishing. through a loan system, some Gaspe fishermen are obtain-
Nearly all are designed as sailing craft but have been ing diesel-powered long-liners 55 ft. (16.8 m.) long (built
converted to power by adding a wide sternpost to the on the Nova Scotian Cape Island model), having a speed
original and cutting an aperture as shown in fig. 1. of between 10 and 12 knots. The boats are capable of
[2]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING SOME AMERICAN FISHING LAUNCHES
making more trips during the season and fishing at them to run upon a steep shore, end on, and unload
greater distances from the home port. But there are where no wharf exists and there is no surge on the beach.
scanty facilities for hauling and repairing craft of the The basic lines of the Cape Island model are shown in
long-liner size. The larger capital investment required, fig. 2. They are commonly between 35 and 45 ft. (10.7 to
and the greater cost of operation and maintenance may 13.7 m.) long, 10 to 12 ft. (3.05 to 3.66 m.) beam, and
make such craft unprofitable, especially if the price of draw light 2J to 4 ft. (0.69 to 1.22 m.). Some heavily
fish drops. powered boats are reported to have speeds up to 17 to
The Provincial Government has built some fish 18 knots per hour in smooth water.
freezing and storing plants on the Gaspe Peninsula, a The boats are light, the frames being of ash or oak,
most important first step in the improvement of un- wide and thin in cross-section and very closely spaced.
developed or primitive areas. The improvement of trans- The planking is white pine or white cedar and is rarely
portation methods is next and then should come the more than \\ in. (32 mm.) thick before finishing. The
efforts improve the existing type of fishing boat.
to keels are rectangular in cross-section and rabbeted. At
Caution should be exercised in introducing new and the sternpost there is often weakness; the turn of the
larger or more highly mechanized craft, for their capital tuck becomes so quick that a frame cannot be bent
and running costs might cancel all advantages and a fall sharply enough, so shaped chocks are set up on the keel
in fish prices might be dangerous to the economy of the and the frames let into their tops. The horn timber is
area. often merely bolted on top of the wide, short sternpost.
In some boats, to strengthen the stern, there is a sort of
A-frame laid flat on the frames, with its apex kneed to
THE CAPE ISLAND BOAT the transom. The heels of the arms run well forward of
The Cape Island boat is the most popular fishing launch the sternpost, on the flat of the run outboard, and are
in Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick, Canada, and in fastened to each frame, with a cross-piece laid over the
eastern New England, U.S.A., where it is called the arms and drifted to them and to the top of the horn
Jonesport Boat. The date and place of origin of the type timber, directly over the short sternpost. Another
are uncertain but it was clearly copied from an early form construction employs a sternpost with deadwood inboard
of high-speed motorboat. It has a very long, fine entrance of it, to which the horn timber is drifted in the same
and an equally long and flat run, with the greatest beam manner as the horn timber of a wooden fishing schooner
of the loadwaterline well abaft midships. On the north is fastened.
coast of New Brunswick, it has a canoe or cruiser stern Forward is a low trunk, or a raised fore deck with a
and is very flat underneath. Elsewhere, it is square- trunk mounted on it. Here is the cuddy which contains
sterned and the wide, flat transom is either plumb or two to four berths, a galley, a provision locker and, in
rakes forward slightly at the top. The sternpost is well some large boats, a toilet. Abaft the cuddy is the steers-
under the boat and is planked up, schooner-fashion, man's position, sometimes semi-enclosed. Many boats
though the New England boats often have skegs, without have engines farther forward than in the example. They
much departure otherwise in the lines. In Nova Scotia usually have a light, high-speed car motor, but some have
the boats have their forefoot cut away, fig. 2, to allow marine engines. The motor is in an engine box in the
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 3
cockpit with the battery. Fuel tanks are placed at either mast placed well aft. If this is not done soon enough,
end of the hull. The cockpit often extends to the extreme disaster may occur.
stern, or there is a short stern deck as in the example, The long
stern abaft the stern post is not very strong so
which is unusual in having a cockpit coaming, whereas no load placed there. In any case it is liable to pound
is
most boats have only a narrow covering-board along the under certain conditions and is a source of weakness.
sides. The cockpit sole and ceiling are often caulked, The builders and fishermen recognize the faults of the
and the sides are usually strengthened by a cross-timber boat far more than do some who have praised it in print,
laid athwartship over the keel, and knees are secured but there has been no effort made to produce a safer
to the ends of this against the sides. In fig. 2 the knees launch for open sea fishing. The present model would
were located near Station 13. have to be altered radically to produce a really safe
The Cape Island boat and its counterpart in New launch and fishermen would object to any loss of speed.
England, the Jonesport boat, have replaced the older The cruiser stern used in New Brunswick is an improve-
fishing launches which were usually modifications of old ment over the square-sterned model, but it is also too
sailing boats, slow under power but safe and seaworthy. fine forward, and increasing the bearing forward would
The high speed of the Cape Island model is a great result in a slower hull.
attraction to fishermen and has led to the introduction A completely new form of launch, fast yet seaworthy,
of a 55 ft. (16.8 m.) standard design of long-liner which is wanted, and the only one of this description now in
can go 60 and 70 miles to sea. Boats of this model have use is
been built to 57 ft. (17.4 m.) length.
Hardly a season passes in which there are not fatalities
THE SEABR1GHT SKIFF
in this class of fishing launch although the men using This a development of an old sailing beach boat which
is
them are among the most skilled North American is nowin use off the New Jersey, U.S.A., coast. The
boatmen. Inquiry has led to the conclusion that accidents skiffs range from 20 to 40 ft. (6. 1 to 1 2.2 m.) in length and,
are due to the hull design, the large cockpit and, in a when heavily powered, can run at speeds up to 21 knots.
few instances, to structural failure. The faults are The boats working off the beaches were usually com-
obvious. The long sharp bow, combined with a broad, pletely open, with their engine housed in a box aft of
flat and shallow body, produces a hull that will
stern amidships. The boat shown in fig. 3 was built for beach
broach on a heavy following sea. There is no bearing work and had a four-cylinder automobile engine of an
forward and, if the wide stern is thrown out of water, obsolete make that gave her a running speed of about
capsizing results. For instance, on the Nova Scotian 1 1 knots when light.
South Shore two years ago a boat was capsized in tide Skiffs are lap strake planked, with steam-bent frames.
rip, and another boat, returning from a sport fishing The bottom is flat and narrow, made of three to five
trip, approached a pier during a heavy rain and suddenly plank of spruce or yellow pine cleated together between
capsizedwhen the passengers crowded forward. the bent frames with oak battens. In the example these
Knowing the weaknesses of the model, the fishermen were 1 J x 3 in. (32 x 76 mm.) oak, not shown in the
take care to load the boat aft, but this may produce a They are lightly but strongly built. The peculiar
plan.
danger due to the cockpit. Low freeboard being a form of the stern, with its reverse chine in the tuck, was
desirable feature in a fishing launch, the boats, when used in the early sailing model and has been retained
loaded, are very low aft and in a following sea they are because it produces a steady-steering boat. Another
easily swamped. In a gale the boats must heave-to under advantage is that the boat can be pumped by the
motor and, perhaps, a small riding sail set on a short helmsman, the skiffs being often operated by one man.
[4]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING SOME AMERICAN FISHING LAUNCHES
Older power skiffs had the short sternpost at the transom, width than actually the case. It is one of the least ex-
is
as in the sailing model, but the sternpost has been moved pensive launches and is suitable for fishing shallow,
forward to produce greater speed. However, the pro- semi-protected waters. Experience has shown that a wide
jection of the transom abaft the post is not great and the beam is undesirable if speed is wanted and, as the speed
horn timber and transom knee are one in most boats. is increased, the amount of rocker must be decreased
The post is often a massive cedar knee. The boat shown to obtain the best results. It also appears important
in fig. 3 has some rocker in the bottom, but in many to make the chine profile straight, toward the ends of
skiffs there is none. Large skiffs are often decked and the hull, as in the example shown here. The models
have trunk cabins. During the prohibition period in in use are up to about 50 ft. (15.3 m.) in length. They
the United States, the skiff became very popular with venture to sea in good weather but they are not good
liquor smugglers and many very large, fast and capacious boats in open water as they pound heavily in a rough
ones were built. sea. But in sheltered waters they are superior boats and
The Seabright skiff is less expensive to build than the most economical to build.
Cape Island model, is just as fast or faster for a given Sharpies are usually powered with one- or two-cylinder
power, and is far safer. Proportions of beam and depth marine engines, 3 to 9 h.p., which give them speeds
to length need not be those shown in the example they
; ranging from 5 to 7 knots. With an automobile engine.
so ai*
are often proportionately wider and deeper and the boats large skiffs will run at speeds in excess of 17 knots in
are very lively in a sea, the price paid for their otherwise smooth water.
fine qualities. The usual construction is that employed in a rowing
skiff.The sides are bent around moulds placed bottom
THE SHARPIE LAUNCH up. A bent plank-keelson is laid down and the bottom
In the United States there are a number of flat-bottom plank is laid on athwartship. The stems are usually in
launches used in shoal and relatively protected waters, two an inner piece, or liner, to which the sides are
parts,
such as rivers, lakes and bays. The Sharpie is one, and nailed and a cutwater added afterwards, to cover the
is used on Long Island Sound and the rivers emptying ends of the side planks. The side frames are no more
into it, the Mississippi river, and on the Chesapeake, than cleats set on edge, wide at the head to support the
particularly in the crab fisheries. There is much variety side deck, no deckbeams being required along the run of
of the model but, in the main, construction is standard. the- cockpit coaming. Stiffness in the open hull is obtained
Fig. 4 represents a small Chesapeake Sharpie launch by the use of bulkheads, one at bow and one at the stern,
not much different from that used on Long Island Sound. with a deep floor formed of a wide plank on edge
It is like a flat-bottom rowing skiff except that the transom amidships or, as an alternative, one or more thwarts.
is slightly immersed and the fore-and-aft rocker of the Large boats have a cross floor at each end of the engine
bottom is slight. The beam is usually small on the bearers, with the ends kneed to the sides. The con-
bottom, the flare giving the appearance of greater struction is plainly shown in fig. 4.
15]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
As building costs must be kept down it is common to engines of the industrial type and these are now being
have the propeller shaft alongside the skeg rather than used in launches under 25 ft. (7.6 m.) in length.
passed through it. The side position not only avoids
the labour of boring the shaft hole but also simplifies
the aligning of the shaft and its installation. The stern THE SCOW OR GARVEY
bearing is through-bolted to the side of the skeg and Another variety of flat-bottom fishing launch is the
usually has a rubber bushing, water-lubricated. The Scow or Garvey which is extensively used in United
stuffing box is inside the hull, mounted on a block. This States, in southern New Jersey, along the Atlantic coast
places the shaft and engine slightly off the centre line of Maryland and Virginia and, to a slight extent, in the
of the hull and it is usual to put the shaft on the side lower end of the Chesapeake Bay. The Garvey was
opposite to which the propeller turns. The effect of the long popular in southern New Jersey as a sailing fishing
off-centre position of the engine on transverse trim boat for use on bays and streams. When engines of low
cannot be observed, the weight of the battery probably cost became available, the sailing Garvey was converted
being used to counteract such influence in the narrow to a motor boat by deepening the stern to give a flatter
skiffs. run. The result was an inexpensive and useful launch
KJ
**'*'.* " '
.'rf-_t m
/'-7* - *!
Fig. 5
Some launches work in very grassy waters and, .to of greater carrying capacity than the Sharpie and,
prevent weed from fouling the propeller and shaft, are perhaps, less costly to build. Fig. 5 shows an example
" "
fitted with weedless propellers, the shaft alongside of a fishing Garvey from New Jersey. The construction
the skeg, from bottom to stern bearing and the propeller is the same as in a Sharpie, except for the stem. The boats
hub, being enclosed in loosely-fitting steam hose. The use a variety of engines, ranging from one-cylinder
hose revolves with the shaft until it gathers weed, then marine motors to high-speed automobile engines and
it will stop and the weed will be torn away by the wake. the Garvey, with a proper chine profile and enough
During this operation the hose revolves in the opposite power, is a very fast launch in smooth water. Although
direction of the shaft. The launches used in the crab not suited for use in open water, it is not uncommon for
fisheries usually have the skeg carried forward as an them to be used alongshore outside the Maryland
outside keel to the stem. This enables the launch to beaches. When designed for the purpose they can be
run unattended in a straight line at low speed, in spite beached in moderate weather.
of a moderate side wind, which is necessary in trot-line The skeg is often not bored for the propeller shaft and
fishing for crabs, as practiced on the Chesapeake. The tunnel sterns are much used. In a fast Garvey the chine
example shown has an unusually shallow keel; in most profile is nearly straight from the end of the fore rake
launches the keel is nearly 6 in. (153 mm.) deep at its to the transom and, when the boat -is at rest, it is nearly
shallowest part. parallel to the waterline. The boat shown in fig. 5 had
Skiffs can be driven by small air-cooled gasoline an old four-cylinder automobile engine and ran about
[6]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING SOME AMERICAN FISHING LAUNCHES
9 knots with the throttle about two-thirds open. Even marine engines of 3 to 5 h.p. seem to be common. The
the larger boats, which are about 35 ft. (10.7 m.) in
" "
centre dividing board has extensions that can be fitted
length rarely draw more than 2 ft. (0.6 m.) at the skeg. to form almost a complete bulkhead to the height of the
The bottom is commonly planked athwartship, but a deck at sides. The boats seem to be almost standard in
few boats are framed out and have the bottom plank dimensions and fittings, although the position of the
run lengthwise. As far as can be determined, the cross- bulkheads varies with the make and size of engine
planking does not affect the speed and is the strongest installed. Some boats have been fitted with a thrust
and by far the most inexpensive mode of construction. bearing between the stuffing box and the engine to
Large Garveys are fitted with cabin trunks and steering allow a fabric type flexible coupling to be used, presum-
shelters. In New Jersey and Maryland the launches are ably to make a smoother running boat. No stern bearing
i---^: -- -"-
'
Pig. 6
used in oyster and clam fisheries, as offal boats and for was on any boat inspected, though one owner
visible
tending the fish traps. stated hehad a flax packing inside the plate on the skeg.
The bearing on the lift rod was bronze-bushed.
BEACH LANDING SCOW OR GARVEY FOR
TRAPFISHING USE OF V-BOTTOMS
Fig. 6 shows a motor Scow or Garvey used for beaching, The power Garvey has spread rapidly along the coast of
a standard boat at the lower end of the Chesapeake, Maryland and has reached into Virginia at Chincotcague
near Hampton Roads. It is used to tend fish traps and Island where the boats are sometimes built with a V-
*
does not run great distances. Trap boats must be able bottom of very moderate deadrise, but the most common
to land in quite a heavy surf as the beaches from which design has a slight V, formed only in the fore rake near
they operate are exposed to the full sweep of the wind the waterline. The bottom is covered with thick plank
for almost the entire length of the bay so they are very for a couple of feet each way from the fore-end of the
heavily built with much flare and sheer. The most waterline, then a shallow V is dubbed into the plank.
curious feature is the crude retractable propeller shaft. A popular size is between 28 and 30 ft. (8.55 to 9.15 m.)
The lift rod of the shaft serves as the strut and has a pin length with a beam of 6 to 1\ ft. (1.83 to 2.3 m.).
through it above the pipe flange in the keelson which Tunnel sterns are becoming common. The usual
not only serves as a stop but also ensures realignment arrangement is to have a steering shelter aft, with the
when the shaft is lowered into operating position. Fig. 6 engine box just forward, and an open cockpit from
should be sufficiently complete to show how it is arranged engine box to the fore rake, where a short fore deck is
and operated. Obviously the arrangement would be placed. The launches are cheaper and easier to build
have small
unsatisfactory at great speed but the boats than the V-bottom types now in use in that area.
motors and run between 5 and 6 knots. Single-cylinder One of the reasons for the adoption of the V-bottom
[7]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
along the Atlantic coast is its use in pleasure boats, launch from lower Chesapeake Bay. This boat is of
which brings it to the attention of fishermen in areas moderate speed and must be seaworthy enough to
where, otherwise, it would remain unknown. withstand the vicious, short steep sea of the lower Bay.
There is probably no model in which the economic It is built almost entirely of southern pine, oak being used
factor is more generally misunderstood than that of the only for a rubbing shoe on the keel and for the inner
V-bottom. It is usual to assume that the use of straight stem, outer outwater, sternpost and shoe on the keel,
lines in the body plan of a V-bottom wooden boat and for the inner stem, outer outwater, sternpost and
indicates an inexpensive hull to build. This is incorrect. the topside frames. The boat has very low chines for-
The V-bottom is economical to build only when the ward so that, when loaded, the chines show only at the
bottom plank is laid at an angle to the keel, as in the extreme stern. The sides increase in flare sharply at the
Chesapeake Bay Sharpie. In the V-bottom, the frame bow to their maximum and this continues with no real
must be made up of five pieces, the floor timber, two- change to the The rise of bottom is moderate
stern.
bottom futtocks and the topside timbers, and these and carried by means of a reverse curve in the
well aft
must usually be kneed or bracketed at the chines, so rabbet as the stern is approached, becoming flat over
they require more labour to form than does a steam-bent the propeller, across from chine to chine, which is
frame of three members. A framed V-bottom is about thought to prevent squatting at full speed. The favoured
as costly to form as a sawn-frame round-bottom boat, stern is round, but boats are built with square transoms.
in material and labour. The arrangement shown in fig. 7 is for a combination
" "
It is sometimes stated that cross planking adds launch that can be used for crabbing, oystering and
to the resistance in driving the hull, which may be true fishing and for light freighting as well.
in theory but not in practice. so insignificant that
It is Almost the same in form, but with greater rise to the
it can be overcome with slight variation in engine bottom, are the noted Hatteras boats used for fishing
revolutions as experiments in two launches showed. the notoriously rough water area. Examination of the
Another advantage of the Chesapeake Bay mode of boats show that they are usually sharper forward,
construction is that it gives greater freedom in the shape having a cross- section a few feet abaft the bow that is a
of the chines. The problems of design in the use of the straight-sided V from rabbet to sheer, and the chine is
V-bottom at moderate speed-lengths ratios have not been faired into this. The stern is formed much like that of
explored in model-testing, but in some tests the chines, the boat shown in fig.. 7 but with a slight reverse in the
in profile, have been carried high forward as in the high- rabbet. The chines are submerged and the forebody,
speed planing model of V-bottom. There are practical viewed from ahead, appears noticeably hollow at the
reasons for suspecting that a different chine profile load waterline, due to the V-section just mentioned.
forward is required in the lower speed-length ratios, and The boats are usually planked lengthwise on the bottom
that the high chines usually cause full bow lines and, and, powered by car engines, have a top speed of about
therefore, too great an angle of attack forward This is .
10J knots.
particularly the case when the cross-sections forward Boats of the model shown in fig. 7 run very cleanly
are made up of straight, or nearly straight, lines from at 7 to 9 knots but begin to settle aft if driven faster.
rabbet to chines. It seems reasonable to hope that model It is not uncommon to find these boats much over-
testing of a variety of these hull-forms might show that powered and driven " too fast, and to overcome the
" " "
a V-bottom could be designed to drive as easily and resulting or settling aft,
squatting squatboards
efficiently at moderate speeds as a round bottom, and a have been added. These are flat wooden fins or planes
number of experiments with full-size launches of com- placed at and nearly parallel to the waterline under and
parable designs have been undertaken which seem to abaft the stern, to hold the stern up when the boat is
indicate this to be so. It is obvious, of course, that driven hard. The fins are usually braced by a pair of
minute differences indicated in model tests would be of iron rods from the quarters, or may be chocked to the
no practical importance in full-sized craft, where slight bottom, with their fore edges faired into the bottom
departures in lines or in the efficiency of the engines, of the boat over the propeller.
or propellers, might make a far greater difference in
observable performance.
One reason why V-bottom boats intended for relative HOOPER ISLAND LAUNCHES
low speed-length ratios have had high chines forward is Fig. 8 shows the lines and much construction details of
that it is easier to plank when the bottom is laid length- a popular style of crabbing and oyster-tonging launch
wise the hull. With a low chine forward and length- found 'in the middle portion of Chesapeake Bay. It is
" "
wise planking there is often an excessive twist in the an old style launch which is no longer being built
fore ends of the lower plank and the upper planking of but is still quite prevalent. It first appeared about 1905
the bottom runs off to feather-edges on the chines. and was a copy of a local racing motorboat, the half-
There are many variations of the model in use on the model of which is now in the National Museum at
Chesapeake and to the southward, but the basic problems Washington, D.C. This racer, in turn, was apparently
of V-bottom design can be shown by the use of three inspired by a design for the Dolphin, published in the
examples. Fig. 7 shows the lines of a V-bottom fishing American yachting magazine Rudder about 1903. The
[8]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING SOME AMERICAN FISHING LAUNCHES
10 ft f? ff
Fig. 7
Dolphin and the Chesapeake Bay racer, as well as the a beam of about one-fifth the overall length, or even a
subsequent fishing launches, were modelled with dead little less. The greatest depth of the rabbet was finally
straight lines for the chines in profile and it was intended about one-fifth the overall length from the stem and the
that the chines and the line of flotation should coincide. greatest beam about seven-twelfths the length from the
"
The hull-forms were basically the same, the double- stem at the chine but slightly forward of amidships at
wedge", in which the greatest draft at the rabbet sheer. These boats, curiously enough, were found very
was at or very near the heel of the stem, from which the satisfactory in the short steep sea of the Bay and were
rabbet ran up fair and finally straight to the waterline also useful in cabbing with a trot-line, as they ran
at the transom. In plan view, the boat was all bow, straight unattended. The peculiar stern was favoured
the greatest beam being at the transom or nearly that for years by oyster tongers, as a man could work
many
far aft. From this extreme form, the model used was over the stern with safety without the quarters of the
gradually changed until it developed into the form boat rocking the tongs.
illustrated in fig. 8. This style was usually narrow, with The narrow beam remained popular as long as the
- . " _, j _t. _ ___!t " ' _ T
T T*
;
*~ * f
/
i
""" J__ ...1 "
-. Cf*.^. T
~~ -
Fig. 8
19}
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
boats used only small marine engines of low power frame and vertical staving. The top frame is sometimes
but when automobile engines became common, the padded up to the crown of the deck and faced off with a
beam was increased. With small power, the narrow steam-bent moulding, as in the example, otherwise the
boats ran fast; one of 25 ft. (7.6 m.) length, and 4 ft. 2 in. deck comes down flat around the stern. The stem is
(1.27 m.) beam, made 13 knots with a single cylinder made of an inner member and a cutwater, sharpie
engine rated 7 h.p. fashion. The keel member is really a keelson, being
The effect of the straight chine on the lines can be wholly inside the boat, and is hewn in a single length
seen in the example of the type. A buttock line 18 in. from a curved tree to profile. The skeg and the keel are
(0.456 m.) out has been projected to show the low angle then bolted to the keelson, so that no rabbet for the
of attack of the bottom along the chine, in spite of the bottom plank is required. In some boats the keelson is
straight-line sections. It is very noticeable that these brought to the outwater and a rabbet cut across it for the
old launches run very cleanly and show a fine turn of bow staving, then the projecting end is dubbed off with
speed with moderate power. In the boat shown, capable the staving which allows a curved rabbet to be formed
of a speed of about 12.2 knots with her six-cylinder in appearance between the chines and the keel. The wale
automobile engine, she lifts forward at between 8.7 is of a thicker plank than the sides but around the stern
and 9.6 knots per hour. At full speed she squats slightly. it is made of very short vertical staving, or blocks,
The owner uses her in the open Bay for winter tonging nailed to the stern frame at deck level. Raised fore
and considers her a far better sea boat than his larger decks are very rare in Chesapeake launches, the trunk
and more modern launch. cabin being preferred.
The drawing shows the appearance of the bottom From the drawing and description, it will be seen that
planked. The bow is staved up with thick plank bevelled the Chesapeake manner of building avoids a complete
on the inside, where each piece bears on chine and framing system and spiling of the bottom plank is not
rabbet. After all is in place, it is dubbed off smooth required. The round stern was estimated to add 110
with adze and planed. The angle at which the bottom (U.S. $300) to the cost of a launch in 1949.
plank stands to the keel is determined by trial, so that The availability of powerful light gasoline engines at
the slight twist necessary can be worked in; in some low cost caused changes in this style of launch, the beam
instances it can almost be eliminated. With any form being increased and the depth of hull, or amount of
of round stern, it is usual to fan the plank at the stern. deadrise in the bottom, lessened. The builders also made
It is apparent that the bottom, laid in this manner, the topsides curved in frame and the curved, vertical
furnishes no support to the long keel, so strongbacks transom of the yacht also became popular. Fig. 9 shows
are worked into the hull, consisting of a heavy timber an example of a modern version of the Hooper Island
running square across the boat, inside, from chine to launch of the smaller size, which are built in lengths
chine. Due to the amount of deadrise, the timber can from 20 to about 55 ft. (6.1 to 16.8 m.). The boat shown
be secured to the keel only through heavy chocks resting was fitted with a low-cost automobile engine which
on top of the keel member. The ends of the cross- drove the launch at 21.8 knots. At this speed she was
timber or strongback are kneed to each side of the hull. running with her stem raised and without much settling
There are usually at least two of these in a boat, one at aft.
the after bulkhead of the cuddy and one at the fore end
of the engine, and many boats have two at the engine PILOT HOUSES AND STEERING SHELTERS
(as in the example) with only the fore one kneed to the In recent years, in the United States, most types of
sides, the one aft being a mere floor-timber used to fishing launches have had pilot houses or semi-enclosed
support the fore ends of the engine beds or -bearers. steering positions fitted. In the larger boats, the wholly
The ends of this floor-timber are merely pinned to the enclosed pilot-house can be justified but in the smaller
chine logs. Some boats have a similar floor-timber at launches it is very doubtful if these serve a useful purpose.
the after end of the skeg. Their windows soon salt up in a fresh breeze and must
The bottom planking is not caulked but is fitted with be lowered so the helmsman has little real protection.
the inner edge of the seams tight and payed with seam- But the real objection to half-houses or semi-enclosed
compound, before the hull is painted. A common steering shelters is the false sense of security they
feature is the stern-bearing, made of an oak cleat, which apparently give, which leads to large cabin companion-
contains a rubber bushing made of a length of steam- ways without proper coamings. Hence, if the sea breaks
hose. This sockets an inch or so into the shaft hole of into the cockpit, it is not uncommon for a launch to
the skeg, the shaft hole having been reamed out for the swamp by the filling of the cuddy or cabin. Some
purpose. The after end of the hose is split, and the tabs launches, due to large semi-enclosed shelters, are top
formed bent down and tacked to the after face of the heavy and can be blown over. Accidents of this kind are
oak cleat with copper tacks. A hole is bored athwart on record. Shelter for the helmsman is admittedly
the shaft hole in the skeg, just forward of the rubber desirable in boats working during cold weather and
hose, and the result is a very inexpensive water-lubricated might be obtained, in small launches with cuddys, in the
rubber stern bearing, which lasts for years. manner used in many Hooper Island launches and in
The round stern is built with an upper and lower some New England boats. It consists of a trunk over the
[10]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING SOME AMERICAN FISHING LAUNCHES
companionway high enough to permit the helmsman to ENGINES
stand in the hatch, or to sit there if the boat is small, The powering of fishing launches is an almost unexplored
and Windows, to open outward, are fitted to
steer. field. Among the launches of Canada and the United
the trunk. With a wheel or steering lever, or yoke lines,
States, only a small proportion have engines built for
steering in the companionway is readily possible and it is marine use, the rest having car engines.
made comfortable if the cuddy has a heater in it. The An automobile engine is not designed for constant
small trunk steering shelter produces no dangerous
load, so lubrication and cooling troubles often occur,
windage, leaves the cockpit clear and does not naturally and while they are inefficient when propelling a boat at
lead to a lack of a coaming in the companionway door. low speed (and also wiring and ignition are not water-
proof under marine conditions), fishermen will use them
SAFETY PROBLEMS because they are cheap to buy in comparison with the
One of the gravest dangers in most fishing launches in marine engine of approximately the same weight and
" "
North America is gasoline explosions, caused by leaks rated power. The motor-car engine is often converted
in the fuel tank or piping. This has been a very common by adding a marine water pump and installing the
Fig. 9
cause of loss of both boats and crews and the carelessness engine in a boat with a fresh-water cooling system con-
with which fuel tanks, piping and electrical wiring are sisting of an expansion tank and a cooling grid, or pipe,
installed is amazing. More accidents would occur were outboard along the keel rabbet. The. engine having a
that most engines and tanks are not enclosed in unventi- fresh-water cooling system lasts well if operation is
lated spaces. A common cause of fuel leakage is the fairly constant with no prolonged lay-ups. Tongers and
absence of coils or other flexible units in the piping, which crab-fishermen often work close to home and run slowly
allows vibration to fracture the fuel lines. The widespread in the morning, while they get their gear ready, and then
use of automobile engines has led to carelessness about run slowly home while they clean up. About the only
carburretor leakage and the ignition wiring on the time the boat is operated at top speed is on some pleasure
engines is often improper for use in a boat; grounding, trip. Automobile engines are attractive because they are
shorting and sparking may cause trouble. Many readily maintained, parts and maintenance skill being
batteries are badly secured and protected and cables are available in any village and town and even if the engine
exposed to blows or fouling with fishing gear. It is lasts only three seasons, it is considered inexpensive
comparatively rare to find a fishing launch fitted with power.
bilge-blowers even when the engine is enclosed under There is little likelihood of many small diesels being
deck. Many have no fire extinguishing equipment, life- used in the United States fishing launches as the cost is
belts or flares aboard. With the increase in mechaniza- prohibitive compared with the automobile motor. The
tion, it will be necessary to educate fishermen in safety diesel would be highly satisfactory in the large launches
requirements. working well offshore but, in all small craft, the diesels
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
suitable would be those that could be manually started, and construction methods based on a false opinion of
" "
should the electrical system Fail. what good construction is in fishing boats. It has
Boats, such as the Dory and Sharpie models, are using led to launches being built more to yacht standard than
outboard motors. The boats are often fitted with wells to commercial requirements. An example is to insist
inboard, in which a large outboard engine of 5 to 15 h.p. upon letting the heels of steam-bent frames into the
is mounted. Some boats have the wells forward, so are keel, when floor-timbers are called for in the plans.
" "
propelled in the tractor manner. The outboard Excessive fuel cost is common through all fishing fleets
motors now on the market are not designed for long, because there is too much emphasis on
high speed which
steady operation, nor for use in heavy boats. Moreover, leads to over-powering. The theory that the increased
the casings of the shaft gearing are aluminium alloy, number of fishing trips possible with high-speed boats
subject to corrosion when left exposed to salt water, makes for greater income for the fisherman ignores
and it is reasonable to expect that the use of outboard practical considerations. It supposes that the speed is
motors in commercial fishing boats will not be wide- actually used to and from fishing and assumes that it is
spread until they are designed for long operation in possible to catch more fish annually, a not infallible rule.
heavy-duty craft. The record shows that the excessive number of break-
downs, after a short period of intensive operation, has
CONCLUSIONS usually prevented the fast fishing boat from performing
It very dangerous to expect perfection in a small
is as expected. High speed adds to the cost of boat,
fishing boat, and it is often noticeable that naval architects operation and maintenance, and profitable working
when discussing small craft, make much of some minor of the boat depends largely on a high price for fish.
variation in engineering efficiency which cannot be Once the price breaks below an accepted normal, the
significant in the finished boats. Engineering must be fast boats quickly become uneconomic to operate.
judged by what is needed and what can be afforded. It is For fishing launches the most useful range of speed is
easy and popular to overdo mechanization and produce between 9 and knots which will meet the practical
1 1
too complicated a boat for the work of fishing. This has requirements for almost any fishery. In fact, the launches
become apparent in some small draggers, for instance, that reach 8 knots are generally very satisfactory. Fisher-
whose operations are reduced by the need of laying up men need to be convinced that their demands for speeds
while some equipment or fitting is repaired by factory of 13 to 18 knots are, practically, a waste of money.
representatives. Cost of fittings* aboard launches at present is very
Sail should not be ejected from fishing boats by fiat of small, although some larger boats have ship-to-shore
the naval architect and engineer. There are still many telephone and other devices installed. It would be a good
areas in the world in North America for instance- - rule to scrutinize such devices to be certain that they
where fuel for gasoline or diesel engines is very expensive, will actually aid in finding and catching fish, or in
or where the and facilities to maintain engines of
skill meeting market fluctuations. Widespread complaints
any kind, are lacking, and where the climate or working of the alleged misuse of communication systems raises
conditions are very hard on machinery. It might be the question of how much real use they arc in fishing.
more progressive, in such areas, to improve the sailing Finally, problems surrounding the improvement of
craftthan to motorize, for the latter may merely increase small fishing craft are not simply those of technical
the cost of fishing without producing one cent more improvement and arc rarely to be settled on engineering
income to the fishermen. and design functions, except as far as safety at sea is
The average fishing launch costs too much in propor- concerned. The work of a naval architect goes far
tion to the income she produces over a period of years. beyond the boat alone, for the result of his labours must
A cause is building with unnecessarily expensive materials lead to more profitable operation by fishermen.
[12]
PACIFIC G1LLNETTERS
by
H. C. HANSON
fishing takes place on the Pacific Coast
of North America from central California to
G1LLNET
Oregon, Washington, British Columbia and Alaska.
Gillnetters are particularly numerous in the many inlets
in British Columbia where they catch a substantial
amount offish.
Diogrom of pro-
per gor fpr gill-
nt fithing.
[Drown by O. I.
Shostrom, Covr-
t*y of Nationol
Canntrt' Asso-
ciation, Soattlo.)
Fig. 10
Fig. 12
Most gillnets are fished from boats drifting with the
tide and the nets may be either on the surface or along
the bottom. They may also be fished from the shore or
between posts or buoys. The nets, fig. 10, are made of
fine linen thread twine, of 5 to 10 in. (12.5 to 25 cm.)
mesh for salmon. They are often up to 900 ft. (275 m.)
long, or even 1,500 ft. % m.), and are from 14 to 20 ft.
(4.3 to 6.1 m.) deep. Fine threads and muddy waters
improve the efficiency and where the water is clear,
fishing is usually done at night.
Gillnetters developed from small handlining craft of
28 to 32 ft. (8.5 to 9.8 m.) in length, operated first by oars
and sail, then by gasoline engines. This development was
recently repeated in Alaska, where fishing with motors
II had been prohibited. As soon as permission was given,
[13]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
in 1951, the Bristol Bay fishery began to adopt motors The Columbia river boats uere equipped with 3 to
and completed the change-over in two years. 5 h.p. engines in the early 1900s, and they made 6 to
Fig. 1 1 shows the original rowing craft formerly used 7 knots. The motorization is indicated in fig. 14 and 15.
on the Columbia river and other areas on the Pacific When larger engines became available, the speed of the
Coast and fig. 12 shows a similar vessel, with sail added. double enders increased to 9^ to 10 knots, which is the
They were double-ended and had a fair deadrise. The maximum possible with that design. Then transom
original vessels used in the Bristol Bay fisheries, fig. 13, sterns were introduced and still larger-engines employed,
had a comparatively flat deadrise because of the shallower so that in the 1920s up to 25 knots were obtained.
water, but otherwise they were almost identical to the Such a vessel, with a 140 h.p. engine, is illustrated in
Columbia River type shown in fig. 14. The boats with fig. 16.
sail had large and cumbersome centreboards. The were built with different
gillnetters general
Fig. 13
Fig. 17
Fig. 14
Fig. 18
Fig. 15
Fig. 16 Fig. 19 Fig. 20
[14]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING PACIFIC GILLNETTERS
Fig. 23
Fig. 21
Fig. 24
roller so thatit swivels on a base to facilitate the
hauling
of the net from any angle. Most rollers are mechanically
driven, but hydraulic drive is used to some extent. The
rudder and propeller have steel guards to prevent the
net from becoming entangled.
The boats are from 26 to 32 (7.9 to 9.8 m.) long,
ft.
Fig. 22
and from 9 ft. to 10 ft. 6 to 3.2 m.) wide. They
in. (2.74
"
arrangements, generally as bow pickers ", but later are designed to be as shallow as possible, but for work
"
also as stern pickers ". and 18 show the first
Fig. 17 in deeper waters, the deadrise is increased to get better
" "
attempts to use rollers on the gunwales and a large seaworthiness. The stern picker is well exemplified
power driven roller used on the stern can be seen in by the common British Columbia type, fig. 21. The crew
fig. 19 and 20. The
latest development is to install the consists of one or two men. The midship section, fig. 22,
Fif.2S
[15]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
shows a fair deadrise with the bilge carried well out. The Bilge Stringers, four separate or three together,
scantlings and fastenings are: If x 5J in. (4.5 x 13.4cm.), & in. (8 mm.) carriage
Keel, 4 x 5J in. (10.2 x 14 cm.), i in. (13 mm.) bolts; bolts;
Keelson, 5J X 6 to 8 in. (14 x 15.2 to 20.3 cm.), i in. Ceiling, I in. (2.5 cm.), 2 in. (51 mm.) boat nails.
(13 mm.) bolts;
Floors, 2x7* in. (5.1 x 19.1 cm.), 1 in. (13 mm.) The capacity is 1,800 to 2,000 salmon and, in some of the
bolts; latest designs, as much as 2,500, such cargo having a
Frames, 1J x 2 in. (3.8 x 5.1 cm.) on 9 to 10 in. weight of 5 to 7 tons.
(23 to 25.4 cm.) centres; A few steel vessels, fig. 23 and 24, have been built in
Garboard, 1
J in. (3.8 cm.), 2\ to 21 in. (57 to 64 mm.) the last years and their greater strength should result in
boat nails; longer life and less upkeep. They are less liable to sink,
Planking, I in. (2.5 cm.), 2 in. (51 mm.) boat nails; but, unlike wooden craft, they require insulation.
Decking, 1J x 2 in. (3.2 x 5.1 cm.), 2J in. (64 mm.) In future there will be a demand for more speed. At
boat nails; present the author is designing a V-bottom boat, planked
Shelves, 1
J x 5\ in. (4.5 x 13.4cm.), it in. (9.5 mm.) with plywood, which will result in a light and inexpensive
carriage bolts; construction. Fig. 25 shows a 30 x 10ft. (9.1 x 3.1m.)
Clamps, \l x 5i in. (4.5 x 13.4 cm.), & in. (8 mm.) gillnetter in wooden V-bottom design, which will be
carriage bolts and 21 in. (64 mm.) boat nails; powered with a 120 h.p. gasoline engine.
[16]
BOMBAY FISHING BOATS
by
S. B. SETNA
are more than 6,000 fishing vessels of 3 to Broach in the north and Ratnagiri in the south. At all
npHERE
10 tons the coast of Bombay, India. They are these sites boatbuilding yards are improvised, the local
J^ along
built by local carpenters and vary in size and design fishermen themselves being capable shipwrights.
in different parts of the coast, each being made to meet Many of the craft are being mechanized, but still carry
the preferences of local fishermen and their methods of sails for use with favourable winds and, although the
fishing. craft are not ideal, the problems of engine and propeller
Relatively few of these boats are used to catch fish installation have been overcome. One result of mechani-
with a floating or bottom drift net. Most of them work zation has been to encourage the formation of co-opera-
in stake net fisheries (bag nets), and merely transport fish tive societies to construct vessels to meet the demand for
trapped in the nets which are fixed to stakes in the sea. mechanized boats from fishermen in surrounding villages.
"
A few of the larger type are used for the *' rampan
(shore seine) fishery, the net being hauled from the shore MECHANICAL PROBLEMS
and the vessel being used only to set it around the shoal Technical difficulties encountered in the installation of
of fish. marine engines are surprisingly few in spite of the fact
that the vessels were not built for mechanical propulsion.
DESCRIPTION OF FISHING CRAFT The main difficulty is in
boring the stern post for the
The majority of the fishing craft are small, being about stern tube.In building, it is the usual practice to drive
40 ft. (12.2 m.) overall by 9 ft. (2.74 m.) beam with a innumerable iron nails into the stern post at right angles
draft of 2i ft. (7.6 m.) light to 3 ft. (1.07 m.) loaded. The to the direction in which the stern tube is fitted. Before
largest may be 45 ft. (13.7 m.), including the overhanging boring, therefore, it is necessary to remove all nails and,
bow. As a rule, the size of boat is determined by the type as the majority of the craft have been in use for years,
of fishing and the amount of money available for her the nails are rusty and difficult to remove. If a nail
construction. should break then it is almost impossible to dislodge
The most noticeable features of the craft are the long the submerged fragments.
fine entry bow and the rather abrupt and rounded stern. In fastening the planks, the usual practice of using brass
The bow shape, in profile, varies from place to place : and copper is not always followed, and iron nails are
those characteristic of Bassein are long and straight, used without any regard to their size or thickness. The
while those from Satpati are curved and shorter. This nails are driven into the planks and turned over the
overhanging bow with its V-sections is selected to give to timber. Contact between the nails and other metallic
these undecked boats a reserve of buoyancy and spray material in the vessel sets up galvanic action. The nails
deflection in rough water. corrode and the original firmness of the joined planks is
The broad, rounded and rather low sterns, which are weakened and they are further loosened by the vibrations
decked with loose boards, provide living space for the of engines not properly installed.
crew and the helmsman. The vessels are sturdy, although To stop corrosion and the entry of sea water through the
the method of construction and fastening is primitive. nail holes, the Indian boat builder resorts to an ingenious
One characteristic of the underwater hull in places such process. Cotton waste, soaked in resin and mustard oil,
as Varsova is the arched keel with its deep forefoot and is wound around the nail, under the head, before it is
less deep heel, on which is hung the rudder. This driven into the plank. The effect of this packing is to
characteristic is said to give the boats their ability to sail make the groove water-tight. A
depression is formed in
close to and tack against the wind. the plank by the head of the nail being driven into it and
Indian teak is used largely in construction with other is filled up with a mixture of resin and oil and covered
timbers for crooks and spars. Boats are built mainly at with coal tar.
Satpati, Dahanu, Bulsar, Billimora, Navasari, Surat and Efforts are being made by the Government to impress
[17]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
to allow for the propeller, which
results in
poor manoeuvrability.
Experience shows that the best way
to fix the propeller is to fit a dummy
stern post to the existing stern post
and to hand the rudder in the usual
manner which gives the vessel good
manoeuvring qualities. Fairing of
the dummy stern
post improves
performance, as it allows a smooth
flow of the water to the propeller.
The stern posts in some vessels are
not wide enough to allow for the
stern tube and it is necessary to add
pieces of wood on either side of the
dead wood.
The size of the propeller is deter-
mined by the basic design of the boat
itself, its displacement, resistance
factor, draft, etc. The standard pro-
pellers supplied by the manufacturers
are, generally, not ideal. Indian
fishing craft are constructed without
plans and it is difficult for a
manufacturer abroad to select the
ideal propeller not knowing the
type of hull. It has been suggested
that extra propellers of different
dimensions should be ordered, that
the best one could be found out by
trials.
Fishing vessels around Bombay
are generally suitable for obtaining
sufficient submergence of the pro-
peller without inclining the engine
too much. Fishermen like the engine
as far aft as possible. When it is
Fig. 26. A small dinghy for use in creeks from Versova into which a l\ h.p. stationary engine to correct sub-
is installed
impossible get
mergence of the propeller without
surpassing the maximum angle of
upon the fishermen that fastenings of the component the rake, it is necessary to move the engine forward,
parts of the hull should be copper, clenched up on rooves which generally arouses considerable opposition from
or washers, and used to secure the outside planking to the boat owner as it makes stepping the mast
the framing of the hull. Where through-fastenings cannot difficult.
be worked, brass screws of proper gauge should be used. A of instructions for the construction of improved
set
The difference between the cost of iron fastened craft types of hulls, conforming to the type of the existing
and the craft fastened with copper is approximately sailing craft, has been drawn up by the Mercantile
Rs.2,000 (150, U.S.$420), a considerable extra expendi- Marine Department. The instructions are:
"
ture as the cost of an iron fastened boat is only Rs.6,000 The keelson and keel should be bolted together with
(450, U.S.$1,260). | in. (12.7 mm.) dia. through-bolts, spaced about 3 ft.
It is good practice in marine installations to have the (0.9 m.) apart and driven from the keel the point of the
;
engine bearers as long as the vessel will permit, which is bolt to be clenched over a nut and washer on the keelson.
not appreciated by the average fishermen, who insist on Iron bolts should be used for this purpose, galvanized
the engine bearers being just the length of the engine. if possible.
"
This places unnecessary stress on the hull in the area All the frames should be of well selected timber, free
where the engine is installed. from knots and shakes and grown to the form of the
Most craft around Bombay have the rudder attached boat. The timbers should be continuous across the keel
to the stern post by means of a rope. On installation of and in one length from gunwale, if possible. If the frames
an engine, it is not uncommon to cut space in the rudder have to be worked in shorter lengths, care should be
[18]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING BOMBAY FISHING BOATS
taken that the butts in adjacent frames are separated by The second is a boat of about 45 ft. (13.7 m.) overall
a distance of about 2 to 2J ft. (0.61 to 0.76 m.). Joints length with moderately deep draft and a large insulated
of frames should be well scraped. Joints in the frames hold. This craft would carry ice, remain at sea up to
should be avoided in the round part of the bilge. three to four days, and operate from deep-water bases
"
The spacing of the frames should not exceed 12 in. unaffected by the tide.
(0.305 m.) centre to centre. Both types must be varied in detail and equipment
*"
The bulkheads at the fore end of the engine room according to the fishing to be done drift nets, long-line,
and at the forward store locker should be of strong etc. and must carry sails of small area for steadying
construction, say in. (25 mm.) tongue and groove
1
purposes and for use in favourable winds.
with 3x3 in. (76x76 mm.) vertical (or horizontal) The desire for mechanization has reached such pro-
stiffenersspaced about 18 in. (0.46 m.) apart and well portions that fishermen show no concern about the sea-
secured at top and bottom. worthiness of their vessels so long as they have engines.
"
Substantial deck beams about 2\ x 3 in. (63 x Accordingly, the Government has laid down the principle
76 mm.) should be fitted at each bulkhead, well secured that every vessel, prior to installation of an engine, must
to the frames and gunwale by stout bracket knees, iron be certified by the Mercantile Marine Department. To
for preference. Additional beams 2 x2j in. (51 x63 mm.) ensure compliance with the Government's directive, an
on alternate frames, should be fitted between the engine officer of the Mercantile Marine Department, accom-
room bulkhead and the stern post. All the beams should panied by the Superintendent of Fisheries (Marine),
be dovetailed into the gunwale (covering board) and visits fishing centres to examine vessels before engines are
bracketed to the frames. installed. This officer suggests the modifications necessary
"
A skylight would be required over the engine space for installation and to keep the boats seaworthy.
and the coamings should be fitted at time of building.
The opening could be closed by a hatch if necessary DIFFICULTIES SURMOUNTED
until such time as the engine is installed when the skylight A large part of the credit for the great strides made by
could be completed." the fishing industry is due to Messrs. Burmah-Shell Oil
New craft, being built specially
for power propulsion, are beamier
and have modified sterns while retain-
ing the general characteristic of the
sailing boats. They have greater
capacity for nets, fish and ice, and
have far greater range of operation.
At the same time, the saddle-like or
arched keel of vessels is disappearing,
the fishermen realizing that this
design has no merit.
Sooner or later it will be necessary
to re-design the boats completely.
This does not, however, mean blind
imitation of the craft of other
countries but the design will have to be
adapted to meet local requirements.
Apart from the deep sea cutters
and trawlers with refrigerated holds,
capable of ranging further afield, two
types of inshore or short-range craft
might be developed. The first is a
vessel of 35 ft. (10.7 m.) overall
length, with a shallow draft and
'
equipped with a 24 h.p. engine, for W> ''''-&; 5*\
use in the many creeks and inlets
which dry up at low water. It is,
therefore, necessary to have a craft
which will sit upright on the beach
or on the mud. Such craft will not
normally remain at sea over 24 hours
and will meet almost all the various
needs of fishermen in under-developed Fig. 27. Three-cylinder 30 h.p. engine installed in one approx. 45 ft. (13.7 m.) fishing boat
areas. in Satpati, India
[19]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Storage and Distributing Co. of India Ltd. and Messrs. 22 to 30 h.p. engine at 1,200 r.p.m. with a 2:1 reducing
Greaves Cotton and Co. Were it not for their foresight gear is best. It will give a loaded boat approximately
and encouragement, mechanization of Bombay fishing 6 knots of speed. For vessels up to 55 ft. (16.8 m.)
craft would not have progressed as much as it has. in length, 35 to 40 h.p. engines at 1,200 r.p.m. are
Messrs. Greaves Cotton and Co. mechanized, at their required, giving a speed of approximately 7 knots.
own cost, a decked hull and gave it to the fishermen to There is, however, a tendency among some fishermen
use. The results were unsatisfactory. The fishermen to install highly powered engines in order to get more
seemed to think that their position on deck did not speed. In Varsova, near Bombay, for example, a vessel
give them that control over the manipulation of their with an overall length of 34 ft. 2 in. (10.4 m.), breadth
nets which they have in an ordinary undecked sailing 7 ft. (2.14 m.), depth 2 ft. 3 in. (0.69 m.) and 3.93 net
craft. The fishermen have a rooted prejudice against register tons, was equipped with a 65 h.p., 3-cylinder
fishing by standing on deck, and the firm abandoned diesel, much against the advice of the Fisheries
the experiment. Department.
It was realized that fishermen felt more at home on the The bulk of the engines installed are of British manu-
existing type of vessels and two mechanized vessels, facture, as spare parts are readily available. The types
corresponding in essential features to the 'present un- are: Gardners, Ruston Hornsby, Thornycroft, Kelvin,
decked sailing craft, were built. The vessels are operated Lister, Central (Japanese), Greymarine (American),
at key centres on the coast; and the results have con- Samofa (Dutch).
vinced the fishermen of their utility and remunerative-
ness. They such boats are the answer to the
feel that BIGGER CATCHES
urgent problem of mechanization which is so essential Rapidity of movement is not the only advantage accruing
for the expansion of the industry. from mechanization of existing fishing craft. For instance
The success which has attended such small attempts the catching power of sailing craft is greatly increased
at mechanization has roused the fishermen into action when they are equipped with engines. A good example
and over 200 engines have already been installed. Of of the range and the catching potentiality of powered
" "
this number, 46 were acquired with the aid of a subsidy craftis found in fishing for dara (Polynemus indicus),
** "
from the Government, 57 on loans and 97 and more popularly known as the giant threadfin, and ghol
purchased by fishermen with their own private funds. (Sciaena diacanthus), popularly known as the Jew fish.
" "
The expectations are that no difficulty will be experienced Dara is, as is well known, a bottom fish, looming
in the absorption of a thousand engines in the fishing large in hauls made by trawlers. Sailing vessels, in order
villages north of Bombay alone. to capture this fish, have to employ bottom drift nets.
It is generally agreed that for the type of vessels Though both powered and sailing craft use the same type
along Bombay's coastline an engine of between 20 and ofnets, the catches made by powered vessels are sub-
40 h.p.is necessary. It has been established by experience stantially greater, because a sailing boat employs 60 to
that for vessels up to 42 ft. (12.8 m.) overall length, a 75 nets and a powered vessel employs 100 to 1 10. Sailing
Fig. 28. Drawing of 43.5 ft. (13.25 m.) Satpati fishing boat, one original measured by Paul W. Ziener, FAO Naval Architect
[201
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING BOMBAY FISHING BOATS
craft caught on an average 485 of these
large fish in a season, lasting 5 months,
whereas powered craft landed, on an
average, 2,000 fish (see Table I). The
fishwere caught in the same area. The
additional catch made by powered vessels
represents a substantial benefit to fisher-
men, and they also caught other fish
whictj are not included in the Table.
The fishermen were astounded by the
magnitude of the catch sailing craft ;
without engines have never landed as
much fish.
The overhead cost of operation of these
vessels is small as the entire crew is
drawn from the fishermen themselves,
and the maintenance cost of the vessels
and the engines is very little.
LABOUR-SAVING EQUIPMENT
Fig. 29. Vessel built at Satpati by local carpenters at a cost of Rs.9,000 (680;
The performance of the mechanized U.S. $1,900). It is equipped with a 24 h.p. engine and is used for both transport and
boats would have been still more remun- capture of fish
erative if they had possessed small
winches. that mechanization will not be
It is realized aboard. At present, power is only used for propulsion;
fully complete without the use of mechanical equipment itcan be profitably employed to perform work which
engages the tedious and exhausting labour of a number of
hands. For instance, power vessels using drift nets
TABLE I
carry seven to eight men for setting and hauling the nets.
COMPARISON OF CATCHES OF SAILING CRAFT Similar work is, in other countries, done by four men
AND POWERED VESSELS BOMBAY, INDIA
(from January to end of May, 1953) through the use of winches driven by the engines. This
economy can be achieved in India also and the problem
Sailing Craft (used drift nets and bag nets) of installing winches in mechanized craft is now before
Name of owner Dara* Total
This will lend to an
(number (number (number
the Department of Fisheries.
offish) offish) offish) increase in the number of boats as crews will be smaller
\. Sukarya Hira 539 26 565 and there will be more fishermen available to man new
2. Rajaram Damodar Meher 180 16 196
made
3. Kashinath Kcshav . 521 28 549 boats and, consequently, increased supplies of fish
4. Krishna Shravan Chowdhary 587 15 602 available.
5. Harischandra Kcshav 483 32 515
Average 485
MAINTENANCE OF ENGINES
Maintenance of the engines is a big problem, the import-
Powered Craft (used drift nets only)
ance of which has not yet been realized sufficiently by the
Name of vessel fishermen. They expect that once an engine has been
installed it will operate without any trouble, and they are
so busy during the season that they do not carry out
I. Bharatmata
2. Pramilaprasad ordinary repairs. Minor troubles develop into major
3. Padmanowka defects, with the result that the cost of repairs mount and
4. Bharatprasad the fishermen cannot make the maximum number of
5. Jalazad
6. Dhanasagar voyages. They have yet to learn the value of the advice
"
7. Lilawatiprasad in the old adage: A
stitch in time saves nine ". Their
8. Padmaprasad indifference is such that they do not overhaul the engine*
9. Jayashreeprasad
10. Jivannowka . even when the vessel is drawn ashore for the monsoon.
Pratibha nowka
11.
12.
They do not realize that the life of an engine can be
JaJaprasad .
prolonged greatly if, for example, the water cooling
Average 2046 passages are flooded with fresh water to remove the salt
deposits made by cooling with sea water. This simple
action would greatly reduce corrosion during the three
* Common vernacular name Dara. Scientific name Polynemus or four months the boat is laid up.
indicus. Popular English nameGam* Threadfin.
At present the fishermen greatly benefit from the free
1 Common vernacular name Ghol. Scientific name Sciaena
diacanthus. Popular English name Jewfish. services rendered by firms supplying engines. Once they
[21]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
collectively. The Government has now ruled that sub- 2. All vessels are to carry lights, shapes (two cane
sidies for engines will not be granted to individuals, but baskets joined together), and sound signals in
will be made available to groups, irrespective of their conformity with the International Regulations for
numerical composition, the determining factor being the preventing collision.
type of fisheries and the usual number of crew on the 3. In vessels under 60 ft. (18.3 m.) registered length,
vessel. Share of profits need not necessarily be on an approved buoyant apparatus (or more than one.
uniform basis. For instance, the more skilled may draw if one is not sufficient) will be accepted, in lieu of a
a higher proportion of the profits. lifeboat, to support all persons on board. This
If the group is in a position to pay the loan portion in buoyant apparatus (or apparatuses) is to be stowed
cash, the Government will have no objection to such a to the satisfaction of the Surveyor. Two efficient
course, but will insist on an agreement from the group not paddles, suitably lashed, are to be provided with
to transfer the engine to another group for a period of each buoyant apparatus.
five years. Direct assistance to individuals will be avail- 4. The following equipment is to be carried and
able in the form of loans for engines. These loans will maintained in an efficient condition:
be given without the intervention of societies. Two fitted with self-
(a) approved lifebuoys,
Each group invariably has a good helmsman, an expert igniting lights;
fisherman and a person with some mechanical skill to One approved each person on
(b) lifejacket for
attend to minor engine troubles. Experience shows that board ;
these groups work successfully and their formation is, Two
(c) one-gallon (4.5 1.) watertight tins,
accordingly, encouraged. One of the advantages result- containing fresh water, lashed to the
ing from the institution of such groups has been to buoyant apparatus;
promote healthy rivalry, as they vie each other to catch (d) Two fire buckets with lines;
more fish. an arrangement to recommend to
It is
(e) One two-gallon (9 1.) foam fire extinguisher;
countries where the introduction of power fishing is One fireman's hatchet;
(/)
contemplated. (g) One box of sand with a scoop;
Experiments in which crews were not drawn from (h) Six red flares or six distress rockets.
among the fishermen and in which they were paid New vessels should be provided with substantial bul-
regular monthly wages were unsatisfactory. They were warks and hatch coamings. In existing vessels, each
only content to receive their wages at the end of each case is considered on its merits (see 1 above).
month and had no inducement to try their best to catch
more fish. But when the fishermen are actively associated
Carriage of all this equipment is not actually necessary*
with the experiments in a way to make them feel that
Provision of a lifejacket for each member of the crew is
they have a stake in the industry, they work with essential. Similarly, three lifebuoys, as suggested by the
enthusiasm and success.
Mercantile Marine Department, are understandable,
The total amount of loans to fishermen and their co-
but insistence on the provision of two buoyant appara-
operative societies, under the State Aid to Industries tuses seems superfluous. It is not possible for small
Rules, exceeds Rs.2,600,000 (195,000; U.S.$550,000). vessels to carry even one buoyant apparatus.
A sum of Rs.400,000 (30,000; U.S.$84,500) provided The various proposals suggested by the Mercantile
in the budget estimates for 1954-55 for loans to fisher-
Marine Department, are an intolerable burden as they
men proved insufficient due to increasing demand for
will not only raise the cost of operation but also diminish
engines. A further sum of Rs.400,000 (30,000; U.S.
the limited space available in the launches. The main
$84,500) for loans and Rs. 130,000 (9,800; U.S.
aim underlying encouragement of the use of power
327,500) for subsidies was, therefore, provided. vessels is to induce fishermen to carry bigger quantities
and improved types of nets. Attainment of this objective
NAVIGATION PERMITS will be handicapped if the limited space on the vessels
The following conditions govern the issue of permits to
is cluttered up with life saving equipment.
The Fisheries Department fully realizes the value of
fishing vessels:
safety measures, and endeavours to insist that all essential
). Vessels should be in sound and seaworthy condi- life-saving appliances are carried, so that crews are not
tion, and efficient battening down arrangements, exposed to unnecessary risks, but it is felt that the Act
satisfactory to a Government Surveyor of the isbeing enforced with undue severity, which is a dis-
Mercantile Marine Department, are to be provided couraging influence on the enterprise of the fishermen.
for hatches and other openings, to prevent admis- There will always be hazards at sea, but reasonable
sion of water in adverse weather conditions. precautions are enough.
[24]
WEST PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
by
M. RAHIMULLAH QURESHI, HENRY MAGNUSSON and JAN-OLOF TRAUNG
PAKISTAN fisheries are located in the by oars and, occasionally, a small sail is used. The
WEST
Arabian
it,
Sea and on the Pakistan coast bordering
a total length of about 500 miles (800 km.).
Calicut dug-outs are sold all around the Arabian
Similar small boats, planked and framed, are being
Sea.
built
This includes the Makran coast (350 miles/560 km.), in Pakistan because importation from India has been
made up of windswept, surf-ridden large bays, and the limited. Cast nets and hand lines are used in this one-
Sind coast (about 150 miles/240 km.), which has a net- man boat.
work of creeks and includes the delta of the River Typical example (fig. 34): length, 20J ft. (6.25 m.);
Indus. A
boat can pass from the fishing village Ibrahim cost, Rs. 300/- (32; U.S. $90); wood, amb (Hopea
Hyderi, situated just south of Karachi, to the border of parviflora).
India without once entering the open sea.
The fish yield is estimated at some 37,000 tons per DHATTI HORA
annum and is delivered, to a large extent, to Karachi Narrow double-ended boats built mostly on the plan of
for marketing. It is landed mostly by the fishing boats, the hora (gharat hora). There are two types, one. made
but some is transported by special carrier vessels. The of imported dug-outs with the upper part planked, and
efficiency of both production and distribution is greatly provided with an outrigger (dhatti) and a balancing
handicapped by the lack of berthing, landing and hand- plank, the other constructed in Pakistan entirely by
ling accommodation, and of organized marketing
planking. The length varies between 30 to 40 ft. (9.1 to
facilities. 12.2 m.); registered tonnage, 2.0 to 2.5. Only one sail
There are reported to be 1,103 boats within the is carried and oars are used for short trips. Most of the
Karachi Administration area (not including the boats on
fishing is done by a crew of four in creeks and inshore
the Makran and Sind coasts) and their distribution, by
waters, operations lasting six to eight hours. Equipment
types, is as follows: used includes the bunn (small gill net), dora (beach
Tony . . . .234 seine), and kundi lines with 100 to 150 hooks.
Ekdar . . . .131 Typical example (fig. 35, 36): length, 33J ft. (10.2m.);
Dhatti Hora . . .232 registered tonnage, 2.0. The hull (khall) consists of the
Hora or Gharat Hora . 276 dug-out made of amb (Hopea parviflora), and the top
Bedi boats . . .230 planking of teakwood. The outrigger (dhatti) consists
of poles of phoona (Callophyllum inophyllum) and the
To obtain records of the present types of boats (as a
outrigger weight of dayal (Cedrus deodara).
basis for improved measurement drawings were
designs),
made of ten typical types, in January to March 1953
EKDAR
(fig. 34 to 58). The measurement technique is described
in the Appendix A. Two representative boats have bcth Double-ended, comparatively narrow boats built on the
investigated in the Swedish Shipbuilding Experimental principle of a hora (gharat hora), but heavily constructed
Tank, and work is going on at FAO, Rome, Italy, on with rounded, strong stem and stern timbers. The regis-
the problems of engine installations and drawings of tered tonnage varies from 4.5 to 6.0. A balancing plank
proposed new types. isused and only one sail is carried.
The boats were formerly imported, but are now being
built at Karachi and at Buleji fishing village (Hawke's
DESCRIPTION OF PAKISTAN FISHING BOATS
Bay). Towards Lasbella and Makran, the boats arc
TONY used on the open surf-ridden coast and, as their con-
Small dug-outs manufactured in Calicut, Southwest struction shows, the rounded ends help in pulling them
" "
India.They are used mostly in creeks and are propelled ashore. The name ekdar means that the keel is made
{25]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
[26]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
[27]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
up of only one piece of wood. Actually, the lower part meshes) and dora (beach seine). Fish caught are sardines,
of the hull is usually a dug-out. The boats, with a crew etc.,and prawns (shrimps).
of four, remain out only for the day. Typical example (fig. 44, 45 and 46): Length, 67 ft.
Typical example (fig. 37 and 38): Length, 46 ft. 3 in. (20.4m.); registered tonnage 30.24. It is called Safina-e-
(14.1 m.); registered tonnage 4.9; hull upper part of Pakistan and the owner is Hajee Kassim of Ibrahim
teak, lower made of phoona; keel and ribs, babul Hyderi fishing village. Year of construction 1952.
:
(Acacia scorpiodes); mast, phoona (Callophyllum inophyl- Cost: Rs. 10,000 to 12,000 (1,100 to 1,300; U.S.
lum)\ nets used, khori jal (an encircling net), rebi, $3,000 to 3,600). Fig. 39 and 40 and fig. 41, 42 and 43
duck (gill nets), kundi (long lines), etc. Owner's name: show a 48 ft. 2 in. (14.7 m.) hora and a 54 ft. 5 in.
Piri s/o Jamal. Name of boat: Jung Bahadur. Year of (16.6 m.) hora, respectively.
construction, 1942. Cost, Rs. 2,500 (265; U.S. $750).
BEDI BOATS
HORA (GHARAT HORA)
Large boats with relatively good beam and an over-
Long and relatively narrow boats with a round forefoot, hanging stem and stern timber. The hull has a full
a vertical stem and a long overhanging stern. The sheer- midship-section with a hard bilge, sharp entrance and a
line isalmost straight and the hull full at midship-section transom stern. The sheerline is almost straight and the
and having sharp ends. The length is between 35 and length is from 35 to 70 ft. (10.7 to 21.3 m.). Registered
68 ft. (10.7 to 20.7 m.) and registered tonnage, 20 to 35. tonnage is 20 to 45, the sail area 350 to 1,500 sq. ft.
The sail plan is similar to the bedi boats. The large (32.5 to 140 sq. m.), as many as four sails being occa-
boats fish in the open sea, the smaller ones near the sionally used on the bigger boats, but generally only one
shore and in the creeks. The capacity and arrangement is hoisted. The boats have relatively many inboard
are much the same as in the bedi boats, and they are fittings: loose decks to carry one large wooden box for
built in Karachi with wood imported from Burma and fresh fish and ice, a small hold for cured fish, freshwater
Malaya. Nets used are the bunn (a gill net of small tank and space for cured fish, nets and cooking utensils.
The deck is open and ballast is carried in sandbags on the
deck level, always placed on the windward side when
tacking.
These seaworthy boats fish in deep waters and are all
Karachi by local craftsmen who use no drawing
built in
or plans.
Fig. 36
[28]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
[29]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Gill nets are used (duck is the local name), and are go out for three to five days, ice is taken to
If the boats
now prepared from parachute nylon cord consisting of keep the fish fresh in a wooden box. If they go out for
20 pieces 75 ft. (22.9 m.) long and 3 to 5 fathoms (5.5 to longer trips, salt is carried to cure the fish. On an
9.1 m.) deep. The meshes are 5 to 6 in. (12.7 to 16.5 cm.)
ordinary three to five days trip, each boat brings back
and the nets weigh between '12 to 15 maunds (984 to 500 to 600 big fish, weighing between 20 to 25 lb. (9 to
1,230 lb.; 446 to 538 kg.). Coir ropes are used at the 11. 3 kg.) each.
top and bottom of the net; cylindrical floats of a light Crude fish oil,
prepared from the livers of elasmobranch
wood, called gugar (Compiphora mukul) and belapat used for the preservation of the boats against the
fish, is
(Hibiscus tiliaceus), 1 ft. (46 cm.) long, about 4 in. action of sea water and the attack of borer worm,
(10 cm.) in diameter, are attached at intervals of one which is very common in these waters.
fathom (1.83 m.). The sinkers about the same in
number as the floats are made of lead. The cost of a Bedi Boat I
Typical example (fig. 47, 48 and 49): Length, overall,
68 ft. 7 in. (20.9 m.); registered tonnage, 31.25. The
hull (khall) is made up of teak (Tectonis grandis\ imported
from Burma, Malaya or India; planks 1 in. (2.5 cm.)
Fig. 38
net varies from Rs. 12,000 to 15,000 (1,300 to 1,600; thick. The total quantity of wood used is 1,400 cu. ft.
U.S. $3,600 to 4,500). There is usually a 12-man crew, (39.6 cu. m.) at Rs. 32/- per cu. ft. Wooden strips \\ in.
one working as skipper (sarang or nakhuda). (3.8 cm.) thick (takoon) are used for ribband and
The owner gets 50 per cent, of the catch and 50 per stringers. The keel (tar) is of teak, about \\ cu. ft.
cent, goes to the crew, the share of the sarang being (0.042 cu. m.). Iron nails (kil\ locally made, totalling
double that of any one fisherman. If the boat is owned 8 maunds (656 lb./298 kg.) and priced at Rs. 70/- per md.
by the sarang 50 per cent, goes to him and 50 per cent, ($0.27 per lb.; $0.59 per kg.) are used for the boat.
to the crew. Ribs (a) straight of tali (Dalbergia sissoo\ babul (Acacia
These boats catch only big fish such as thread-fins, arabica) and neem (Azaderachta indicd), 18 pieces; (b)
croakers, etc., fishing up to 10 miles at sea. They have angle ribs (add) of tali lohra (Tacoma undulata), 100 pieces
no navigational instruments and have to keep land in at Rs. 10/- (1 U.S. $3) each. Mast (khuwa) of phoona
;
sight but, parallel to the coast, they sometimes travel wood (Callophyllum inophyttum) from Calicut (India).
150 miles in search of fish. Price Rs. 500/- to 600/- (55 to 65; U.S. $150 to 180).
[30]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
A/ /
J;
[31]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Poles for stretching the sails: (a) for two larger ones of Bedi Boat III
phoona and (b) for the smaller ones, bamboo (Bambusa and 52.) Length: 50 ft. 6J in. (15.4 m.);
(Fig. 50, 51
arundinacea). Sails (sir): two high ones made up of tonnage 9.84. Owner's name: Ismail s/o
registered
handwoven 2 maunds (1841b./83.S kg.) at Rs. 280/-
cloth,
Ishaq. Name of boat: Maula Madad. Year of construc-
per maund (7s.; U.S. $1.03 per
lb.; 16s.; U.S. $2.37 tion: 1950. Cost: Rs. 5,000/- (540; U.S. $1,500).
per kg.), and two smaller sails of drill, 200 yards at
Rs. 2/4/- (4s.; U.S. $0.68) per yard. Ropes for the mast Bedi Boat IV
(kabar): coir ropes, 6 maunds (492 lb./223kg.), at
(Fig. 56, 57 and 58.) Length: 43 ft. 9 in. (13.3 m.);
Rs. 35/- per maund (10d.; U.S. $0.13 per lb.; $0.28 per
registered tonnage 7.12. Owner's name: Mohammad
kg.), and cotton rope (katari). Pulleys (charakh): 6 made
s/o Ishaq. Name of boat: HusainL Year of construc-
locally of wood, Rs. 15/- to 20/- (1 12s. to 2 5s.; U.S.
tion: 1942. Cost: Rs. 3,500/- (375; U.S. $1,050).
$4.50 to 6) each. Anchor: 2, made locally, Rs. 50/-
The details are much the same, except: No more than
(5 7s.; U.S. $15) each, 2 maunds (164 lb./74 kg.) coir two sails are used instead of four. The net is called rebi
rope required for both the anchors. Rudder (sokhan):
(gill net), which is either made of nyten or cotton twihe
Rs. 15/- to 20/- (1 10s.; U.S. $4.50 to 6). Owner's
and the mesh size is smaller. The catch is medium-size
fish, such as snappers, breams, etc., and, with small
meshed nets, small threadfins and shrimps (prawns),
Net costs run from Rs. 900/- to KOOO/- (100 to 110,
.SAIL PLAN
or wear PAKIAT^NJ FI&HING.BQAT
Fig. 40
name: Ali Mohammad s/o Ibrahim, Ibrahim Hyderi U.S. $270 to 300). The crew does not exceed seven and
fishing village. Name of the boat: Cairim Shahi. Year the range is not more than four days.
of construction: 1926. Cost: Rs. 12,000 (1,300;
U.S. $3,600). NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
When fig. 34 to 58, it will be
studying drawings, found
Bedi Boat II that bedi boats aremost suitable for mechanization and
(Fig. 50, 51 and 52.) The details are much the same as development. They have a sharp entrance, full midships
in I, with some variations, due to the smaller size. section and a transom stern, giving straight buttocks and
Length: 55ft. 3 in. (16.84m.); registered tonnage, 25.87 a run. The displacement, in relation to the length,
flat
Owner's name: Jamot Wali Mohammed, Ibrahim is lower than normal for European fishing boats, due
Hyderi fishing village. Name of boat: Pakistan. Year to the fact that the boats have no engines and are not
of construction: 1948. Cost: Rs. 10,000/-(1,100; U.S. decked and are, therefore, light. Two independent naval
$3,000). architects having good knowledge of small fishing boat
[32]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
[33)
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
design have studied the designs, and their remarks are as I would place the engine in the bedi type at the break of
follows: the quarterdeck, so as not to lose much cargo space.
I think the bedi and hora types can be
Howard L Chapelie, Cambridge, AW., U.S.A. on the powered with
7th July, 1953; engines in the 10-35 h.p. medium duty range or light
duty. I do not think the largest bedi or hora will
" require
Here is a sample of a local, native type that can be more than 30 h.p. for effective fishing operations, unless
4 '
modernized merely by adding small engines, and I dare
light high-speed engines are used.
say there are many others . . . " I am rather astonished at the
" very complete framing
can see no practical difficulty in motorizing the
I
of the boats and the evidence of great strength. This is
bedi and hora types. Were 1 altering such craft, I would not true of many Eastern craft at least some Malaya
remove the after portion of their sternposts outside the 1 have seen appear more and less
types fragile completely
rabbet, bore the remaining post for the propeller shaft, framed.
and then build up the outside deadwood to form an **
1 agree that these Pakistan craft should be powered
aperture and rehang the rudder. This would cause the without attempting to introduce a new form of craft.
rudder to stand at less rake than formerly, so the whole "
I shall regret that testing of the two small bedi types
rudder would have to be shortened. I would like to use is not possible for 1 think their lines indicate better form
an air-cooled diesel. None of the boats will require large for auxiliary power than the large examples. The flat
power, and any simple low-powered engine will serve. run and wide stern of the smallest example seems very
promising and is a boat I would like to power.
"
The hora type undoubtedly can be effectively motor-
ized if low power is employed. The slack quarters will
prevent great power being utilized, I suspect, as squatting
will probably develop above a moderate speed-length
ratio.
SAIL PLAN
OF Wg&T P/^KtAT/^N
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
"
This whole class of boats is an illustration of my per- Data about the main dimensions of the models, during
sonal idea that it would be very wise indeed to motorize these tests, are listed in Table II and III and effective
and otherwise improve the small primitive types of fishing (tow-rope) power and C, values are given in fig. 59 and
boats than to introduce European and American 60 for the hora and bedi boats, respectively. Table II,
launches, draggers, seiners and trawlers. hora boat, indicates that, because of the overhanging
"
1 do not suppose it will be practical to motorize the stern, the water line lengths vary to some extent. The
ekdar boats, as they can be capsized too readily, but the prismatic coefficient, therefore, varies between 0.57 and
outrigged dhatta hora could be. A friend of mine used 0.61. The diagram, fig. 59, shows that stern trim at lower
a double outrigged Luzon Island boat for survey work speeds gives less resistance. The optimum location of an
in which he has installed a 7 h.p. aircooled stationary or
industrial type of gasoline engine as an auxiliary motor.
It drove the boat about 7 knots in smooth water. One of
the more powerful outboard engines used in this country,
say in the 12-20 h.p. range, could be readily employed
if maintenance facilities were made available. I am certain
that any planning for mechanization should begin with
the establishment of proper maintenance and repair faci-
lities in a primitive area, and this visualizes physical plant,
not just educational facilities."
Arthur M. Swinfield, A.M./.N.A., Sydney, N.S.W.,
Australia, on the 24th August, 1953:
" No
doubt the builders have very good reasons for
doing a job one way rather than another. These may be
practical or economical reasons, and any comments
I
make are so done in ignorance of local conditions.
" The most obvious weakness in construction seems to
be at the joint of the stem to the keel, and the stern post
of the keel, the length of the scarp being inadequate in
both cases. I presume, of course, that stopwaters are
used in the normal way, and at the same time wonder if
undue leaking occurs at these points as the vessel begins
4 '
to age. suggest that the anchor stock method would
1
no doubt strengthen these connections, and such a joint
is inexpensive and easy to make. engine should therefore be far aft, producing an aft
" position of the L.C.B.
The builders have evolved the ideal shape for perfor-
mance and easy construction. This is apparent when one The main dimensions of the bedi boat appear in Table
III, which indicate a very low prismatic coefficient of
' '
considers the angle of the stem and stern post in rela-
tion to the keel. The plank edges should show com- about 0.51. Test of the bedi boat (fig. 60) shows that the
paratively straight edges with very little moulding. original trim parallel to the keel gives the best results.
"
It would be most interesting to know why every keel Trimming down the bow gives somewhat better value at
is straight and level with waterline. Although bilge water very high speeds, stern trim gives worse values, indicating
that the transom is too large.
would be satisfactorily contained between the upright
' '
garboards, a slight drop aft would perhaps assist
over- A study of the power curves shows that a speed of
board discharge of bilge from a common pumping point. 7 knots could be reached in a hora boat with an engine
44 4 '
The hog piece method of forming the keel is not of about 20 h.p. and in a bedi boat with an engine of
universal and one wonders why not. The bedi boats of about 18 h.p. This is for the loaded condition; the speed
55 ft. 3 in. and 68 ft. 7 in. have this desirable feature. I would be somewhat higher in the light condition.
4 '
where The best C, curves of the hora and bedi boats have
suggest that treenails would be of great help
this method of construction is adopted, as the through
4
been assembled and drawn with heavy lines on fig. 61.
fastenings
'
in use appear to be clenched (no size given)." On this diagram, the boats have been compared with
some typical fishing boats from European countries, the
The large hora boat (fig. 44, 45 and 46) and the largest main dimensions of which have been listed in Table IV.
bedi boat (fig. 47, 48 and 49) were tested in the Swedish The Denny-0 model (Allan 1950) is a Scotch ringnetter;
State Shipbuilding Experimental Tank on a heavily SMT 25A and 28A are Norwegian 40 ft. (12.2 m.) and
loaded displacement of 20 cu. m. (21.6 tons) and with 65 ft. (19.8 m.) boats respectively; SSPA 17 is a Swedish
three different trims, the trim water lines being indicated west-coast fishing boat and VNR (Roma) C479 is a post-
on 44 and 47. war Italian trawler. It is apparent from the diagram that
fig.
[35]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
Fig. 46
[37]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
[38]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
SAIL PLAN
WEST R*Kl6TAfM FI6HIMG.POAT
TXPE
JL r
Fig. 49
[39]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
The main dimensions of the three models during
the tests are listed in Table V. The three transoms
and the canoe stern are shown in fig. 62 while fig. 63
gives C t values at three Froude's numbers with trim con-
ditions, and fig. 64 gives Pe (effective tow-rope HP)
values for the models run at level keel. The tests show
that the present transom on the bedi boat is somewhat
too large. Furthermore the 44 per cent, transom B does
not change the C t
values appreciably with different trims
and gives the highest average C, value for all speeds, thus
indicating the best size.
The curves show that by reducing the transom too
much the resistance increases considerably at higher
speeds. Trim by the head gives, in such cases, better
results. This somewhat startling fact may perhaps be
explained by the fact that, with the original transom at
higher speeds, a head trim gave better results (see fig. 60).
On the other hand stern trim with the smaller transoms
is slightly better than level keel trim but not as good as
head trim; (stern trim with the original transom was
much worse than the level keel trim). The level keel
tests indicate that a 44 per cent, transom is better than
one of 22 per cent. But when the 22 per cent, transom
is trimmed by the stern, it increases in size towards 44 per
cent, and by this means the loss sustained in reducing the
the Pakistan boats are equally good, if not better, than transom to 22 per cent, is offset.
typical fishing boats in use in Europe to-day. Because Diagrams, fig. 65 and 66, show power estimates for the
of their higher length-displacement ratio, they show low different types of hora and bedi boats, although only
C 4 values at lower speeds, but the required power is so the largest of each type was tested in the tank. The
low anyway that it does not matter. curves are, therefore, assumptions, but they promise to
The aft body of the bedi boat model was changed in be fairly accurate because the boats can be regarded as
order to study the effect of different sizes of transoms and geometrically similar. The power curves for the two
a canoe stern. Three modifications were tested. Full smaller hora and the three smaller bedi boats were
beam was assumed to represent 100 per cent, transom, obtained by using the C, curves of the tested boats.
thus giving the bedi model SSPA 588A a transom width Power values were then calculated for the appropriate
of 68 per cent, and the models B, C, and D, 44, 22 and Froude's numbers and plotted on a base of knots. The
per cent, respectively. diagrams show effective (tow rope) horse power. If the
TABLE IV
Data of Fishing Boats compared in Fig. 61
B \ cu. m. o 9
DENNY ft. 62 17.83 6.00 71 4.58 .383 .645 -1.25 26.5'
m. 18.9 5.44 1.83
SMT 25A ft. 64.5 18 7.64
m. 19.66 5.49 2.33 119.2 4.00 .476 .648 -0.18 34
SMT 28A ft. 39.4 13 5.54
m. 12.00 3.97 1.69 35 3.67 .435 .634 -0.5 34
SSPA 17 ft. 62 19.8 8.2
m. 18.9 6.04 2.5 112 3.92 .393 .628 33
VNR C479 ft. 48 13 5.47
(ROMA) m. 14.64 3.95 1.67 51.75 3.92 .534
SSPA 587A III ft. 56.1 12 3.11
m. 17.12 3.65 0.95 20 6.31 .338 .558 -5.97 9
588A IV ft. 48.6 13 4
m. 14.85 3.97 1.22 20 5.48 .280 .510 -9.40 8
[40]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING - PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
for all boats, giving them the same
speed and making it
possible to import engines of the same size. This would
probably lessen the problem of keeping spare parts in
stock.
TABLE VI
Hora Boats
Dimensions corresponding to loaded waterline and power estimate
in fig. 65
Type Fig. 44, 45, 46, 1, 42, 43 39, 40
Model 587A
L ft. 55.1 44.6 42.6
m. 16.8 13.6 13.0
B ft. 12.0 8.73 5.90
m. 3.65 2.66 1.80
T ft. 3.15 2.46 1.7
m. 0.96 0.75 0.52
cu. ft. 707 395 176.5
cu. m. 20 11.2 5.0
0.340 0.413 0.410
0.5% 0.566 0.557
6.15 6.08 7.6
TABLE VII
Bedi Boats
Dimensions corresponding to loaded waterline and power estimate
in fig. 66
Type Fig. 47,48.49 50,51,52 53.54,55 56,57,58
'
Model 588A
L ft. 48.6 38.20 34.40 30.45
m. 14.85 11.65 10.48 9.28
efficiency of propulsion is 50 per cent., the required
B ft. 13.00 11.45 9.67 8.59
engine power will be twice the effective power shown. 3.97 3.5 2.95 2.62
Tables VI and VII contain the main dimensions corres-
T ft. 4.0 3.71 3.45 2.95
ponding to the curves for the hora and bedi boats. The m. 1.22 1.05 0.9
1.13
displacement corresponds to the loaded waterline.
Fig. 65 hora boats shows that for a speed of 7 to V cu. ft. 707 459 353.5 229.5
8 knots the power requirements vary cu, m. 20 13 10 6.5
considerably in the
different boats. This is due to the fact that all the boats 0.280 0.282 0.309 0.297
are relatively long but there are big differences in the
0.510 0.557 0.561 0.540
displacements of the three types.
Fig. 66 bedi boats shows that all types at 7.5 knots 5.48 4.96 4.86 4.98
require about 10 effective (tow rope) h.p. or about
20 h.p. engines. Over 7.6 knots the smaller boats require
more power than the larger ones. This is because the
APPENDIX A
length decreases much more than in the case of the hora
boats, therefore the boats will run with higher Froude's DESCRIPTION OF THE RADIAL MEASUREMENT
numbers and with less C t values, which offset the reduction METHOD (See fig. 67 on page 48)
of power made possible by smaller displacement.
The following method enables one man only to take off the
The bedi boats, because of their transom and larger linesof a boat.
deck area, seem to be more suitable for mechanization. The boat is first divided in its length into several stations,
It might then be practical to standardize a 20
h.p. engine normally eight, which do not need to have equal distances
[41]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
142]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
Fig,52
[43]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
i! R
[44]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
between them. They can be arranged so that they do not (the centre line of the boat). Then one has to take two fixed
coincide with places where the boat is supported by stan- points A
and B in the same plane as the section as the
chions, etc. The stations fore and aft should be somewhat general points for the radial measurements. One point can
closer than those of the middle to get fuller details of the be selected on the ground, by placing a plank there and the
curves. All the stations must be chalked on the hull, and the other can be chosen on a ladder or a plank placed between
distances between them measured. the gunwale and the ground, as can be seen from fig. 67. In
The rake and bend on the stem or stern posts are measured the two foci, A and B, one fixes the measurement tape with a
from a station vertical to the keel, or they can be measured nail and the radii A-l, A-2, A-3, etc., and B-l, B-2, B-3 are
according to the radial method described below. When measured. The same procedure is repeated for each section.
measuring the sheer line, one places a plank horizontally at In working out a lines plan one first draws the profile and
right angles to the keel, checking it with an ordinary bubble- the deck contour. These determine the position of the keel
level. The vertical distance from the plan to the gunwale and gunwale in the body-plan. With these points determined
is then measured at the different stations. If the keel of the it is easy to circle-in the focal points A and B
using the radii
boat is not horizontal, one measures the A-l and A-9 and B-l and B-9 respectively. After A and B
deviation at the stem and stern post to have been found, it is easy to determine the section by drawing
get a correct datum line for determining a line through the bisection points of the arcs of radii A,, Ba ;
the outboard profile of the boat. The Aa B
, 3, etc., swung from A and B. The resulting body-plan
breadth of the hull is measured on deck will have the sections at different distances from each other.
at the different stations, or wherever From this, longitudinals, water-lines, buttocks and diagonals
possible, so that one can arrive at a must be drawn next. It will then be easy to draw a new body-
correct deck line. plan with equal distances between the sections.
After having drawn the profile and
the contour of the deck, one starts with
the sections. On each station one marks
a number of places which can be called,
for example, Nos. 1to 9 (fig. 67). The
number will depend on the size and the
shape of the section. Each section has
to be at a right angle to the keel line
or WEST R*HI&TAfM
TXPC
'
BED I
Fig.54
[45]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
\
\\
[46]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING PAKISTAN FISHING CRAFT
UJ
ii
[47]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
BREADTH
SAIL PLAN
OF WEST RAKI&TAN
DENNY
SMT 25 A
SMT28A
SSPA 17
Fig. 61. Hora boat, series HI (stern trim), and bedi boat, series
VI (level keel trim}, compared with different European fishing boats
of original design, e.g. before they were bv aid of tank ttsts improved
Fig. 59. C\ and Pe (tow-rope h.p.) curves Jor hora model 587- A
according to fig. 44 and Table II. Trim level keel, series I ( ).
Trim by head, series // ( -). Trim by stern, series 111
(- ). Stern trim /s \omewhat better, but head trim worse
WL.4
"v 100 ft. Fig. 62. The bedi model 588- A, was tried with different sizes of
transom sterns and a canoe stern. If the width of the midship section
Fig. 60. Ci and Pf (tow-rope h.p.) curves for bedi model 588- A is taken as 100 per cent., then the original transom A is 68 per cent.
according to fig. 47 and Table III. Trim level keel, series I V ( anff ti, e three alternatives ere 44 per cent. (B
Trim by head, series V ( ). Trim by stern, series VI
). ( ) t
22 per cent. (C ), and per cent. (/)-_)
alternatively. For dimensions see Table V and test results fig. 63
),
<- ). Head trim is slightly better at very high speed, but
stern trim much worse at all speeds and 64
[49]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
100%
TRANSOM
Fig. 63. Ci values at different Froude's numbers for the different
transoms and canoe stern (0 per cent.) tried out on the bedi model Fig. 65. Pe
(tow-rope h.p.) curves for the hora boats according to
588. Level trim is better with the large transom but head trim better fig. 39, 41 and 44 and
listed in Table VI. The curves have been
with the smaller one. The best transom is somewhat smaller than the calculated on the results of the tank test with model 587- A. The
original one necessary power oj engines to propel the boats is about twice the P
so
40
BEDI BOATS
Fig. 66. Pe (tow-rope h.p.) curves for the bedi boats according to
53 and 56 and listed in Table VII. The curves have been
fig. 47, 50,
Fig. 64. P- (tow-rope h.p.) curves for the transom tests shown in calculated on the results of the tank test with Model 588- A. The
fig. 62 and 63 necessary power of engines to propel the boats is about twice the P
[SO]
EUROPEAN BEACH LANDING CRAFT
by
HANS K. ZIMMER
many places where natural harbours do
are procedure consequently grew more difficult. A simple
not where the construction of harbours is too
exist, hand-winch was introduced to make the work easier,
^
expensive or where wafer and current conditions the bow of the boats being supplied with a sturdy steel
make such construction virtually impossible. Fishing has eye-bolt to take a hook of the winch wire. Later,
therefore been carried out from open beaches in many portable rollers on wooden flats were put under the keel
places, quite large and efficient boats having been instead of the usual plain wooden sleepers, fig. 68. The
designed for this purpose, and such fisheries have often rollers are made of cast-iron in wooden bearings. A more
assumed great economic importance. modern made in Thisted (Krogh and Christen-
version is
Many countries, now in the process of developing sen) which rolls
" "
on a fixed steel shaft on a greased
fisheries, would benefit from studying the designs of needle bearing. The rollers have two ropes attached
existing beach landing craft in Europe and the techniques to aid transport along the beach. While they greatly
of operation which have been successfully developed reduce they also elevate the boat, causing
friction
by generations of fishermen. difficulty in keeping it transversely balanced. Fig. 69
shows a typical beaching at night. The searchlight is on
DENMARK and the shore crew is directing the boat to the rollers
BEACH FISHING PLACES with the help of long sticks. Portable tripping stanchions
The main Danish beach fishing places are on the north- are used to avoid the boat tipping over once on shore,
east coast of Jutland, between the natural harbour of fig. 70.
Crews from three boats usually work together as a
Tybor^n, in the south, and the artificial harbour of
Hirtshals, in the north. The weather is rough and there
team to launch the boats. The motor is started when the
are not more than about 120 fishing days a year. The boat is on the beach, a special cooling water tank making
this possible. With the exception of the helmsman on
beaches are fairly steep and sandreefs are seldom built
up outside the landing places. The unprotected parts of board, the combined crews push the boat out into the
sea. The clutch is engaged as soon as the boat is in the
the beach are not very stable and most of the landings
have natural rocks or artificial stabilizers. This is
water and, with the controllable pitch propeller in
and launched by astern position, it is seaborne. All engine controls are
necessary, as the boats are beached
in handy positions in the wheel-house. In the same
powerful winches installed in permanent buildings on the
beach. To
save transport, buildings for net stores, fish manner, the second, third and last boats are launched
but after the second launching the crews are reduced by
handling, freezing, etc., are also placed near the beach.
The boats are of strong, clinker-built wood construc- the helmsmen of the first and second boats. As each
tion. The hulls are relatively flat-bottomed and they are
boat has usually a crew of four, it means there are only
fuller than the usual Scandinavian fishing boats, especi-
nine men left to launch the last boat. When the last boat
reaches the water, the launching crews jump on board
ally in the midship section and the part of the stern that
is above water. The boats range up to 40 ft. (12.19 m.)
with the help of a ladder or by steps on the stem itself,
70, and are transferred to the other boats.
length over-all, and 12 gross registered tons (Danish fig.
This procedure has the following disadvantages:
measurement). The larger boats are propelled by hot-
bulb internal combustion engines (semi-diesels) of 35 h.p. (a) beaching is still heavy work and, when using
giving a speed of 7 to 8 knots. rollers, boats often are supported by one roller
only which puts a great strain on the hull and there
LAUNCHING AND BEACHING is a tendency to hog;
In the last century the fishing boats were smaller and were (b) launching is heavy manual work and can only be
launched by man-power. With the introduction of the carried out by co-operation of the crews of a num-
motor, boats became heavier and launching and beaching ber of boats;
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fix. 68
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING EUROPEAN BEACH LANDING CRAFT
(r) a temptation to put the propeller in action before flexible steel wire. The two driving handles fit both the
it is totally submerged, to aid in the last stages primary and secondary shafts. The wooden construction
of the launching, causes undue wear on the stern- is made of 6\ x 3 in. ( 6.5 x 7.6 cm.)
1
planks with stiffeners
gear by the sandy water of the breakers; and a ground-frame of 5$x2J in. (13.9x6.3 cm.)
(d) the boats have to come alongside each other in planks. The connections are dove-tailed and stiffened
open sea to distribute the crews after launching with steel straps. The winches are permanently anchored
so that damages to bulwarks and topsides arc to the beach and require very little maintenance.
frequent. At a number of landing places such as Stenbjerg
Fig. 70
Handwinches were introduced, and are still used, to Vorup^r, Klitmjiller and Lild Strand, power-driven
reduce labour, fig. 70. They are usually made locally winches have been installed with a pulley block per-
from cast-iron gearwheels and bearings, steel shafts and manently anchored in the sea, fig. 71. Anchors and the
wood. The single type has a reduction on the gearwheels submerged pulley block, which is about 400 ft. (120 m.)
of about 6 1 and a drum diameter of 4 in. (100 mm.)
: from the shore, are indicated at the top of the diagram.
minimum for 1 in. (25.4 mm.) flexible steel wire. Some The pulley is about 20 in. (i m.) in diameter and of the
wjnches have foot- or hand-brakes and a stopper working usual cargo block construction. The anchor wire is
on the .larger gearwheel. The double type has a 1-in. connected to a hoop made of 1 \ in. (38 mm.) diameter
diameter primary shaft with a reduction of about 3 1 to : steel; a 16.4 ft. (5 m.) beam of 3.2x3.2x| in. (80 x
the 1J in. (29 mm.) diameter second shaft, which in 80x10 mm.) steel angle is screwed to the block to
turn has about 6:1 reduction to the 1J in. (32 mm.) prevent tripping. A spare block with a tripping beam
diameter drum shaft. The drum has a diameter of is usually kept in the winch-house. The main wires are
5 in. (12.5 cm.) minimum for 1 J to 1$ in. (32 to 38 mm.) led from the anchored block to the two drums of the
[53]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
winch. They usually consist of 5 parts with a 1J in.
(32 mm.) link and two 1 in. (25 mm.) shackles
"
between.
"
The length of the outer, or sea wire, A
of fig. 71, is
about 720 ft. (220 m.) 3f in. (95 mm.) flexible steel wire.
"
This wire is shackled to the intermediate wires B ",
which are each about 185 ft. (56 m.) long. The inter-
mediate wires are shackled to the drum wires, each about
400 ft. (120 m.) long. The winch has two drums which are
{DIAGRAM OF 4-5 ANCHORS
100 FT- )0 METRE*
j
POWERDRIVEN APART
I
BEACH LAfiDING
I JUTLAND -DENMARK
_4-3 IN OALV STCEL WIRE
TRIPPING BEAM
SHACKLES
STW. WIRE*
- -ANCHORED PULLEY BLOCK
./.LAUNCHING WIRE
A..
Fig. 72
B. INTERMEDIATE
WIRE
sternpost and the after end of the keel, and is locked in
position by a bolt, the upper end of which is carried
through a steel tube in the stern to the after deck. There
isan aperture between the steel bands on either side, to
enable the boats to be launched from either side of the
main wires. The other end of the launching wire is
shackled to the link between the sea-wire and the inter-
" "
mediate wire. In fig. 71 the boat marked 1 on the
side connected for launching. The far
000000 right-hand is
side drum is connected to the prime mover by means of
the clutch, the other drum is let loose, and the launching
SLIDING PULLEY
BLOCK
.POVCft-VINCH-HOUSC
Fig. 71
connected by clutches to the prime mover, an electric
motor of about 30 h.p., or an internal combustion engine
of 30 to 60 h.p. Both drums have ample brakes. Some
of the winches are converted steam-trawler-winches,
others are especially manufactured at a price of about
Danish kr.90,000 (4,650; U.S.313,000). The converted
winches are cheaper in first cost.
The launching wire is connected to a special fitting at
the after end of the sternpost, fig. 72. The eye of the
launching wire is put between steel bands secured to the Fig. 73
[54]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING EUROPEAN BEACH LANDING CRAFT
wire and the boat are carried out to sea. When the boat THE BOATS
is seaborne, the skipper raises the locking bolt and the The boats are built locally based on tradition, experience
launching wire drops off. To aid this, a rope attached and imagination. The builders do not work to drawings
to the boat end of the launching wire may be pulled by nor do they take their measurements off models. The
one of the shore gang. Once away from the launching materials are bought and the boat is built according to
wire, the boat is free to move by engaging the propeller the fisherman's order and to the mental picture this
clutch. The motor is always started when on the beach. order creates in the boatbuilder's mind. The smaller
" "
On the left-hand side of fig. 71, the boat 2 has just boats are almost invariably of the transom stern type and
been launched. The time taken for one launching is all are clinker built.
about four minutes.
The beaching wire " E ", fig. 71, 2J to 2| in. (64 to Rowboats
70 mm.) galvanized flexible steel wire, is connected to the
" " " A rowboat of I6 ft. (5 m.) length and 5 ft. (1.7 m.)
stem of the incoming boats, 3 and 4 ". The
beam, will have the following scantlings: keel, 2\ in.
beaching wire may be attached to a pulley block which
(6.4cm.), oak; gunwale 2| x J in. (6.4 x 1.9 cm.), oak or
slides over the beach on a wooden cradle, or the wire may
fir; nine frames with floor timbers 2xJ in. (5.1 x3.8
be led directly to the main pulleys fixed on concrete blocks
cm.), oak or fir; two floor timbers, 8 in. (20.3cm.) high
in the beach, the sliding block being used to ease the
to forma fish hold; skin planking, seven planks each side,
strain on the winch when beaching larger boats.
fin. (1.6 cm.), beech or fir, with butts having inside straps,
The other end of the beaching or sliding-block wire is
riveted by galvanized steel or sometimes copper nails ;
attached to the link between the intermediate wire and
*' stern thwart, about 3^ ft. (1 m.) long; three fixed thwarts
the drum wire. Fig. 71 shows boat 3 ", right-hand
" " with pillars to the keel; thwartstringers, IJxjj in.
side, using a sliding block. Boat 3 will be beached
" (4.4x1.6 cm.). The oars have metal-lined holes to fit
by the same haul that launches boat 1 ". On the left-
" " single pintle rowlocks. Boats have up to three men
hand side of fig. 71, boat 4 has just been beached.
" " crews who fish near the beach with simple gear.
The beach mast indicated as
fairlead Mast in fig. 71,
see also fig. sometimes necessary to break loose the
73, is
Small Motorboats
anchored block when it has been buried in sand by bad
weather. In front of this mast is a fixed pulley that may be A small open motorboat, 20x7 ft. (6.1x2.3 m.)
" "
used for beaching purposes instead of the anchored block. of the pram type may have the following scantlings:
The intermediate wires are then disconnected from the keel, 2x1 in. (6.4x2.5
cm.), oak; hog, 4x2J in. (10.2 x
drum wires and these are shackled to a wire running 6.4 cm.); floor timbers, 3x2 in. (7.6x5.1 cm.) about
over the mast pulley (fig. 73, but not indicated in fig. 71 ). 16 in. (40cm.) apart; frames, 2xli
in. (6.4x3.8 cm.);
In heavy weather it may not be possible to beach the planking, 10 planks each side, jj in. (1.6 cm.); garboard
boats but they are strong and sea-kindly and can stand strake, I in. (1.9 cm.); gunwale, 2$ X 1 i in. (6.4 > 3.8 cm.)
with IJ in. (3.8 cm.) halfround; 4 thwarts. A 5 h.p.
heavy storms. A mast is erected on a nearby hill, from
which special signals in local code are sent to the boats slow, cylinder gasoline engine is fitted aft of
single
in case of difficult or impossible beaching. Most boats amidship, the propeller being the usual reversible type
have wireless receivers and listen to weather reports. located under the stern and protected by the keel aft.
" "
Pram boats use a fin, or sailing bilge keel, under the
Fishing is considered safe work and there have been no
casualties since World War II.
forefoot, to get better course-keeping.
The cost of a power-driven beach landing installa-
first
tion estimated to be about Danish kr.l 10,000 (5,700;
is Large Motorboats
U.S.$1 5,900) and the upkeep, inclusive of the salary of Larger boats 'have a closed-in engine room aft and a
the winch operator, is about Danish kr.25,000 to cabin forward. When longer than about 30 ft. (9.1 m.),
30,000 (1,300 to 1,550; U.S.$3,600 to 4,350) a year. they are decked and have a fish-hold amidship. The bul-
One power winch will serve 12 to 18 boats of about warks must be low and there is a danger of the crew
10 gross registered tons. At Voruprfr, there are two falling overboard when fishing eagerly. To prevent this,
power-winches serving about 25 large boats. the vessels have small square hatches to accommodate
The fishing boats pay a fixed fee and, in addition, the fishermen, two on either side of the fish-hold hatch.
"
I to 2
per cent, of their gross income. To this harbour The hatches fit watertight in oak coamings, flush with
"
due may be added the excessive wear on the bottom of the deck. The fish-hold hatch, about 6 x 6 ft. ( 1 .8 x 1 .8 m.)
the boats which slide on the beach itself, without any has steel or oak coamings with wooden covers which are
sleepers or rollers, but such expenditures are negligible sometimes hinged. The hold itself is divided by portable
compared to the cost of a permanent artificial harbour. wooden boards.
At Hanstholm a permanent harbour is under construc- The wheel house at the after end of the wooden engine
tion but the work has almost stopped, as it is estimated casing usually has its floorboards below the level of the
conservatively that it will cost more than Danish kr. deck. From the front of the wheelhouse there is access to
70,000,000 (3,500,000; U.S.$ 10,000,000) to finish the the engine-room, but all engine and propeller-controls
job(Hanstholm-Udvalget 1946). arc located in the wheelhouse. Rudders are mostly fitted
[55]
on steel posts and are raised above the keels by upturned
skegs to avoid contact with the beach or they may be
elevated by raising the rudder-stock and tiller from the
deck. The more advanced boats have hydraulic steering
arrangements.
The engine room has this arrangement: a single
cylinder hot-bulb (semi-diesel) engine, driving (a) the
hand-operated controllable pitch propeller, usually
two-bladed, connected through a clutch at the after end;
(b) the electric dynamo, about 300 w., 12 v. D.C.,
through a belt drive from the flywheel; (r) the fishing
winch at the forward end of the engine casing, by a belt
or chaindrive from the forward end of the engine. A
bilge pump of the same size as the cooling water pump is
usually built into the engine. Cooling water may be
drawn from a 1 imp. gal. (13 gal., 50 1.) steel tank in the
1
" "
engine room hopper cooling system or from the sea.
Fuel oil is carried in steel tanks containing up to
130 imp. gal. (160 gal., 6001.). As these tanks are placed
low down, it
usually necessary to transfer the oil by
is
handpump to a daily service tank, about 9 imp. gal.
(11 gal., 40 1.), fitted in the engine casing. Extra fuel for
long trips is carried in 9 imp. gal. (11 gal., 401.) drums.
Lubricating oil, about one-tenth of the fuel, is in a
separate tank or in drums.
A tank in the engine room delivers compressed exhaust
gas, for starting, and to the blow lamp. Charging is
done by a pipeline from the engine cylinder. Exhaust
gases are discharged from the engine by a pipe leading
through the casing, ending above the wheel house. The
dynamo charges a storage battery which supplies current
to the signal, deck and cabin lights, and to a search or
floodlight. Sails are carried for an emergency and for
steadying the boat in a seaway.
Drinking water is stored in a glass or wooden cask
and a paraffin stove is used on long trips for cooking.
Usually the boats leave the beach before dawn and return
in the evening but some trips may take about four days.
Description of a typical boat
To give a better impression of these outstanding beach
landing craft, the Jylland is described in detail. (See
linesplan fig. 74 and sailplan fig. 75.) The lines, fig. 74,
are drawn to the frames and not to the outside of the
skin planking as is usual for wooden hulls. Fig. 76
shows the boat on the beach.
Built 1950 by Thisted Skibvaerft; 10.16 gross and
3.0 net registered tons (Danish measurement); length
over-all, 36.8 ft. (11.25 m.); length between perpen-
diculars 32 ft. (9.8 m.); beam 14 ft. (4.20 m.); depth,
4 ft. (1.25 m.); displacement to load water line, inclusive
of keel and planking, about 15 tons. Hot-bulb engine
35 h.p. at 450 r.p.m., with compressed air starting,
driving a controllable pitch propeller through a clutch ;
belt drives for electric dynamo and fishing winch. Two
fuel oil storage tanks, each 66 imp. gal. (79 gal., 300 1.)
and one 9 imp. gal. (1 1 gal., 40 1.) daily service tank, hand-
fuel-transfer pump; lubricating oil tank 13 imp. gal.
(16 gal., 60 1.); cooling water tank for beach-running
[56]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING EUROPEAN BEACH LANDING CRAFT
about 11 imp. gal. (13 gal., 50 1.); speed, 7-8 knots. and-groove pine; ceiling in hold and floorboards.
Scantlings: keel, 10x9 in. (25.4x22.9 cm.), Danish oak, 1 in. thick.
with 3Jxl in. (89x25 mm.) steel bar; hog, 6x6 in. The stern ofJyllandis a departure from the usual, which
5.2 v 5 x 2 cm.) in the midship (fish-hold) only floor a
( 1 1
; is full elliptical stern with a pronounced knuckle
timbers, 4 v3 in. (10.2x7.6 cm.) pine, 13 in. (33cm.) just above the L.W.L., fig. 77.
apart, jj in. (16 mm.) bolts; floor timbers, 3 in. (7.6cm.)
thick, with grown knees at sides to the frames; in engine
room 5 in. (12.7 cm.) thick; in stern, steel floors, IJx ENGLAND
14 in. (44x38 mm.); frames, 3 in. (7.6 cm.) sided x5 in. English beach fishing places arc on the east coast of
(12.7 cm.) moulded, 6A in. (16.5cm.) moulded at the bilge; Yorkshire and Northumberland and on the Channel
r
YLLA N D"
BUILT 1950 BY THISTED SKIBSV/ERFT
SAILPLAN
oo
ENGINE ROOM FISH HOLD CABIN
Fit- 75
shelf, 8 x2J in. (20.3 x 5.7 cm.), pine, tapered towards the and south-east coasts. The boats do not go far out as
ends; deck beams, 3 x3 in. (8.9x7. 6 cm.); deck clamps, there is competition from larger vessels operating from
5x2 in. (12.7x5.1 cm.), from the engine casing to harbours.
cabin; in engine room, 7x3 in. (17.8x8.9 cm.), tapered
tothe stern; planking, 13 strakes, in. (2.5cm.), American
I
oak: the bottom planking is reinforced by wear planks, THE YORKSHIRE COBLE
1 in. beech or oak, renewed about every third year, at a One of the most
distinctive of English beach landing
cost of Danish kr.1,000 (52; U.S.$145); bilge keels, boats is the Yorkshire coble, still operating off the East
four layers of in. beech or oak (mainly to steady the boat
1 coast at such places as Flam borough and Filey. (Carr
on the beach); deck, Jx4 in. (1.9x10.2 cm.), tongue- 1934, Change in Stern Design, 1948, White 1950).
and-groove fir; gunwale slotted at the frames; bulwark The primary purpose of the design of this open boat
rail.6xlJ in. (15.2x3.8 cm.), oak, at the stern 10J x was to enable it to be launched from beaches against
1J in. (26.7x3.8 cm.); height of bulwark about 6J in. heavy breakers and to reach the open sea, requirements
(16.5 cm.) above deck; bulkheads, J in. (1.9 cm.), tongue- for which the coble has proved itself to be so admirably
[57]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 76
Fig. 77
[58]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING EUROPEAN BEACH LANDING CRAFT
suited, in addition
to being a magnificent sea-boat. wind. Some of the larger cobles, however, are fitted with
Great however, is required in handling these craft
skill, a mizen-mast to carry a small standing lug-sail.
and most of the fishermen have only acquired the art by Cobles do no not conform to a standard pattern, local
long and habitual usage. But in unskilled hands or variations having been built. For example, the ports of
through lack of experience these craft are liable to involve Scarborough, Filey and Whitby introduced a double-
disaster, as so truthfully expressed by a competent ended type in which a sharp raking stern was substi-
yachtsman who, in 869, so aptly described the coble as
1 tuted for the flat transom. Furthermore, a normal
"
boat and harbour in one, and each of the very worst projecting keel was adopted but it curved slightly up-
and most dangerous order". wards aft as does the typical coble. This hybrid type,
In the landing operation the coble is manoeuvred combining features of the coble and yawl, was appro-
to get the bow to seaward and, after the rudder has been
"
priately termed a mule ". The rigging resembled that
unshipped and the mast lowered, the boat is put on the of the normal coble but often smaller lug-sail was
crest of a wave and beached. This practice of beaching employed to avoid reefing down the larger lug-sail.
stern first is reponsible for a distinctive structural feature, Nearly remaining cobles are fitted with petrol
all
the use of two side keels instead of the usual central engines so that, notwithstanding the fact that their
keel, extending from stem to stern. They are attached characteristic form has been specially developed for the
to the after part of the underwater hull, which has an purpose of drawing them well up on beaches, there is now
almost flat form, rising gradually to a transom stern. a tendency for these craft to lie at moorings whenever
With the side keels resting firmly on the sand or gravel possible.
beach, the boat can be hauled out of the water without It is interesting to note that cobles of the transom
risk of overturning. stern type are rowed, towed and beached stern first,
The coble is unique in form, possessing remarkable with the rudder unshipped. A transom sterned coble will
forward sheer which gives a high bow with a deep well- draw 2 to 2| ft. (0.61 to 0.76 m.) forward and practically
rounded forefoot, while the stern is low and terminates nothing aft. With the wind abeam it makes little head-
in a flat sharply-raking transom. As a consequence, the way and in running before heavy seas it is apt to broach,
craft have a pronounced curved gunwale and are most and there is the risk of the long rudder breaking or
graceful in appearance. In the above-water form of its being unshipped.
midship section there is an evident likeness to Norwegian
herring boats of recent times. The broad planking,
LAUNCHING AND BEACHING
" "
arranged clinker fashion, the sharp tumble home The boatsare transported by placing them, amid-
of the sheer strake causing the maximum beam to occur ships, on a pair of old lorry or bus wheels. The boats
at its lower edge, and the high hollow bow with its seem to withstand this unusual strain very well.
powerful shoulder, are all features of marked similarity. At Filey there is a flat smooth beach, sheltered on
The coble is not built with a continuous projecting both sides. When launching, the boats are pushed on
"
keel but its central member, known as the ram plank ", the wheels into the sea, bow first, The two propeller
is fashioned from a substantial piece of timber. The fore- blades are kept horizontal to avoid damage from the
most section is narrow and deep but it is gradually beach, the propeller shaft being marked inside the boat
widened and reduced in depth as the after-end is so that the blades can be set in the horizontal position
approached, finally assuming a plank-like form with an at any time.
upturned end, so important when landing stern first on When beaching, the engine is stopped and the boat
shelving gravel beaches. The frames, inserted after the led stern first to the beach, where the shore gang is
boat is planked, are of dak, carefully fitted to the angular waiting with the wheels and the tractor. The gang
assembly of the strakes, the result of the use of unusually consists of 9 men, inclusive of the tractor driver. The
wide planks. Owing to the absence of a continuous boat's crew is usually two, but when longlining three.
"
central keel, two beeching keels, termed skorvels ", The tractor is of a usual agriculture type and seems to
are fitted to the after part of the hull to provide the work well with the axles awash. The boat is lifted on to
necessary protection when beaching. The planking is the wheels and is pulled out of the sea by the tractor.
prepared from locally grown larch or oak and the sheer - The weight of the bigger cobles is about 3 tons, inclusive
strake is 18 in. (46 cm.) wide in a large coble given a of engine and gear, and the catch may be up to 300 stones,
"
noticeably sharp tumble home ". or about 2 tons. The average catch is 80 to 100 stones
One peculiarity of the coble is the narrow and very (1,120 to 1,400 lb., 510 to 640 kg.) a day.
long rudder attached to the sharply raking transom. At Flamborough Head there are two landing places,
It extends a considerable distance below the hull, to north and south of the Head, the north being the main
serve as a deep keel or centre board. The tiller is of one. It has a narrow beach in a bay surrounded by rocks
remarkable length and is so shaped to be readily acces- and, on the hill overlooking the bay, is a winch house
sible to the helmsman. The normal rig of cobles consists containing a 45 h.p. gasoline engine, with a friction
of one tall mast, with a well-defined rake aft, carrying a clutch and belt drive to the winch, and carrying a 2J in.
single large dipping lug-sail which is provided with bow- (64 mm.) flexible steel wire on its drum. When a boat
lines to enable the boat to sail unusually close to the is being beached the wire is led over fixed pulleys and
[59]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 78. Transom sternetl Yorkshire coble
Fig, 79. Stern view of Yorkshire coble on ifs beach cradle Fig. 80. Bow view of Yorkshire coble
[60]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING EUROPEAN BEACH LANDING CRAFT
3.2 cm.); middle thwart aft of engine, fastened with
double steel knees at sides. The mast is placed aft of the
bow thwart.
The cost (1952) of a 26 ft. (7.9 m.) coble was approxi-
mately:
Hull and rigging . . . 650 (U.S.$1,820)
petrol) ....
Engine and capstan (15 h.p.,
350 (U.SJ 980)
1,000 (U.S.*2 t 800)
THE HASTINGS LUGGER
Launching and beaching
Hastings, on the south coast, has a steep pebble beach
and the boats must be brought over shelves of pebbles
Fig. 81. Typical lines and sail plans" of a "31 ft. 8 in. (9.65 m.) to a safe position above high water level. Power-driven
Yorkshire coble of the mule type
winches are used in conjunction with sliding blocks and
strong tallow lubricated sleepers. Most of the winches
connected to two substantial bollards at the stern of the are driven by second hand lorry gasoline engines develop-
coble, one on each side. Greased wooden sleepers, or ing about 35 h.p. although some are electrically driven,
skids, are placed under the boat when it is hauled along but they are smaller and only about 5 h.p. The smaller
the beach. The winch owner makes a fixed weekly charge boats are hauled by steel hand-winches. As at Flam-
for beaching. In launching, the boats are lowered down borough the winches are used for beaching only. The
the hill without using the winch and are pushed into the 2\ in. (64 mm.) circumference winch wire is led through
water. a pulley block sliding on the beach and back to a fixed
position near the winch. The hook of the sliding block
Description of boat takes a | in. (16 mm.) chain that is led through a hole in
"
Coble engines are mostly of the gasoline or gasoline- the forefoot. The sleepers (" throws at Hastings) are
paraffin type, with reverse gear, from 10 to 35 h.p., substantially built of oak, 30 x 24 x 4 in. (76 x 61 x 10 cm.)
with two through-bolts on each side, to prevent splitting.
giving speeds from 6 to 9 knots. Small, high-speed
diesels are also used, sometimes with reduction gear, It is not unusual for the beach to be faired to make
but the high initial cost is usually out of the fishermen's beaching and launching possible. Normally the beach is
reach. Power is taken off the forward end through a dog steep enough for launching by gravity. To control the
clutch and chain drive to a shaft along the boat, beneath speed one fluke of an ordinary stock anchor is made into
the floorboards. It carried to the fishing, or lobsterpot,
is
a handle and the other fluke dropped into the beach to
act as a brake.
capstan aft, which may be reversible and will always have
an emergency cut out. The 1 in. (25 mm.) hand-driven
bilge pump is amidship. Description of boat
The coble usually 25 to 30 ft. (7.6 to 9.1 m.) long,
is To withstand these labourious operations over such a
" "
the pointed stern or mule type being longer than the rugged surface, the Hastings luggers, fig. 82, must be
transom sterner. Both types are clinker-built with nine robust and have considerable breadth with little rise of
strakes each side, excluding the rising plank forward. floor. They are a particular type developed on the south
The propellers work in shallow tunnels formed by a lifted coast. During the first half of the nineteenth century
central keel and deep sidekeels on each side. The maxi- the sterns of all Hastings boats were of the typical square
mum depth of tunnel is about 18 in. (46 cm.). The transom form, but about 1880 the "lute" stern, or a
** " 44
mules have their propellers about one quarter of the beaching counter ", became universal on the larger
length from the stern. boats. The present boats have a more rounded form of
Scantlings: keel, 4( x6 in. (H.4x 15.2cm.), oak; hog, stern, fig. 83.
4x2 (11.4x6.4 cm.); planking, 8 strakes, f in.
in. A typical Hastings lugger, fig. 82 and 83, is the
(1.6cm.), larch; sheer-strake, 1 in. (2.5 cm.), oak; floor Edward and Mary, R.X.74, 22 gross and 7.56 net
timbers, 4 x2in. (10.2 x5cm.), oak, about 10 in. (25.4cm.) registered tons. Her registered dimensions are 27 ft. 9 in.
:
apart amidship; frames, 1 JxlJ in. (3. 8x3.8 cm.), oak, x 11 ft. x 3 ft. 7 in. (8.5 x 3.4 x 1.1 m.). The sails
scarped to the floor timbers; rubbing piece under the consist of jib, foresail and mizzen, and fishing is done by
sheerstrake, 1 in. (4.4 cm.), oak; gunwale, 3Jx2in. nets, lines and small trawls. There are, of course, several
(8.9x5.1 cm.), oak or ash; thwart stringer, 2JxlJ in. smaller types operating, a typical example being the
(6.4x3.2 cm.); thwarts, 5 to 6, llxlj in. (27.9 x Rose Mary Ann, about 28 ft. (8.5 m.). Two of the many
[61]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
. 83 Fig. 84
[62]
countries. Fishing
from the beaches
northern European coast.
common on the Hastings alUlong the Portuguese
dfterent stern form, place
power
called Saveiro,
used for
is
her tvoe at Caparica
c
ffiSSSSSSs
[63 ]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
sions: 14 ft. 5 in.xS ft. 10 in.xl ft. 10 in. (4.4xl.8x
0.55 m.) and is about 1.2 registered tons.
Because the boats ship water over the ends when going
through the breakers, they are provided with waterways
and scuppers all round. Although there is a small arti-
at P6voa
ficial harbour built before the war, at a cost of
more than Esc. 30,000,000 (370,000; U.S.$ 1,040,000)
too small to give any protection in bad weather. In
it is
the district there are some 1,000 fishermen
operating
about 325 boats, a number of which are kept in nearby
harbours during the off season. There is an average of
about 100 fishing days a year.
Nearly the same conditions prevail at Vila do Conde,
but the waterways and scuppers on the boats are omitted,
otherwise the Catraias are of the same form.
A third form of small rowing boat is the Xavega,
which is found on the Nazare beach. The Xavega and
the Candil, which is without the pointed stern,
its sister,
are used as auxiliary craft in beach seining. Their
planking of J to | in. (1.3 to 1.6 cm.) is supported by
Fig. 86 2 in. (6.4 cm.) frames, not more than 8 in. (20 cm.)
apart.
the beach by rocking it longitudinally and swinging it At Nazare there is an average of 200 fishing days a
when supported at the ends. year and about 1,500 fishermen operate about 150 sailing
In the north of Portugal, at Povoa de Varzim and craft and 50 motorboats. The landing is protected from
Vila do Conde, the small type of beach landing craft, the prevailing north-west winds by a rocky head, and as
the Catraia, is double-ended and almost without sheer. the fishing village is built close to the beach, the boats
A typical Povoa de Varzim type, fig. 86, has the dimen- " "
must be parked in the streets and squares during the
ti
Fig. 87
[64]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING EUROPEAN BEACH LANDING CRAFT
winter storms. Besides the boats already described there to the frames. The longitudinal and transverse timbers
are larger types called Barcos, small powered transom have beautifully scarped reinforced by
connections,
sterners, and the Peniche types. galvanized steel straps. The dimensions of such a boat
The Barcos are double-ended rowboats with a full are: 21.6 (19.1) x 8.1 x 3.4 ft. (6.57 (5.81) x 2.46 x
midship section and are used mostly for sardine transport 1.05 m.). The cost, with a 10 h.p. single cylinder hot-
from the fishing grounds to the beach and for beach bulb engine, mast rigging and sail, is about Esc.55,000
seining. An average Barco, fig. 87, is 34x11x3.6 ft. (680; U.S.$1,900), the engine accounting for more
(10.5x3.4x1.1 m.). The transom sterners are about than half of it.
Fig. 88
25 ft. (7.6 m.) long and are easier to build than those with The Linda Pastora ex Digna Flor of Nazare is a
44 "
a rounded stern. Peniche type with the dimensions: 32.8 (28.1) x 10.4
x3.4 ft. (10 (8.57) x 3.18x1.04 m.) and 5.5 gross
Larger boats registered tons. It is powered by a 25 h.p. hot-bulb
Of the larger Portuguese beach boats the Peniche type engine with reverse gear, giving a speed of 6 knots. The
is the most popular, especially on the coast between cost of the Linda Pastora is estimated at Esc. 100,000
Peniche and Aveiro. On the beach of Nazare the boats (1,240; U.S.$3,460) and she carries a crew of 18.
reach 17 gross registered tons and have engines up to The Estrelinha, fig. 88, is 1 1 gross registered tons and
75 h.p. is powered by a 50 h.p. hot bulb engine. Main dimen-
A typical small Peniche type has substantial keel, hog sions: length, over-all, 38.5 ft. (11.7 m.); length, pp..
and engine bearers to floors and frames, riveted with 33.7 ft. (10.25 m.); breadth 10.5 ft. (3.5 m.); depth
galvanized steel bolts, but the planking is simply nailed 3.6 ft. (1.1 m.). The general lay-out is shown in the
[65]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
fines plan, midship sections and longitudinal plan of (Ministry of Transport) keeps a strict eye on all boat-
rigs.89,90,91. building activities. Even for small craft, drawings must
The Gloria a Deus is one of the largest boats at Nazarf, be submitted for approval and, for vessels above 25 gross
16.1 gross registered tons. Dimensions: 41.6 (36.4) x registered tons, hydrostatic curves and cross curves of
[3.2x4.1 ft. (12.68 (1 1. 05) X 4.02x1. 24 m.). She has stability are required. The Direfao also assures that the
a 75 h.p., three-cylinder hot-bulb engine, giving a speed boats are built according to the plans. The boatbuilders
of 9 knots in light condition. Connection between the seldom make drawings ; they usually work on measure-
wheel house and the engine room is by means of a string- ments taken off a wooden scale model, so they send their
operated bell and a speaking tube. As in Denmark, a models to a naval architect or draughtsman to have the
nopper cooling tank is fitted for running the engine on the required plans made. These plans, although adding to
Fig. 89
oeach, and there is a mechanical drive to the winch on the cost of the boats, are valuable when investigating the
:he foredeck. Gloria a Deus carries a fishing crew of reasons for disasters, failures and defects of design. In
20 but she cannot accommodate them all below deck the long run, a secondary advantage will be a safer
so her trips are not very long. development of new forms and constructional details.
All boats have fixed blade propellers with reverse gears,
or directly reversible engines, controllable pitch pro-
pellers are not used.
SPAIN
The boats of Nazare are beached and hauled by man- Fishing from open beaches is done along the Mediter-
power or by bulls. Up to 20 bulls are required for ranean coast by boats of oar, sail and engine propulsion.
beaching big boats. Launching, bow first, is aided by At places near Barcelona Badalona, Vilasar de Mar
che crew pulling the cable of previously laid anchors. and Vilanueva there are permanent electrical winches
In the calm season the larger boats are kept at mooring for beaching and sometimes also for launching, fig. 92.
-buoys some distance from the beach. When launching, a block is fixed on an anchored buoy,
The Portuguese Dire$ao da Marinha Mercante some distance from the beach, and the winch wire is
[66]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING EUROPEAN BEACH LANDING CRAFT
ftCALC IN FCIT
1 ? 3
SCAlf IN MITftES
MIDSHIPS SECTION
090 1
Hg. 90
led over fairleads on the beach to the buoy and over the 1.6 ft. m.). There is a 1 ft. (0.3 m.) bul-
(5.7x2.2x0.5
block back tD the boat. The buoy is removed in winter. wark around, with free openings at the sides of the
all
Steel hand-winches are also used and, at Vilanueva and heavily cambered deck. Two side keels are set at an
Sitges, a particular kind of capstan made of wood angle, over the midship part, down to the level of the
reinforced by steel bands, is used. Wooden bars are keel, to act as stabilizers when on the beach, fig. 92 and
inserted in it and up to 12 men work them. The beaching 94. The scantlings are: keel, 5xl in. (12.7x3.8 cm.);
wire is led through one or more sliding blocks before it is sidekeels, \\ in. (3.8 cm.); hog, 7 x2J in. (17.8x5.7 cm.)
turned round the capstan barrel. midship to 3x2J
in. (8.9x5.7 cm.) at ends; floor
Even the small double-ended sailing boats are decked, timbers, 2JxlJ in. (5.7x3.8 cm.) double, about 10 in.
fig. 93. The dimensions are generally: 19x7.25x (25 cm.) apart; planking, | to I in. (1.9 to 1 1 cm.);
Fig. 91
[67]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
deck, J in. (1.9 cm.); covering board, 1 in. (2.5 cm.); A stainless steel boat 1938; A new type of lifeboat 1946;
beams, 2xlJ in. (5.1 x3.8 cm.), 10 in. (25 cm.) apart; De Reddingboot 1952).
shelf, 5x1 in. (12.7x2.5 cm.); rail, 3x2 in. and Lifeboats are launched by the fishermen's winches on
3 x 1 J :in. (7.6 x 5.1 and 7.6 x 3.2 cm.); and three hatches, the Jutland coast, but have usually their own beaching
20x20 in., 41x27 in. and 30x27 in. (51x51 cm., winch. Lifeboat launching gear is in general too elaborate
104x69 cm. and 76x69 cm.). and expensive to suit commercial fishing. The lifeboats
The boats have a crew of three to four men and the in the Netherlands and England are very often launched
average value of the catch per boat per day is about from the beach under the lee of the vessel in distress and
300 pesetas (3; U.S.$8). Near Valencia the beach it calls for rapid movements
along the beach from the
boats are laid up during the winter, and the fishermen station to the wreck. The boats are placed on a specially-
join the bigger vessels which need more men in winter constructed carriage and wheeled along the beach and
than in summer. A
Masnou motorboat with sail and launched by the aid of a team of horses or by a water-
petrol engine is shown in fig. 93. proofed tractor.
The lifeboat's hullform is developed from Scandinavian
practice. The first lifeboats were double-enders, but in
" "
the Netherlands a modified pram type hull has been
very popular. The present tendency seems to indicate
keeping the reserve buoyancy with low free-
fuller sterns,
board at the stern. The bow is made finer with more
freeboard. Buttock lines are kept flat, particularly in
the after body. Lifeboats can be, and are mostly, self-
righting, a quality desirable also for a fishing boat, but
the necessary tanks at the ends would greatly affect its
efficiency. In fact, the self-righting tanks are also rather
a nuisance on the lifeboats and many stations prefer to
do without them which indicates that fishing boats
should not be made self-righting.
Lifeboats have their propellers working in tunnels
to protect them from damage when grounding and from
being entangled in ropes and wreckage. This feature is,
to a certain extent, used in fishing boats such as the
Yorkshire coble, but most fishing boats are able to
control the beaching better than a lifeboat. But even a
fishing boat's propeller would be safer if protected in a
tunnel.
Propellers are not the solemeans of propulsion. There
is jet propulsion, severalforms of which have the advan-
tage of being protected inside the hull. Such inventions
92
have been, and will be, tried by the lifeboat institutions
Fig.
and may save a lot of trouble for the fishermen. Choice of
engines is easier for lifeboats. They have expert engineers
The Spanish way of securing the beaching wire is and can spend more on maintenance, but fishermen
somewhat unusual. There is a transverse, substantial require cheap engines that will run economically with
wooden member through the bow, just above the little expert attendance and maintenance. Speed is
forefoot. A hole in this member takes the wire, which is important in both life-saving and fishing operations.
also slung over the top of the stem, fig. 94. The speed of the lifeboats, however, is mostly higher than
is economical for fishing boats. The maximum speed,
in knots, of a seagoing fishing boat in light condition
SPECIFIC BEACHING PROBLEMS
should be 1.3 x V length of^vaterline in feet. While this
SOLUTIONS BY THE LIFEBOAT INSTITUTIONS
speed is already the maximum for fishing boats, the life-
The beach lifeboats are faced with much the same boat institutions have increased speed and are trying to
problems as the beach fishing boats but lifeboats must develop boats of the planing type still retaining the
be prepared to go out under much harder conditions of necessary seaworthiness for operation in bad weather.
weather and the boats and gear must be the very best Smaller fishing boats in Europe are usually made of
obtainable. Much ingenuity and scientific research have wood, with the exception of the Netherlands ; so are
been spent on developing the beach lifeboat hullform, many lifeboats. It may be possible that wood is the
propulsion, constructional details, choice of materials better material, but lifeboat institutions are also experi-
and launching gear, etc. (Report of the International menting in this field. While fishing boat builders argue
Lifeboat Conference 1936, 1947, 1951; Svetsaren 1943; about the advantages of carvel or clinker construction,
[68]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING EUROPEAN BEACH LANDING CRAFT
lifeboats being made of double diagonal wood,
are form the naval amphibium
fishing boat but in its present
laminated mouldings, plywood, steel, stainless steel, istoo expensive and elaborate to interest fishermen. The
aluminium and plastics. These experiments should be amphibium, however, is there to be simplified and
watched with interest by the fishermen. adapted to peace-time work.
SOLUTIONS BY THE NAVY GENERAL PROBLEMS
Mechanical propulsion of beach fishing boats
Military invasions from the sea take the easiest path,
which very often leads over the beaches. The main The easiest engine to instal in beach fishing I oats is
object of the naval landing craft is to unload the men and undoubtedly the outboard. Such engines are commer-
war material; what becomes of the ship is of secondary cially available in a range from J to more than 25 h.p.,
importance. The craft has to be a shallow draft vessel weighing from 10 to 110 Ib. (4.5 to 50 kg.). Their
that can be beached bow first with the bow as near dry approximate weight in kg. is 7 x h.p. | A high-speed,
land as possible, features which are not easily incor- 4,000 r.p.m. gasoline engine, drives the vertical shaft of
porated in a seagoing ship. the outboard and the built-in tank for the gasoline and
One solution to this military problem is the amphibium, oil mixture has usually a capacity for one hour's running
a vessel that can sail from a transport ship to the beach, at full speed. Refuelling at sea is possible by a special
proceed under its own power up the beach, unload, and arrangement, including an air pump on the storage
go back again (Lifeboat Conference 1947, Jackson 1952). tank and a flexible pipeline to the engine tank. Outboard
Such amphibious abilities would be an asset to a beach engines are not considered to be very reliable, but they
Fig. 93
[69]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
are cheap in first cost and handy in the smaller sizes. gives greater wear tolerances. a crankcase scavenged,
It is
For fishing near the shore with oars and sail, outboards 2-cycle engine that minimum of routine
requires a
may be worth a trial as an auxiliary means of propulsion, maintenance and repairs can be done locally. The
particularly where existing boats are of the transom stern gasoline- and gasoline-paraffin engine has a vulnerable
type as the installation requires little or no alterations electrical ignition system and uses a highly taxed and
to the hull. For such installations, however, extra long inflammable fuel, but despite these drawbacks, the
shafts are recommended. 1-cyl. variety isa very simple engine to run.
If inboard engines are to be installed the hull should From a technical point of view, the best and most
be designed as a motor-boat, as conversions such as the efficient engine is the compression-ignition engine, the
Hastings lugger, fig. 83, are not likely to be very efficient. diesel. Suitable types are commercially available from
This means the introduction of new types of boats, which about 5 h.p. upwards. Gasoline and diesel engines are
is always a difficult matter. Handling the boats in surf also available with air-cooling, instead of the usual sea-
and at sea requires a skill developed locally through water-cooling. Where there is frost or much dirt in the
generations and any change in hull form will require water, air-cooling may be of special advantage, and
adjustments in handling because the movements and the elimination of seawater-cooling would be an asset
as water near a beach is usually contaminated with
sand. The installation of a cooling water tank in the boat
is one solution to avoid the sand, but a fresh-water
cooling system might work better. In frosty places, a
suitable anti-freeze cooling medium could be applied
and fresh water cooling would permit engines to be run
at a higher and more profitable temperature, and cor-
rosion of the cylinder block would be diminished.
If the engine is driving a fixed propeller, there will have
to be a reverse gear between the engine and the propeller
shaft. A controllable pitch propeller will require a
clutch so that the propeller can be stopped when the
engine is running. On the decked boats, one crew member
can be spared by extending the controls of the engine
and propeller to a suitable position near the helm or the
steering wheel. With such controls the engineer does not
need to be permanently in the engine room and can join
the deckhands during fishing operations.
Jet-propulsion, inclusive of the Hotchkiss and Gill
propellers, has so far proved to be inferior to ordinary
propellers. The new Kermath Hydrojet has still to be
tested in commercial beach fishing operations, and is
Fig. 94 unfortunately only available with one rather large-size
gasoline engine. Inventions, such as the Voith-Schneider
propeller, could be installed with advantage, but the
behaviour of the boat will be different. The change may added mechanical complications and the cost are big
be to the better, as judged by an unbiased naval architect, drawbacks, and as a Voith-Schneider propeller also
but the fisherman may not agree. The smaller and more acts as a rudder, it must have unrestricted water in all
primitive the boats, the more difficult will be the change directions. The same applies to the Kitchen rudder,
to the more advanced mechanized types. Development and these devices are difficult to install in conjunction
must, on account of the human element, be gradual, with sidekeels in the afterbody. The Kort nozzle would
and the main problem is the persuasion and education of improve the thrust when dragging nets, setting lines,
the fishermen. and against adverse weather, but would also impair
The fact that the fishermen really have to know their the manoeuvrability.
engines not merely press a starter button like a car The solution of the problem is an ordinary propeUer
driver but to be able to do emergency repairs at sea with fixed blades or, preferably, a controllable pitch
calls for the simplest and most robust type of engine. propeller, protected in a tunnel formed by deep side-
Apart from England, where gasoline, gasoline-paraffin keels or by having a substantial skeg. In Japan, and also
and diesel engines are used, the most popular beach at the island of St. Pierre (La pftche aux iles 1953),
fishing boat engine is the hot-bulb or semi-diesel. the propeller can be lifted during the launching and
This engine has the drawback of consuming more fuel, beaching to keep it in a safe, elevated position, fig. 95.
particularly lubricating oil, than a full diesel. It is also This vertical movement is made possible by fitting a
heavy and slow running, but robust and reliable, able universal joint on the propeller-shaft, just outside the
to stand up to a lot of abuse, and the heavy construction stern-tube. At the front of the propeller, aft of the
[70]
SHORT-DISTANCE FISHING EUROPEAN BEACH LANDING CRAFT
universal joint, is a bearing supported by a screw (tubes point support and the bottoms withstand bumping on the
or rods are also used), extending to convenient height in beach and over reefs.
the boat or at the stern. The position of the propeller European beach fishing boats are normally built of
may then be controlled by turning the supporting screw wood. The advantages of wood are its low cost favour-
or by lifting the tube or rod. Apart from the wear on able strength-weight ratio, elasticity, thermal conduc-
the universal joint and the outer propeller bearing, the tivity and the ease with which it can be formed and
device seems to be a practical one, particularly for con- assembled by simple and familiar operations. The
versions of many native types of hulls to engine pro- drawbacks are its hygroscopic, heterogeneous structure
pulsion. The boats of St. Pierre Island are of the flat and its vulnerability to rot and decay, features that make
bottom dory type. strength calculations difficult and uncertain (Hendersor
The beaching and launching gear on shore will depend 1948, Wood Handbook 1940, Bjursten 1947, Noren 1948,
on the local conditions and the size of the boats. The Hoist 1952).
mechanical system used in Jutland is the most advanced. To overcome the first of these drawbacks, double- or
In some places it may be advantageous to have the triple-diagonal construction of panels like skin and bulk-
anchored block floating, preferably between two buoys, heads is one solution, but such panels are difficult to
to counteract tripping of the block. The wear on the repair. A number of beach lifeboats and naval craft
anchored block would be diminished with no chance of are built according to this method, which gives light and
it being buried in sand, but the strain on the anchors, strong construction with good results. Another solu-
particularly during storms, might prohibit such arrange- tion, that of laminated wood and plywood panels, is
ment. In warm climates, hand- winches and the Filey coming into use with the aid of modern marine glues
wheels may be the simplest way of beaching, launching (Stevens 1948, Hearmon Boat forms, such as the
1948).
and transport. fishing dory and hard chine transom sterners, lend them-
selves favourably to plywood construction, particularh
for smaller boats, when plywood panels are long enough
BUILDING MATERIALS
to omit butt joints of the planking. But it is not feasible
Notes on scantlings and modes of construction for the larger boats of, say, Denmark and Portugal,
Beach boats must be built stronger than common boats except perhaps for the construction of bulkheads
so that the hulls can stand the longitudinal strain of one- casings, deckhouses and other smaller items.
Fig. 95
[71]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
In the Netherlands, steel is a popular building material, depths of water). In shallow water of uniform depth, the
even for small lifeboats. The main drawbacks are orbits which the water particles are describing, and which
corrosion and high thermal conductivity. For the small are circular in deep water, tend to flatten owing to inter-
boats the plating must be very thin, a matter of a sixteenth ference with the bottom. Near the surface, the orbit
of an inch or a few millimetres and such thin shells are becomes an ellipse with the major axis horizontal, and
soon rusted through and are vulnerable to local defor- as the bottom is approached, the vertical movement is
mations, so that extra thickness of the bottoms seems reduced until the particles only move to and fro at the
to be necessary. Composite construction of steel and bottom. This becomes effective when the water depth
wood may be feasible if the steel is made to carry all the is less than half the wavelength.
main strains on the hull and the wood is used for planking Waves are not reflected from a beach as from a steep
and deck, i.e. only to keep out the water. rock, but the energy is broken down gradually. When
Aluminium is now being used extensively in the build- uniform ocean waves approach the coast and the water
ing of boats and ships. It is lighter, antimagnetic and, becomes shallow, the velocity decreases and successive
in certain alloys, less corrosive than steel. The welding waves tend to close up. The effect of this closing up is
of aluminium is, however, not so easy as the welding of to make the shape of the waves conform. to that of the
steel and most aluminium structures are riveted. Alu- coastline so that a long line of a wave may break almost
minium beach boats would be more expensive than the simultaneously against a flat beach. The waves them-
present wooden ones, but lighter and stronger, except selves become sharp at the crests as they are slowed down
for local deformations. Items such as tanks, including and, because of this, the crests become unstable, break
ballast tanks, may be built into the hull structure. In down and finally become waves of translation rushing
Jutland, where the boats are beached on sand, aluminium up the beach.
hulls should be well worth a trial. Composite aluminium The dangerous zone for the beach boat is where the
and wood construction is being used in British boat- wavecrests are starting to break. Water is likely to come
building for Royal Naval Motor Minesweepers, about over the end launched first and wash the decks clean or
150 ft. (46 m.) in length. This mode of construction may fill an open boat, and there is always the danger of being
be a practical solution for future large beach boats. thrown broadside on by a wave and being capsized by
In addition to metal hulls, much research and investi- the next. The speed of the crests, according to Taylor
gation is being done, particularly by the U.S. Navy and (1933), exceeds 10 knots at 10 ft. (3.05 m.) still water
Coast Guard, on plastic hulls (Lifeboat Conference depth. Conditions of the surf will vary with the size
1951, Jackson 1952, Plastics in boat building, 1951, of the waves and the slope of the beach. At a certain
1953). The moulds in which these boats are made are beach there will be a size of wave that prohibits any
expensive and mass production is, therefore, of primary beaching attempts but, then, the weather will most
importance. likely be too rough for fishing.
A hull form like the coble seems to be ingeniously
GENERAL BEACH PROBLEMS designed for passing the surf with the bow facing the
direction of the waves, but it is not a boat easily handled,
Effect on hull form particularly in the open sea. Hull forms of the Jutland
In order to maintain an upright position when on the and the Portuguese types are a more judicious compro-
beach, the bottom of a boat should be flat or steadying mise between a seagoing and a beach boat. They are
sidekeels should be applied, preferably near the end able to tackle the surf with either the stern or the bow
that is beached first and launched last (e.g. Yorkshire and in cases of emergency such as sudden storms, there
coble) as the draught at the beached end is then at a is no need to perform the risky turning of the boat
minimum, which saves the crew from going too far into outside the beach surf. Because of their broad gunwales,
the water. In launching, the real trouble is the passing or decks, particularly at the ends, the Peniche type of
of the breaking waves. Once outside the surf, the beach Portugal must be lively in a seaway, but as they usually
problems are left behind, and the boats should preferably work in a regular swell or in calm, liveliness makes little
behave as do other good seakindly vessels. difference. Actually, the difference in a seagoing and a
The simplified form of ocean waves and their mathe- beach boat of the Peniche type is the flatter bottom and
matical and geometrical analysis may be known from buttock lines of the beach boat, the deck line being
text-books (Taylor 1933). The effect of such waves about the same in both forms. The Jutland boats
coming across shallow water is a retardation of the speed have largely retained their original seagoing qualities
of the wave ((Taylor fig. 11 and 12, show the relation and, as they are mechanically beached and launched,
between length of wave and speed of advance in various their transverse stability on the beach is sufficient.
172]
SMALL FISHING BOATS IN PORTUGAL
by
JOAQUIM GORMICHO BOAVIDA
Portuguese motorized fishing boats are almost object of selecting standard designs of powered fishing
THE entirely developed from older local types of sailing
boats. They usually stay at sea for only one or two
boats, and types of sail and oar fishing craft suitable for
motorizing. The selected boats will be those whose crew
days. They are suited to local conditions and are reason- and owners confirm their seaworthiness and economical
ably safe, but some are not as fast or economical as
fishermen would like them to be. LANChAS PE PE3CA MOTORIZADAS MATRlCULADAS NO PORTO DE PCNICHE EM 1OSA
Powering small boats presents different problems in NdMCftO 01 tNBAIKACfttft C MKCINTAMM
the north, central and south coastal fishing centres of
Portugal, but in all these places the fishermen are anxious
to install motors in their boats, particularly in coastal
long-liners and lobster catchers.
This is a direct result of the improved standard of life
of Portuguese fishermen and of the interest free loans
" "
granted them by their Casas dos Pescadores (" Fisher-
men's Houses "). The primary object of the credit
programme is to increase production and to lower the
price of fish by the use of more efficient boats and gear.
To achieve necessary to remove some technical
this, it is
and economical mainly in the north and south
factors,
coast fishing centres. It is felt that the engines sometimes
are larger than necessary, and that in some instances,
they are not suitable for marine operation. Overpowering
makes operation more expensive. The engines weigh
down the hull and increase fuel consumption without
contributing much to higher speed.
Investigations are being made by the Gabinete de
Estudos das Pescas (Fisheries Research Office) with the
4 5 5-6 6-7 7-0 ft -9 9-10 -n
RITMO DA MOTORIZACAO DA2
Fig. 97. Peniche's engine propelled fishing craft, according to length
groups: 13 to 16ft. (4 to 5 m.); 16 to 20ft. (5 to 6 m.); 20 to 23ft.
(6 to 7 m.); 23 to 26ft. (7 to 8 m.); 26 to 30 ft. (8 to 9 m.); 30 to 33 Jr.
(9 to JO m.)
operation as being superior to all other types. Later*
the investigators hope to improve the seaworthiness
and economical operation of the boats by tank
testsof models. The plans resulting from this study
willbe at the disposal of the fishermen, free of charge,
so that they can build the boats through the credit
1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1946 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 programme.
It is intended to avoid, as much as possible, the building
Fig. 96. Motorization of the fishing craft at Ericeira of larger, faster and more complicated boats in the
[73]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
TABLE VIII
Lobster Catcher of Peniche
TABLE X
Main dimensions:
TABLE IX
Lobster catcher of Peniche
Main dimensions: TABLE XI
Length, over-all
Length, registration Long-liner of Sesimbra
Length, for tonnage calculations
Breadth, over-all Main dimensions:
Breadth, registration
Breadth, for tonnage calculations A
21.3
m.
6.50
Depth, forward Length, over-all
Depth, aft ....
Depth, amidships
Depth, registration .
Moulded, breadth
Moulded, depth
8.2
2.8
2.50
0.85
Gross tonnage
Net tonnage
....
Depth, for tonnage calculations
....
.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT /fc. 108
Scantlings:
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT/^. 102
Keel
Floor timbers
Middle futtocks
Keelson .
Shelf
Stringers .
Bilge keels
Beams
Coamings
Waterways
Deck
Rail
Wale
Outside planking
Sheerstrake
Topside planking
{74]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING SMALL FISHING BOATS IN PORTUGAL
TABLE XII TABLE XIV
Sardine seiner of Peniche
Engine-propelled long-liner of Sesimbra
Mam dimen\ions:
Main dimensions:
Length, over-all
Length, between perpendiculars
... . 42.6
39.7
m.
13.00
12.10
.....
. . .
Breadth, moulded 13.1 4.00
......
. .
Breadth, extreme 13.5 4.10
Depth, moulded 4.2 1.28
Distance from underside of keel to topside of beam 3.3 1.02
Draught, forward
Draught, aft ........ .
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
. .
Jig.
.
113
3.1
4.5
0.94
1.38
Scantlings:
TABLE XV
Sardine seiner of Sesimbra
Mam (/i mentions.
m.
Length, over-all 45.3 13.80
Length, between perpendiculars . 36.4 11.10
Breadth, extreme 13.3 4.06
Depth, forward 8.1 2.47
Depth, amidships 59 1.80
Depth, aft 7.7 2.34
Depth, moulded 4.3 1.30
Depth, registration 4.1 1.25
Draught, moulded 3.6 1.10
Volume of displacement, in cu. m. 26.90
Displacement, in tons 27.59
Block coefficient 0.54
TABLE XI 11 Water plane coefficient 0.76
Midship coefficient . 0.80
Sardine seiner of Peniche Prismatic coefficient 0.675
Mam dimensions: GENERAL ARRANCJFMENT ftg. 114
m.
Scantlings :
Length, over-all 53.8 16.40 in. mm.
Length, between perpendiculars 39.4 12.00 Keel 7x4.3 180x110
Breadth, extreme 14.7 4. 48 Stem
Depth, moulded 5.6 1.72
Stern-post
Mean draught 4.1 1.25
Apron
Displacement to 10 WL . 39.06 cu. m. Deadwood
Block coefficient 0.57 Floor timbsrs .
Middle futtocks
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT;fig. 112 Keelson .
Shelf
Scantlings: Stringers: central
in. mm. lateral
Keel 9.1x5.1 230x130
Bilge keels
Keelson . 8.6x8.6 220x220 Beams
Shelf 7.9x2.4 200 x 60
Hatchway-carling
Stringers . 5.9x2.0 150x 50
Coamings
Bilge keels 6.3x2.4 160x 60
Waterways
Beams 7.1x3.5 180x 90 Deck planking
Coamings 15.7x3.0 400x 75 Rail
Deck planking 5.5x1.5 140 x 38 Wale
Rail 7.1x2.0 180x 50 Outside planking
Wale 6.3x0.8 160x 20 Sheerstrake
Outside planking 5.9x1.5 150x 38
Sheerstrake 6.3x2.4 160x 60 Topside-plank'ng
Bulwark
Topside-planking 6.7x2.0 170x 50 Garboards
[75]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
of Portugal, all fishing boats were sail and oar propelled
a few years ago, but today 30 of the 151 fishing boats in
the centre are engine propelled. Ericeira has a small
beach without breakwater or natural protection from the
strong winds blowing from south-west to north-west.
It is backed by high cliffs so there is no space for stowing
the boats which, in winter, must be taken over the cliff
by way of a very steep ramp. Fig. 96 shows the develop-
s ment of motorization in Ericeira and gives a fair idea
of the actual rate of installations of engines in fishing
boats in Portugal.
At Nazare there are some 200 small fishing boats, 50
of which have engines, while at Peniche and Sesimbra
the motorization of small craft is nearly complete.
Fig. 97 gives a picture of mechanization of small fishing
boats at Peniche. An analysis of the data shows there
are too many sizes and types of boats in use.
Fig. 98 to 111 show some selected small boats at
northern and central coast harbours. These are the most
efficient owner-operated boats.
Fig. 98. Long-liner of Povoa do Varzim and Vila do Conde. Length,
over-all, 36.8 ft. (11.20 m.); breadth, 9.8ft. (3.00 m.); depth, 3.3 ft.
(1.00 m.)
coastal fisheries.Experience shows that such boats are
not more seaworthy nor do they produce a greater
" "
annual income for the owner. The improved models
should not result in an increase in the cost of building,
operating, and maintaining, but in higher productivity Fig. 100. Hand- and long-liner (Leixoes harbour). Main dimensions:
and profit. length, over-all, 27.3ft. (8.3 J m.); breadth, 8.8 ft. (2.69 m.); depth,
2.8 ft. (0.86 m.); powered by a JO h.p. engine
At Ericeira, a small fishing centre in the central coast
The three illustrations show long-liners which
first
operate from the northern harbours (P6voa de Varzim,
Vila do Conde and Leixoes). Fig. 101 to 104 and Tables
VIII and IX refer to engine-propelled fishing craft at
Peniche, in the northern part of the central coast. Fig. 105
to 107 and Table X
present some information regarding
Ericeira's small motorized boats and finally, fig. 108 to
11 1 and Tables XT and XII refer to Sesimbra's long-line
and lobster boats.
Fig. 112 to 115 show some of the principal types of
small sardine seiners, operating from the central coast
harbours which are engaged in the industrial fisheries.
" "
The sardine including 381
fleet, traineiras and
seiners, produced, in 1953, 140,587 metric tons of
sardine and similar species, to a value of 300 million
escudos ($10.725 million 3.8 million). Fig. 112 and
Fig. 99. Hand and long-line fishing is carried out aboard these types 113 and Table XIII and XIV give information on
of small motor boats (Pdvoa de Varzim harbour). Main dimensions: Peniche's types while fig. 114 and 115 and Table XV
length, over-all, 36.8 ft. (11.20 m.); breadth, 9.8 ft. (3.00 m.);
depth, 3.3 ft. (1.00m.) present data on the Sesimbra's type.
[76]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING SMALL FISHING BOATS IN PORTUGAL
Fig. JOJ. Lobster catcher of Peniche. Length,
over-all, 21.7 ft. (6.62m.). See Table VIII
Fig. 104. Small long-liner from Peniche" x harbour. Main dimen.\ion\:
length, over-all, 24 .7 ft. (7.55 m.); breadth, 8.5 ft. (2.59 m.); depth,
3.9 ft. (1 .20 /;;.), powered by a 9 h.p. engine
Fig. 102. Lobster catcher oj Peniche. Length , over-all\
27.6 Jt. (8.40 m.). See Table IX
Fig. 105. Lobster catcher from Ericeira; also used as long-liner.
Fig. 103. Small lobster catcher of Peniche. Main dimensions: Length, over-all, 19 Jt. (5.80 m.); length between perpendiculars, 19ft.
length, over-all, 24ft. (7.30 m.); breadth, 8.5 ft. (2.55 m.); depth, (5.80 m.); breadth, extreme, 7.1 ft. (2.16 m.); mean draught 1.6ft.
3.3 ft. (1.03 m.); powered by a 8 h.p. engine (0.49 m.)
[77]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fiff. 106. Long-liner and lobster catcher from Ericeira. Length*
over-all, 20.3 ft. (6.20 m.). See Table X (9.0 m.)
Fig. 109. Long-liners of Sesimbra. Length, over-all, 29.5 ft.
See Table XII
Fig. 107. Motor fishing boats on the beach (Ericeira). Main
dimensions: length, over-all, 20.3 ft. (6.20 m.); breadth, 7 ft.
(2.15m.); depth, 2.7ft. (0.82m.)
Fig. 110. Small long-liner of Sesimbra.
Main dimensions- length,
2.8 ft.
over-all, 21.3 ft. (6.50 m.): breadth, 8.2 ft. (2.50 m.); depth,
(0.85 m.)
Fig. 111. Small long-liner of Sesimbra. Main
dimensions: length,
4.1 ft.
Fiff. 108. Long-liner of Sesimbra. Length, over-all, over-all, 29.5ft. (9.0 m.); breadth, 9.8ft. (3.0 m.); depth,
?1.3 ft. (6.50 m.) See Table XI (1.25 m.)
[78]
SHORT DISTANCE FISHING SMALL FISHING BOATS IN PORTUGAL
Fig. 111. Sardine seiner of Peniche. Lenzrh, over-all, 53.8 ft. (16.40 w.)
See Table XU1
114. Sardine seiner of Sesimbra. Length, o\er-all, 45.3 ft
(13.80m.) See Table XV
Fig. 1 13. Sardine seiner of Peniche. Length, over-all 42.6 ft. (13.0 w.)
See Table XIV Fig. 115. Small Seximbra seiner (sardine catcher}
[79]
JAPANESE PELAGIC FISHING BOATS
by
ATSUSHI TAKAGI
feed the Japanese population adequately some larger than 100 gross tons. The 20 to 100 tons group makes
TO 6,350,000 metric tons of sea food are required but
in 1952 production was only 4,300,000 tons. The
up more than 30 per cent, of the total tonnage and horse-
power while the group larger than 100 tons makes up
fishing fleet is the most obvious means for producing 20 per cent, of the total gross tonnage and 10 per cent,
the food although during World War II the Japanese of the total horse-power, fable XVI groups the power
fishing fleet suffered great damage and decreased from boats used for marine fisheries according to the different
350,000 to 280,000 boats. An
additional handicap has fishing methods.
been the poor quality, because of lack of repairs, of the The Japanese fishing fleet uses almost every known
vessels which escaped war damage. fishing method. A few of the present types of boat in the
Immediately after the war reconstruction began and are explained in the following pages and in the paper
fleet
in 1952 the Japanese fishing fleet consisted of 450,000 about drag net boats on page 137.
vessels totalling about 1,200,000 gross tons and
2,350,000 h.p. For marine fisheries there were 129,048 MACKEREL POLE AND LINE FISHING BOATS
powered boats (860,644 gross tons, 2,334,818 h.p.) of Mackerel pole and line fishing formerly was carried on at
which 101,647 were less than 5 gross tons, 20,824 of 5 to
20 tons, 6,097 of 20 to 100 gross tons and 480 boats night by small boats of less than 20 gross tons, but since
1950, with abundant catches of mackerel, the size of
boats has increased up to 70 gross tons and the fishing
TABLE XVI method has been much improved. The fish are caught
Japanese powered marine fishing boats iit 1952 according to fishing by combined use of bait and lights. The crew is quite
method
No. Gross tons Horse-power
TABLE XVIT
Draft and Stability
Load
Light Full
large as in skipjack pole and line fishing, and the bigger
boats now being built are of the skipjack type. Minobu
Maru is a typical modern mackerel pole and line fishing
boat and has the following principal characteristics:
[80]
SURFACE FISHING JAPANESE PELAGIC FISHING BOATS
Length, between perpendiculars, 66.5 ft. (20.30 m.);
beam 14 ft. (4.25 m.); depth, 6.5 ft. (2.00 m.); 46.20 gross
tons, 15.78 net tons; fish holds 520 cu. ft. (14.76 cu. m.);
ice holds 510 cu. ft. (14.36 cu. m.); fresh water tanks
860 imp. gal. (1,030 gal., 3.90 cu. m.); fuel oil tanks,
1,530 imp. gal. (1,830 gal., 6.95 cu. m.); officers and
crew, 35; main engine: single-acting, four-cycle diesel,
four cylinders with 9.85 in. (250 mm.) diameter and
15 in. (380 mm.) stroke, 160 b.h.p. at 380 r.p.m.; three-
bladed propeller with 53 in. (1,346 mm.) diameter and
33 in. (838 mm.) pitch; 5 h.p. auxiliary hot bulb engine
driving a 3 kw., D.C., generator, and 10 kw. generator
driven by main engine; 50 w. and 30 w. wireless.
Fig. 116 shows the lines indicating the V-botlom
design; fig. 117 is the general arrangement -drawing;
fig. 118 the midship section, indicating the sawn frame
construction, and fig. 119 is a photograph of Minobu
Maru.
Table XV11 gives particulars of the drafts and stability
and Table XVIII gives results from the speed trial.
SKIPJACK POLE AND LINE FISHING BOAT
The boats engaged in skipjack, pole, and line fishing from
spring to autumn, and in tuna long line fishing from fall
to spring, vary in size ffom quite small to large in
wood up to 200 gross tons and in steel up to 250 gross
tons. The number of crew for pole and line fishing is
twice that needed for tuna long line fishing.
For pole and line fishing a platform is installed outside
the bulwark for fishermen to stand on while handling
the gear. As live fish is used for bait, the centre compart-
ment between the two longitudinal bulkheads is used as a
bait tank, with sea cocks on the bottom shell plates.
The sea water in the bait tanks circulates naturally
by the pitching, rolling, dipping and heaving of the boat.
The tanks, when emptied and with the sea cocks closed,
are used as tish holds.
For tuna long lining, the arrangements for skipjack
pole and line fishing are removed and a line hauler on
board is operated.
The wooden boat of this type of more than 100 ft.
first
(30 m.) length was built in 1952 and is named Kaxhio
Fig. 116. Lines of the 66.5ft. (20.3 m.) mackerel pttle ami line
Maru. It can operate in rough seas and has the following
fishing boat Minobu Maru
principal data: Length, between perpendiculars, 105 ft.
[81]
i
t
SURFACE FISHING JAPANESE PELAGIC FISHING BOATS
(32.00 m.) ; beam, 21 .7 ft. (6.60 m.) depth, 1 1 ft. (3.40 m.) ;
; continuously. The average size up to 1950 was about
197.36 gross tons; 108.82 net tons; bait tanks, 3.270 imp. 200 gross tons but now it exceeds 500. Only a line
gal. (3,920 gal., 14.85 cu. m.); ice holds, 2,920 cu. ft. hauler is used and the boat can be operated by a small
(82.58 cu. m.); fuel oil tanks, 14,700 imp. gal. (1 7,600 gal, crew. Large fish holds allows the installation of refrigerat-
66.57 cu. m.); fresh water tanks, 3.270 imp. gal. ing coils within them. Kaiko Maru No. 12 is a typical_steel
TABLE XIX TABLE XXI
Draft and stability Draft and stability
Load Load
Light Full Full
Light
(3,920 gal., 14.85 cu. m.); officers and crew, 70; main
engine, single acting four-cycle diesel, six cylinders with tuna long line fishing boat, and has the following principal
15 in. (380 mm.) diameter and 20 \ in. (520 mm.) stroke, data: Length, over-all, 142 ft. (43.30m.); length,
550 b.h.p. at 300 r.p.m.; four-bladed propeller with between perpendiculars, 127 ft. (38.67 m.); beam, 23.5 ft.
79 in. (2,000 mm.) diameter and 45.2 in. (1,150 mm.) (7.20 m.); depth, 11.8 ft. (3.60 m.); 300.56 gross tons,
pitch; 35 h.p. auxiliary diesel driving two 5 kw., D.C. 153.02 net tons; fish holds, 10,000 cu.ft. (287.60 cu.m.);
generators, two 6-in. 150 mm.) centrifugal water spray pre-cooling tanks, 1,500 imp. gal. (1,800 gal., 6.76 cu. m.);
fuel oil tanks, 28,000 imp. gal. (33,000 gal., 1 26.22 cu. m.);
pumps; 150 w. and 25 w. wireless.
Careful consideration has been given to the refrigera- fresh water tank, 3,700 imp. gal. (4,500 gal., 17.00 cu. m.);
tion system, at some sacrifice of speed and fish-hold officers and crew, 33; main engine, single-acting four-
capacity. cycle diesel, six cylinders with 1 5 in. (370 mm.) diameter
Fig. 120 shows the V-bottom lines, fig. 121 the general and 20J in. (520 mm.) stroke and 600 b.h.p. at 300 r.p.m.;
arrangement with the fishing platform all along the side, four-bladed propeller with 75 in. (1,900 mm.) diameter
fig. 122 the sawn frame construction of the midship and 54 in. (1,370 mm.) pitch; 75 and 40 b.h.p. auxiliary
section and fig. 123 the Kashio Maru under speed. diesels driving 55 kw., A.C. and 30 kw., A.C. genera-
Table XIX gives particulars of draft and stability, and tors; 5 kw. A.C. generator driven by main engine; line
Table XX results from the speed trials. hauler and windlass driven by 225 v., A.C. 15 h.p. motor;
3 h.p. capstan; 200 w. and 50 w. wireless; NH.< refrigerat-
TUNA LONG LINERS ing compressor, two cylinder 20 h.p., capacity 9.6 RT
Boats for the exclusive use of tuna long line have been (29,000 kcal.).
operated for the past 20 years, and their size is increasing Fig. 124 shows the general arrangement and fig. 125
[83]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
the Kaiko Maru No. 12 under
way. Table XXI gives particulars
1 * * *
of drafts and stability and Table
XXII results from the speed trial.
WHALE CATCHERS
Since thefirst participation of the
Japanese whaling vessels in the
Antarctic in 1934, the fleet has
been steadily improved and the
good catches made reflect this
progress.
The first trial of a diesel in a
whalf catcher was made by Japan
in 1937. Whales were thought to
be sensitive to sound and dicsels
bad for that reason been avoided
because of the noise they made
reciprocating engines were used
instead. But a test was made in
1936 by a submarine chaser to
determine the maximum speed of
whales, which was found to be
14 knots. By this test, it was dis-
covered that the noise of the diesel
driven submarine chaser did not
matter if the speed was high. In
consequence a diesel was installed
in the Seki Maru, built by the
Hayashikane shipbuilding yard,
and having the following data:
length x beam x depth, 129 x
24 x 13.7 ft. (39.24 x 7.35 x
FIK. 118. Midship section of the 66. 5 Jt.
(20.3 m.) mackerel pole and line fishing-
boat Minobu Maru
4.19 m.); gross tonnage, 297.80;
engine output, 900 h.p.
Because of the low fuel oil con-
sumption of diesels, the cruising
radius is large and a frequent
supply of oil en route to the
Antarctic Ocean is therefore noi
needed. The disadvantage of
diesels in whale catchers is that a
low speed can hardly be obtained
and manoeuvring is difficult when
the boat approaches a whale. It
is also difficult to tow the whale
when caught.
As a result of the experiment
of the Seki Maru> all vessels built
later have been equipped with
diesels and recently electricity has
Fig. 119. Minobu Maru 66.5 //. (20.3m.)
mackerel pole and tine fishing boat
[84]
SURFACE FISHING JAPANESE PELAGIC FISHING BOATS
jf
13 T
j
.4
n 1
H o
nnMh
I
1
t
1
*j,V$i
[85]
o
f
"
}
SURFACE FISHING JAPANESE PELAGIC FISHING BOATS
Fig. 122. Midship section of the 105 ft. (32 m.) skipjack pole and line fishing boat Kashio Maru
[87]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD - BOAT TYPES
'
'
* 4
.. 123. Kashio Maru, W5//. (32 m.) Aft** // * ** *
[88]
SURFACE FISHING JAPANESE PELAGIC FISHING BOATS
Fig. 725. Kaiko Maru No. 12, 142 ft. (43.3 m.) tuna long liner
been used in place of steam to drive the donkey shows the lines, fig. 127 the general arrange-
Fig. 126
boiler. ment and 128 shows Kyo Maru No. 1 under speed.
fig.
The 300 to 350 gross tons type was considered to be the Table XXI II gives particulars of drafts and stability and
most profitable size, but the success of the larger foreign Table XXIV results from speed trials.
boats has persuaded Japanese owners to build bigger
vessels. But the process has been gradual because of the
high cost of shipbuilding, only five or six larger boats TABLE XXIII
being constructed every year. It is expected that whale
Drafts and stability
catchers of over 600 gross tons will eventually be built for
Antarctic whaling. Load
Kyo Maru No. 7 is a typical Japanese steel whale Light load Whaling load
catcher and has the following principal data: Length,
over-all, 175 ft. (53.250 m.); length between perpen-
diculars, 157 ft. (48.00 m.); beam 27.5 ft. (8.400 m.);
depth 14.9 ft. (4.546 m.); 399.43 gross tons, 123.67 net
tons; fuel oil
tanks, 42,000 imp. gal. (50,000 gal.,
189.85 cu. m.); feed water tanks, 6,600 imp. gal.
(7,900 gal., 29.87 cu. m.); fresh water tanks, 4,000 imp.
gal. (4,750 gal., 17.98 cu. m.); lubricating oil tanks,
3,300 imp. gal. (4,000 gal,, 15.12 cu. m.); ballast tanks,
10,500 imp. gal. (12,600 gal., 47.89 cu. m.); 11,000
nautical miles cruising radius; 12 knots speed; officers
and crew, 26; main engine, two-cycle single acting diesel,
eight cylinders with 19 in. (480 mm.) diameter and 30 in.
(760 mm.) stroke, 2,300 b.h.p., at 200 r.p.m., fuel oil
consumption, 0.38 Ib. (173 gr.)/b.h.p./hr.; four-bladed
propeller with 122 in. (3,100 mm.) diameter and 105 in.
(2,670 mm.) pitch; two 100 h.p. auxiliary diesels driving
60 kw., 230 v., D.C., generators; 20 kw., 230 v., D.C.
generator driven by main engine; donkey boiler with
9 ft. (2.750 mm.) length and 8.5 ft. (2,600 mm.) diameter;
230 Ib./sq. in. (16 kg./sq. cm.) steam pressure; 5-ton/day
vertical evaporator; steam horizontal reciprocating whale
winch, 590 ft. ton/min. (180 m. ton/min.); 20 h.p.
capstan; two oil pressure pump steering engines, 75 h.p.;
250 w. and 50 w. wireless, 3.5 in. (90 mm.) harpoon gun.
Electric welding was used to decrease the weight of the
boat and a sharp ship form was applied. Special care
was taken to get a hull with a low centre of gravity and
to reduce the surface area of the boat above the water line
so as to minimize wind pressure. Bilge keels were fitted
and a flat plate keel was used instead of the bar keel
for damping the rolling.
[89]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
iiitr
.o
i$iiH!t|jJ
[90]
SURFACE FISHING JAPANESE PELAGIC FISHING BOATS
727. General arrangement 0/Kyo*Maru No. 7, 775 //. (53.25 m.) J/>5i/ w^/^ catcher
Fig. 128. Kyo Maru No. 7, 775 ft. (53.25 m.) (Hesel whale catcher
[91]
BRITISH COLUMBIA (CANADA) FISHING VESSELS
by
ROBERT F. ALLAN
is British Columbia's third industry, under inspection and must be re-inspected each four
exceeded value only by forest products and Before construction, plans have to be submitted
FISHING in years.
minerals, and main part of the harvest from the sea showing: General arrangement, details of hull scantlings
is, of course, salmon, which has been successfully canned and fastenings, details of bulkheads, details of rudder
and exported for more than 60 years. Second in value and rudder stock, diagram of bilge pumping arrange-
is the halibut which, in frozen and fresh form, is absorbed ments and detail of propeller shafting and fuel tanks.
mainly in the domestic market. Third is the herring If the vessel is under 60 ft. (18.3 m.) registered length,
of which approximately 100,000 tons are caught in one these plans are passed by the regional office of the
short season and are almost entirely converted into fish Inspection Service if over 60 ft., they must be examined
" "
meal for export. A minor part of Canadian fishing is for by the Board of Steamship Inspection (Ottawa,
the local fresh sea-food market and there is a small crab Ont., Canada), which is empowered to make regulations
fishing industry in the Queen Charlotte Islands. concerning all matters relating to the safety of vessel
"
Fisheries on the British Columbia coast are, of course, and crew and to pass judgment on unusual methods of
shared with the United States fishing fleets from Puget construction."
Sound and Alaska and the development of methods of In effect, these regulations are concerned mainly with
fishing and types of boats and details of equipment in minimum standards for lifesaving equipment, fire
British Columbia waters has to a large extent followed extinguishing equipment, bilge pumping, ventilation to
their lead. But there are numerous differences in detail, crew and machinery spaces, ground tackle, hatch covers
particularly in the case of gillnetters, which easily and coamings, height of door sills, handrails and bul-
identify the British Columbia craft to the expert eye. warks and deadlights for ports and windows.
The fishing vessels may be divided into two general For hull construction, the standard is that set by
classes: (a) those under 15 tons gross which are largely previous submission. Although this may appear to be a
owned or operated by individuals or partners; (b) those haphazard method, it is on the whole satisfactory,
over 15 tons gross, most of which are owned by com- allowing, as it does, a different standard for the East
panies or individuals employing crews on a share basis. coast, including Nova Scotia and Newfoundland where
the methods of construction and materials are very
different from those employed on the West coast.
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS Although there has been little evidence of structural
The Canadian Steamship Inspection service has a definite failures,even in the older boats, to justify much concern
influence on the design and construction of modern over hull scantlings. Government regulation has put a
fishing craft, which further emphasizes the difference stop to unfair competition, between builders, by way of
between Canadian and American vessels, as the latter cheap or skimpy construction. And it is vastly superior
"
are subject only to the Motorboat Regulations ", to the method of definite rules, similar to Classification
administered by the Coast Guard. These require nothing Society Rules, such as those in force in Denmark or
more than compliance with certain regulations con- Japan which, apparently, require scantlings and fasten-
cerning navigation lights, extinguishers and life-
fire ings far in excess of actual need as dictated by experience.
jackets, and apply to all motor vessels under 150 tons This places an economic handicap on the boat owner and
gross which are not licensed to carry passengers. is a barrier to progress in design.
In Canada, since 1942, all new vessels over 15 tons
gross have been subject to inspection under the Canada
Shipping Act and, since 1951, all existing fishing vessels
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION METHODS
over 15 tons have come within the scope of the Act, The materials commonly used in construction of Pacific
which requires that vessels over 15 tons must be built coast vessels are Douglas fir, red cedar, yellow cedar.
[92]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Australian gumwood or ironbark and white oak from
Georgia or Indiana (U.S.A.). Larger vessels, built with
sawn frames, are almost entirely constructed of fir,
with some yellow cedar used in locations most subject to
rot, such as bulwark stanchions and rim timbers at the
stern. Bent frame vessels may be planked with fir or
yellow cedar over white oak ribs. Stems and propeller
posts are almost universally of gum, a hard wood
resistant to abrasion and having enormous nail holding
power. Small vessels up to 40 ft. (12.2 m.) in length are
generally planked with edge grain red cedar, which is a
wood easily worked when steamed.
light, clear
The properties of Douglas fir are well known, but
ntftMLS -aouBLt 5' FUTCHO
some special mention should be made of the unique JLOULTO as tMpWH sfftccp. ir*.
properties of yellow cedar, sometimes referred to as
Alaska cedar. Closely resembling red cedar, the tree
grows in higher altitudes in the coast range. The wood
is a light canary yellow,is pleasantly aromatic, has a high
natural oil content and is a pleasure to work in any
direction with or across grain. Its special value in boat-
building lies in its low density (28 to 32 Ib./cu. ft.;
448 to 512 kg./cu. m.) ease of working and handling and
its excellent resistance to rot. Being lower in density and
strength than Douglas fir, it is more commonly used in
lower-stressed structure such as beams, house coamings Fig. 129. Sawn frame construction as used in British Columbia in
and framing, where it helps to lower the centre of gravity. a86x 221 ft. (26.2 x 6.9 m.) boat
It is always used in stern timbers of seine boats and,
frequently, for hold ceiling, bilge stringers, beam shelves, nuts or bolts or treenail wedges behind tanks, machinery
sheer planks behind guards, covering boards and hatch or accommodation lining. The contention of all local
coamings. Its resistance to rot is remarkable. Where the builders is that there is no advantage to through-
life of fir is commonly only 5 to 10 years, yellow cedar fastening, at any rate in vessels up to 80 ft. (24.4 m.), with
has been observed in good condition after 30 years. which they are familiar. They also contend that a
The quality of all local woods has fallen off as the galvanized spike has better holding power in fir and oak
larger trees have been felled and the better grades have than has a treenail because the zinc undergoes a chemical
been exported. The boat building industry does not use reaction which tends to unite it with the wood to such an
enough wood to merit special consideration from the extent that, on being withdrawn, wood splinters are seen
mills. to be adhering to the fastenings. In larger craft where
Fir plywood is widely used for sheathing of deck- both the inner and outer planking'are united in forming
houses inside and out and for tops of houses to be the planking envelope, the virtues of through-fastenings
canvas covered. It is also widely used over deckhouse are recognized.
beams and under light caulked decks where it helps main- The bent frame system of construction is used with
tain watertightness and forms an attractive deckhead success for all types of fishing boats up to the largest seine
finish. boats 80 ft. (24.4 m.) long and 21 i ft. (6.55 m.) beam
The majority of British Columbia fishing vessels are and has been used for vessels as long as 130ft. (39.6m.).
built on the bent frame system, although three larger Sawn frame construction requires every frame to be
seiners and one 60 ft. (18.3 m.) crab boat have been drawn on the loft floor and all the bevels and patterns
constructed on the sawn frame system. In contrast to for each flitch or frame member must be prepared by
British or European practice, in British Columbia the the loftsmen. The bent frame boat requires only 8, 10
latter involves a double frame built up of straight grained or 12 moulds corresponding to the designer's displace-
pieces sawn to shape and connected together with stag- ment sections. When the lines plan has been prepared
gered butts. This type of frame is obviously not as strong on a large scale such as in. or in. to the foot (1 16 or
jf
1 :
as a single or double frame utilizing grown crooks, so 1:12), the only loft work consists of laying down the
more emphasis is placed on keelsons and bilge planking sections and end profiles as necessary for moulds and
or bilge stringers as they are generally known in the West. patterns for end timbers.
An example of such construction is shown in fig. 129. The main strength of any small boat hull, wood or
All fastenings are of galvanized iron, planking being metal, is in its skin or planking and if the shape is kept
secured by square sectioned boat or bridge spikes. No by transverse framing and bulkheads, the structure will
through fastenings are used which means, in the event of maintain true alignment. The British or European fishing
damage to planking, it is not necessary to have access to boat, with its rigid natural crook frame, represents the
[93]
SURFACE FISHING BRITISH COLUMBIA (CANADA) FISHING VESSELS
type of construction, it is wasteful of fastenings and
labour but it is by no means inferior.
Eastern boats generally have floor timbers across the
keel, alongside each frame, but this system has been
superseded in the West by a keelson assembly as shown
in the section of a typical 68 ft. (20.7 m.) seine boat,
fig. 131. This method is very practical in fishing boats
because it provides a centre duct for bilge water and
cargo drainage as well as a place for suction pipes or
shafting and, at the same time, creates a sanitary floor
in the fish hold without need for cement between each
floor or a caulked floor over the bilge. It has also been
proved that shaft alignment is more effectively main-
"
tained with this keelson construction ".
The keelson type of construction is used in small and
large craft, but in boats under 50 ft. (15.2 m.) in length,
the sister keelsons become redundant as one wide timber
tm tty can be used in lieu of three smaller ones. In such cases
a duct is formed by 2 in. or 3 in. (5.1 or 7.6 cm.) boards,
. 7J0. &rM>jf /r0m<? construction of a British 62 ft. (18.9 m.)
on edge, forming a shaft tunnel. For boats close to the
motor-fishing vessel (M.F.V.) 15 tons gross measure, floors are often used in order to
reduce the tonnage, which is measured from the top
of the floors.
most economical way of maintaing the transverse shape,
To connect all main structural members, such as keel
fig. 130, but it is dependent on a supply
as illustrated in
and keelson, stem, shaft log, beam ends, etc., galvanized
of suitable crooks.
screw bolts are used. In certain cases where "through-
The better class of East coast boat generally has a bent
bolts would be too long, drift or blind bolts are used, and
oak frame of almost square section and if laminated
frames are used they are generally greater in moulding
are driven into A
in. (1.6 mm.) undersize holes. Shorter
connections, such as clamps to frame, are made with
than in siding. On the West coast, and Nova Scotia
galvanized carriage bolts which have an oval head with
(East coast), however, there is a tendency to use flat a short length of square section immediately under, to
frames closer spaced. A typical section is 2x4 in.
prevent bolt turning when the nut is tightened.
(5.1x10.2 cm.) and in order to maintain transverse
strength with this comparatively limber member, the
frames are reinforced by longitudinal members in the form
of bilge stringers and keelsons. Compared to the British
TYPES
The fishing craft under 15 tons gross consist mainly of:
gillnetters, trollers, long-liners, small table or drum
seiners. The larger class are: halibut long-liners, salmon
seiners, herring seiners, packers, draggers. As there is a
tendency to combine types, all large seiners are at least
a combination salmon and herring seiner-packer, whilst
several of the latest boats have been intended for all
fivepurposes. In the same manner, gillnetters are often
used for long-lining and less frequently for trolling.
GILLNETTERS
British Columbia gillnetters are different from the
American Columbia river or Bristol bay boats, as they
handle the net by power drum over the stern, whereas
the Columbia river boats pull theirs in over the forward
quarter, by hand, with the aid of a powered roller. The
modern Bristol bay power boats now favour the roller
at the stern or aft quarter.
The original gillnetter, as used on the Fraser river
estuary, developed along the lines of the Columbia river
Fig. 131. Bent frame construction used in British Columbia in a type, being a double-ended open boat with oars and sail,
68x 18ft. (20.7x5.5 m.) seine boat later adapted to power. This type was replaced by a
[94]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
double-ended model developed by Japanese fishermen, diameter propeller. Many fishermen want higher speed,
having a type of cruiser stern, commonly known as a V
but when it is realised that 9 knots represent a -
of
Jap stern. An average boat of the type was 30 ft. (9.1 m.) ir L
long with a beam of 7 ft. 6 in. (2.3 m.) and was fairly low 1 .6 ( ~JL- =0.48 it is evident that higher speeds require
)
in profile. It was usually powered with a he&vy duty
VvgL /
gasoline engine of local manufacture, the power being a semi-planing craft of lighter displacement. Although
8 to 18 h.p. at 600 to 900 r.p.m. Such boats were eco- it is possible to design a gillnetter of minimum size and
nomical to build and operate and were most suitable for displacement, such a large proportion of the weight
estuary and river fishing. But since World War II the reduction has to be taken from hull proper that there
average fisherman cannot earn enough in one short is a sacrifice of durability, load carrying ability and
season on the Fraser or Skeena and he now goes north seaworthiness.
for the opening runs on Rivers Inlet and others which In hull form, the modern gillnetters approach pleasure
precede the Fraser river runs. To do this and be able to cruisers, having a fairly flat mid-section and flat straight
venture further in the Gulf, has called for larger and buttocks in conjunction with a prismatic coefficient of
faster boats with improved accommodation and sea- about .63. To combat the tendency to broach or sheer,
worthiness. At the same time, the car type engine with the waterline of a square stern boat should be fairly
SCALE IN FEET
3 6 GILLNET BOAT
LA.O 33 FT.-OIN.-10.O5 M.
SCALE IN METRES BEAM 2 - -- 2,0 -
1 2 OFT. 3 6 1.07
Fig. 132. Modern gillnetter 33 x 9\ x 3 ft. (10.1 x 2.9 x 7.7 m.) designed by the author
reduction gear has displaced, almost entirely, the heavy full forward and the forward sections should have a good
duty type. A car engine of about 250 cu. in. (4,097 cu. slope for quick increase in buoyancy. In order to balance
cm.) displacement is rated at about 90 h.p., yet it sells the weight of the net drum, drum rollers, and drum drive
for approximately the same price as the 18 h.p. heavy in the aft cockpit the centre of buoyancy must be at
duty model. In practice, the engines are not called upon least 55 per cent, of the fore perpendicular. Although
to deliver over 30 h.p. for general cruising and most no measurements of GM have been taken, it has been
" "
boats are unable to use more, but there is a trend towards noted that modern stiff boats are much favoured
boat models which can. over older cranky types.
Fig. 132 shows a modern design, 33 ft.x9J ft. (lOx Construction of gillnetters has been more or less
2.9 m.), having a built up stern a transom with all the standardized by experience and cost. There are for
corners washed off to ease recovery of the net. Other instance, minor variations between builders in methods
points are the extreme forward position of propeller of keelson construction but most gillnetters have planking
post and rudder to keep them clear of the net, immersion of 1J in. (2.9 cm.) red cedar and ribs of 1 x2 in. (2.5 x
of transom to minimise slap and spray when pulling the 5.1 cm.) white oak, fig. 133.
net, and the forefoot cut away in an easy sweep in order The arrangement and detail of trunk cabin and wheel-
more readily to cross over the nets. Not shown is the house is also largely standardized and, although so-
basket type propeller guard which surrounds the called streamlined cabins have been introduced, the
propeller. Such a boat displaces approximately 7 tons cheapness and efficiency of the standard arrangement
and capable of 9 knots when equipped with a gasoline
is is still favoured by a majority of fishermen and builders.
engine with 2J 1 reduction, turning a 26 in. (660 mm.)
: Points to be noted are: reduction of the width of the
[95]
SURFACE FISHING BRITISH COLUMBIA (CANADA) FISHING VESSELS
wheelhouse on the trunk to open the passage forward
rt FUfVf
on deck and at the sametime, bring the windows close
to the helmsman's position near the clutch lever so that
he may lean out in fog or at night.
TROLLERS
Trollers are generally required to travel farther afield
than gillnetters so usually they have deeper draft and
displacement, otherwise the older boats resemble gill-
netters in general appearance. Particulars about some
trollers are given in Table XXV.
A typical older troller would be 36 x9 ft. (1 x2.7 m.) 1
with a draft of 5 ft. (1.52 m.). Later models have tended
towards larger sizes and greater beam up to the limit
of 15 tons gross and have been arranged for long-lining
or seining as well as trolling. Most trollers have a full
type of canoe stern, fig. 34. The midship section of a
1
typical 42 ft. (12.8 Yn.) troller is shown in fig. 135. But
with a trend towards combination boats, a seine stern
has found favour as it allows more room on deck for
long line or seine operation. The drum seiner, fig. 138 and
139, is a typical example of this type. A Norwegian
counter stern is also popular, particularly for boats
designed as long liners, with trolling a secondary con-
sideration.
Speed is secondary to seaworthiness for trolling, but a
V
good form is necessary in order to obtain a ,
of 1.25
to 1.35 0.37 to 0.40 with fairly heavy displace-
J
VgL
ment length ratios. The , varies from 250 (L/vi
QII\
I^LL T/*:
^=4.8) in a shortrange gasoline-powered boat to 390
(L/VJ-4.1) for a 42 ft. (12.8 m.) diesel vessel intended
for long-lining. 133. Midship section to 33x9} ft. (10.1x2.9 m.) gillnetter
TABLF XXV
PARTICULARS OF TROLLKRS
No. L.O. 4. L.W.L. Ream Draft, aft
i.OILY
{
.
hp
Mactonen
Ren ^
\ 268 4.7 70 R/G gasoline Double ender
2 300 4.5 70
3 285 4.6 85
4 295 4.6 85
5 315 4.4 120 R/G diesel Seine boat
6 380 4.2 80 ..
[96]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Long-line and troller fishermen have favoured a fairly LONG-LINERS (UNDER 15 TONS)
narrow boat with deep draft and great deadrise so that These are invariably built to the maximum dimensions
when not loaded with ice, it is necessary to carry rock within the tonnage limit, usually about 42 ft. (12.8 m.)
ballast to maintain sufficient stability for safety. This long and 12 ft. (3.66 m.) beam. Fig. 136 shows a typical
small beam was wanted in order to obtain a long rolling example. Larger boats, up to 50 ft. (15.24 m.) would,
period for comfort when trolling at low speeds or lying in many cases, be more desirable, but the additional
to at the halibut banks. However, as so often happens, expense involved in a vessel under inspection, and the
WEST COAST TROLLER
LAO 36 FT.
M. IN. 11,O
BEAM 10 6 -
3.24-
OFT 4 " 9 1.45..
Fig. 134. 36 x I0 x 4\ //. (77 .32 x 1.45 m.) troller with canoe stern designed by the author
the final stability has turned out less than anticipated of finding space for required equipment, par-
difficulty
and the boats have been very cranky. To combat this, it ticularly a lifeboat,have prevented their construction.
is desirable to design a midsection form with reverse The halibut fishing season is hard on men and boats.
curve, as popular with most British fishing boats,
is Although it lasts only about a month, it is in winter and
thereby securing adequate draft with good stability. involves a long passage to the fishing grounds. Fishing
Another development leading to beamier boats is the goes on 20 hours a day, an arduous type of life, which
invention of stabilizers in the form of small paravanes appeals mainly to the hardy Norseman, and the typical
suspended from the outrigger poles. These damp the halibut boat shows strong Norse influence, particularly
rolling motion to such a degree that it is possible to use at the stern, which is generally a Norwegian counter
flat-bottomed pleasure boat types for trolling. type modified to give a fuller deck line. Unlike European
[97]
SURFACE FISHING BRITISH COLUMBIA (CANADA) FISHING VESSELS
Ffc. 736. tfo/ftif/ long-liner under 15 gross tons, 42ft. 4 In. x ////. 8 in.
x 7i //. (72.9 x 3.55 > 2.3 m.) , displacement 20 torn, speed 8
knots with 82- h. p. diesel
but should occasion arise that a Kght ship voyage is
necessary, it is usually advisable to carry ballast to
ensure safe stability and to counteract excessive trim by
Fig. J35. Midship section of a typical 42 x 12 ft. (12.8 x 3.7m.} troller
the head.
To ensure better stability under all conditions more
craft, which have engines astern and little top hamper, beam is wanted, but cannot be allowed in the 15-ton
the local vessels have been influenced by the seine boat limit, another example of the effect of imposing arbitrary
types and have the engine, fuel and fairly large deckhouse restrictions.
all forward, with considerable increase in height of the Small long liners are short in waterline length and
centre of gravity. -
heavy in displacement, consequently the Jr. , is usually
When in service, a halibut boat is always loaded, with (.U1L)
ice and stores outward bound and with fish and ice on over 300(L/Vi=4.5). Because of the long range, and
the return trips. Under these conditions, they are the power required to handle the boat in rough weather,
generally trimmed well and have adequate stability, diesels of about 80 h.p. are fitted, usually high speed,
TABLE XXVI
PARTICULARS OF LONG-LINERS
No. L.O.A. L.W.L. Beam
Max Machinery Remark
Draft, aft \
(.OILY h.p. type
l 390 4.1 80 R/G diesel Counter stern
2 380 4.2 125
3 338 4.4 H4
4 315 4.4 150 D/D diesel Combination
packer
5 310 4.5 300 R/G diesel Combination
seiner packer
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
1,200 to 1,600 r.p.m. with 3:1 reduction gears. The speed handle the seine similar to a gillnetter. The object of
of a 42-ft. (12.8 m.) boat with such power is about number of hands from 6 to 4 or even 3.
this is to cut the
^ ~ Most of the boats have been just below the 15-ton
7f knots, a of 1.25 ( X T =-0.3?") on a W.L. length
v'L \ vgL / limit about 42$ ft.x!2 ft. (13x3.7 m.), fig. 138 and
139. The design requires careful consideration of trim
and stability as the net and turntable or drum are
Better results can be obtained with cruiser stern types mounted high and far aft and the combined weight is
as No. 4 in Table XXV. The corresponding speed for about 2\ tons. By limiting the draft of these boats, it is
-. of 1.30 is 8.2 knots. possible to obtain an apparently adequate stability.
\'L But, although the GM
may be no less than that of the
average fishing boat, the centre of gravity is too high
LONG-LINERS (OVER 15 TONS) for adequate range. One such craft which, by superficial
In the Vancouver area only three boats have been built examination appeared to have excellent initial stability,
since 1944 for long-liningone 72 ft. (22m.), one 56 ft. lay over on its side in a tide rip off Cape Mudge and
would not right itself.
As in the case of trollers and long-liners, drum seiners
in small sizes would be beamier and often longer, and
consequently more seaworthy, were it not for the 15-ton
limit set paradoxically to increase safety. A few drum
seiners have been built up to 50 ft. (15.24 m.) but in most
cases their design has followed the pattern of existing
seiners with turntable. When building is resumed, a
trend to beamier flatter boats with transom or deep rim
sterns and, consequently, great initial stability, is
expected. It is hoped there will be less tendency to keep
below the 15-ton limit and a step to help such a trend
has been taken by the Steamship Inspection Depart-
ment. In 1951, a regulation was adopted authorizing
small fishing boats to carry a flat-bottomed skiff of
simple construction, but equipped with buoyancy tanks,
instead of a standard lifeboat. The skiffs may be stowed
on deck wherever convenient and need not have the
chocks and lifting arrangements required for the standard
lifeboat. The standard seine skiff has always been
accepted as lifesaving equipment for seine boats.
SEINERS (OVER 15 TONS)
Salmon seiners
Purse seine boats of less than 65 ft. (19.8 m.) in length
are too small for herring fishing or packing (carrying),
Fig. 137. Halibut long-liner over 15 gross tons, 57ft. 4 in. x 16 ft. x and few have been built in recent years. In the future,
8 in. (17.5 y 4.9 x 2.45 m.) displacement 48 tons, speed 9\ knots with all small salmon seiners will probably be of the drum
125 h.p. diesel
type.
(17.4 m.). In design they do not
Salmon-herring seiners
(17 m.) and one 57 ft.
differ radically from seine boats, except that they carry Purse seiners of 65 to 80 ft. (19.8 to 24.4 m.) length are
more fuel and are designed to a partly-loaded condition, used for salmon seining, herring seining, trawling and
not to a light waterline, because of the ice carried at all transportation. The larger boats necessitate a large
times in service. Particulars of the three vessels are given investment but as long as they can make capacity
in Table XXVI and a typical one is illustrated by fig. 137. catches they pay greater dividends, because expenses for
fuel and crew are only little more than those for smaller
boats.
SEINERS (UNDER 15 TONS) This class is probably the most interesting to the
A few small seine boats up to 50 ft. (15.24 m.), but designer, because of the problems of design and compe-
mainly below 15 tons, have been built in recent years for tition between owners to have the fastest boat. This has
salmon fishing, but in the last 2 or 3 years there has been led to absurd over-powering, particularly in smaller
a good deal of interest in smaller seiners using a drum to boats. In Europe there has been careful work to improve
[99]
SURFACE FISHING BRITISH COLUMBIA (CANADA) FISHING VESSELS
hull form to get greater speed with the same power or spending midship section in fig. 131, a photo in fig. 143,
the same speed with less power; in British Columbia and a summary of particulars of a few representative
the drive has been for more speed regardless of power. vessels in Table XXVII. Model test data and form
But reasonably certain that worthwhile increase in
it is particulars of a successful 65 ft. seiner designed by the
speed can only be got by reducing displacement and not author may be found on SNAME data sheet 127,
by varying the hull form. The opportunity to reduce reprinted on FAO No. 22.
DRUM SEINER
L A O 42 FT. 6 IN. 12.05 M.
BFAM 12 - 3.66 -
OFT 5 1 52
Fig. 138. Profile of a 42\ y 12x5 ft. (13 x 3.7. < 1.5 m.) seiner designed by the author
displacement is limited, as machinery, fuel and fishing PACKERS
equipment are fixed by owners' requirements. This The larger seine boats are often used as carriers or
confines economies to the hull and superstructure where transport vessels and are then called packers. This
the major economy is obtained by the use of yellow cedar happens especially when another vessel makes a set
wherever possible. An illustration of the reduction of containing more fish than can be handled in her own hold
displacement for a stated increase of speed may be seen as, for example, a set of 800 tons of herring, made in a
on fig. 140, a profile and general arrangement of a modern recent season. Large seiners are, therefore, designed with
68 ft. (20.7 m.) seine boat in fig. 141 and 142, the corre- the largest possible hold space and sufficient reserve
[100]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
buoyancy to ensure freeboard when the hold is filled 110 ft. (33.5 m.) sub-chasers, 138 ft. (42.1 m.) Y.M.S.,
to capacity. 106 ft. (32.3 m.) A.P.C., 96 ft. (29.3 m.) A.Mc. and 107 ft.
DRUM SEINER
LOA 42 FT6 IN- 12,95 M
BEAM 12 - - 3,66
DFT 5 - 1 52
Fig. 139. General arrangement of a 42\ x 12 X 5 ft. (13 x 3. 7x1. 5 m.) seiner designed by the author
(32.6 in.) Canadian minesweepers. The policy has
been
In addition to seiners, the packer fleet consists of
miscellaneous craft, mostly conversions. The most to concentrate on fewer but faster vessels, capable of
recent have been conversions of war surplus craft such as more trips per season.
[101]
SURFACE FISHING BRITISH COLUMBIA (CANADA) FISHING VESSELS
.60 and, consequently, increasing the overall prismatic
coefficient toabout .66, instead of a more reasonable
I-O
1HH .72 midsection
rise
and .62 prismatic. If such extreme dead-
sections were constructed so that the equivalent
22
area was obtained whilst maintaining the waterline
breadth, the resulting section would have a metacentre
located at the same level relative to the waterline, as the
fuller section, but the keel would be lower and possibly
some weights, such as engine and shafting, could be
L-4S' '
lower, thereby lowering the centre of gravity and
increasing GM. But usually the section was fined, with
(19,85 M) consequent loss of displacement and increased draft,
which meant a dangerous drop in metacentre resulting
in insufficient GM.
The reaction from the deadrise section can be equally
dangerous. A very full midsection gives a lower position
B.H.T of the metacentre than the deadrise form for equivalent
area on the same beam. It is essential, therefore, to
choose proportions of beam and draft which maintain
a proper height of metacentre and, at the same time,
the displacement must not be under-estimated so that
these proportions are upset.
A limited deadrise and reasonable midsection co-
efficient in order to maintain a correct prismatic for the
V at which the boat will be generally cruising is required.
VL
If necessary to obtain draft without endangering
it is
stability,the reverse curve type of section, as used in
IS^ British or East Canada boats, is favoured.
Most west coast commercial vessels, with exception of
tugs in which other factors govern, are in the terminology
740. Increase of speed of a 65ft. (19.8 m.) 5/ier if displacement
of resistance data, medium to high-speed craft, and the
could be reduced
form of the curve representing the longitudinal distribu-
tion of displacement should be chosen accordingly.
TRAWLERS In this respect the British Columbia troller is no different
A small number of vessels trawl exclusively in British from one of Her Majesty's cruisers and, in fact, a form
Columbia waters and are similar to halibut long-liners derived from a Royal Navy cruiser has been most
in all general characteristics. Recently, however, many successful. It is, of course, necessary to modify such
seine boats of larger type have been fitted with winches,
curves to adjust for trim and it is preferable to confine
such alterations to the aft end.
portable davits and other gear necessary for trawling
In this connection, it is interesting to note that seine
thereby extending their yearly operating time.
boats, in particular, impose several limitations in form
selection. This cannot be stated in too general terms, for
DESIGN the location of the longitudinal centre of gravity gradu-
GENERAL ally tends tomove aft as the length of the vessel decreases,
It isnot possible to foretell the displacement of a wooden mainly because the length required for crew and
vessel with the same accuracy as a steel vessel for several machinery space does not decrease in proportion to
reasons: the weight of materials is variable; different overall length. Another limiting factor is the full after
builders vary in choice of materials and attitude to deck line which imposes a full waterline which, in turn,
weight; owners are never very specific in choice of imposes full after areas in order to avoid curtailing the
equipment, fuel and water capacity or even main volume end of the fish-hold.
at the aft
machinery at early stages of design; and the amount of The afterbody form is not too critical, but these
cement in bilges varies. limitations compel an afterbody prismatic approaching
There are many dangers to under-estimating displace- .72, suggested as the limit of good practice. At the same
ment. For instance, the metacentre is lowered, the trim time, the forebody prismatic, usually about .56, is about
of a broad sterned vessel is increased by the head and the ideal for the speed. It could be increased without adverse
carrying capacity is reduced. effect at higherspeeds but this is limited, particularly in
There has been a fondness for extreme deadrise as great smaller craft, by consideration of trim.
as 30% resulting in, perhaps, a midsection coefficient of The form of the waterline has received a good deal of
[102]
TYPES
OF THE
FISHING BOATS
d has been demonstrated and includes
reware e "
it reasons: e
on
attention from J^e has beneficial effects
angle o
j ,
v \
that a sharper
^^ J 033
at up ^ ,
y gL ;
resistance, particularly fishing gear
toj located on deck
with about 2P-23'
folteT^SSe,
de
have
West coast
SURFACE FISHING BRITISH COLUMBIA (CANADA) FISHING VESSELS
condition, most types have the centre of gravity forward not be so large that a capacity load will reduce the free-
of the centre of the lateral plane, thereby inviting board below a reasonable minimum.
broaching.
To minimize these faults necessary to ensure
it is first RESEARCH ON HULL DESIGN
adequate GM. No limiting value can be given, as it In recent years there have been published several papers
should increase with the height of the centre of gravity describing the results of tank and full-scale tests of
PURSE SEINER
DIMENSIONS
e-7'x 16 6'XS-IO-
-TOO X 5 64X2,71
aj\ i , j tL
Fig. 142. General arrangement of a 68 ft. 7 in. x 18\ ft. x8 ft. 10 in. (20.9 x 5.6 x 2.7 m.) seiner designed by the author
and, inversely, with the size of the boat, but it can be said fishing vessel designs. Allan (1950) describes work
that a value of 21 in. (53 cm.) or less is suspect. Secondly, carried out at the Experiment Tank of William Denny
a vessel should have the tankage so distributed that the and Bros, for the Herring Board of Great Britain. Four
designed trim can be maintained in the light condition. models were tested, the first model O being representa-
Thirdly, adequate freeboard should be maintained in all tive of the best current models. Model A represented a
conditions. To ensure this, the hold capacity should moderate departure from O with finer entrance and
[104]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
fuller midsection. Model B was freely altered to give a of the finer hull was, of course, considerably better than
good speed performance. As this model lacked stability, the other.
a model C was constructed to give adequate stability As the displacement and general dimensions of these
with the low resistance characteristics of model B. drifters corresponded closely to a typical 65 ft. (19.8 m.)
Results of bare hull and self-propulsion tests showed a seiner,of which several were built in British Columbia
y - in recent years, themodels have been examined with care
marked reduction in h.p. for model B and C at
to determine if they could be improved. The conclusion
1.0 ( ~ =^0.3,
J
with diminishing reduction at higher
is that the seiner agrees with the model A type and, being
v
powered for 10 knots speed or _=l.3 ( - - ^=0.38 )
speeds until approximate equality with model A was \L \v'gL /
-
V nothing would be gained by adopting a finer form,
reached at -1.3 (
-
-0.38.)
VLt
\ VgL / but there would be a loss of space in the fore end which is
Two drifters were afterwards constructed, one to required for accommodation and machinery. Fig. 144
design A and the other to design C. In spite of radical shows a comparison between the form of model C and a
r
differences in waterline fineness represented by 9 half typical seiner. Fig. 145 shows the remarkable similarity
angle of entrance in C, and 21 in model A, there was between model A and a successful 78 ft. (23.8 m.) seiner.
no appreciable difference in seagoing behaviour except Another valuable work on fishing vessel design is that
that, contrary to expectations, the finer boat with its of Traung (1951), in which he describes various researches
flaring bow was drier forward than the other. The speed on fishing vessel design, and gives results from tank tests
TABLE XXVII
PARTICULARS OF SEINE BOATS
[105]
SURFACE FISHING BRITISH COLUMBIA (CANADA) FISHING VESSELS
between a usual seine boat stern and a modified cruiser
stern.
CONCLUSION
Post-war years were a boom period for the British
Columbia fishing industry and many new boats were
built, but failure to market the 1951 and 1952 salmon
catch has resulted in extreme retrenchment and almost
no new craft have been ordered or built in 1953. When a
revival occurs, the trend is expected to be mainly towards
a revision of the fishing technique in order to economize
on man-power, rather than changes in hull form. But
economy will also require more moderate powering and
less elaborate outfitting in larger boats and, for gill-
netters, smaller boats with a minimum of trimmings.
Fig. 144. Comparison of waterlines and lection area curve\ of a
"
a British drifter (Denny C model)
ki
Pacific seiner and
Fig. 143. Purse-seiner, 68ft. 7 in. x 18 1 ft. x 8 ft. 10 in. (20.9 x 5.6 x
2.7 m.\ displacement 75 tons, 11 knots with 270 h.p. diesel
/ WEST COWT stmift
>CNHt HOPtL *C
carried out by himself in Sweden, and a valuable section
on the general design of fishing boats. Traung's own
tests are similar in conclusion to Allan's, in that a worth-
y
while reduction in power for a ,_- of about 1.0 to 1.2
VL
/ ==0.30 to 0.36
J
may be obtained by an increase
of the midsection and reduction of the entrance angle.
The type of boats tested were of very high displacement
length ratio.
The general conclusion from these two works do not
suggest any radical alteration in present British Columbia
designs but that does not rule out improvement. It
would, in fact, be interesting to have made a series of
tank tests on West coast types under the control of
someone familiar with the limitations imposed. Such
tests should investigate particularly the effect of after- Fig. 145. Comparison of waterlinex and sectional area curves" of "
a
78 ft. and a typical British drifter (Dennv A
(23.8) Pacific seiner
body fullness on the necessary h.p. and also a comparison model)
[106]
PACIFIC TROLLERS
by
H. C. HANSON
may be up to 60 ft. (18.3 m.) in length spools called trolling gurdies were installed to handle
and are the most numerous fishing vessels on the wire fishing lines. The first trolling wires were of copper
TROLLERS
Pacific coast of North America. The first were con- but today they are of stainless steel.
verted gillnetters and fishing was done with cotton lines Fig. 146 to 148 show some popular types of trollers.
Fig. 146. 37 x 10 ft. X5ft.3 in. (11.3 3.05 < 1.6 m.)
wooden trailer R. 1*8- 46 ft. 6 in. 14 ft.x 6 ft. 6 in. (14.2 >' 4.27 x 7.0* m.)
wooden trailer
hauled in by hand. Later, simple spools or drums were
introduced, and when the vessels went further from their The first trollers were double-enders but the stern has
ports and their power and size was increased, metal been changed to the seine or square stern suitable also
for other fishing methods.
The present boats are as
much as 25 per cent, wider and
deeper than they were 30 years
ago, a development brought
about by increased engine power
.
and the knowledge that greater
speed is attained
by greater
waterline width. Formerly the
main area of the midship section
was lower where the resistance
was greatest. Greater stability Fig. 149. The new type of
midship section gives better
and speed are obtained with the
stability and speed
displacement well out, as in
45 x 13ft. 4 in. (13.7 x 4.08 m.) steel combination boat
fig. 149. A few of the trolling boats have a V-bottom;
Fig. 147.
designed for trolling , seining and trawling they are less expensive to build, attain higher speeds with
[107]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
BELOW DECK
MAIN DECK
Fig. 150. General arrangement of typical North West tro/ler 42 x 12 ft. < 4 //. 6 in, (12.8 v 3.66 v 1.37 m.)
[108]
SURFACE FISHING PACIFIC TROLLERS
the same power and are as seaworthy as round-bottom frame type construction, some with floor timbers but
boats. They should be more popular. most with the west coast keelson type of construction
Fig. 150 shows the general arrangement of a typical less expensive and more space-saving and stronger.
North-west troller. The boat is 42x12x4 ft. 6 in. The troller in fig. 151 has an 80 h.p. diesel, with a
(12.8 X 3.66 x 1.37 m.), fine-lined for speed and therefore 36-in. (915 mm.) diameter, 500 r.p.m., propeller and is
having a cruiser stern. The high sheer makes a dry boat capable of 10 knots in light condition.
-%
^. 757. Typical midship section and table of scantlings and fastenings
and the deck is also raised to give more room in the Some vessels sail 100 miles off shore and up to 1,000
forecastle. The step in the deck prevents loading by the miles from home port. The 670 imp.
fuel capacity is here
bow and provides a stopper for the fish which can gal. (800 gal., 3.04 cu. m.) and the water capacity
accumulate on deck until theretime for stowing.
is 250 imp. gal. (300 gal., 1.14 cu. m.). The galley and
The vessel will load on an even keel at all times a very living quarters are in the forecastle but some boats are
important feature in fishing of this nature. Fig. 151 builtwith a larger deck house containing the galley
shows a typical midship section, as well as a table of and the berths, which allows easier handling if only one
scantlings and fastenings. Most craft are of bent oak man is aboard.
[109]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
The cargo hold is 14 ft. (4.26 m.) long, with 12 tons of the cool temperatures in the salmon fishing regions and
of pay load capacity. It is divided into bins, with portable the relatively short trips.
bin boards. The boat carries normally 3 tons of chipped The cockpit is 2 ft. (0.76 m.) fore and aft, and is built
ice. Few trailers have mechanical refrigeration because as wide as possible whilst retaining a depth of at least
is
2 ft. (0.61 m.) to give safe leg room for work in a sea-
way. The cockpit is best placed near the stern to keep
the trolling lines clear and to reduce the height the fish
have to be lifted. Checkers hold the fish until they can
be dressed and stowed in ice.
The power gurdies, fig. 52, are placed near the cockpit.
1
Though more poles can be used, the craft would nor-
mally use four for trolling: two main ones aft of the
house and two at the bow to hinge back and rest in
stowed position, as in fig. 153. Some, however, prefer
a mast forward of the house to stow the poles upright,
fig. 150 and 154.
The
trolling gurdy sets, one on each side of the cockpit,
are operated hydraulically, or mechanically with shaft,
mitre gear and chain drives. The clutch is set near
the cockpit for ease of control. The wire leads to the
Fig. 152. Set of 3-spool trolling gurdies with reverse gear boxes trolling poles through pulleys (fig. 150) hung on the
and hydraulic drive unit pulley davit abreast of the gurdy spools. Some owners
Fig. 153. Trailer with forward poles hinged back to rest on the mast Fig. 154. Troller with a forward mast for stowing of poles
110]
SURFACE FISHING PACIFIC TROLLERS
Fig. 155. Right : bronze bow shock absorber with 6 in. (150 mm.) block
Left: davit block clamp securing 4 in. (100 mm.) block to davit
Fig. 157. Cross arm ai masthead for stowing trolling poles
Fig. 158. Bracket for
trolling poles and socket
for allowing poles swivel-
Fig. 156. Long/me gurdy ling and hinging outboards
[mi
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
prefer to place the gurdy spools on the centre-line of As the vessels are often in heavy weather they have
the vessel, fore and aft, which dispenses with the davits, steadying sails, fig. 150, and some have stabilizers
and the pulley leads are then hung from a spar beam heavy galvanized plates hung from the main poles with a
secured horizontally to the main boom. This method three-point suspension. As the craft rises and falls,
requires more lead blocks. The stainless wire, which is these plates offer resistance to the roll.
& to & in. (1 .2 to 2 mm.) in diameter, and up to 100 fm. If an anchor windlassused, the capacity is about
is
(183 m.) long, is led to the outer end of each trolling 100 fm. (183 m.) of wire and 10 fm. (18.3 m.) galvanized
pole where it goes through a pulley hung on spring shock chain. Otherwise the wire and chain comes in over a
"9P ]/]
jcdps
:
.
'
***#^
Lfe "
I
* >
4'H-.-.-.-.vsfr.v.-.-.vr
*'
~*
I
j
-
g. 159. 40ft. (12.2 m.) V-bonom steel (roller
absorbers (fig. 155). A longline gurdy, such as that sheave fitted on top of the bow chock and the wire goes
illustrated in fig. sometimes used on this type of
156 is back to the niggerhead or reel on the gurdy via lead
vessel and is placed between hatch and mast. blocks set on the forecastle deck.
The mast is installed aft of the house and has a cross Some of the larger craft are fitted with echo sounders
arm at the masthead for stowing the trolling poles and direction finders and most are equipped with radio
upright, fig. 1 57, If a foremast is used, a cross arm is transmitters and receiving sets.
fitted on it, as in fig. 154. The trolling poles up to In recent years a few welded steel trollers have been
56 ft. (17.1 m.) in length and holding 50 lures are set built and drawings of two types are given here in fig. 147
in sockets, fig. 158, to allow swivelling and hinging and 159, the latter being a40 ft. (12.2 m.) V-bottom
outboard. The guy wires for the poles are generally troller. Whilst these have proved satisfactory, many
in. (4.8 mm.) diameter and are attached to a stainless fishermen still prefer the \\armth of older type wooden
iV
steel thimble or socket. v cssels.
[112]
OPERATIONAL INFLUENCES ON TUNA CLIPPERS
by
JAMES F. PETRICH
tuna clipper, one of the largest, most complex awash at all times. Around the stern are the steel fishing
THE and romantic of the fishing vessels of the world,
has been developed around a simple method of
racks hung outside the main deck rail and extending
on the port or fishing side up to the start of the raised
fishing that of using live bait, hook and line. deck. There are usually three deck boxes on the stern,
In the early days of tuna fishing ofT southern California in line fore and aft, and set inboard of the main deck rail
before the 1920\ fishermen learned to attract the schools to allow for a 4 or 5 ft. (1 .2 or .5 m.) passageway at the
1
of tuna to their boats by throwing out live bait, small sides and around the stern. Over the deck boxes is built
sardines or anchovies, found in abundance along the a canopy strong enough to withstand the pistol shot
coast. The tuna would churn the water in their strikes impact of an errant flying hook, and to protect the
for the bait and in this frenzy would also strike at the
"
chummer " at his station atop the boxes. Forward
feathered hooks held by the fishermen on a short line of the deck boxes, about amidships, is the single mast and
at the end of a bamboo pole. The hooks were made to boom used to lift the power tender and fishing skiffs
resemble squids when played in the water but sometimes carried on the raised deck. Atop the mast is the covered
even this ruse was unnecessary as the tuna would strike at crow's nest large enough to seat two men, while ahead
a bare hook. The hooks were left barbless so that they of the mast is the deck house with accommodation for
could be easily dislodged from the mouth of the fish. 10 to 20 men in rooms that extend the full width of the
When the tuna were too big for one man to lift safely house to allow free passage of cooling sea air through
over the rail and into the boat, the fishermen attached open doors on each side. Above the deck house is the
two poles on a bridle to a single hook and two fishermen pilot house and chart room and, behind them, the stack.
worked as a team. For even bigger fish, three-pole or The hull and houses are painted white, the deck boxes
four-pole teams were used and soon the fishermen and working spaces aft are usually grey, and the guards
acquired great skill in fishing all si/es of tuna by this and rails stained their natural finish to accentuate the
method. long lines of the vessel.
Since those early days the tuna fishery was expanded Below decks is the machinery to operate and propel
to include the waters off the west coast of Mexico and the clipper and also the hold, which is divided into many
Central America and the northwest coast of South water-tight compartments. The engine room below the
America, as far as 3,000 miles from the home ports of main deck is well forward, just aft of a large fuel oil
San Diego and San Pedro, California. The fishing boat tank in the bow. From the engine room aft leads a full
has developed from the small flush-deck launch, without height shaft alley flanked on either side by the 8 to 16
living accommodation and able only 'to make daily watertight wells used to carry fuel oil and live bait on the
trips out of port, to the modern high seas clipper that outbound trip and frozen tuna on the homeward voyage.
can travel 10,000 to 12,000 miles. Clippers now range Aft of the wells, in the very stern, are tanks for carrying
from 90 to 169 ft. (27.4 to 51 .5 m.) long, are able to carry fresh water and more fuel oil.
huge quantities of live bait as well as fuel oil and pro- In the engine room, besides the single main dtesel
visions, and can bring home 130 to 630 short tons (110 propulsion engine, there are installed two large diesel-
to 570 long or metric tons) of frozen tuna. The crews, driven generating sets as well as two large bait water
though mainly of Portuguese extraction, also include pumps, bilge and fire pumps, fuel oil transfer pumps,
other nationalities such as Japanese, Italians, Slavonians lubricating oil tanks and other auxiliary machinery and
and Scandinavians, and the clippers have been influenced equipment. The shaft alley contains, besides the propeller
by these peoples. shaft, the brine circulating pumps and piping, and the
The modern clipper a good looking, yacht-like vessel,
is complex ammonia refrigeration lines for each well and
with a raised deck forward reaching back past amidships deck box.
to the deck boxes built on the main deck aft. The stern Above the engine room, in the 'tween deck space, is
is low in the water, the main deck aft being practically the upper engine room containing the main switchboard,
[113]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
the ammonia refrigeration compressors, air compressors The distinguishing mark of these tuna clippers
first
and air bottles, the engineer's work bench, COt
fire- was a low freeboard at the stern, and in all
development
fighting equipment, etc. The forecastle space is for ship since that time this mark has remained. It is a vitally
storage while aft are two watertight doors (one port and necessary condition for efficient operation.
one starboard) that lead to the open 'tween deck space
which contains the hatches to the wells below deck FISHING TRIM AND STABILITY
through which the fish are loaded. To fish effectively, tobrace himself against the terrific
In the centre of this space, aft of the upper engine room impact of a tuna striking at his hook, and to have enough
bulkhead, is the spacious galley cabin. The open 'tween leverage to lift the heavy fish out of the water past his
deck space can be enclosed with storm doors at the sides, shoulder and into the boat, the fisherman must be
and storm doors aft on either side of the forward edge standing only a few inches above the water. He stands
of the deck box give protection from severe weather.
The modern tuna clipper is built either of steel or
wood, the wooden vessel being preferred by the majority
of fishermen. Steel construction, however, has gained
popularity since the end of World War II because it
allows more space in the vessel, and because building HOUSE DECK
costs are competitive with the rising costs of wooden
construction. But, recently, there seems to be a trend
back to wooden vessels. The corrosion problems of the
MAIN
DECK
Fig. 160
steel vessel in the warm tropical waters have been a in the steel racks, hung outside the rail, to trail his hook
headache to the fishermen, and rust streaks, appearing as far out from the hull as possible, for the tuna is timid
through the paint when only two weeks out of port, and will not come too close to the boat. Such an arrange-
have been a blow to the pride of an owner-captain. ment leaves the deck space behind him free to receive
The very first tuna clippers had simple design require- the tuna. When twelve men are fishing in a good school
ments. Almost any kind of boat could take fishermen of tuna, they can toss fish onto the deck faster than a
out a few miles to where the tuna were running and return man can count and fill the deck up to the rail height with
in the afternoon with the catch on deck. A small wooden IS to 20 tons inside of an hour. But everything must be
box, through which sea water was pumped, was installed just right for the fisherman. He must not be too high off
on deck to carry live bait for the day's fishing. The weight the water as the tuna may easily pull him off balance;
of the deck box conveniently lowered the stern so that the rail behind him must not be too high or he will tire
the fishermen, standing close to water level, could easily lifting the tuna into the boat; nor must it be too low
fish with pole, line and hook. otherwise it will not give him support as he leans back
[114]
SURFACE FISHING OPERATION OF TUNA CLIPPERS
his full weight to heave in the fish. Again, he does not the catch. They were flush-deck vessels with a deck
want the deck rail to be too low because, instead of house for crew accommodation, a single mast and boom
15 tons, he may only have space for 10 tons out of each amidships and, on the after-deck, a large bait box
school before he must stop and pass the fish on deck into divided into two compartments, one forward of the other.
the storage wells. And, once he has stopped fishing a The need for more bait increased proportionately with
school, he may lose it. (See fig. 169 on page 121). the size of the boat but, rather than put all this bait
It has been found best to have the fish racks at the same
carrying capacity in boxes on deck and make the vessel
level as the deck, and the rail behind the fisherman to
top-heavy and unsafe, the designers built two additional
reach to the height of his buttocks; and then to trim the " "
water-tight wells in part of the hold. This was incon-
ship with just a few inches of freeboard at the stem, venient for the fishermen-owners because they had to
enough to be safe and seaworthy in the rough waters transfer bait as it was being used from the wells to the
where they fish and yet hold the fishing platform close to boxes. They also had to move the ice about more often
the water level. The designer, then, must calculate closely
his displacements and weights and tank capacities to
obtain this condition of trim all the time the vessel is on
the fishing grounds.
SHAFT ALLEY
ARRANGEMENT
BELOW DECK
Fig. 161
" "
Safe and seaworthy may appear to some incon- in the smaller hold, and then move it from the hold to the
gruous with only a few inches of freeboard but, in a real wells as the hold was filled with fish. To overcome these
sense, the low freeboard design is no more dangerous inconveniences, many owners eliminated the bait wells
than the low freeboard oil tanker. Many a storm has in the hold and installed a third large bait box on deck.
seen a tuna clipper riding it out more easily than a large The result was a very tender and top-heavy boat. In fact,
cargo ship. two of these vessels capsized and a third was lost with all
There have been times, however, when some clippers hands. The rest were kept afloat and fishing mainly,
were very unstable and unsafe, and the fundamental perhaps, through the constant vigilance and ability of
features of stability were forsaken. their skippers and crews. These disasters put a stop to
In the period from 1926 to 1930 there was a building such changes, induced the insurance companies finally
boom of large long-range clippers up to 130 ft. (39.6 m.), to require stability tests on the vessels, and resulted in a
designed to sail farther south to fish the larger schools much improved consciousness and treatment of the
of tuna. These boats had their engines installed as far stability problems of the tuna clipper. All this helped
forward as possible to make room for the hold aft to the designer who, though always aware that the stability
carry more fish; and they carried crushed ice to preserve problems were especially critical because of the clipper's
[H5]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
low freeboard, now had less trouble convincing builders this proved so satisfactory that soon all clippers were
and owners of their importance. converting their water-tight wells and forward boxes
Since that time the need for bait-carrying capacity has to this type of freezing. A brine cooler was installed on
increased three-fold, and this has been installed without deck through which the ammonia refrigerant was used
sacrifice to stability or safety. to cool the sea water that was circulated constantly
between it and the wells or boxes that were being chilled.
" "
CARRYING LIVE BAIT In the late 1930's, some all brine boats were built,
having the hold divided into water-tight compartments
Because live bait is essential and is becoming scarce, "
so that the entire catch could be frozen in brine." This
keeping it healthy and alive is vital. The chummer, added more complicated piping equipment and demanded
who looks after the bait and tosses it into the sea, to a much greater investment by the owner. In fact, it
"
chum up " the schools of tuna, is considered next in resulted in a boat with less fish-carrying capacity than a
importance to the skipper and chief engineer. He has "
comparable size ice boat ". A good deal of space was
given much information to the designer so that now taken up by a full height shaft alley extending the com-
specifications for all bait wells and boxes call for white-
plete length of the hold between the wells, necessary to
painted interiors, and water-tight glass lenses in the tops accommodate the extra piping and machinery and
and sides through which electric lamps shine to light up
provide buoyancy to compensate for the heavier loaded
the interiors and keep the bait from being frightened. " "
brine wells.
A large bait pump is installed to pump enough sea " "
However, the popularity of the all brine clipper
water through all bait wells and boxes to change the
was immediately established with the fishermen. After
water in them every 12 minutes. To guard against a kk "
a hard day's fishing, those on the all brine boats
breakdown of this pump, a stand-by pump is installed
did not have to change into warm, clean clothes and
of the same capacity because if the water supply were to
work most of the night stowing their catch in ice in the
stop for 15 minutes, the bait may die. The pumps are cold fish-hold. They merely had to pass the fish into one
the large propeller-type, 10 in. (25.4 cm.) size, with 10 h.p.
of the wells or boxes, already partially filled with chilled
motors, in the smaller tuna clipper, and up to 14 in. sea water, top off the tank, batten down the hatch, and
(35.6 cm.) size, with 50 h.p. motors, in the large clippers. then they were free to go to their bunk for a full night's
They are usually placed on each side of the main engine
sleep and be ready for another hard day's fishing the
in the aft end of the engine room and directly over their
next morning. Though they might not be able to bring
own sea chest valves. They discharge into a common "
in as large a load as a comparable ice boat ", these
header pipe, which passes through the length of the
boats soon had all the best fishermen, and from that
shaft alley and feeds through individual valves into the "
time newly built clippers were all brine ".
bottom of each bait well and deck box. The water flow
The boats had other advantages, too. They could use
through each tank is dispersed by a screen at the inlet, some of their wells for carrying bait, thereby decreasing
rises up through the tank, passes through an outlet
the size of the deck boxes and cutting down some of the
screen and then goes overboard through an overflow
top-heaviness of the clipper. They lined the forward
pipe. The level of water in the tanks is kept well up in wells with steel, making them suitable for carrying fuel
the hatch, which is built about 2 ft. (61 cm.) above the
oil for use on the outbound voyage. When empty, the
deck. This is done by regulating the amount of overflow
wells could be cleaned for carrying fish.
through the overflow pipes. These hatches are 4 to 5 ft. A little later, the story goes, a skipper whose vessel
(1.2 to 1.5 m.) square, large enough to provide easy " "
was a bit too heavy (that is, has a little more tank
access to the bait and small enough to minimize the effect
capacity than she could safely carry) caught a full load
on the vessel's stability of the free surface in the tank.
of fish, but feared of the hazards of the long trip home.
Reluctant to throw any away to lighten up the vessel,
REFRIGERATION OF THE CATCH he decided to pump out the chilled sea water from some
Another great problem of the tuna clipper is preserving of the wells that had been under refrigeration for a
its catch from the time when the first tuna is caught to considerable time, which meant returning with the fish
" "
the time when, after the long trip home, the fish is concerned in a dry condition, kept cold only by the
discharged at the cannery. ammonia coils used to supplement refrigeration. His
The early long-range clipper carried crushed ice in its much-lightened vessel made better speed than usual
hold to preserve the fish and used ammonia refrigeration though the weather was bad, and when the fish were
" "
coils, banked overhead and on the sides and bulkheads unloaded from the dry wells they were in excellent
of the hold, to supplement the ice and overcome the condition, perhaps even better than those carried all the
heat absorbed through the hull. Usually the forward way in brine because they experienced less salt penetration.
deck box was refrigerated, too, and used to carry iced The skipper tried the same procedure again and again,
tuna after the hold was full, the bait having been used each time with very satisfactory results and soon the
" "
up by this time or transferred to another deck box. whole fleet was bringing in its load dry frozen after
Some fishermen tried a method of circulating chilled the initial brine freezing.
sea water to preserve the tuna in the forward box, and Some fish preserved in this manner were spoiled
[116]
SURFACE FISHING OPERATION OF TUNA CLIPPERS
" "
because of a warm spot in a tank that had otherwise A TOUCH OF ITS SPIRIT
kept cool when the cold sea water was circulating it, and
sometimes, too, the engineer would pump out the sea The early long-range tuna clippers used only the slow
water too soon before all the latent heat had been heavy-duty diesel engines and machinery. Now, as then,
remoTed from the fish. In such cases the boat would come reliability of machinery is the measure of its popularity
home with the tank full of spoiled fish. But, with more as there are no service ships or spare parts available when
and more operating experience, these troubles were they are thousands of miles from home and days away
mostly overcome. from any port. On the continuous operation of the
Other refinements followed to improve and simplify machinery depends, perhaps, a $100,000 (36,000) catch,
brine freezing. After the initial freezing of the fish with a $300,000 or $400,000 (1 10,000 to 140,000) vessel, and
r
chilled sea water at 28 to 30F. (-2 to l
C), salt lives of the fishermen.
was added to the sea water to make heavy brine and the Tropical waters are particularly corrosive and monel
temperature of the circulating brine and fish further fastenings are used on under-water fittings, copper-
reduced to about 20' to 25 F. (7 to 4 C.). The nickel heat exchangers are installed, monel pump shafts
brine was not pumped out until this temperature had and propeller tail shafts are used (the largest monel
been maintained in the tank for two days, by which time tail shaft in the world is installed in a clipper). Tropical
all the fish in the well were assured of being frozen. airs do little to cool the engine room so oversized electric
" "
The fish were then kept dry at this
temperature, or even colder, for the
remainder of the trip.
Then it was found that the refrigeration
could be done by the ammonia coils alone,
and the coils are now specified at 6 or 8 in.
(15.2 or 20.3 cm.) spacings instead of the
10 or 12 in. (25.4 or 30.5 cm.) used with
brine coolers. A
small 2 or 3 h.p. brine
circulating pump, mounted in the shaft
alley, one for each well and box, circulates
the brine from bottom to top of the tank.
The coils draw heat from the brine and
fishby means of the direct expansion of
ammonia, supplied from a large reservoir
located in the aft of the shaft alley. The
Fig. 162. Modern tuna clipper designed by the author
supply is through automatic expansion
valves at each well. The ammonia gas is
drawn from the coils in any one of three suction headers, motors are placed on important pieces of machinery to
maintained at three different suction pressures by back prevent over-heating.
pressure valves corresponding to the temperature Cannerymen long ago learned that, with few notable
required: (1) to chill sea water and perform the initial exceptions, the cannery-owned boat was never successful.
chilling of the tuna, (2) to freeze the tuna in heavy brine It was the boat owned by the fishermen themselves that
at from 20 to 25 F. (-7 to -4
U
C), and (3) to consistently brought back the tuna and the canneries
maintain the tuna "dry frozen" at about 10F. wisely encouraged good fishermen to own their own
.
( 12C). The 3 suction headers are piped through boats, helped to finance them and co-operated with
manifold valves to motor-driven reciprocating type of them way. These fishermen were quick to use
in every
ammonia compressors, which are located in the upper their earnings to increase the efficiencyof the clipper
engine room. The number of compressors may vary operation. They went on long voyages over unknown
from 3 to 6 and their total refrigeration capacity from seas to find new fishing grounds, and they charted the
35 to 200 tons (100,000 to 600,000 kcal./h.). Hot gas ocean depths where they fished. They added the raised
discharge from the ammonia compressors is piped to deck forward to make their vessel more seaworthy;
two large condensers (usually of a vertical tube flooded they studied, with a critical eye, the plans of a new
type especially developed for the clipper) located on the vessel, to make the lines more pleasing and tfce
main deck ahead of the deck boxes. The condensers accommodation better. They installed a small chape 1
are cooled by circulating sea water which may have a aboard and their wives furnished it with the finest laces
temperature of 85 to 90 F. (29 to 32 C.). The and appointments. It te such fishermen, proud, colour-
condensed ammonia then flows by gravity to the ammonia ful, jealous, courageous and bold, and at the same time
receiver in the shaft alley. This method of refrigeration fearful, born to the sea and with a deep religious
is simple, effective, and especially suitable to the freezing culture, who have put the deepest mark on the modern
of tuna and to the specialized clipper operation. tuna clipper.
[117]
PACIFIC TUNA CLIPPERS
by
H. C. HANSON
raised deck tuna clipper, Northwestern, fig.
first
THE 163,
long, 27
built in 1928, and was 125 ft. (38.1 m.)
was
ft. (8.23 m.) wide, and 12 ft. 8 in. (3.9 m.)
deep. It had a 500 h.p. heavy-duty diesel engine and a
three compartment wooden bait tank, built aft. It was of
sawn frame construction and was insulated between the
frames but so that an air space was also left between the
ceiling and the planking to aid ventilation and prevent
decay. Previously the insulation had been placed inside
the ceiling. The new insulation method was successful,
and after 23 years of operation, when the vessel was
modernized in 1951, there was no trouble because of
wood decay. Fig. 164 shows the clipper after conversion.
Until this vessel was built it was only possible for bait
to be carried alive for a few days. A
new method of Fig. 164. Northwestern after conversion in 1951
piping was installed in the large bait tank allowing more
water to be circulated and this was so successful that (380 mm.) stroke turning a 3-bladed propeller 72 in.
more than four
after the first trip of Northwestern, of (1,830mm.) in diameter, with 49 in. (1,245 mm.) pitch at
weeks, there was still bait alive. speeds up to 380 r.p.m. The auxiliaries consist of three
One of the largest clippers, built expressly for tuna 120 h.p. diesels each driving a 90 k.w. generator. Two
fishing, is the 130x30x17 ft. (39.6x9.1 x5.2m.) welded of them are in the lower engine room, the other being
steel craft, Sun Dial, which can carry about 400 tons in the upper engine room where there are four 6$ x6J in.
(360 ton). She is a full-bodied vessel with a good beam, (165x165 mm.) twin cylinder refrigerating compressors
is full aft and carries her load without squatting. At full driven by 40 h.p. electric motors equipped with manual
starters. All engines are fresh water cooled.
speed 10.1 knots and loaded, the propeller does not
pull her stern down. She has a supercharged 850 h.p. There is permanent fuel bunkerage for 26,700 imp. gal.
diesel 8 cylinders with 12 in. (305 mm.) bore and 15 in. (32,000 gal., 121 cu. m.) and another 27,600 imp. gal.
(33,000 gal., 1 25 cu. m.) can be carried in cargo tanks
on the outgoing trip. The lubricating oil tank capacity is
2,000 imp. gal. (2,400 gal., 9.1 cu. m.) and that for fresh
water, 4,200 imp. gal. (5,000 gal., 18.9 cu. m.)
The refrigeration receiver and brine coolers are located
in the shaft alley forward upper end, while the refrigerat-
ing condensers are on deck at the forward end of the
bait tanks. The 2 in. (51 mm.) circulating pumps for
the 16 cargo tanks, two 1\ h.p. brine transfer pumps,
and a 15 h.p. pump for the condenser, are in the shaft
alley. There are also three 30 h.p. 14x12 in. (356 x
305 mm.) vertical bait pumps, two 10 h.p. vertical bilge
pumps, one 15 h.p. high pressure fire pump and some
smaller pumps for general service. There are 19 mag-
netic starters for the larger pumps and 16 push button
fig. 163. J25/J17X 27x 12ft. 8 in. (38.1/35.7x8.23x3.9 m.)
tuna clipper Northwestern starters for the brine well circulation pumps.
[118]
SURFACE FISHING PACIFIC TUNA CLIPPERS
. 7^5. Sun Dial inboard profile and deck plans
[119]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
PLATFORM DECK BRIDGE DECK
FORECASTLE DECK
Fig. 166. Sun Dial deck plun\
TUNA CLIPPER
LtNOTM110 ft
- It H
IAM ii rr
- IBM
FRAME 37 LOOKING AFT FRAME 17
BULKHEAD 4O LOOKING AFT LOOKING AFT
Fig. 167. Sun Dial sections Fig. 168. Tuna clipper Sun King
[120]
SURFACE FISHING PACIFIC TUNA CLIPPERS
The welded bait tank on the aft deck has the two Fig. 170 is a photograph of the first steel tuna boat
forward compartments refrigerated for stowing the last built and used in Hawaiian waters. Vessels of this kind
of the catch. In all there are 14 refrigerated cargo holds are used as day boats. The fish tanks are arranged with
as well as the two in the bait tank on deck, and they openings to the sea, to allow water circulation by the
are equipped with 17,000 ft. (5,200 m.) of 1 J in. (32 mm.)
ammonia piping.
Navigational instruments include a gyro compass,
a two-unit power-driven gyro pilot, a steering repeater
compass, a bearing repeater on the bridge deck, an
echo-sounder, a 65 w. radiophone, an eye-level radio
direction finder, a 10-station teletalk intercommunication
system, pyrometers for the diesel engine and mercury
thermometers for each brine circulating pipe-line
to give the temperature in all cargo wells. Steering,
whether manual or automatic, is through a chain-type
steering engine in the forepeak of the upper engine
room.
The anchor windlass carries 100 fm. (183 m.) of wire
rope, i in. (22 mm.) diameter, with 15 fm. (27 m.)
of in. (25 mm.) stud link chain at the outer end. It is
1
driven with a 20 h.p. motor.
There are quarters, and a chapel, for 7 men in state- 1
rooms on the deck. The boom is controlled by an electric
driven winch, and an electric gear driven winch is installed
on the boom itself for handling cargo. Two boats are
carried: a fast 18 (5.49 m.) power tender and a bait
ft.
net skiff fitted with buoyancy -tanks. Plans of the genefal
arrangements are shown in fig. 165 and 166, and
typical sections in fig. 167. The plating is ^r in. (7.8 mm.), Fix.
garboards in. (9.5 mm.) and the transverse framing
'i
5x3i in. (127x89 mm.) on 24 in. (610 mm.) centres.
The deck is in. (4.8 mm.), complying with standard
-ft- surging of the vessel. Live bait is carried successfully
construction rules. A bird's eye view of one of the tuna and when the stocks are depleted the tanks are used to
store the catch. The water openings may be opened
clippers of the Sun class is shown in fig. 168. The difficult
task of tuna catching by hook and line is indicated in or shut as required for wet or dry storage and water may
169. be pumped out of the tanks.
fig.
'^SK^i $?f jj^f*^ , ,
Fig. 170. First steel tuna clipper built in Hawaii. 75x16x7 ft. 2in. (22.9 X 4.9x2.2 m.)
121]
THE OWNER'S VIEWPOINT
by
BASIL PARKES
R1T1SH post-war trawlers are of three types: deep-
B sea, middle water and near water.
Many types of fishrooms have been installed in the
post-war ships but the majority are still built of wood.
Very few owners are satisfied with wood and are looking
for something better. It is essential to have a fully
DEEP SEA TRAWLERS insulated fishroom and the fish room ceilings and bulk-
The deep sea trawler must be a seaworthy vessel that heads should be constructed of a non-absorbent material
can battle againstNorth Atlantic gales throughout the which can be washed down and kept clean with the least
year and stand up to the cold, hard weather experienced effort. Interior partitions should be of the kind that can
in the Arctic Circle during the winter months. There are be totally dismantled to facilitate stowing, cleaning and
two main reasons why the majority of British owners discharging fish, and fishroom capacity varies from
and skippers still prefer steamships: (1) reliability; 12,000 to 20,000 cu. ft. (340 to 565 cu. m.).
<2) because fishing is often carried on in forty and fifty The most important factors governing crew accom-
degrees of frost (-20 to -30 C.) and a liberal supply of modation are: (1) to ensure the maximum safety for
hot water and steam must be available to prevent ice the crew and (2) to provide comfort. To accomplish
forming in dangerous quantities on the superstructure, this it has become customary to accommodate all the
fishing gear, etc. But a number of diesel vessels have been crew aft arid amidships, with internal access to and from
built and are fitted with an auxiliary steam toiler. the wheel-house, engine room, messrooms, bathrooms,
Altogether, more than one hundred deep sea trawlers : drying rooms, etc. Once the vessel leaves the fishing
have been built in Great Britain since the World War II. grounds she can be battened down and, particularly in
The vessels operate on grounds stretching from the bad weather, the crew have no need to go out on the
Davis Straits, Grand Banks of Newfoundland and exposed decks. It is also customary to instal inter-
Greenland in the west, Iceland, Bear Island, Seahorse communication so that the skipper can speak to any
Island in the north and Kolveu Island and Nova Sembla part of the crew's quarters, engine room, etc. It also
in the east. The average distance to and from the grounds enables the wireless operator to switch on news and
is 1,600 sea miles and fishing is continued throughout music when the crew are off duty, which gives a com-
the year. forting link with home.
Dimensions of the vessels vary from 160 to 190 ft. Navigational and fishing equipment requirements for
{48.8 to 57.9 m.) between perpendiculars, 29 to 32 ft. the average deep sea trawler are: Two independent
{8.8 to 9.75 m.) beam and 14 to 17 ft. (4.3 to 5.2 m.) recording or indicating echo sounders, a long range
moulded depth. All owners would like a speed much in wireless transmitter and receiver capable of transmitting
excess of that economically obtainable at present, but messages round the world; a smaller wireless telephony
speed is somewhat dependent on the length of the vessel. transmitter and receiver for inter-ship communication
All would like a speed of at least 12 J knots and most of and ship to shore telephone communication at short
the post-war deep-sea vessels do attain loaded speeds of range; direction finders and radar.
12 J to 13$ knots. Engine power, according to the size Most British deep sea trawlers have two direction
and displacement of ship, varies from 900 to 1,400 finders, one for navigation and one for locating other
continuous b.h.p. ships, and nearly all of them have radar, with ranges
The British owner requires a winch hauling speed in varying from 25 to 40 miles. This aid is invaluable when
excess of 250 ft. (76 m.) per minute and many of the post- fishing in foggy weather amongst ice. It also assists
war ships are heaving at more than this speed. It means the skippers with navigational and fishing activities,
installing a very powerful winch, developing from 200/ particularly in fog and snow, and in the winter months
350 h.p. at the winch shaft, depending on size of ship in the northern hemisphere when there is over 20 hours
and trawling conditions. darkness in midwinter. Some vessels are now fitted with
[122]
BOTTOM FISHING THE OWNERS' VIEWPOINT
the Fischlupe instrument for detecting shoals of fish and deep-sea trawler owners are for
looking something
some have electric logs and an electrical instrument to better than wood.
tell the skipper how much trawl Most now
warp he has got out British owners consider it just as important
when paying away, fishing or hauling in, to have all the crew accommodation aftand amidships
as in the deep sea trawlers. This is considered a great
step forward for the safety and comfort of crews. It
MIDDLE WATER TRAWLERS is also necessary to have a messroom separate from the
The requirements are almost as varied in the middle sleeping quarters (so that the men can use it for their
water as the deep sea vessel, and they must be stalwart, recreation), hot and cold water, bathrooms, wash-houses
seaworthy vessels built to 100 A.I Lloyds Class. Middle and toilets all built aft and accessible without going on
water trawlers fish off .the West coast of Scotland and the exposed deck.
Ireland, Faroe Isles, Norwegian Deeps and as far north Regarding navigational equipment, the oVvners require-
as Iceland, and it is necessary for the vessels to have a ments are much the same as for the deep-sea vessel.
sea range of at least 25 days. The equipment includes wireless transmitter
essential
Dimensions range from 115 to 130 ft. (35 to 39.6 m.) and two independent echo sounders, a recording
receiver,
between perpendiculars, 25 to 27 ft. (7.6 to 8.2 m.) type being preferable, and a direction finder. Radar is
beam, and 12 ft. to 13 ft. 6 in. (3.66 to 4.12 m.) moulded rapidly becoming standard equipment and most owners
want inter-communication throughout the crew accom-
modation and on the main deck.
Unfortunately Great Britain has not built a large
number of middle water trawlers since World War II,
and the fleet is much depleted. For fewer
this reason,
improvements have been made as compared with those
carried out in the deep water vessel, but the aid which the
British Government is now giving for building near and
middle- water vessels should stimulate construction. The
majority of British owners now realize they must turn
to diesel power both for economy and range. Owners
want a vessel which can fish economically on the various
near water grounds at different seasons and in depths
varying from 200 to 300 fm. (366 to 550 m.); at other
seasons they want a vessel to go to the Faroe Isles and
Iceland fishing grounds. The diesel-powered vessel can
do this so there is no need to have a large, 'uneconomical
trawler.
Fig. 777, 772, 173. Profile and plans of the deep sea trawler Olafur NEAR WATER TRAWLERS
Johannesson, built in 1950. Particulars: 1981 183.5 x 30 x 17 jt.
(60.4155.9 x 9.1 X 5.2 m.); 1, 200 h.p. triple expansion steam engine; British near water vessels are of two types: the near
38 men crew
water trawler and the near-water drifter trawler. Dealing
with the former vessel first, it is essential to have a sea-
depth. The speed required is not less than 10 knots, worthy, robust, 100 per cent. A.I Lloyds Class craft
more if
economically possible. If a diesel
is installed and one that will attract a good class skipper, mate and
it should be from 600 to 750 b.h.p. Most owners would engineer, and also encourage young men to become
prefer direct driven, direct reversing, slow-running diesel fishermen. She must also be so economical to operate
engines of 200 to 250 r.p.m., similar to those fitted in the that she can make a living on the depleted fishing grounds
post-war French fleet. around the British Isles.
An electrically-driven winch is usually installed and The fishing grounds comprise mainly of the North Sea,
should heave at 250 ft. (76 m.) per minute up to 300 ft. to a lesser degree the English Channel, the Bristol
{91 m.) possible and have a capacity of not less than
if Channel, the Irish Sea and Morecambe Bay, and the
-900 fm. (1,600 m.) on each drum. shallow water around the coast of Scotland. Trips usually
Fishrooms should be as large as possible, well insulated last 8 to 12 days but the vessels generally have a sea-
and arranged so that a big proportion of the catch can going range of three to four weeks.
be laid one fish deep on each shelf. All the interior of the Dimensions range from 100 to 115 ft. (30.5 to 35 m.)
fishroom should be removable so that it can be cleaned length between perpendiculars, 23.5 to 22 ft. (7.2 to 6.7 m.)
with the maximum efficiency, and all battens should be beam and 12 to 10 ft. (3.7 to 3.1 m.) moulded depth.
detachable, made from galvanized steel or aluminium. The average speed is between 9 and 10 knots.
~
The most suitable material for the ceilings and bulk- The power of the engine installed depends largely on
heads is a debatable point and, as in the case of the whether it is direct driven or driven through a gear box.
[123]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 174. Profile of the deep sea trawler Prince Charles, built in 1950. Particulars: 178 x
30.5 x 16 ft. (54.3 x 9.3 X 4.9m.); 712 gross tons; J6,000 cu. ft. (450 cu. m.) fish-room
with chilling plant; experimental filleting-freezing plant with 800 at. ft. (23 en. m.) frozen
storage; 32 men crew
Fig. 175. Profile of the deep sea trawler Princess Elizabeth, built in. 1952. Particulars:
160.5 x 29 x 14.5 ft. (48.9 x 8.8 X 4.4 m.); 41 ft. (12.5 m.) fish-room with 12,725
cu. ft. (360 cu. m.) capacity; 1,200 h.p., 250 r.p.m., diesel; 300 h.p., $00 r.p.m., auxiliary
diesel driving a 165 kw., 175/220 v., 940 amp. generator delivering power to the 200 h.p.,
650/950 r.p.m., electric motor for the trawlwinch with 7,200 fm. (2,200 m.} capacity; 60 h.p.
auxiliary diesel set; oil-fired boiler for liver processing and heating; 23 men crew
Fig. 176. Stern view of the deep sea trawler Princess Elizabeth
[124]
BOTTOM FISHING THE OWNERS' VIEWPOINT
:v' >
'.V-
Fig. J77. Middle water trawler St. Leonard, />///// m /95J. Particulars: 115
*
25 1 1 ft. (35 ,- 7.6 , 3.35 in.}; 275 tons gross;
600 h.p. dievel; 10.5 knots
Direct driven 350/550 b.h.p. with 230 to 300 r.p.m.
it is electric or hydraulic drive. The winches have a capacity
If areduction gear is used the power varies from 300b.h.p. of 300 to 600 fm. (550 to 1,100 m.) on each drum.
to 450 b.h.p. and the main engine speed from 400 to Fish rooms are equipped with shelf cod pounds and
650 r.p.m. are fitted up in the same way as those of the middle-
The majority of winches are belt or chain driven from water trawlers.
the main engine, but a few of the larger vessels have The majority of vessels accommodate their crew aft
Near water trawler Boston Victor, built in 1953. Particulars: 102 x 22.1 x 9.8 ft. (3 1 6.7 * 3m.}; J 88 gross tons;
Fig. 178.
435 h.p. diesel; 10 knots; 12 men crew
[125]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
avoiding wrecks, etc., and, of course, in navigating in fog
and thick weather.
Building of this class of vessel has been very slow in
Great Britain, the strength of the fleet being about half
of the pre-war figure. Intense overfishing of the near
water grounds by all countries bordering the North Sea,
high construction costs and Government control of fish
prices have discouraged British owners from rebuilding
the fleet.
The near water drifter trawler is for trawling in the
North Sea and other near water grounds, and for drifting
during the herring season, a requirement that limits the
size of the vessel.
Dimensions are from 75 to 85 ft. (23 to 26 m.) length
between perpendiculars, 20 to 22 ft. (6.1 to 6.7 m.)
Fig. 779, 180. Profile and plan of drifter-trawler Underley Queen, beam and moulded depth.
built in 1953. Particulars: 94.25/84 x 27.5 x 9.75 ft. (28.7/25.6
9.5 to 10.5 ft. (2.9 to 3.2 m.)
x 6.6 x 2.97 m.); 774 gross tons; 3,500 cu. ft. (100 cu. m.) fish- A speed of 9J to 10 knots is required so that herring
room; 9.8 knots. can be landed fresh.
Profile: 7, radio room; 2 1 wheel house; 3, food store; 4, galley;
3 kw. generator; 230 475 r.p.m. t 2\:l
If the vessels were built for drifting only, the h.p.
5, accommodation; 6, 7, h.p.,
reduction gear, diesel; 8, fuel; 9, fish; 10, nets; 77, ropes; 72, could probably be reduced, but as they are built for two
13 9 water ballast.
stores;
types of fishing, it has to be kept reasonably high, from
Plan: I, crew; 2, fresh water; 3, stores; 4, fuel; 5 1 fish; 6, nets;
200 to 300 b.h.p.
7, ropes; 8, stores; 9, captain; 10, lubricating oil; 11, auxiliary
diesel set. The winch is driven from the main engine in the same
manner as the 100 ft. (30.5 m.) trawler, and fishrooms
and amidships and new vessels are being built with are fitted with a large type hatch suitable for drifting.
mess rooms adjacent to the galley on the main deck. They are constructed in such a way that a large propor-
Hot and cold water shower baths, drying rooms, and tion of the hatch can be battened down permanently
other amenities are the same as in the larger vessels. when trawling. Some vessels that box herrings are
Navigational equipment includes a radio telephony also fitted with a large after well for packing herrings
transmitter and receiver, direction finder, and one echo caught overnight, the main fishroom being used for the
sounder (usually the recording type). Many ships are catch to be landed the same day it is caught.
now fitting a Decca-navigator, which is of great assistance Crew accommodation and navigational equipment are
in keeping their position on the fishing grounds and the same as in the near-water trawlers.
[126]
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW ENGLAND TRAWLER
by
DWIGHT S. SIMPSON
yawl Resolute was the first American beam 7.6 m.) in beam. They were fitted with Scotch boilers
THE trawler, built in 1891by Arthur D. Story, of Essex,
Mass., from designs by the U.S. Fish Commission
and triple expansion steam engines of 550 to 600 i.h.p.
At the same time, sailing vessels which had taken to
and she was unmistakably English in her origin. Her auxiliary power first the petrol engine, then the diesel
dimensions were: 85 ft. (25.9 m.) length, 22 ft. (6.7 m.) also took up trawling and by 1920 a fleet of converted
beam, and 9.6 ft. (2.93 m.) depth, with a fish-hold schooners with top masts and bowsprits removed, and
capacity of about 2,500 cu. ft. (71 cu. m.). She was carrying only a riding sail, were in operation. The next
operated by an English crew. development was to build vessels such as the Pioneer
Many other attempts at trawling in New England (1918), 129.1 ft. (39.4 m.) registered length fitted with a
waters were made in the following years with steam Fairbanks Morse 450 h.p. engine, and the Mariner
and sail, with and without English crews but it was (1919) which was fitted with a diesel electric drive.
1904 before the present industry started. That year No such unit has ever again been installed in a New
(Symonds and Trowbridge 1947) Admiral Bowles got England vessel. H. Munro Smith (1924) has described
the support of a group of Boston men, imported a set of this trawler as follows:
"
plans from England and built the steam trawler Spray, L.W.L. 140 ft. (42.7 m.);3 in. (7.40 m.): beam 24 ft.
fig. 181. The vessel was so successful that others were mean draft 1 1 ft. 9 displacement, 500 tons;
in. (3.57 m.),
quickly built and soon a fleet was operating out of cruising radius, 6,000 miles, at 10 knots. The propelling
Boston. World War I depleted the fleet but it was machinery consists of two eight-cylinder four-cycle
rapidly rebuilt and there were 43 vessels of the Spray Nelseco diesel engines, rated at 240 b.h.p. at 350 r.p.m.
type on the register in 1926. Although similar to the direct coupled to two generators, each being rated
Spray, the vessels were larger, ranging from 135 to 165 kw. at 125 volts. For propulsion, these generators
140 ft. (41 to 43 m.) in length and 24 to 25 ft. (7.3 to are run in series and supply power to the main motor,
SPRAY
ntST USBUH.T TRAWLER
PORK MVCR SHIPKJILDIMO CO
1Q05
"
TL A o rT 4 M 4i. 5*1
IL f 1M - - - ML*
CALK IN MIT SCALE IN MI TNI CAM
DIJTM
tt- O -?'" *"
It WJ*-~-
? f 9 tt 1t f f f I OHAfT (MIAN) 1 1- t *"J
jflH HOLD OOOcwrt -*. W^
Fig.181
[127]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
which is rated at 400 b.h.p. at 200 r.p.m. with voltage better ratio: 1,190 h.p. for a total weight of 49,000 Ib.
at 250. Connections and means of adjustment are (22,230 kg.) of machinery.
provided so that any range of voltage and current can This development of diesel trawlers brought about the
be supplied to the motor and the load be divided between eclipse of the steam vessel and by 1930 there were only
the generating sets as desired, or one generator can be 30 in operation, while by 1939 the figure had dropped to
shut down. The winch motor is 125 volts as is that of all 23 in the register compared with 88 diesel trawlers of
the auxiliary and lighting equipment and the power 100 tons or more.
can be taken from either main generator. Fuel con- While the World War II again decimated the fleet,
sumption was just over 30 gal. (25 imp. gal., 114 1.) per the U.S. Navy built about three hundred 100-ft. (30.5 m.)
hour and full speed just over 10 knots. Full ahead to full vessels with trawler hulls and some of them have now
astern in 15 seconds ". been converted to fishing. Many of the larger trawlers
Another trawler, called Fabia, was also built in 1919. were bought by the U.S. Army for use in Germany
She was 131.6 ft. (40 m.) in length, 25 ft. (7.62 m.) in immediately after the war, a fact which added to a boom
beam and 13.4 ft. (4.8 m.) in depth with a capacity of in construction from 1945 to 1947, but since then no
about 6,000 cu. ft. (170 cu. m.). Her main engine was new large trawler, and very few small ones, have been
a Nelseco, six-cylinder, 13 in. (330 mm.) diameter built because the price of fish fell, the wages for crews
NOTRE DAME
BATH IRON WORKS CORP
1020
[OP OF RAIL
QUART tN OECK_ MAIN OFCK__
L W L
LOA 13? M _ 4025 M
3' 1 "I
1
L BP 121 /IN
Bf AM - 7 32 - '
34
SCALE IN METRES DEPtM II - 306
DRAFT >Mr AM 11 4 ~ 34*
FISH MOLD WOOcufi -1785 M 1
.._ I
Fig. 182
by 18 in. (457 mm.) stroke, single-acting, four cycle, and the nearer
increased, cost of building vessels soared
air injection, developing 360 h.p. at 240 r.p.m. weighing fishinggrounds were depleted. According to the 1952
57,000 (25,800 kg.), and giving a speed of 9 knots in a
Ib. register there are no steam and only 20 diesel trawters 1
smooth Later, a 520 h.p. engine with mechanical,
sea. of over 100 gross tons. These vessels, together with a
solid injection, was put into her and, although free multitude of small craft, make up the present new fle#.
running speed was increased by only half a knot the Although the schooners have disappeared, many
"
trawling speed is said to have improved considerably. small trawlers have been built of the schooner type ",
Her winch engine was a 100 h.p. diesel with two cylinders with two masts and a riding sail. This is a hangover
14x17 in. (356x432 mm.), weighing 24,000 Ib. which the author deems useless.
(10,900 kg.) and her auxiliary was. a 15 h.p. horizontal The earlier diesel vessels were of two distinct types.
single-cylinder, double flywheel engine weighing 4,000 Ib. The steel hulls, designed and built primarily by Fore
(1,814 kg.). These rugged, heavy engines were still in River and the Bath Iron Works of Bath, Maine, and the
service when the trawler was converted to a freighter a generally smaller, wooden vessels modelled and built by
few years ago. It is interesting to note that the original James, Story, Rice and the Morses (three brothers,
engine installed in the Fabia, and the auxiliaries, three different yards). The steel vessels differed little
developed a total of 475 h.p. with weight of 85,000 Ib. from the previous steam trawlers, as can be seen by the
(38,550 kg.) whereas a new trawler, the Judith Lee Rose, lines of Spray (1905, fig. 181) and Notre Dame (1929,
fig. 190, will carry machinery developing 795 h.p. for a fig. 182).
weight of only 46,000 Ib. (22,860 kg.), while another When the building of smaller diesel vessels started
vessel now (1953) in the design stage will have an even the boatyards had no precedents for them but they
[128]
BOTTOM FISHING DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ENGLAND TRAWLER
LO A MFTAM 304 M]
LIP 0fT - - 10 I
BEAM it - 671 '
DEPTH 11 - JJ
DRAM MMf - 3*4 i
*
run HOLD MtO cur r 100*
evolved reasonably efficient hulls, often constructing fuel left. In exactly similar circumstances the Judith Lee
several vesselsfrom the same model with a change here Rose has a calculated change of only 12 in. (30.5 cm.).
and there. The Golden Eagle, fig. 183, was one of the last Conditions in 1945 called for a different type of boat
and best, although she shows the heavy after quarters to that built before the war. Building and running costs
and fine fore end that brought the vessels by the head had risen and the price offish, which had been high, was
and made them hard to manage in a loaded condition. falling off but they were plentiful and nearby. To save
About 1935 attempts were made to avoid extreme construction costs smaller vessels were needed and as
change of trim accomplished partly by a change in the
; capacity had to be maintained the trend was to fuller
hull form and partly by redistribution of weights, hulls. At the same time skippers had found that the
notably the shifting of 20/25 per cent, of the fuel load faster they dragged their nets, the more fish they caught,
forward of the fish-hold. In recent years the use of light so power plants were considerably increased. A very
weight short engines has allowed the fish-hold to be good example of a vessel built to meet these requirements
placed nearer the centre of the vessels. An interesting is the Alden-designed Bay, fig. 184 and 185, which is a
comparison between the old and the new is that of the highly successful trawler in the Boston fleet.
Golden Eagle and the Judith Lee Rose. The Golden Eagle When the nearer fishing grounds became depleted
has a change of trim of more than 30 in. (76 cm.) between trawlers had to make voyages up to 1,200 miles from
going out and coming in loaded, with 25 per cent, of the port instead of 300, and as the majority of the fleet can
Fig.184
[129]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 185
RUTH A MOSES
ALMNT CONDON
MAftVtV fAMAOC
BOTTOM FISHING DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ENGLAND TRAWLER
only make 9 to 10 knots, the period of actual fishing time (42.7 m.) IS knot trawlers is already under way, and a
on each trip has been drastically curtailed. In addition, further change in the form possibly knuckled after-
the Labour Union enforced short-time trips and three sections and transoms will be seen. Experiment will be
day lay-ups between trips so that where, a few years needed to see what happens to sea-comfort in such new
ago, a vessel might make 30 trips a year, to-day 22 trips vessels, which will be powered by the lighter and faster
is a record and 18 or 20 about the average. Present geared engines.
New England trawlers spend three times as many days Another possible development is the use of the
free-running as they do fishing, therefore speed is in controllable pitch propellers and there are now several
demand and the aim of designers and owners is now to manufacturers in the United States working on the
produce faster vessels which are also able to fish in winter problem, in an effort to reduce the initial cost, whereas,
and carry large catches of redfish. for many years, only one manufacturer had been
In an attempt to meet the changed conditions many of engaged in the work.
the older trawlers have been re-engined to give them It is interesting to note that wood is being used for all
greater sailing and trawling speed, but while some have the new
fishing boats being built or contemplated. The
shown considerable improvement, others have been reason for this is that the cost of the wooden vessel is
disappointing. In this respect, the same is true of the about 75 per cent, of that of steel, and in any case, a
new vessels that have been built and which seem greatly properly designed and built wooden vessel is every bit
over-powered. Yet these unsatisfactory results might as good as one of steel.
CALM
ALOCN
JOHN
Fig. 188
have been anticipated by an analysis of the hull forms, THE PLANS
" "
as a study of fig. 183, 184 and 186 will show. All have The vessels shown in the plans are inthe ready for sea
high displacement-length ratio, high prismatic co- condition fuel, water, ice, stores, equipment and crew
efficients and the speed-length ratio is more than 1.0, aboard. This is the only operating condition that can
i.e. on the hump of the speed-power curve. The hulls be approximately calculated and checked on the vessel,
are unsuitable for high speed as the high horse power per although in winter and summer the condition varies.
ton ratio and speed-length ratio of Ruth and Moses, In summer a vessel may carry from 20 to 50 tons of ice
fig. 186 and 187 indicate. But the type of shape is forced and only 15 to 35 tons in winter. The plans deal with
on them by need to carry the heavy slow speed diesel summer loading. Vessels returning from the fishing
" "
as far aft as possible, and the understandable desire to grounds are often close to the ready for sea condition
limit the length of the vessel. The small midship section because consumption of fuel, water, ice and stores,
is an accompanying evil if the displacement is to be in tends to balance the weight of fish caught. This might
reason. therefore be called an average condition. Waterlines
In putting new engines into old ships it has often been are spaced one quarter of the draft to the rabbet in
necessary to use super-charging, reduction gears, or wooden vessels and to the intersection of shell and keel
perhaps both, because of space limitations. But now in steel vessels. The buttock is drawn at one-quarter
when these new engines have been accepted there should beam of the waterline at Station 5 and the diagonal is
be a change in hull form to one more suitable for the that of the rectangle of the draft and one-half the water-
speeds required. This indicates a trend towards larger line beam at Station 5.
and even faster vessels and the development of 140 ft. Spray, fig. 181, was the first American steam trawler
[131]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
and was built by the Fore River Shipbuilding Co., considering the horse power displacement ratio and
Quincy, Mass., from English plans. The lines, however, the high displacement-length ratio, is excellent.
are unquestionably drawn at Fore River. It is a close The Golden Eagle, fig. 183, is one of the last and best
copy of English vessels of the period. Her lines are of the whittled boats and was built in 1941 by Charles
typical and could almost serve for all trawlers built Morse and Son, Thomaston, Maine. She has a 425 h.p.
during the following 25 years. Cooper Bessemer engine which gives her a speed of
The dotted sheer line is reproduced from the original about 10 knots. Originally she carried about 25,000 Jb.
which bears this note in script. ** The dotted line shows (11,340 kg.) cement ballast, but this has been replaced
the usual sheer of a trawler. The full line shows the by light weight concrete, an estimated saving of nearly
actual but excessive sheer required by the owners of this 10,000 Ib. (4,540 kg.). While she has considerable
" "
particular trawler." This excessive sheer is retained change in trim, the heavy drag of the keel makes her
in most trawlers to-day, so that the development of the handle well under all conditions and, according to her
New England trawler started with the first one, although captain, her sea performance has greatly improved since
of English origin. the new ballast was put in.
The trawler remained in service for 35 years and had The builders who used models instead of drawings
the distinction of being the first steam trawler to be usually built several boats from the same model, making
changes as experience would indicate,
lifting bow or stern, adding a few frames,
etc., until the actual boat was so far from
the model that it was necessary to make
a new model and start over again.
During the 1930's, consulting naval
architects began to come into the field and
even the small boat yards bought from
them designs at reasonable prices. How-
ever boats of various sizes are usually
built from the same set of plans. A
116-footer m.) has just been
(35.4
launched, built from a naval architect's
design drawn for a 98-foot (29.9 m.)
vessel. This practice accounts for a large
number of fairly narrow vessels in the
about 100 ft. (30.5 m.) size.
fig. 188, was designed in
Calm, 1935
189 by John G. Alden, Boston, Mass, under
K.
the supervision of the author and in
collaboration with Maierform of America
converted to diesel power. She now forms a bulkhead Inc., and she is another example from this period. The
at the head of a slip of the United Shipbuilding Cor- type was one of the first of the few trawlers to be lank
poration, East Boston, Mass. tested before construction started, and three vessels
Notre Dame, fig. 182, was designed and built by the were completed in 1936 and two in 1937, by the Fore
Bath Iron Works of Bath, Maine, in 1929. The profile River plant of the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation.
is almost identical with that of the Spray, except for a Although considered generally satisfactory, the original
L.W.L. and the section areas at vessels were too lean aft and were uncomfortable in a
slight increase in the
Stations 7, 8 and and 192. The fullness in the
9, fig. 191 following sea. In 1938 four more vessels of the Calm-
class were built with about 20 tons displacement added
after quarters seems due to the attempt to get the diesel
as near the stern as possible. It is evident in nearly all in the last quarter length, and they were lighter owing
trawlers and especially in smaller vessels built without to the use of welded construction throughout, see fig. 89 1
the Annapolis. The trim change of this class was calcu-
plans. They need a lot of ballast under the fish-hold "
" lated to about 12 in. (0.3 m.) but was never checked in
to get them into reasonable ready for sea trim, and,
when loaded, they naturally go heavily by the head. This, practice.
in turn, accounts for the excessive drag given to the Bay, fig. 184 and 185, was designed in 1945 by John G.
keel. The Notre Dame had rather full waterlines forward Alden under the supervision of the author and is an
but not so extreme as some of the later steam and con- example of the attempt to meet prevailing conditions
temporary diesel trawlers. Indeed, some of the steamers when owners demanded a larger carrying capacity in a
were so easily stopped in a sea, making no headway, small vessel. As she was built to fish nearby grounds,
that they had difficulty in getting crews. The Notre Dame speed was not too important but, due to the demand
was powered with a 500 h.p. Cooper Bessemer engine, for trawling speed she is somewhat overpowered for the
230 r.p.m., giving her a speed of 10.1 knots which, hull form. She has a 650 b.h.p. Atlas supercharged
[132]
BOTTOM FISHING DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ENGLAND TRAWLER
TABLE XXVIII
PRINCIPAL DATA FOR TRAWLERS ILLUSTRATED
*
Based on station No. 6 t Double plate rudders
Tons of 2,240 lb.= 1.016 metric ton
[133]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
f
|tr: :r. :'-n;?
bsw- s :
-'?-
gy aar ;-".;.: J*
dieseland her displacement-length and h.p.-ton ratios are first vessel designed expressly to meet current conditions,
high, while the speed-length ratio of 1.045 is probably which are:
as good as can be expected. Her ratio of fish-hold to
displacement is the highest attained at that time, Table (a) Round trips to and from the best fishing grounds
XXVIII. Four vessels of this type were built by John H. are from 2,000 to 2,500 miles free " steaming ",
Mathis and Co., of Camden, New Jersey and, later, indicating a demand for speed;
two others were constructed with 10 ft. (3 m.) middle- (/?) Redfish are, and apparently will be for some time,
body added. In these, 700 h.p. Fairbanks Morse engines the principal source of income. They seem to
were installed but speed was very little increased. All school in large quantities and many vessels bring
six vessels have a reputation for seakindliness and home full cargoes, trip after trip. Hence large
comfort. capacity is called for ;
Judith Lee Rose, fig. 190, designed by the author is (r) To be profitable a vessel must fish all the year
under construction (1953) by the Southwest Boat round and get in as many trips as possible. As
Corporation, Southwest Harbour, Maine/ and is the winter fishing yields the best profit, a vessel should
IfVTHl
JUDITH Iff X03
CURVES OF 5C7ION ARMS
Fig. 191
[134]
BOTTOM FISHING DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ENGLAND TRAWLER
25
LOAD WA7# LINES
Fig. 192
be designed to go to the banks in any weather, to The wpoden vessel, whose qualities have already
stay there through winter storms and to fish in as been discussed, is definitely indicated.
rough water as the gear will stand. A theoretical
investigation of conditions at sea and on the While these considerations were kept in mind in
banks, together with the experience of many designing the Judith Lee Rose, the length was fixed, the
captains, indicate that such a vessel cannot be hull contract let, and the engine selected, before the
less than about 1 10 ft. (33.5 m.) long but 130 or designer was called in, therefore the vessel does not
140 ft. (39.6 or 42.7 m.) would be better; exactly meet all requirements. The length is about right
n Hull and equipment should be of the lowest cost and the engine is close to the desired weight and mini-
without sacrifice of quality, ability and endurance. mum length/ but to meet the demand for speed the
TABLL XXIX
OFFSETS OF SECTION AREAS, L.W.L. AND DIAGONALS
NOIRE DAMP GOlDf-N LAGLE CALM BAY JUDITH L. ROSt RUIH AND MOOES
[135]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
midship section has been made larger than customary, the is the maximum speed to be obtained with this hull,
midship section coefficient .834 being higher than that and on the 100 ft. standard she is the widest and deepest
of any typical vessel. This permits finer ends without vessel shown and has a small midship section, which
losing the desired displacement, which is rather high, probably accounts for her resistance.
and leaves the prismatic coefficient close to good practice. It is pointed out that proportional reduction of vessels
In spite of the very high capacity ratio, the fish-hold is discussed to any standard length is useful for comparison
nearer the centre of the ship than in any of the others but is deceiving. The figures should not be used, for
which, with the spreading of tanks forward and aft, the design of a vessel very different in length from the
means little change in trim. The lines are shown by original, the reason being that plotting beam, draft, etc.,
fig. 190. The speed/length Table XXVIII
ratio given in against the waterline length, never gives a mean curve
is developed from the tank tests conducted under the that reaches zero, that is to say the curve is not in
auspices of the F.A.O. Fisheries Division, using a 60 per the form of X aY but in the form of X=aYiiiC, and
cent, propulsive efficiency. this constant variation should be considered when
Ruth and Moses, fig. 186 and 187 was designed by using the figures in Table XXVIII, which are proportional
Albert Condon of Thomaston, Maine, one of the most only.
prolific designers of vessels between 60 and 100 ft. The diagrams, fig. 191 and 192, are drawn to distorted
(18.3 and 30.5 m.). She was built by Harvey Gamage scales in order to give a ready and easy visual com-
of South Bristol, Maine, in 1952. This latest of Condon's parison of the shape of load water lines and section areas.
designs still shows the influence of the whittled model Table XXIX givesthe offsets for L.W.L., section areas
and she is heavily over-powered, having more than and bilge diagonal, based on the greatest dimension as
2 h.p. per ton of displacement. It seems that 9 knots unity.
[136]
JAPANESE DRAG NET BOATS
by
ATSUSHI TAKAGI
LARGE TRAWLERS
first Japanese trawler was built around 1900.
THE
was
In 1929, the
built and
first diesel trawler, the Kushiro
was quickly recognized as a very
it
Maru, TABLE XXX
economical boat. Motors for driving the trawl winches Draft and Stability
and a mechanical refrigeration of the catch were also
introduced at the same time. Thus, Japanese trawlers Load
were very efficient before the war and some vessels
Light Full
exceeded 1,000 gross tons.
Since the war, with limited grounds for fishing, most
new trawlers are only about 300 gross tons. However, as
a result of the peace treaty, the restrictions on fishing
have been abolished and larger trawlers will be built
in the future.Actually three large trawlers of 750 gross
tons and 1,200 h.p. were in 1953 under construction.
Yamato Maru is a typical steel diesel otter trawler. It
has the following principal data: Length, over-all, 148 ft.
(45.20 m.); length between perpendiculars, 134 ft.
(41.00 m.); beam, 23.5 (7.20 m.); depth 13.1 ft.
ft.
(4.00 m.); 291.42 gross tons, 127.43 net tons; freezing
rooms, 830 cu. ft. (23.6 cu. m.); fish holds, 5,000 cu. ft.
(141.34 cu. m.); fresh water tanks, 10,000 imp. gal.
(12,000 gal., 45.71 cu. m.); fuel oil tanks, 14,300 imp. gal.
(17,200 gal., 65.08 cu. m.); officers and crew, 26; main
engine, four-cycle single-acting diesel, six cylinders with
1 3.8 in. (350 mm.) diameter and 20.5 in.
(520 mm.) stroke ;
550 b.h.p. at 300 r.p.m.; four-bladed propeller with
77 in. (1,950 mm.) diameter and 51 in. (1,290 mm.) pitch;
120 b.h.p. auxiliary diesels driving two 70 kw. 225 v.,
D.C. generators; 5 kw. generator driven by main engine;
70 h.p. trawl winch driven by 220 v. motor; 15 h.p.
windlass, 220 v. motor; NH
refrigerating compressor,
:;
TABLE XXXI
two cylinder, 400 r.p.m., driven by a 230 h.p. motor and
having a capacity of 15.5 RT (47 000 kcal./hr.); 250 w.
; Speed Trial
and 50 w. wireless.
In the design of this vessel special consideration has
Date Load Speed r.p.m. Slip i.h.p. bJi.p.
been given to the installation of an air freezing system October 12th, 1950 (in knots) (in %)
and there are also freezing shelves of ammonia coils.
Draft:
Fig. 193 shows the 194 the general arrange-
lines, fig. 12.50 304.5 732 603
Fore, 4.5 ft. (1.36m.) 4/4 2.11
ment, fig. 195 the installation of the fishing gear and Aft, 14.5ft. (4.41 m.) 3/4 11.77 274.5 2.17 548 434
fig. 196 the Yamato Maru under speed. Table gives XXX Mean,9.5ft.(2.885m.) 1/2 10.93
8.54
245.6
187.0
6.12
8.93
408
232
299
132
Displacement: 1/4
particulars of drafts and stability; Table XXXI results 443 tons (450 ton)
from speed trials.
[137]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 19*. /./"//;", <>/ 148 fi. (45.2 wO otter trawler Yamato Maru
^J
7W. General arrangement of 148 ft. (45.2 w.) otter trawler Yamato Maru
[138]
BOTTOM FISHING JAPANESE DRAG NET BOATS
- >
"/
the 148 otter trawler Yamato Maru
^. 195. Arrangement <>J Kear InMalkaioM on ft. (45.2 ,.)
Fig. 196. Yamato Mam, 148ft. (45.2 m.) otter trawler
[139]
^. 7^7. Tomi Maru No. II, #5 1
//. (2.5.* ? /?>.) /)<7/V
so
A 'i J *
OJ
fr. 79. General arrangement of Tomi Maru No. 1 1, 85 ft. (25.8 m.) pair trawler
[140]
BOTTOM FISHING JAPANESE DRAG NET BOATS
. Installation of trawl winch In Tomi Maru No. 11, 85ft. (25.8 m.)pair trawler
[141]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
46S
Unit : mm
Fig. 200. Detail ofdrumjor naming trawl warp on Tomi Maru No. II, 85ft. (25.8 m.) pair trawier
SMALLER TRAWLERS AND DANISH SEINERS of the trawl winch, fig. 200 a detail of the drums for
Two-boat or pair trawling is Yellow Sea
operated in the hauling the trawl warps. Table XXXII gives particulars
of drafts and and Table XXXTIT results from
and the China Sea, and Danish seining on the banks in stability
speed trials.
the Japan Sea. These fishing methods are quite effective,
but the operators are trying to find more distant fishing
methods and are TABLE XXXII
grounds. The boats are built for both
mostly wooden. They are called medium or smaller
trawlers and a typical example of a steel one, the Tomi
Maru No. 11,operating around Hokkaido, is given
below. This boat is also used as a salmon and trojit
drifter in summer to prevent overcatching by trawling, so
the stern has been widened to set drift nets from the deck.
The Tomi Maru No. 77, has the following: Length,
overall, 85 ft. (25.80 m.)riength between perpendiculars,
7.4 ft.
75.5 (23.00 m.); beam, 16.4 ft. (5.00 m.); depth,
ft.
59.12 gross tons, 25.83 net tons; fish holds,
(2.25 m.);
2,100 cu. ft. (59.40 cu. m.); fuel oil tanks, 3,260 imp. gal.
(3,900 gal., 14.83 cu. m.); fresh water tanks,
330 imp. gal.
(395 gal., 1 .50 cu. m.) ; officers and crew,
1 2 main engine,
;
with 10-in.
four-cycle single-acting diesel, six cylinders
(250 mm.) diameter and 15-in. (380 mm.) stroke;
250 b.h.p. at 380 r.p.m.; four-bladed propeller with
59 in. (1,500 mm.) diameter and 34.2 in. (870 mm.)
a 5 kw., 110 v.,
pitch; 17 h.p. auxiliary diesel driving
D.C. generator; 15 w. wireless telephone.
Fig. 197 shows the Tomi
Maru No. 11 under speed,
198 the general arrangement, fig. 199 the installation
fig.
[142]
FRENCH MOTOR TRAWLERS
by
E. R. GUEROULT
French fleet of trawlers, almost completely the recent work at the Teddington Tank (Allan 1953),
THE destroyed during the war, has been rebuilt on new
lines. A number of standard designs were made of
have shown the heavy penalty exacted by too great a
fullness of form. It is, therefore, for a mean condition
28, 32, 38, 42 and 68 m. (92, 105, 125, 138 and 223 ft.) of loading that the proportions and lines should be
lengths and immediately after the end of hostilities, con- based upon, with a good reserve of freeboard in case of
tracts were placed in France, Great Britain, Canada and overloading.
U.S.A. In all, 158 vessels (round 60,000 tons gross) of The density of the load can be taken at 0.45 to 0.50,
moderate or large size, steam and motor, have been put whether the fish are stored in boxes or on shelves, and
in commission between 1946 and 1952. The owners' the last figure should be used for the fresh fish vessels.
experience prior to 1940 was pooled and the new fleet is The density of salt cod cargo should be taken at 0.85.
the result of their common effort. To classify the trawlers described in this paper, the
The distance between port and the fishing grounds is length between perpendiculars in metres has been kept
the important factor influencing the choice of the main as a convenient reference dimension, but the fish-hold
particulars of the trawlers. From the small coastal types, capacity was the dominant standardization factor.
the size is constantly increasing with the need to fish Large trawlers are normally catching greater quantities
further away and to maintain a normal proportion of fish than the smaller ones. The fishing gears are not
between the time spent under way and that of actually very different and the power required for trawling is not
fishing. Each fishing ground calls for a certain tonnage proportional to the tonnage. The greater part of the
and type and the financial results depend for a great part superiority of large trawlers comes from their ability
on the correct choice of tonnage. This relation between to work in bad weather. It seems that in the North Sea,
tonnage and distance of the fishing grounds has been trawlers of a displacement of around 800 tons can still
the outcome of years of experience, but propulsion by work during a wind force of up to 8 Beaufort.
diesels and trawling on more distant grounds has made There are no draft limitations because the harbours and
itnecessary to revise the characteristics of the new vessels. the maximum draft of the trawlers depend only on the
A standardized fleet, designed for the lowest operating propeller's diameterand immersion. The normal
cost, calls for particulars somewhat different from those r.p.m. in 1944 of dieselsfrom 400 to 1,200 b.h.p. was
typical of the many individual contracts between owners between 300 and 175 and the propeller diameter resulted
and builders, based mainly on capital cost. The naval from these figures, which are reasonably close to the
Architect, free of price competition problems, can design optimum r.p.m. for speeds of 10 to 12 knots. The direct
the most economical vessel for its size which is, in the drive was retained for the ciasHes, except the smallest
all
end, profitable to the owner. In the past, when trawlers one, the 28 m. (92 ft.) class for which a reduction gear
were built to a length specified by the owner, other dimen- was provided. With a propeller immersion of half the
sions were very often reduced to keep down the size, propeller diameter and a deep cruiser stern, the danger
and the steam trawlers were generally narrow boats with of propeller racing in rough weather is greatly reduced.
a little midship section. The owners always insist on the highest possible speed
The landings ofthe trawlers show that they are nor- and the trawlers are running at high Froude's numbers,
mally seldom loaded to more than 65 per cent, of their particularly the smaller types, which are often overdriven.
capacity and the naval architect must decide whether From tank tests and experience in service, the economical
the boats should be designed for a maximum dead weight speed has been ascertained and the results for the new
or a mean carrying capacity, corresponding to the average French trawlers are given in fig. 215.
landings. On the other hand, motor trawlers, leaving An easy motion and small rolling amplitude are neces-
port fully loaded, can easily be overloaded in case of a sary to facilitate the men's work on deck. It is difficult
heavy catch on nearby grounds. Tank tests, particularly to reach a compromise between the forms which give
[143J
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
good initial stability and seakindliness, and those which A good balance of volumes and lines is obtained by a
give low resistance. proper inclination of the keel. The lines have been drawn
with a trim equal to two-fifths of the mean draft.
PARTICULARS OF THE VARIOUS TYPES The underwater form and the position of the centre of
The main characteristics of the standardized motor buoyancy lead to volumes above the water which are
trawlers are given in Table XXXIV. The boats are not balanced. A well raked and rounded stem will add
shown in longitudinal section on fig. 201 to 205, and the a volume forward, much needed for seaworthiness. The
body plans, 206 to 210. The various proportions and
fig. 42 m. (138 ft.) type could, for example, with advantage
coefficients are listed in Table XXXV. have the stem more raked.
FORMS AND SEAKINDLINESS The optimum ratio of the waterline and block co-
The distribution of weights gives a centre of gravity aft efficients (with these lines) lies in the region of 1.5 for the
of midships which facilitates a desirable tine entrance. 28/42 m. (92/138 ft.) types, fig. 216. It appeared quite
The forebody is therefore relatively easy to shape, with early that the forms above the waterline required the
straight lines near the waterline and slightly hollow near same attention as the underwater body and that the fining
the keel, the shoulder being carried well aft. The aft body down of this latter called for a compensation in the upper
is necessarily rather full, with fine sections, however, at part.
the foot, near the propeller, to ensure good flow and The right selection of sheer line is important and it can
wake conditions to the screw at the low trawling speeds. be determined as follows: the vessel is placed on a series
Fig. 201
[144]
BOTTOM FISHING FRENCH MOTOR TRAWLERS
Coup* longitudinal*.
m I
k[ Irj jrl >-l
Irl
>!, >[ lr)t Jf I
Fig. 202
of trochoidal waves of the same length as the vessel, so Seakindliness for a trawler depends for a great part on
that the displacement and centre of buoyancy are correct. the correct choice of the breadth and the ratio between
The wave crests give a wetting line of the hull and the beam and draft. When hauling in the net, the trawler
envelope to the crests supplies a sheer line in function of is put across the wind and sea, and rolling in this con-
the volumes of that particular ship. Fig. 211 illustrates dition must be such that easy operation on deck is still
an application to a small trawler, which has been tested possible. For the safety of the vessel the righting arm
on waves at the Paris tank. The model was actually ship- must be increasing up to an angle well above the immer-
ping water by the stern, as a consequence of too little sion of the bulwarks amidships. This and the above
sheer aft. The standardized trawlers have accordingly requirement are conflicting. Tank tests (Graff and
been given a greater sheer aft than the boats built before Heckscher 1941) have shown that, from the point of
1940 and this proved well justified in service. view of the resistance, the breadth can be increased
T
Fig. 203
[145]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 204
TABLE XXXV
Ratios and Coefficients
immmuumiut
Fig. 205
[146]
BOTTOM FISHING FRENCH MOTOR TRAWLERS
Fig. 206 Fig. 208
Fig. 207 Fig. 209
[147]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
223 FT-6M
138 42
125 M 36.'
105 32
13 V
KNOTS
Fig. 210 . 272
fig. 211
considerably with the corresponding fining down of the owner calls the light ship, i.e. without bunkers, ice or
ends, without penalty, but that initial stability and free- water, but with fishing gear, provisions and crew. This
board had to be increased for the broader models. An difference, which has been ascertained after quite a
investigation on the effect of breadth for the 42 m. number of inclining experiments on trawlers in service,
(138 type with three different values of B: 26.2, 27
ft.) must be taken into account during the early stage of the
and 27.9 ft. (8.00, 8.25 and 8.50 m.), led to the same con- design. With time, an augmentation of the weight and the
clusion and finally the mean value 27 ft. (8.25 m.) was
height of the centre of gravity must be reckoned with.
retained.
Rolling periods have been measured at sea and, for
With the extended superstructures of the present-day nearly all the series was found to be in the region of
trawler, some permanent ballast is needed, up to about 1 second
per metre (3.3 ft.) in breadth in normal loaded
i ton per metre (3.3 ft.) in length, to avoid the necessity conditions with three-quarters of the bunkers and water
of giving the vessel a high form stability producing quick in the double bottom. This period is practically the same
motions when the vessel is put across the seas. The throughout the voyage. It seems to suit the requirements
skippers very often alter the vertical distribution of of the crew for work and comfort.
weights to decrease GM. The fisherman's gear brings
always an underestimated increase in the height of the RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION
vertical centre of gravity. There is a difference of around Results from tank tests are given in fig. 212 and Table
8 in. (20 cm.) on the vertical centre of gravity between XXXVI for the 32 to 68 m. (105 to 223 ft.) classes. For
the light ship, as delivered by the shipyard, and what the various types having forms of similar charactei the
[148]
BOTTOM FISHING FRENCH MOTOR TRAWLERS
TABLE XXXVI the free steaming. The values of wake and thrust deduc-
Tank TestResistance in e.h.p. tion are uncertain and there is no data about the begin-
ning of cavitation behind the hull, at 3 knots. It is highly
desirable to have these problems investigated, to obtain
an economy in the upkeep and a greater duration of the
propellers.
AUXILIARIES
All the auxiliaries in both engine room and on deck have
been standardized and also the deck fitting, such as
gallows and rollers. The electric trawl winch, in par-
ticular,has been thoroughly studied and the results in
service are highly satisfactory. Ward-Leonard couplings
and slow-running machines have been adopted exclu-
sively.
resistance curves are also very similar. The 38 m. (125 ft.)
type, designed when the other models' results were known, ENGINE ROOM INSTALLATION
compares favourably with the 32 and 42 m. (138 ft.) Special care has been taken with the engine room arrange-
types. The 42 m. type could be improved by straightening ment in bringing all the controls to the manoeuvring
the waterline forward for the 12 knot speed. The trials
platform, so that only one engineer is required on each
at sea were run at other displacements than the tank tests. watch on the smaller types up to the 42 m. (138 ft.) boats.
Comparisons are therefore not possible and the correla- Three men are necessary on the 68 m. (223 ft.) boats. All
tion between tank tests and service at sea could not be the auxiliaries are placed on a common foundation which
established. The propulsion data are given in Table provides great strengthening to the bottom structure and,
XXXVII. with the elimination of the individual seatings, the
TABU XXXVII vessels are reasonably free from vibrations.
FISH HOLD INSULATION
Very few boats have been equipped with a refrigerating
plant. Experience in service has proved that the insula-
tion was sufficient to keep a temperature close to freezing
point and that the melting of the ice was slow. Cement
and light alloy have been used at the sides and wood for
the partitions and pond boards only. The bottom is
cemented. The suction well has been fitted with a syphon,
isolating the fish hold from the bilge suction line.
FUTURE DESIGNS
* The normal r.p.m. is 200. The operation of therebuilt French fishing fleet has given
experiences which will be useful for future design work.
PROPELLERS Fig. 213 shows weights and proportions. A beam/draft
All the propellers have been designed for the normal ratio of about 2.0 with a superstructure of about half the
torque of the engines and a speed of 3 knots. The propel- ship's breadth, is safe for transverse stability. For the
lers have a low value of pitch: diameter, consistent with cod vessels the beam/draft will depend on the amount
good efficiency when trawling and at reduced speed in of superstructure carried. The weights are for a construc-
bad weather, which are the prevailing conditions of a tion with a fair proportion of welding, slow-running
trawler in service. Since the vessels have been put in dieselmotors and steel superstructure. The weights could
commission, no undue wear of the motors has been noted be thus reduced, but the values given are safe for an early
and such engine troubles, which were frequent before design stage.
1940, have been practically absent. However, it is almost The resistance in effective horsepower (EHP) per ton
certain that the normal torque of a motor at reduced of displacement is shown and with the data of
in fig. 214,
r.p.m. is different from the torque at the full number of Table XXXVII, it will be possible to calculate the neces-
revolutions. If engine manufacturers would supply the sary power for a given speed. With the diagram in fig.
naval architects with the real value, then great progress 215, a quick estimate of the maximum economical speed
regarding wear and upkeep would follow. The conditions can be made, taking into consideration not only the
of a propeller working at 3 knots are, at present, very resistance of the hull but also the requirements of the
little known; they have not been investigated in ship- owner and the possibility of installing a maximum power
building experimental tanks in the same manner as for with the present-day motors.
[149]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
WCIOHTC
ECONOMICAL SPEED
* PftOPOftTIOM* "
L M M.
MB PRISMATIC COEFFICIENT
30
20O L FT
. 213 Fig. 215
M FT
1-30
-20
-10
1.5 2.0
. 276
Attention is drawn to the fact that none of the trawlers tight bulkhead. There are some watertight doors for the
are safe in case of damage to the ship's side in one of the transfer of salt or fish from one hold to the other. This
main compartments. Additional bulkheads in the fish causes extra work for the crew but from the safety poim
hold do not meet the approval of the operating crew, of view it is necessary.
but a reduction of the floodable lengths seems unavoid- In the engine room there is the same danger and it is
able in future designs. very difficult to find a solution in view of the present
Since a few years ago the hold of the 68 m. (223 ft.) engines and the present regulations with regard to gross
cod trawlers is divided into two compartments by a water- tonnage.
[ISO]
SOME NOTES ON LARGE TRAWLERS
by
H. E. JAEGER
a large trawler is a small vessel and must requested by the international rules. The minimum
therefore have good sea-keeping qualities. The trim freeboard recommended by Schleufe (1948) is 1/75 of the
EVENand stability conditions are quite different from length between perpendiculars. Spanner (1946) advises
those of ships carrying a constant cargo. The freeboard also to increase the normal freeboard by about 1 ft.
must be low for easy handling of the trawl and the deck (0.3 m.) for ships of 165 to 180 ft. (50 to 55 m.) in length,
area must be large for easy handling of the gear and in addition to the load-line committee's rules. The figures
sorting of the catch. Pitching and rolling
must be smooth given by Schleufe should be considered as a minimum for
to enable the fishing operations in winds of 6 to 7 Beau- sufficient stability. The trim according to Spanner must
fort and a good lateral plane is needed for keeping a not exceed 5 ft. (1.5 m.) and Cunningham (1949) sug-
straight course while fishing and
when hauling in the nets. gests 4 ft. (1.2 m.) when leaving the fishing grounds.
He also suggests that the maximum draught aft should
PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS
Iceland and New- SEVERAL SERVICE CONDITIONS
The largest fresh fish trawlers for FT. M. lo.07
foundland fishing built in recent years are 165 to 180 ft. 25 o.ao
of 1,000 to
(50 to 55 m.) long and have a displacement
1,300 tons. Owing to the proportion between fish-hold
and bunker capacity, this size will probably be retained 060'
for some time in the future.
Because of the increasing distance between port and 15
the fishing grounds due to lack of fish nearby, the speed 0.40
has been increased to 13 knots and more, and the length
is also increased to 180 ft. (55 m.) to keep within an
acceptable value of Froude's number. A radius
of action Q20
0.5
of 2,000 miles, three to four weeks at sea for about ten
with a
days fishing, a power of 850 to 1,200 b.h.p. L o
corresponding bunker capacity, are factors dominating
POUND I
CATCH PERIOD I
HOMg**RD BOUND)
the design. Therefore the steam engine as prime mover
becomes more and more scarce. Except for a number of Fig. 217
British and German boats, nearly all the modern trawlers
are motorships. The maximum displacement in that case
not exceed 10 per cent, of the length of the ship. With a
occurs when leaving the fishing grounds. propeller immersion of 4J ft. (1.35 m.) as suggested by
Some modern trawlers have a raised quarter deck Spanner the propeller diameter is fixed and this fixes
which has the following advantages: again the base for propeller and machinery design.
( 1 ) More room in accommodation aft and more space STABILITY
on deck for handling fish. Both Spanner and Cunningham give the same value of
(2) Water and fish refuse cannot flow aft. the metacentric height, GM=2
ft. (0.6 m.) for the ship
(3) With the trawl winch on the raised quarter deck, the Roorda (1944) gives a value
leaving fishing grounds.
the trawl warps are clear of obstacles on deck. of GMin proportion to the breadth of the ship leaving
The wheelhouse is higher.
port, GM/B=0.10 and returning to port GM/B=0.06.
(4)
The quarter deck gives a greater freeboard
raised The by Rahola (1939) do not apply
stability criterions
much for The question is: what kind of standard can
to trawlers.
from the stability point of view and not too
fishing. This freeboard of trawlers
is always larger than we use? Fig. 217 gives a variation of GM/B for two
[151]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
1 1
large steam trawlers and one motorship. This variation
can be considered as normal for this type of vessel, and
M..MITACINTKIC MBMNT 1
these trawlers never had stability trouble. It is interesting
to note the difference between motorships and steam-
ships. The GM
value of motorships increases during the
fishing, due to the greater proportion of fishing load
to
the much smaller quantity of fuel and fresh water as
compared with displacement. Motor trawlers can have
a smaller value of GM
than steamships which must have
enough when leaving port to maintain
initial stability
sufficient stability the end of the voyage.
till
A
severe condition for a steam trawler is when, at the
beginning of the fishing period, 30 to 40 tons of fish
are loaded on deck and usually the last 3 tons are still
in the cod end hanging in from the tackle. Sometimes
this is aggravated by ice on deck and rigging, and in this
connection Cunningham states that the value of GM
might decrease by 8 in. (0.2 m.)
For large trawlers the most critical condition takes
place at the arrival in port. The ratio of Roorda, GM/B
= .06, is not always possible but is an absolute minimum
for all large motor trawlers. The stability range for big
trawlers would be in the region of 70 deg. when leaving
If the stability
port, and about 60 deg. when reaching port.
range is inferior to the above values, the initial GM
should
be increased. The statical stability righting arm will reach
a maximum at an angle between 25 deg. and 30 deg. in all
stability conditions. The superstructure
should be taken
into account, in particular the forecastle, and the angle
at which the deck is immersed must be not less than
7 deg. to 9 deg. in fully loaded condition. If the angle is
smaller, the freeboard should be increased.
Eichler (1942) has attempted to give stability standards
which can be guaranteed by the shipbuilder. These
standards are generally in agreement with the above
indications and suggestions but are too severe to be
adopted. For instance to attain the maximum stability
arm only at angles above 30 deg. is practically impossible.
A stability criterion is given by the Simpson formula
in fig. 218.
quoted by Taylor (1943) and reproduced
This formula is based on the Morrish stability formula
control
and only an approximation but it is a valuable
is
of the minimum initial metacentric height.
PROPULSION
Because of the distance to the fishing grounds, the time
on the way.
spent fishing is shorter than the time spent
tank tests for the design of propellers are
Normally
based on the steaming condition. In Holland the pro-
pellersare calculated with 5 per cent, more r.p.m. and
for 10 per cent, less power than the maximum power
given by the engine builders.
The propeller has to tow
the trawl at 3 J to 4 knots and it absorbes then less power
than when the trawler is steaming.
The controllable pitch propeller, has the following
advantages when used in trawlers:
Better efficiency and adaptation to all conditions
(1)
219
of load.
Fig.
[152]
BOTTOM FISHING SOME NOTES ON LARGE TRAWLERS
(2) Bridge control. one can take approximately twice the weight of the
(3) Immediate manoeuvring possibilities. main motor the reduction gear included. Weight of fuel,
(4) Smaller speed loss against the wind and gain with lubricating oil, fresh water and provisions can be easily
the wind. estimated and, assuming a number of days underway
(5) Engine starting under lighter load. and fishing, the displacement can be ascertained at any
(6) Non-reversible type of engine. time during the voyage.
(7) Full efficiency of the motor when trawling and
under way.
(8) Higher trawling speed for better fishing.
FISH ROOM CONSIDERATIONS
(9) Greater speed under way which is important The density of .7
for fish and ice gives the capacity of the
when bringing back the catch. fish-hold. generally refrigerated by ice, but small
It is
(10) Progressive pull on the nets. refrigerating plants are sometimes used to save ice from
melting during outbound voyages and to take care of
The controllable pitch propeller of the system de transmission losses. Cunningham gives for a fish-hold
Schelde, with four blades in two pairs at 90 deg. to each capacity of 17,700 cu. ft. (500 cu. m.) a weight of 80 tons
other, is very strong, and its optimum efficiency is only of ice. Such a fish-hold will be filled to the extent of
4 per cent, smaller than that of a fixed-blade propeller. 70 per cent, in 10 or 1 1 days at a rate of 25 to 30 tons a
day. A period of about 10 days may be considered as a
maximum in order to arrive at the home port with the
FUEL CONSUMPTION catch still fresh. For the inside installation of the fish-
The consumption is difficult to estimate on
total fuel hold light alloy sheathing, 219 has been recommended
fig.
trawlers. The consumption under way is easy to calculate by the Aluminium Development Association. In this
but not when fishing. An analysis shows that the con- construction one should notice that the vertical profiles
sumption when trawling is 80 per cent, of that when under of aluminium must not be used as pillars. They must be
way for motor trawlers and 85 per cent, for steam separate and independent of the fish-hold partitions.
trawlers. Insulating materials, such as granulated cork or isoflex,
are usually employed and, whenever possible, it is
advisable to place the insulating panels on the frame to
WEIGHT ESTIMATION reduce the heat transmission surfaces. The light alloy
The weight of the hull in tons can be estimated by the sheets can be glued direct to the cork or isoflex panels.
formula Ps Length x breadth x depth x coefficient C s. The author has recommended (1946 and 1949) that in
C the weight coefficient, which varies between .225 and
s is order to prevent contamination of the fish by germs, all
.230 for modern trawlers, the dimensions being in meters. shelves and partitions should be made in light alloy.
For the weight of the whole engine room installation No wood should be used in the fish-hold.
[153J
DUTCH COASTAL FISHING BOATS
by
W. ZWOLSMAN
Dutch fishing fleet once mainly consisted of operation along the Dutch coast is vitally affected by the
THE
during
flat-bottomed wooden but a start was made,
vessels,
1914-16, in converting the fleet to power,
cost of maintenance. An investigation covering five
post-war years of operation of both steel and wooden
and a powered steel vessel also of the flat-bottomed vessels, fitted with 30, 60 and 200 h.p. engines, revealed
type was built. The first engines had an output of that in all three cases the cost of upkeep of the steel
14 to 18 b.h.p. and were single-cylinder semi-diesels. vessels was about 40 per cent, of that of the wooden
Flat-bottomed craft were still used in the coastal fishery ones. It was found that the cost of maintenance of steel
between 1914 and 1930, but nearly all new vessels were fishing cutters, which were put into service in 1 930, was
built of steel. Meanwhile the output of the engines had confined so far as the hull was concerned, to cleaning
increased to 80 or 100 h.p. and painting.
A fisherman and a boatyard together designed a vessel During the war, three types of vessels were designed
with finer lines, similar to the herring luggers. The result by the author to serve as a pattern for the reconstruction
was a transitional type, the first two Netherlands steel of the fleet. They have the following dimensions:
fishing cutters, H.D. 12 and T.X. 4. In the 1930s there
was some construction of vessels of a sharper design but, No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
because of the world economic crisis, the fleet was not ft. m. fl. m. m.
rebuilt on a large scale.
After the war it was decided to construct only steel
vessels. The difference in the cost of repair between a
wooden vessel and a steel one is substantial and profitable
TABLE XXXVIII
PARTICULARS OF MOTOR FISHING CUTTERS
Fig.
No.
221
222
[154]
Fig. 220
[155]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Type No. 3 was
with a three-cylinder two-cycle
fitted with 80 h.p. at 350 r.p.m. The Dutch fishermen have
marine diesel with an output of 120
h.p. at 350 r.p.m., the adapted themselves to the use of slow-speed engines,
59-ft. (18 m.) boat with a two-cylinder two-cycle marine maintenance of which is much less costly than that of
diesel with 80 h.p. at 350 r.p.m., and the 54 ft. (16.45 m.) high-speed engines.
boat with a six cylinder high-speed marine diesel with an Three vessels, one of each type developed and built
output of 60/80 h.p. at 1,000 to 1,300 r.p.m. during the war, are fitted with a Kort nozzle rudder.
The difficulty of getting raw materials prevented Greater tractive power is obtained and it has not been
immediate construction of the vessels, but in January necessary to renew the propeller of any post-war vessel
1946 the first were ready to be put into commission. using the Kort nozzle. Some vessels, built after the war,
To reduce the cost as much as possible and to save are, however, fitted with a fixed nozzle because of the
materials, the boats were welded electrically and since great stress on the points of suspension of the rudder of
then almost all the new vessels have been built in this larger vessels. This may entail costly maintenance. One
way. The present design conforms, without any major vessel has a 3.6 ft. (1,100 mm.) diameter propeller and a
alteration, to that of the first three vessels planned in Kort nozzle rudder, which is about the maximum size.
1942. If this size is exceeded the stress, in a high sea, becomes
TABIF XXX IX
SCANTLINGS OF FISHING CUTTERS
Other
Fix Stem Stern Rudder Keel Sheer Shell Deck Framt\ Floors Deck beams Bar keel BHK e keels Bulk-
No. Plate Post Shaft Plate Stiake Plates heads
221 .275 in. 3 > 1 in. 2 55 in. 275 in. .235 in .235 in .2 in 2x2v.235m 12 .200 in 2J -2 '.235 in. 6x 315 in. 5J v 275 in 235 in
(7 mm.) (75 '25 mm.) (65 mm) (7 mm.) (6mm) (6mm.) (5mm.) (50 v 50x6 mm.) (300 -5 mm) (65
*
50 ^6 mm.) (150x8mm) (140 7mm) (6mm)
222 315 in 4 x If in 3 15 in. .275m. .275m. .235m 2j-2x.235m 4x2^, 235 in 5J >. 315 in. 6 >. 275 in
(8 mm.) (100 > 45 mm.) (80mm.) (7mm.) (7mm.) (6mm.) (65 '50^6 mm ) (100x50 ^6 mm.) (140- 8 mm) (150 - 1 mm)
223
224 4x2 in 38 in. 12 * .235 in 4x2J x
.275 in. 7vj,- n 6> 315 in.
(100 v 50 mm.) (85mm.) (300 '6 nun.) (100 > 65 ^7 mm.) (180x10 mm) (150v8mm)
225 3m .315 in .315m. 2Jx2x 275 in 14' 235m. 6x1 in 7 -.315 in.
(90mm.) (8 mm) (8 mm.) (65 > 50 x 7mm ) (350 * 6 mm ) (150x25 mm.) (180x8 mm )
7v|in
(ISOxlOmm )
226/7 .355 in. -2 in.
5 4x|in 8x|m. 8 x. 315 in.
(9 mm.) (125^50 mm.) (75x65^ 6mm) (100 * 10mm.) (200x10 mm) (200x8 mm.)
228 .3 15 in. 3x21 ^-.275 in. 14 -
275 in 4x2Jx.275m. 4* x J in.
(8mm ) (75x65x7 mm) (350 -7 mm.) (100 * 65 x 7 mm.) (120x20 mm)
229 39m .355 in 4v 275 in 4} x 315in. 8 x * in.
(95mm ) (9mm ) (100 - 7mm ) (120 -8mm ) (200x12 mm.)
There was some difference of opinion in 1942 about so great that repeated repairs are necessary. An advan-
the shape the vessels should have. The design to give the tage of the Kort system is that it prevents nets and lines
highest speed did not produce the best sea boats, and getting entangled in the propeller and beating against
the fishermen,when asked which they would prefer the trawl boards.
a smoothly going vessel or a vessel making a quarter Steel vessels are much more economical than wooden
of a knot more, but smoothly chose the former.
less ones, as the investigation showed, and they are rapidly
Many shipyards have built these boats to the same gaining in popularity. Last year (1952), the Netherlands
drawings but they have not confined themselves only to shipyards built a few of the new type vessels for Belgian
the types developed during the war. In Table XXXVHL fishermen and there are now several others under con-
are particulars of various types of vessels. Table XXXIX struction. Some Belgian yards, too, are preparing to
shows the scantlings. Fig. 220 illustrates a fishing cutter build boats from the same drawings, while several
of average dimensions and fig. 226 shows the typical lines vessels are now in service in Israel, New Guinea and
of the standard form. Fig. 221 to 229 give plans of the Curacao, having made the voyage to these countries
general arrangement of the boats; fig. 230 shows the under their own power. Their seaworthiness was praised
midship section of the welded construction and fig. 231 by their crews.
shows a similar drawing of the riveted design. All vessels are built from drawings approved and under
An interesting fact is that the 60 to 80 h.p. engine, the supervision of the Dutch Navigation Inspection, a
running at 1,000 to 1,300 r.p.m., has been replaced in service which took over the supervision of the coastal
some cutters by a two-cylinder two-cycle marine diesel fishing fleet when the boats started to have more powerful
[156]
- DUTCH COASTAL FISHING BOATS
BOTTOM FISHING
***** . 1
therefore true to say
14 :r. *l***re*fr that
the price of a new vessel. It is
coastal fishing fleet
he Dutch fishermen have rebuilt the
fishermen who
from their own resources, and several
vessel are.now ownerc
hasbe. started with a small wooden fishing
fishing fleet 80 tons, costing froml 20,000
of fishing cutters from 50 to
;
Those
from the Government to 19,000; U.S.
effected without any aid to 200,000 Dutch guilders (11,000
vessels because of the war were, of course, each.
$32,000 to $53,000)
sufficiently to cover
to some extent but not
Fig. 221
[157]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 222
[158]
BOTTOM FISHING DUTCH COASTAL FISHING BOATS
Ffc.
[159]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD - BOAT TYPES
Fig. 224
[1601
BOTTOM FISHING DUTCH COASTAL FISHING BOATS
Fig. 225
[161]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
[162]
BOTTOM FISHING DUTCH COASTAL FISHING BOATS
227
[163]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig 228
.
[164]
Fig. 229
HCHOn OWE*
. 231
[165]
GERMAN FISHING VESSELS
by
H. KANNT
A SURVEY of the last ten years of German trawler
construction shows that the problem of economy
has been particularly considered in relation to
existing resources, fishing areas; methods of processing,
consumer demand and the question of distribution. The
modern German trawlers are the result.
CWTItt-BttURD FOR TRAWLERS
Fig. 234
that cargo space for fish has never exceeded 18,000 cu.
ft.(500 cu. m.) in any German post-war trawler.
There is not a "freezing chain" in Germany to
guarantee fish reaching the consumer in first-class
condition. For this reason, two experiments with " deep
Fig. 232 HEUER-ANChOU- HAWSE
After the World War II the German market for fresh
fish declined and the problem was to find a satisfactory
relationship between operating costs and revenue. In
this respect it was considered necessary to keep both
size and propulsion power of trawlers within limits not
exceeding 600 gross tons and 1,200 i.h.p. This means
Fit. 233 fig. 235
[166]
BOTTOM FISHING GERMAN FISHING VESSELS
"
freeze vessels have not proved a success and both were has been developed. This gives better handling of the
reconverted into normal trawlers. trawl warps and
also helps to prevent accidents likely to
In the new German trawlers the fish-holds have the
happen through the gripping and slipping of the warps.
usual wooden linings, but recently " Iporka " and More powerful trawl winches have been installed and
4<
Alfol ", both weight-saving materials, have been used from the open deck into the
their driving unit shifted
as substitutes for cork. Aluminium linings have not Because present-day captains prefer
superstructure.
found much favour because of their high cost. A saving to operate over one side only, the gallows have been
STEAM TRAVX/LEft
LENGTH BP 16d.3FT9p0M
ADTH 2t.7 8.70
DEPTH 16,25'- 4,05
Fig. 236
of 20 per cent, in consumption has been made by
ice arranged on the starboard side. This provides a larger
the ceilings of the fish-holds.
fitting refrigerating coils in working area.
Although there has been no change in the catching An innovation is the " Heuer " anchor hawse, fig. 235.
methods, the conventional catching gear has been im- This enables the anchor to be heaved from its exposed
proved and strengthened. The fairlead system has been position into a recess on the forecastle ensuring that it
standardized and the centre fairleads arranged to enable always moves into correct position, an arrangement that
the adjustment to equal length of the trawl warps, has been especially appreciated in narrow ports and at
fig. 232 and 233. A mechanical towing block, fig. 234, discharging points.
[167]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
BOTTOM FISHING GERMAN FISHING VESSELS
There are no special legal provisions governing the by using oil-burning machinery is only a theoretical
vessel
accommodation of crews on German trawlers. Fig. 236 one because fuel oil tanks can never be used for the
gives an example of the arrangement on board Helgoland storage of fish or fish products, but the spare cargo space
but other owners sometimes have different ideas regarding for fish, on a coal burner, can always take coal. Water
use of available space, such as fig. 237, the trawler tube boilers are not favoured by the owners. It is
Wartburg. considered that such boilers may be too difficult to
Foremost attention has been paid to the problem of handle and not able to cover adequately the high peaks
finding the most economical propulsion power for
a of steam required during fishing operations. Recently,
trawler. In steam-driven vessels the Bauer- Wach exhaust however, a combination of Scotch-type and water-tube
1948 1952
AACHEN TUBINGEN
400 GRT. 449GR.T
105O
WARTBURG
54O G.RT.
1953
1951
HELGOLAND CAP BLANC NEZ
570 GR J. 440 G.R.T.
Fig. 238
" "
makes a 22 per cent, saving of steam or the so-called boiler, has attracted
Capus
turbine, which boiler,
of power, is now pre- attention because of lower weight and better water
its
gives a 30 per cent, increase
dominant in Germany. A
few steam trawlers which, circulation. Typical examples of modern trawlers, with
for financial reasons, could not be fitted with exhaust and without an exhaust turbine, are Wartburg and
Helgoland. Fig. 238 illustrates a number
of different
turbines straight away, have been designed to permit the
addition of such turbines at a later date. engine-room arrangements.
The triple expansion engine, using coal burning Scotch- The development of the more distant fishing grounds
did not has raised the demand to extend the radius of action
type boilers, is generally preferred. Oil burning
lead to economical results, due to the high price of oil without increasing the size of the trawlers. This has
as compared with that of coal in Germany. Moreover, meant the design of a propulsion plant having a smaller
fuel consumption per power unit. The influence of such
the possibility of increasing the operation range of a
[169]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
a plant on the general arrangement may be seen in the rather than to a revolutionary type of catching vessel.
trawlers Tubingen and Cap Blanc Nez. The Cap Blanc How far the development of the factory ship will go
Nez has a propulsion plant consisting of two diesel a ship which processes its catch to ready packed fillets,
engines of different power (" Father and Son" "), coupled marinated products, fish oils, and fish meals will
"
and geared to the shafting by a Vulcan gear. The eventually be decided by a detailed calculation of operat-
total output of both engines may be transmitted to the ing cost and revenue. Such processing at sea will no
propeller shaft for cruising, while under trawling opera- doubt result in an improvement of the quality of fish
tions the larger engine propels the boat while the smaller products, but production costs will be increased by
engine generates power for the electric trawl winch. Both factory hands claiming the same level of wages and
engines may be used for trawling, the smaller engine conveniences as those of the sea-faring personnel. Costs
will also be affected by the fact that it will never be
being switched over to winch operation immediately
it is required. This combination avoids the provision possible to make full use of the floating factories.
of an additional powerful generating set which pre- Prevailing conditions suggest that more use should be
viously was required to operate the trawl winch and was made of the offal and trash fish catch, rather than relying
never an economical proposition. The diesel-electric on the conventional landing of ice-cooled fresh fish
plant in the trawler Tubingen has been installed in a to make the operation economical. There is plenty of
similar way, an arrangement which provides for engine steam available on board, which could be used to press
control from the bridge. offal and trash fish at sea. Such a valuable concentrate
The trend of trawler development, in view of existing could be carried in special refrigerated spaces to be
** "
problems, may point towards the factory ship delivered to shore factories for processing.
[170]
SPANISH FISHING VESSELS
by
JOSE Ma. GONZALEZ-LLANOS Y CARUNCHO
A LOUT 2,000 boats are engaged in surface fishing
off the Spanish coast. In addition, about 10,000
smaller, less profitable ones fish along the coast
and employ a total of some 80,000 men. Trawling,
more technically advanced lines, their shape being deter-
mined by the results of tests in shipbuilding experimental
tanks in Madrid and elsewhere.
The freeboard of Spanish " parejas " is perhaps higher
mainly for hake, done by dragging a net between two
is than in trawlers of other countries, but it is based on
boats, known as pair trawling (" pareja ") and for other experience and these boats can continue to fish when
species than hake, such as large horse mackerel, by bigger boats have to heave-to or drift with the wind.
bou " or otter trawling.
**
Further, in spite of the height of the freeboard, there is
Boats that trawl in pairs near the coast are usually no difficulty in lifting the net on board.
made of wood and the biggest is 75.4 ft. (23 m.) in length Welding is being used now in the construction of the
between perpendiculars. Main dimensions for this boat superstructures, bulkheads with the exception of their
are given in Table XL, column and the general arrange-
1, connection to the hull and decks, except for the beams
ment drawings in fig. 239. Such boats do not go out for and deck stringers. It is also being used in the double
more than seven days at a time. The fishing grounds bottoms and tank tops, stem and stern posts, engine
are depleted and landings small. The rising cost of fuel foundation, and the whole of the structure except the
and supplies has worsened the situation and many of the outer plating where the longitudinal seams and the
vessels are fitted with uneconomical, old engines. Other- connection with the frames are riveted, but the vertical
wise they are strong and seaworthy; the keel, stem, stern seams are welded. The fish-room is usually insulated
post and frames are oak, the keelson of eucalyptus, and with compressed cork and wood linings, and wood is
the remainder of the hull, pine. used for pound boards and stanchions where the catch
As the fishing grounds within easy reach of the Spanish is stowed in layers of ice after gutting and heading.
coast become exhausted it was necessary to go further Because of the long trips that have to be made, it would
afield. It was clear that these boats were not the most be better if aluminium alloy materials were used as in
suitable for arduous and distant trips. They were slow other countries.
and had small capacity, but, even so, they have been A few boats now have refrigerating machinery to
taken to the distant fishing grounds, sometimes with reduce the amount of ice they otherwise have to carry.
20 tons of coal stacked on deck to supplement their Diesels are used without exception in these boats.
bunker capacity. Often this extra coal has been washed They range in b.h.p. from 350 to 600, usually direct-
overboard. coupled, two- or four-cycle, solid injection and direct
With the development of distant fishing grounds came reversing. In some cases change of direction is through
a trend towards building bigger boats, highly-powered a reverse gear, and sometimes engines are fitted with
and of better sea-worthiness. For the main dimensions reduction gears. Agood many of the engines are still
of a typical boat of this class see Table XL, column 2, imported but firms in Spain are now building engines
and for the general arrangement drawings, fig. 240. in considerable numbers.
The trawl winch is usually operated by an auxiliary
75 b.h.p. diesel with belt drive and this is found to be
MODERN " PAREJA " BOATS most satisfactory. A 6-kw. engine dynamo compressor
Since 1940 diesels have been mostly used in new boats set is usually installed along with an auxiliary dynamo
and the modern Spanish trawler fleet have virtually which can be coupled to the trawl winch motor by belt.
abandoned the steam engine. Furthermore, the rigid The steering gear is usually of the tiller-chain type and
structure required by the diesel and the larger size boat hand operated, although hydraulic transmission has
needed for fishing the distant grounds has led to the recently been introduced. For main dimensions of a
widespread use of steel hulls. Such boats are built on typical boat of this class, see Table XL, column 3.
[171]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
TABLE XL
Column I Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6
Length, over-all .
Length, waterlinc.
Length, between perpen-
diculars
Breadth, moulded
Depth
Mean draft, loaded
Deadweight
Effective load
Fish-room capacity
Fuel
Water tanks
Propulsion machinery .
Speed, service
Speed, trial
Radius under full power
Displacement, loaded .
Gross register tonnage .
Crew
Block coefficient
Prismatic coefficient
Midship section coefficient
Waterplane coefficient
Longitudinal location of
centre of buoyancy .
line
Half-run
....
Half-entrance angle at water-
angle, tangent at
waterline in plane of screw
Metacentric height, unloaded
...
Metacentric height on leaving
port
Metacentric height, on reach-
ing fishing ground .
Metacentric height, at begin
ming of return journey
...
Metacentric height, on reach-
ing port
172]
X uACCDMODATlONS 'J
!,...._ j
Flg.240
[174]
2 S
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+ -1- 1
-h
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r^o ooo
i 88 3^
Vri rsm
o - o
3?
f.,
i
ground
fishing port
Condition
is! port
to to
!i
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
0369tt121
SCALE IN FEET
01234667
SCALE IN METRES
[176]
BOTTOM FISHING SPANISH FISHING VESSELS
SCALE IN FEET
3 To-day the figure is
5,500,000 pesetas (50,000;
9 f
12 15
U.S.$140,000). This and the lower catches, the
fact,
SCALE METRES
O1 234 5
IN increase in fuel and outfitting costs, and the higher
fishing port fees, has led to fewer of this class of boats
being built because the principal payments and insurance
premiums on such high costs make it difficult to operate
a boat at a profit.
The towing of the pair trawl requires much skill and
experience to maintain the proper vertical and hori-
zontal opening during trawling. The operation is
conducted much more slowly than with the otter trawl.
The speed is usually 2 to 3 knots and the power required
is 25 to 35 per cent, less than under ordinary sailing
conditions.
Towing of the netis different from that of the otter
trawl, in that one warp is attached to each boat, as can
be seen in fig. 248. The net has no doors for opening the
mouth horizontally. It is set out from one boat over
the stern as shown in fig. 249. Once it is in the water,
the second boat approaches and throws a line to pick
up the other warp which has to be attached to it.
The trawling gear can be seen in fig. 250. The length of
the warps naturally depends upon the depth of the water.
Once the necessary length has been released, it is fixed
to both boats by towing hooks.
The method of hauling in the net is shown in fig. 251.
Only 110 fm. (200 m.) of the warp is left in the water;
then the boats come together. One of them, with a throw-
line, hauls in the warp from the other boat and reeves
it, as is shown in fig. 252, to bring the net alongside for
hoisting aboard by the derrick, leaving the cod end in
the water until it has been sufficiently emptied by dip-
net to allow it to be hauled on board.
The duration of each haul is considerably longer than
in the case of otter trawling, averaging from 5 to 7 hours,
so that in winter there is only one a day, and in summer
up to three. At night the boats are moored to buoys with
engines stopped, unless they use the time to change
fishing grounds.
SCALE IN FEET SCALE IN METRES Often three boats are operated together, so that while
3 ? 1 2
two are fishing, the third, with the previous catch on
board, returns to base and comes back to take over from
Fig. 242
the one in which the next catch has been stowed. The
advantage is that fishing can be continuous and the time
" "
Table XLI gives distribution of weights, displacements lost in the first part of the normal pareja trip is
and metacentric heights under different service con- avoided. Depending on the distance from base to fishing
ditions. Fig. 241 and 242 give the general arrangement grounds, the abundance of fish, the season, etc., some-
drawings; 243 a photograph; fig. 244 the curves of
fig. times four or five boats operate together in this way as a
245 the power-speed graph.
stability at inclinations; fig. team.
" "
Dimensions of another design of this type of vessel, There are roughly 300 modern pareja boats
with the same beam and length but with less depth and fishing distant grounds.
displacement, is given in Table XL, column 4. Fig. 246
shows the general arrangement drawings, and fig. 247 a
photograph.
FAR-DISTANT FISHING
The greater cargo capacity of the former boat, and its The first Spanish codfishing company was founded in
sea-worthiness, make it the most popular type. The fact the early twenties, and large boats were equipped with
that it can yield greater profit is most important in view otter trawls to catch fish on the Newfoundland, Green-
of the very steep rise in the cost of building. In 1949 land, and Labrador banks. Two trips were made a year,
that cost was 3,500,000 pesetas (38,000; U.S.$89,000). each lasting about five months, and the cod and other
[177]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
STABILITY CURVES
ANGLES OF INCLINATION
Fig. 244
POWER CURVES
500,
a
x
SPEED IN KNOTS
Fig. 245. Curves of necessary engine power in BMP (top curve) and
effective (tow rope) power (lower curve) of 88.9ft. (27.1 m.)
"Pareja" trawler
[178]
BOTTOM FISHING SPANISH FISHING VESSELS
SCALE IN FEET
6 12 1* 24 30
Fig. 246
[179]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
PECK ARRANGEMENT FOR PAREJA FISHING
Fig. 252
[180]
^8 9 83
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8S5 "
m
%- I H
mots vos
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grotmd
filhin ^**^
port port
at toport to
1
8
111 LeavingArrival Leaving Retorntoport
SCALE IN PEET
O 9 I! 27
SCALE IN ME THIS
9 4 6 10
'
\
L/
X XJ / L^ -
Fig. 253
[182]
BOTTOM FISHING SPANISH FISHING VESSELS
SCALE IN FEET
Fig. 254
[183]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
fish was salted for delivery to the curing plants. The
Spanish market consumes about 70,000 tons of salted
and dried fish a year, and there are now 22 Spanish
codfishers that supply between 35-40,000 tons a year.
STABILITY CURVES
Another 10 codfishers are under construction. For main
specifications of one of the more modern boats of the
fleet see Table XL, column 5; Table XLII gives the
distribution of weights, displacements and metacentric
heights under various conditions of service; fig. 253 and
254 show the general arrangement, body plan and mid-
ship section of a boat of this type, and fig. 255 is a
photograph of one. Fig. 256 gives the stability curves and
fig. 257 the speed-power diagram.
ANGLES OF INCLINATION This type of boat is built for sailing through ice. The
Fig. 256 auxiliary deck machinery, windlass, trawl winch and
steering servo-motor are electrically driven, and so are
the fish washing, bilge, fire and ballast pumps. There is a
4-h.p. ammonia refrigerator for the crew's food, and two
14-h.p. motors for fish-room refrigeration, and machinery
for the extraction of cod liver oil. The radio, chart and
navigation equipment is up to date and complete.
The main propelling engine is four-cycle, single-
POWER CURVES acting super-charged direct-coupled and direct-reversible,
six cylinders, developing 1,200 b.h.p. at 205 r.p.m.
In addition to the bilge and ventilation pumps incor-
porated in the main engine, there is the following equip-
ment in the engine room: three diesel-generator of
100 kw. at 220 volts with Ward-Leonard couplings,
one 60-kw. diesel-generator, one 20-kw. diesel-generator,
two electric and one hand air-compressor for starting,
two centrifugal electric pumps for water-cooling of
engine, one centrifugal electric pump for water-cooling
of auxiliary machinery, two electric pumps for lubrica-
tion, one Duplex electric ballast and fire pump, one
Duplex electric bilge pump, one centrifugal electric
pump for washing fish, one Duplex electric fuel pump,
one electric fuel pump for daily use, one centrifugal
lubricating oil filter, one centrifugal fuel filter.
The steam used for extracting liver oil, for the drinking
water evaporator and for the heating of living quarters,
is provided by a small boiler heated by exhaust gases
and fuel-oil burners. This vessel costs (1953) some
30 million pesetas (270,000; U.S.$760,000).
When the first Spanish " parejas " fished on the New-
foundland banks in 1949, they brought back good
catches of prime cod, but, sold as fresh fish, it was not
popular and fetched poor prices. As a result of this, the
" "
character of the pareja fishing on the Newfoundland
banks changed. Instead of the boat returning with fresh
fish from 20 to 30 day trips they landed salted fish after
60 to 90 days. More hands were taken on board and a
small hold was built aft to increase capacity and improve
SPEED IN KNOTS
trim. Bunker capacity was also increased and the nets
Fig. 257. Curves of necessary engine power in BHP (top curve) made For main dimensions of one of these boats
larger.
and effective (tow rope) power (lower curve) of 209ft. (63.75 m.) see table XL, column 6, and for general arrangement,
otter trawler
body plan and midship section, see fig. 258, and for a
photograph see fig. 259. It costs about one million
" "
pesetas (9,200; U.S .$25,700) to fit out such a pareja
for each trip, but reasonable results have been obtained.
[184]
BOTTOM FISHING SPANISH FISHING VESSELS
J;jrT'T"'"TT~T t
]
-
I- U
[185]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
' '
"% ": '&'.
[186]
PACIFIC COMBINATION FISHING VESSELS
by
H. C. HANSON
combination fishing vessels are designed to
purse seine
PACIFIC for salmon, herring, etc., trawl for
bottom fish, long line for halibut, etc., fish with live
bait for tuna and troll for salmon. One purpose craft
are wasteful to the extreme. Some types, such as the large
tuna clippers, can perhaps be justified, but the author
hopes that their design can soon be modified so that
fishing gear, such as long lines, can be used.
Combination craft can be employed practically all the
year round in the Pacific area. Because of their versa-
tility, utility and limited use of scarce and expensive
construction materials, the author is of the opinion
that they are also best for fisheries in other parts of the
world.
A good sheer forward and a good flare of the bow help
to make the boats dry. It is particularly important to Fig. 262. 57 x 16 x 6 ft. (17.4 x 4.9 x 1.8 m.) steel combination
have a high chock rail to protect the deckhouse. The boat in V-bottom or round-bottom design
stern sheer must be designed to be adaptable to the
methods; it has to be low for trolling,
different fishing
trawling and long lining, but high enough to carry the
heavy purse seine. Therefore the design must be a
compromise. The long overhang stem, characteristic
of the author's designs, is to keep the nets clear of the
propeller. The bilge has to be carried well out, as shown
by the midship section, fig. 261. If such vessels are
designed with a full bilge, ballast is necessary to keep the
vessel down. The indicated midship section makes for
Light wrterlin* long, easy lines and is the best for seaworthiness and
angle of entrance
typical conciliation speed, giving the propeller and the boat the necessary
reaael 65ft (20 )
long. grip on the water heavy weather. The fishermen like
in
vessels with such whereas the rolling characteristic
lines,
of full midship sections bothers them. The angle of
entrance of the waterline should not be too full, because
the fishermen drive the wooden vessels too hard in heavy
seas.
dieplae event lower In v_
Combination boats can be of steel or wood, the latter
haa aore reaiatanea fo:
feaa quicker roll, not being preferred for sizes up to 80 ft. (24.4 m.). Construc-
aa abore aeotion for ov
tion, as shown in the drawings of this paper, will pro-
duce strong and seaworthy vessels, good for twenty or
more years if proper materials are used.
Bent oak frames in one piece have been used in vessels
up to 90 ft. (27.4 m.) long and, by using two pieces one
Fig. 261. Influence of midship section upon speed and sea behaviour on top of the other, up to 135 ft. (41.1 m.). It now seems
[187]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 263. Alaska limit seiner. Outboard profile
Fig. 264. Alaska limit seiner. Deck arrangement A, with side winches for trawling with 500 fm. (915 m.) wire. The plan indicates also
arrangement of trolling gurdies and the longline halibut chute
[188]
COMBINATION FISHING - PACIFIC (U.S.A.) VESSELS
Fig. 265, 266, 267. Alaska limit seiner,
^k arrangementTheB plan shows
300 fm. (500 m.) wire.
with central single trawl winch for shallow water
also turntable and seine davit
trawling, each drum holding
{189]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
than 80 ft. (24.4 m.), provided the oak is not dried out
so much so that it is weakened. If green oak is used
moisture accumulates and decay is accelerated and for
these reasons some laminated frames, made of oak
and glued together, are unsatis-
strips artificially dried
factory. At
present several vessels are being built in the
U.S.A., using 20 per cent, sapwood for the laminated
frames. In the author's experience, rotting will take
place in a few years. Much of this trouble could be
avoided, and to the advantage of the industry, if a satis-
factory method could be developed for glueing oak with
a moisture content as high as 18 to 20 per cent.
For lengths up to 60 ft. (18.3 m.), steel vessels cost
approximately the same as wooden ones; beyond this
they are cheaper and also upkeep costs are less, but for
Fig. 268. Alaska limit seiner. Midship section comfort they do have to be insulated. The fishermen,
however, have not yet overcome their preference for
to be impossible to get suitable oak longer than 20 ft. wood. Their current objection is partly because of the
(6.1 m.) for the frames and therefore a boat length of lack of insulation in present steel vessels, but the time
80 ft. (24.4 m.) must be regarded as the maximum. will soon come when steel will be more favoured. A
Laminated frames can be recommended for vessels larger fine example of a steel vessel is shown in fig. 262.
rig. 269. Alaska limit seiner. Details from construction
[190]
COMBINATION FISHING - PACIFIC (U.S.A.) VESSELS
SMALL COMBINATION BOATS particulars and scantlings for this type, as well as for
The Alaska Limit Seiner is a good example of an efficient
65 (19.8 m.) and 74 ft. (22.6 m.) combination boats
ft.
combination boat. are given in Table XLIII.
The name limit seiner derives from a law in Alaska The illustrated boat is equipped with a 150 h.p.,
restricting fishing boats to a maximum registered length,
1,000 r.p.m., diesel engine driving, through a 3 1 :
from the rabbet at stem to foreside of the rudder stock, reduction gear, a three-bladed bronze propeller with a
measured at deck level, of 50 ft. (15.2 m.). Within this diameter of 52 in. (1,320 mm.), a pitch of 46 in.
(1,168 mm.), a developed blade area of 920 sq. in.
regulation it is possible to design a length over-all of
57 (5,934 sq. cm.), a mean width ratio of .272 and an
ft. (17.4 m.). Fig. 263 to 268 show the drawings for
the general arrangement and midship section of one
design. Fig. 269 gives some details of the actual con-
struction and fig. 270 the bolting of the ceiling. Design
i-Vy m^At^-^>^ :.. ..
n n n n n
n ,
PI i.'! a i
&4^
i:
1
c! i I.. i.' ft
r |
El
l
;j j?i
a n
a a g J tr
Fig. 270. Alaska limit seiner. Bolting of ceiling Fig. 27J. The combination boats are designed to maintain an even trim
TABLE XLIII
Design particulars for 57 ft. (Alaska limit seiner), 65 ft. and 74 ft. (17.4, 19.8, 22.6 m.) combination vessels
Length, over all . 57ft. 17.4m. 65ft. 19.8m. 74 ft. 22.6 m.
Length, loaded waterline 50ft. 15.2m. 58 ft. 17.7 m. 67 ft. 6 in. 20.6 m.
Breadth, over all . 16 ft. 4.88 m. 17 ft. 3 in. 5.26 m. 20ft. 6.1m.
Breadth, loaded waterline 15 ft. 7 in. 4.75 m. 17 ft. 5.18 m. 19 ft. 8 in. 5.99 m.
Block coefficient . .383 .418 .368
Midship coefficient .607 .674 .567
Prismatic coefficient .630 .620 .647
Waterplanc coefficient .710 .740 .768
LCB .
- 3.9 per cent. 1.0 per cent. 1 per cent.
Displacement Iwl . 44.05 long tons 44.8 cu. m. 59 long tons 60 cu. m. 98 long tons 99.5 cu. m.
Cargo capacity 35.0 short tons 31.7 tons 55 short tons 50tons 90 short tons 81.5 tons
Cruising speed 9.75 knots 9.8 knots 10.5 knots
Maximum speed . 10.5 knots 10.5 knots 11. 4 knots
Tonnage, gross register 42.7 tons 58.5 tons 103.0 tons
Tonnage, net register 29.0 tons 40.0 tons 70.0 tons
Main engine . 150 h.p. 210 h.p. 275 h.p.
Revolutions .
1,000 r.p.m. l,000r.p.m. 1,000 r.p.m.
Reduction gear 3:1 3:1 '
Diesel oil tanks 1,600 gal. 6.1 cu.m. 1,200 gal. 4.5 cu.m. 4,000 gal. 15.2 cu. m.
Water . 350 gal. 1.3cu. m. 600 gal. 2.3 cu.m. 1,300 gal. 4.9 cu. m.
Propeller 3 bl. 52 x 46 in. 1,320 x 1,168mm. 52 x 44 in. 1,320 x 1,117mm. 60 x 41-45 in. 1,524 x l,041-l,143mm.
Scantlings in.
Keel .
9i x 9* 24.1 24.1 29.2 29.2
Keelson 131 x 13* 34.3 34.3 34.3 34.3
Shoe .
U 4.5 4.5
Stern post 9i x 13i 24.1 x34.3 29.2 x 39.4
Sister keelson x 9i 19.1 x 24.1 19.1 x 19.1
Frames, oak 3 x 4
10
5.7 x 10.2
25.4
7.6 x
10.2
30.5
Spaced.
x 7i 12.7 x 19.1 13.4 x 19.7
Clamps x 10 7 X 25.4 7 x 29.2
Shelf
Garboard
.
I x Hi
x Hi
7
5.1
x
x
29.2
29.2
7
5.1
x
x
29.2
29.2
Planking 4.5 4.5
Bilge ceiling 6-2* x 5i 6-7 x 14 5-8.9 X 15.2
Decking 2 x 3i 5.1 x 8.9 5.1 x 8.9
[191]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
8 deg. rake aft this latter
being quite important on a turn the turntable roller hydraulically. This pump can
wooden vessel. The makes 10J knots in light
vessel also be used for washing, for fire-fighting and as a bait
condition and can carry 35 short tons of fish, equivalent pump. A 3 kw. generator is driven by power take-off on
to 25,000 salmon. the main engine also.
The deck is raised to make room in the forecastle for An auxiliary engine of 5 h.p. installed in the side of
the large crew necessary for handling the seines and so the engine room drives a 1 \ kw. auxiliary generator, and
an air compressor, as well as a small fuel and lubricating
oil pump. A small refrigerating compressor for the
HALIBUT LONG
LINE ATTACHMENT
Fig. 272. Gurdy winch for purse seining and long lining
that the break provides a stopper for the fish. Trim can
be maintained even with a full load (fig. 271).
The main engine has a power take-off for driving the
anchor windlass, and the drive shaft is carried aft to the
purse seine and trawl winches. Sometimes it is used for
the drive to the turntable roller, otherwise another
take-off operates a 2 in. (51 mm.) water pump used to Fig. 273. Diagram of purse seine
Fig. 274. 65 ft. x 17 ft. 4 in. x 8 ft. (19.8 x 5.28 x 2.44m.). Combination seiner and trawler with purse seine drum compared with turntable
[192]
COMBINATION FISHING PACIFIC (U.S.A.) VESSELS
galley cold box is located over the port tank. The tanks rollers on the deck, and the bulwarks are cut down. It
have a total capacity of 1,330 imp. gal. (1,600 gal., is quite heavy about 3} tons including the 1.6 h.p.
6 cu. m.) of diesel oil, 58 imp. gal. (70 gal., 265 1.) of electric drive and the portable base and the seine net
lubricating oil and 250 imp. gal. (300 gal., 1.1 cu. m.) itself weighs about 5 tons. A
seine davit is installed on
of water. The bulkhead aft of the engine room has a each side in the bulwarks abreast of the purse seine winch
portable section so that the engine can be removed. (fig. 272), between hatch and mast.
Aft of the hold is a bait well for circulating sea water Fig. 273 shows a purse seine for a 65 ft. (19.8 m).
boat. It is about 250 fm. (457 m.) long with 4J in.
(108 mm.) mesh, 12 and 15 thread material, 450 meshes
(4 strips) deep. The lead line of the seine is 75 fm.
(137m.).
A recent trend in
Canada is to use, instead of a turn-
table, a drum reel similar to those used on the gill-
netters. It is said that two to four men less are needed
and, proves to be so, the fleet will be converted
if this
rapidly. The
reels might be set on a swivel base as on
modern gillnetters. Fig. 274 shows the profile of a 65 ft.
(19.8 m.) seiner in which such a reel is compared with a
Fig. 275. Combined trawl and purse seine winch for shallow
water trawling turntable.
When trawling in shallow water, the purse seine winch
is replaced by a combined trawl and seine winch, fig. 275.
(capacity 5 tons in this vessel) or dry storage. When live
bait is carried in the tank, properly screened intakes and
outlets, as well as lights, are arranged, but some owners Chute
prefer a portable tank on deck. When fishing for tuna, (fork Table
the owner may also use the trolling cockpit on the aft Dory or Boat
deck for the catch.
The turntable is installed on a portable pivot and
Fig. 276. Deep-water trawl winch Fig. 277. Halibut longlining arrangement
Fig. 278. 89 x 24 ft. (27.1 X 7.3m.). Combination boat lines
[193]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
This has niggcrheads and double drums for 300 fm. convenor used to transfer from D.C. to A.C. when
is
(550 m.) wire. The wire leads through blocks at the side required. There are power and steering controls both
and aft to blocks on the trawl davits at the quarters. on top of the wheel house and inside it.
Steel bulwarks are installed when trawling and the davits
for handling the 4x7 ft. (1.22 x 2.1 m.) 600 Ib. (270 kg.) MEDIUM-SIZED COMBINATION BOATS
trawl boards are very substantially made. Models of the described 89 x 24 ft. (27.1 x 7.3 m.) wooden
For deep trawling separate winch drums are installed tuna seiner, which is convertible to bait fishing, trawling
at the sides, fig. 276. Each drum carries 500 fm. (915 m.) and long lining, were tested at the University of Michigan,
of wire and is mechanically driven. A small purse seine under Professor L. A. Baier, with both a typical seine
winch is then installed amidships near the hatch. stern and a cruiser stern (Hanson 1952).
MRAcncnuc RADII, CENTER or worn* INCH IMMERSION, AND ADDITION TO DUPLACIMDCT TOR ONK INCH
Fig. 279. 89 x 24ft. (27.1 x 7.3 m.). Combination boat. Curves ofform
For halibut long lining an attachment is fitted on the Fig. 278 shows a hull with long easy lines, giving good
purse seine winch. The galvanised iron long line skate speed and the best trim. An alternative cruiser stern,
chute is midships aft and the dressing table is on the Model B, is indicated. The midship section shows a
port quarter (fig. 277). bilge carried well out for seaworthiness. The curves of
When salmon trolling, gurdies, fig. 152 (page 110) form are given in fig. 279, and Table XLIV gives the
are installed on both sides and ahead of the cockpit main dimensions of the tested models.
and spring block davits are installed in bulwarks abreast The data from the towing tank tests in fig. 280 are
of the gurdies. All of these are portable. Two poles well worth close scrutiny. The different sterns require
are installed abreast of the mast and two on the deck quite different power, especially in the load condition,
forward of the house. They are stowed as shown in since the drag of the seiner stern is eliminated.
fig. 153/4/7. The tuna clipper, fig. 281, with a raised instead of a
The galley has an oil-burning stove, a refrigerator and flush deck, has the same underbody lines as the tested
working and messing tables. In the deck house there is a model and shows the versatility of this type. The raised
stateroom for two, a toilet, and the wheel house con- deck design has produced successful vessels for years.
taining echo sounder, direction finder, automatic pilot Fig. 282 and 283 show the general arrangements of
and radio transmitter. The electrical wiring for 32 volts, the tuna seiner. The midship section, fig. 284, and fig.
D.C. is very complete and includes a shore plug. A 285, indicate the assembly of the sawn frames by the
[194]
COMBINATION FISHING PACIFIC (U.S.A.) VESSELS
400
TRHPfor
Models AandB
Fig. 281. 89 x 24 ft. (27.1 X 7.3m.). Combination boat.
Tuna clipper version
double method. The rules of the American Con-
flitch
struction Bureau do not cover this size of vessel, and the
material and fastenings given in fig. 286 might form a
standard of .construction. This table also covers a
125 ft. (38.1 m.) wooden tuna clipper.
468Speed in Knots
The dimensions quoted are all for soft woods. If oak
is used the thickness can be reduced by approximately
20 per cent. The timbers should be free of sap or wane.
Small hard knots are permitted in frames, ceiling, beams,
Fig. 280. 89 x 24ft. (27.1 x 7.3 m.). Combination boat.
Results from tank tests etc. Lumber exposed to sun and air should be vertically
TABLE XLIV
MODEL A MODEL B
Waterplane 0.776 0.826 0.726 0.767
A/0.01L* 368 476 267 385
4.2 3.9 4.7 4.2
L/B 3.432 3.695 3.675 3.83
B/T 2.7 2.12 3.17 2.42
-3.4 -2.5 -2.5 -7.0
Entrance 55.2% 51.6
.6%
Run 44.8% 48.4
1.4% 47.5%
Coefficients ex. appendages, and based on draft to rabbet line
[195]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
other. Thorough edge-bolting from the bottom to the
top line of the ceiling on every third bay, sometimes
extending through the deck shelves, gives the best
results. The engine room contains a 400 h.p. heavy-duty
diesel, auxiliaries and tanks. The fish-hold is 35 ft.
(10.7 m.) long, fitted with fish bins, and has a capacity
of up to 110 tons (100 ton) of fish and approximately
20 tons (18 ton) of chipped ice.
When used as a tuna clipper with brine and bait
tanks, the vessel carries approximately 25 tons (22.5 cu.m.)
circulating water besides the weight of the bait tank
itself.
This wooden type is comparatively rigid against
hogging. The author usually specifies this length of
keel to be laid with a reverse camber of approximately
2$ in. (64 mm.). Where bent oak frames are used, the
Fig. 282. 89 X 24ft. (27.1 X 7.3 m.). Combination boat. camber would be approximately 3 in. (76 mm.) depending
Outside profile
upon the type and size of timber and fastenings. There
is no hogging problem in small steel vessels.
grained and free of knots. Slash grain lumber is most All fishing gear would be similar to that on the larger
satisfactory underwater and it should be free of knots; 100 ft. (30.5 m.) steel combination vessel described next.
close-grained material gives longest life. The ceiling is A centreline double drum winch is used instead of the
the main strength member. It should be heavy, well wing winches carried by the smaller combination vessels
fayed to the frames and each strake well fayed to the described in the preceding chapter.
Fig. 283. 89 X 24 ft. (27.1 x 7.3m.). Combination boat. Inside profile and underdeck arrangement
[196]
COMBINATION FISHING PACIFIC (U.S.A.) VESSELS
MPT.a fc4rT* ItFT.
PIM MOI PAL
M*M -ipwili-tA-l
ut;
tUM* AU. WAV 0^
Tt*M*cwT HP*O i4*i
FAAMK* rm CM sail i
PM.VOM I*CTA. AT HftAO,
K..lOAJMEftl. ( l4M
Fig. 284. 89 X 24/f. (27.7 x 73 m.). Combination boat.
Midship section
LARGE COMBINATION VESSELS
A typical large combination vessel is 100 x 26 x 13 ft. 9 in.
(30.5 x 7.9 X4.19 m.), all welded steel, for trawling, tuna
bait fishing and purse seining.
Fig. 287 shows one as a trawler and fig. 288 as a tuna
vessel. During tuna fishing the stern is trimmed down
so that the deckline is almost flush with the water. Bait
is taken from the deck bait tanks. Tuna, with a body
temperature up to 80 deg. F. (27 deg. C), is brine
refrigerated and kept for an extended period before
delivery to a mother ship or home port. As trawlers,
these vessels catch bottom fish and crabs. They can also
be arranged for long lining. Trawling and long lining
put a severe test on any craft in the North Pacific and
Bering Sea, probably as severe at times as anywhere in the
world. Therefore seaworthiness and sea-keeping ability
are a prime consideration and must be the best possible.
The working deck is best aft, and for trawling and long
lining it must be clear.
The lines have a decided sheer forward for heavy
weather. The stem rake helps to give a good hull flare
which has made these vessels very dry and the deck is
the fullest possible.
F/^. 2^6. Scantlings and fastenings for 89ft (27.1 m.) combination
boat and 125 ft. (38.1 m.) tuna clipper
The general arrangements are shown in fig. 289 to
291 and the midship section in fig. 292. The latter has
a full moulded shape, giving a carrying capacity of
220 short tons (200 ton) which is exceptional for a
100 ft. (30.S m.) craft. The author believes that trans-
verse framing makes better use of the inside space of the
hull than longitudinals. The scantlings are ample and in
accord with existing rules and regulations.
The frames are 4Jx3 x^fr in. (114x76x8 mm.) on
Fig. 285. Assembling offrames by the double flitch method 22 in. (560 mm.) centres. Plating is -ft in. (8 mm.) with
[197]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 287. 100 X 26 x 13.75ft. (30.5 X 7.9 x 4.19 m.). Combination vessels as trawler
f in. (9.5 mm.) garboards; deck is J in. (6.35 mm.), all around and between the tanks is covered with in.
angle stringers intercostal in hold, 4x3x&
in. (102 x (13 mm.) plywood over the exterior. This plywood serves
76 x 8 mm.), lining is in. (4.8 mm.), plate keel, If x 6 in. two purposes heat reduction, and prevention against
(35 x 1 52 mm.), floors, J in. (6.35 mm.) and centre vertical damage to the hooks when pole fishing. The hatches
keelson, &
in. (8 mm.). The hold and bulkheads are have 24 in. (0.61 m.) high coamings and 1 in. (25 mm.)
insulated with 4 in. (102
mm.) cork. plywood covers on the top with a 3 in. (76 mm.) cork
The main deck has two breaks. The house is placed insulated cover below. The bait and cargo tanks have
far forward down into the hull and protected by the supply lines led into the top. In each intake a segment
sheer. Unlike present-day clippers, it has no overhang with a perforated screen, arranged to create a circular
and, in fact, reverts to the earlier style. This design water motion, is welded in full depth of tank to break
eliminates top weight and improves the seaworthiness. down the water stream so it will not damage the bait.
The bait tanks, fishing racks, etc., are portable to The overflow duct is opposite and of much larger area.
facilitate conversion to trawling. The bait tanks are It is divided in half by weir boards right up to the
smaller than the usual tuna clipper's but, as compensa- coamings. The water flows over the weir boards down
tion, two large brine tanks are arranged below deck to to deck level and overboard through a discharge
cany bait on the outboard voyage. pipe. The tanks are painted with white plastic paint
The portable bait and brine tank on deck has three and watertight flood lights are fitted inside each bait
compartments and is of steel with plywood sheathing. well.
The sides are J in. (6.35 mm.) and the bulkheads if in. The main engine is a 600 h.p. turbo supercharged fresh-
(4.8 mm.) plate with 4x3x J in. (102x76x6.35 mm.) water cooled diesel, turning a 68 in. (1,727 mm.)
angle stiffeners. The 4 in. (102 mm.) cork insulation diameter, 38 to 41 in. (965 to 1,041 mm.) pitch,
[198]
COMBINATION FISHING PACIFIC (U.S.A.) VESSELS
threc-bladed propeller 400 r.p.m. through a 6 in. Aft of the engine room, and on either side of the shaft
(152 mm.) tail shaft in rubber bearings. alley, are two large brine tanks having 3,242 ft. (1,000 m.)
The fuel capacity is 30,700 imp. gal. (36,800 gal., of 1J in. (32 mm.) ammonia refrigeration coils. Fish
140 cu. m.) bunkered in four wing tanks and the double are loaded through the deck hatches and unloaded
bottom. Lubricating oil storage is in the lower engine through the bolted manhole openings into the main hold
room wings to capacity of 625 imp. gal. (750 gal., after freezing. The wells are fitted with bronze overflow
2.85 cu. m.). Water capacity is 1,670 imp. gal. (2,000 gal., valves and four watertight lights for use when bait is
7.6 cu. m.), carried in the lower forward engine room. carried.
There are two 120 h.p. auxiliary diesels each driving The main holdis divided by a steel bulkhead and is
a 50 kw. generator and each equipped with a power refrigerated, one compartment by 2,212 ft. (675 m.)
take-off. They drive a central overhead shaft through and the other by 1,892 (580 m.) coils. Fish is kept either
clutches by means of sprockets and roller chains. The in ice, aided by mechanical refrigeration, or it is frozen,
shaft drives the windlass which handles 100 fm. (183 m.) since the hold refrigeration is designed to maintain the
of wire and a 15 fm. (27 m.) chain to a 750 Ib. (340 kg.) frozen fish.
anchor. The shaft extends to the trawl winch with two The stern rail has spray attachments and a series of
main drums, each for 400 fm. (730 m.) of i in. (19 mm.) individual bait cans arranged inside the rail so that they
wire plus the dandelion gear, and two cargo drums can easily be removed and cleaned. They are connected
with 150 ft. (46 m.) capacity each. It has niggerheads, with hose for water supply to carry a few live bait for
bitts and a gurdy head suitable for long lining and net specialchumming.
hauling. Heavy gallows for trawling are installed at the quarters,
The vessel has hand and power steering, echosounder, and heavy block leads allow the wire to be carried to the
direction finder, radio telephone, a five-bottle carbon trawl winch.
dioxide fire extinguishing system in the engine room, The bulwarks aft are removable so that a turntable
a hot water heating plant with oil burner, oil purifier, can be used.
fire, bilge, fresh water and sanitary pumps, and a 10 in. A 16 ft. (4.9 n.) high-speed tender is carried athwart-
(305 mm.) pump. There are two 5x5i in. (140 x
bait ship on brackets extending from the top of the bait
140 mm.) twin refrigerating compressors at the forward tank. Full headroom under the brackets allows the
end of engine room. use of the deck underneath.
*|^V;\;,;/ <: v''^'X' '*
*
'^f^*'^"*^'*
S^i^iSL^i/'''- ,.* <-''' <
;Af;t:k<'< &*'' :
Fig. 288. 100 x 26 x 13.75ft. (30J x 7.9 x 4.19 m.). Combination vessels as tuna vessel
[199]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
te-JL srsss
P. 100 X 26 x 1 3.75 ft. (30.5 x 7.9 X 4.7P w.). Combination vessel outside profile
. 290. 100 x 26 x 13.75ft. (30.5 x 7.9 x .79 m.). Combination vessel inside profile
[200]
COMBINATION FISHING PACIFIC (U.S.A.) VESSELS
Fig. 291. 100 x 26 X 13.75ft. (30.5 x 7.9 X 4.19m.). Combination vessel deck arrangements
[201]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
APPENDIX
MACHINERY FOR COMBINATION 100 ft. (30.5 m.)
TRAWLER AND TUNA CLIPPER
1 600 h.p. 6 cylinder reversible diesel.
2 120 h.p. auxiliary diesel engines, direct connected to 50 k.W.
220 volt, 3 phase 60 cycle A.C. generators on common
base.
1 10 in. (254 mm.) 15 h.p., 2-speed propeller pump.
12 X 3 in. (51 X 76mm.) 5 h.p. centrifugal pump (ammonia
cooler).
2 1
J in. (38.1 mm.) 1 h.p. centrifugal pump (brine agitator).
13 X 3 in. (76 X 76 mm.) centrifugal pump general service
driven off auxiliary engine.
13 X 3 in. (76 X 76 mm.) centrifugal pump fire and bilge-
driven off propeller shaft.
1 in. (19 mm.) 1 h.p., 166 imp. gal. (200 gal., 760 litres) per
hour sanitary pump.
1
J in. (19 mm.) 1 h.p., 166 imp. (200 gal, 760 litres) per hour
fresh water pump.
1 2 in. (51 mm.) 2 h.p. centrifugal pump (fresh water cooling).
1 2 in. (51 mm.) 2 h.p. centrifugal pump (salt water cooling).
1 1
J in. (32 mrrf.) 1
h.p. rotary pump (lubricating oil).
1 1
J in. (32 mm.) 1
h.p. rotary pump (fuel oil transfer).
2 5i X 5 in. (140 x 140 mm.) twin cylinder single acting
ammonia compressors, direct V belt drive with 20 h.p.
motors.
J h.p. water cooled freon refrigeration unit.
Fig. 292. 100 x 26 x 13.75 ft. (30.5 x 7.9 x 4.19 m.).
23 cu. ft. (0.65 cu. m.) air compressor driven off auxiliary
Combination vessel sections engine.
J h.p. motor for the water heater,
Quarters are provided for 10 men and three officers. anchor windlass, driven off auxiliary engine take-off.
Awning stanchions are fitted into sockets on deck. 30 h.p. trawl winch, driven off aux. engine take-off,
The steel deck is covered with wood grating. oil burning galley range with h.p. motor,
It is believed that,with prospects of tuna long lining echosounder.
in deeper water as well as near the surface, this
type of radio direction finder,
vessel will be used in the future for extended
fishing off radio, radio telephone.
shore, for which purpose it readily lends itself. 3 flood lights.
[202]
IRISH FISHING BOATS
by
JOHN TYRRELL
design and the construction of sailing fishing With the development of steam drifters and trawlers,
THE boats underwent very considerable development in
Ireland after 1 850 when, because of expanding export
the boats were gradually laidup but, after the introduction
of oil engines, some of the better vessels were converted
markets for herring and mackerel, it became necessary to power and a few of them remained in operation until
to have large, seaworthy boats, to operate up to 80 miles recently.
off the South and West coasts where there were large In 1905 Mr. Michael Tyrrell, of John Tyrrell and Sons,
quantities of fish. The vessel developed was a powerful Arklow, designed and built a model for a motor fishing
and fast sailing craft, generally 55 to 65 ft. (1 6.8 to 1 9.8 m.) boat which, he claimed, could be worked profitably in
in overall length, 14 to 15^ ft. (4.3 to 4.7 m.) beam and face of steanj drifter competition. This vessel (fig. 293)
8 to 9 (2.4 to 2.7 m.) draft, ketch rigged, with long
ft. was 50 ft. (15.2 m.) overall length, 14 ft. (4.3 m.) beam
bowsprit and mizzen boom. Such vessels fished from and 6 ft. (1.8 m.) draft. She was to be propelled by a
"
ports all around the coast of Ireland. The largest fleet was 25 h.p. Danish Dan " engine of hot-bulb type, having
based on Arklow where, in 1890, there were about two cylinders and a controllable pitch propeller. The
90 large boats locally built. winch was belt-driven by the main engine. A version of
iK 293
203 I
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
the cruiser stern was adopted and the hull was a con- Most of the small building yards on the Irish coasts
siderable departure from the sailing type, being much ceased to exist when the sailing boat declined, and in
more suitable for power propulsion. In 1907 the Depart- 1932 the only commercial yards still in business were
ment of Agriculture had an experimental boat built to John Tyrrell and Sons of Arklow, and Wm. Skinner
this design and she was named Ovoca. The vessel was and Sons of Baltimore, both old-established family
an immediate and is believed to be the first
success, concerns.
specially designed motor fishing boat in the British Isles.
She was intended mainly for drift-net fishing and to do STANDARD 50 ft. (15 m.) BOAT
some seine and long-line fishing. After her first year it Experience shows that the most popular boat with
was found that the large sail area was not required so both Irish fishermen is one of 50 ft. (15.24 m.) length, suitable
masts were shortened and the bowsprit and mizzen for drift-net, seine-net, long-line and trawl fishing.
boom removed. Subsequent boats developed along this Working in collaboration with the Irish Sea Fisheries
LAO 50 FT O IN -15 24 METRES
LW L 46 C - 1422
BEAM 15 6-472
DRAFT 5 --
6 108
Fig. 294
general type but, as fishermen disliked the short cruiser Association, it has been possible largely to standardize
stern, most had a longer canoe-type stern.
later vessels the hull form, variation being allowed in lay-out to suit
The boats also became larger, up to about 70 ft. (21 .3 m.) the needs of different localities. Fig. 294 shows the hull
long by 18 ft. (5.5 m.) beam, with engines of 75 h.p., shape of the latest type of 50-ft. boat, the main dimensions
chiefly hot-bulb type. of which are :
Fishing suffered a serious decline after 1918 from which
it began to recover with the establishment of the Govern- Length, overall 50ft. (15.24m.)
ment-sponsored Sea Fisheries Association in 1932. By water-line 46 ft. 8 in. (14.2 m.)
then many of the earlier motor boats were obsolete, so Beam, outside planking 15ft. 6 in. (4.7 m.)
it may be said that the modern types of Irish fishing Draft, forward 3 ft. 9 in. (1.15m.)
boats have been developed within the past 25 years. aft . 5 ft. 6 in. (1.67m.)
It is interesting to record, however, that the Ovoca, Displacement 28.43 tons (28.9 ton)
with a modern engine, winch, wheelhouse, etc., is still Midship-section area 32.72 sq.ft. (3.04sq.m.)
operating successfully, and shows little sign of her age. Prismatic coefficient .652
[204]
COMBINATION FISHING IRISH FISHING BOATS
The design has proved a satisfactory compromise to three-bladed propeller 32 in. (813 mm.) diameter by
embody as many as possible of the requirements at 19 in. (483 mm.) pitch. A
full speed of 9 knots is attained
different ports. Limited draft, particularly on the east with the boat trimmed to designed waterline, carrying
coast,is essential because of shallow harbours. It is not, 3 tons of fixed ballast and \ ton fuel, consumption being
however, good practice to design a boat to suit a harbour 4 imp. 1.) per hour.
gal. (4.8 gal., 18.2
and, with the promised deepening of several of the It isdoubtful whether any considerable improvement
smaller harbours, it is hoped that future boats will have will be possible in hull shape to reduce resistance (without
greater draft. A
big deck area is required in all cases, reducing the value of other aspects of the design) until
and full ends are preferred to prevent large changes in it is possible to adopt a greater draft.
trim due to variation in loading. Fig. 295 and 296 show the internal arrangement most
LAO SOFT ON-1524METHC3
LWL 46 - 1422
BEAM 15 t"- 471
DRAFT 5 6 1 -
Fig. 295
The propeller position, well aft, has been found satis- favoured when the vessels are intended for multi-
factory, and appears to allow more
running than
level purpose fishing and long periods are spent away from
when it is in a more forward position, but a certain the home port. In Irish boats the engine is installed
amount of roughening of the blades occurs. This may forward, an unusual position, while the fish-hold is
be due to the propeller position near the surface, which amidships and the living accommodation aft. The chief
causes cavitation. The rudder area of 7 sq. ft. advantages of this arrangement are:
(0.696 sq. m.) is, in practice, ample, and no steering
troubles have occurred. In a few cases a balance of 1 . Trim is unaffected by variation in loading, due to
about 4 in. (100 mm.) forward of the stock has been the hold being situated about the longitudinal
fitted, but this is not considered to be of great benefit. centre of buoyancy.
The main propelling engine is, in most cases, an 88 h.p., 2. Full use is made of the space in the stern for cabin ac-
four-cylinder, four-cycle diesel at 750 r.p.m., driving a commodation, the aft bunks extending to the rudder.
[205]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
L A.O SOFT OM,-15.84HCTHi3l
" '
s
'.
5"
e-
^1
ie
CALf IN HJTNIt
>_
Fig. 296
3. Forward installation of the engine permits a The chief disadvantages are :
convenient drive to the winch which, in multi-
purpose vessels, is located in the best
compromise I . Much increased length of propeller shaft with its
position on the forward deck. support bearings. Usually, about 12 to 18 months
4. The engine is completely accessible, with good after launching, a general re-alignment of shafting
floor space clear below the crank-case doors, and is and engine is required, after which no further
at all times clear of bilge water. alignment trouble is experienced.
Fig. 297
[206]
COMBINATION FISHING IRISH FISHING BOATS
Kg. 298
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
2. Complication of mechanical controls of reverse The boats are fitted with electric lighting throughout
and governor over the considerable distance from from 24 volt batteries of about 120 amp. hours capacity,
engine to wheelhouse. The reverse controls are charged by a generator belt-driven from the main
usually carried by means of chains running over engine. Echo sounders are fitted and take current from
pulleys from the clutch to the steering column, on the main batteries. A single oscillator tank is fitted in
which the reverse control wheel is mounted. This the vessel's bottom, about midships, to avoid turbulence
is simple, cumbersome, but when properly
if from the propeller. It is as close as possible to the keel,
installed, with correct alignment and well-lubricated, and stands being welded to a square plate
vertical,
it works satisfactorily. In engines provided with outside, shaped to the hull curvature and bolted to the
hydraulic clutch controls no difficulties are frames and planking. In the centre of the plate a thin
Fig. 300
experienced; it is simply a matter of running two stainless steeldiaphragm, of the internal diameter of
oilpipes by the most convenient route from the the tank, iswelded to minimize interference with the
gearbox to the operating unit in the wheelhouse. impulses of the sounder. The shaping and fitting of the
3. The relatively large weight located so far forward outer plate requires careful work to make a watertight
has a tendency to produce heavier pitching into and eddy-free job. All boats built in the last years are
head seas. While this tendency is always present fitted with a radio telephone, usually of the coastal radio
" "
its effects are minimized by the design of the fore- Seafarer type. This instrument is installed in the
body, which has considerable flare in the forward wheelhouse and has proved to be of considerable value.
sections, the waterlines not being excessively sharp. Fig. 297 shows the internal arrangement adopted
The vessels behave well and are dry forward; in occasionally in the SO ft. standard hull when required
bad weather and head seas, most spray is shipped for seine fishing daily from the home port. The winch
over the weather side, amidships. is placed forward of the wheelhouse, which gives all
[208]
COMBINATION FISHING IRISH FISHING BOATS
possible deckroom forward for the seine ropes, and a These boats will operate at greater distances than the
convenient winch drive from the engine, while difficulties 50-footers, will not always land their catches daily, and,
with the long propeller shaft and engine controls are when working the Irish Sea grounds, will use chiefly
eliminated. The aft bulkhead of the fish-hold is approxi- deep water harbours for landing. The larger draft will
mately 3 ft. (0.9 m.) further forward than with the make the boats superior in performance compared with
arrangement shown in fig. 295. The problems of loading, the shallower types. The deeper section will give better
however, do not arise in this case, since the fish are boxed motion resistance will be improved by the finer entrance
; ;
on deck and properly stowed in the hold, nor do catches and the heavier displacement will provide a steadier
approach in weight and bulk those when drift-net towing pull so that larger nets will be used in deeper
fishing for herring. Fig. 298 shows one of the 50-footers water.
on the slipway. Both the crew accommodation and engine-room are
MOOTING BOLT A HAIL PLATES
LAO to FT oiN-iao Mcrniil
LWL O 17 07 . I
EAM It 548 I
DftAFT 7 I 229 \
STANDARD 60 ft. (18.3 m.) BOAT located aft of the fish-hold (see fig. 300 and 301 for
Fig. 299 shows the lines of a new larger type of boat now
interior arrangement and deck lay-out). The problem
of trim will not arise because the vessels will not be
being built for seine-net fishing and trawling only. The
main dimensions are: dealing with large catches of herring but with fish boxed
on deck and stowed in the hold.
Length, overall . 60 ft. (18.3 m.) The vessel shown in fig. 300 will be fitted with a 135 h.p.,
waterline 56ft. (17.1 m.) three-cylinder, two-cycle, 450 r.p.m. engine, driving a
Beam, outside planking 18ft. (5.5m.) 53 in. (1,346 mm.) diameter, two-bladed controllable
Draft, forward . 5ft. 3 in. (1.6m.) pitch propeller. The winch will be driven by a shafting
aft . 7 ft. 6 in. (2.28 m.) through a clutch on the forward end of the engine. Con-
Displacement 56.96 tons (57.8 tons) trols of propeller, governor, engine and winch clutches
Midship-section area . 55.84 sq.ft. (5.187 sq.m.) will be mounted in the wheelhouse. An echo sounder
Prismatic coefficient .637 and radio telephone will be installed. Trawl gallows
[209]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
and leads will be arranged so that they can be readily each frame. The planking is of good-quality Irish larch
removed when seine fishing. The galley, fitted abaft the in lengthsup to 40 ft. (12 m.). Workmanship, is now of a
wheelhouse, will have the usual cooking arrangements, very high standard and good fitting of all faying surfaces
and a heating stove will be fitted in the cabin. isregarded as essential. Particular attention is given to
A second boat of the same hull design and general accurate frame bevelling. By careful loft work and good
arrangement will have a 1 14 h.p., six-cylinder, four-cycle, bandsawing, satisfactory fitting of planks to frames is
900 r.p.m. diesel, driving a 48 in. (1,220 mm.) three- achieved; almost no hand trimming of frames is required
bladed fixed-blade propeller through a 3 1 reduction
: after erection. Bilge strakes and stringers of good size
gear. A reduction gear of 2 1 will be fitted on the
: are fitted, through bolted in every frame, and similar
forward end of the engine for the winch drive. through fastening is used for top belting and deck stringer.
Decks are of Oregon pine, usually 3 in. (7.6 cm.) wide
CONSTRUCTION planks. Closely spaced and fairly light deck beams pro-
All these vessels are constructed of grown oak single vide a strong and watertight deck, while deck erections
frames with a separate floor of the same siding fitted to and interior correspond to good yacht practice.
1210J
ICELANDIC FISHING BOATS
by
BARDUR G. TOMASSON
riHHERE are 516 Icelandic fishing boats of 100 gross Boats from 10 to 30 gross tons are intended for fishing
tons and less, the total tonnage being 16,442, making with longlinc and cod net. They are strongly built of
J^
an average of about 32 gross tons. The boats are carvel oak planking on sawn frames of oak. Crew space
used for fishing with purse seine, drift net, cod net, long- for sleeping and cooking is arranged forward.
line and handline. Boats from 30 to SO gross tons are arranged for fishing
~*
iMrjMfiAtvJMarwwwn?
/
.-
Fig. 302. Icelandic fishing boat
Boats below 10 gross tons are mostly used for fishing with longline and cod net, and with drift net for herring.
with longline and handline. They are of very light Hull construction is much the same as for the 10 to
construction, clinker built with f to 1 in. (20 to 25 mm.) 30 gross tons. There is better crew space with a cabin aft
boards, originally on sawn frames but now on bent of the engine room, and a cabin in the deckhouse. Most
frames, which makes a lighter construction. of the fishing boats under 50 gross tons are built with an
[211]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
elliptical stern to make more space for the fishing gear fuel oil, the GM is about 18 to 22 in. (0.45 to 0.56 m.)
on the aft deck. with the beam/draft ratio varying from 1.86 to 2.08.
Boats from SO to 100 gross tons are intended for fishing When a boat has reached 80 gross tons, the fishermen
with longline, cod net, drift net and purse seine. Hull want a whaleback to give shelter and less shipment of
construction is of the same type as for 30 to 50 gross water. Having built up the foreship by 6 ft. (1.8 m.), a
" "
tons boats and the boats have mostly a cruiser stern. In lock out problem arises and it is necessary to lift
the stern is a cabin, usually for four men, then the the wheel house sufficiently to place its floor 6 to 7 ft.
engine room, cargo room, and forecastle. In the deck- (1.8 to 2.1 m.) above the deck. The next step is a boat
house is and galley; above it is the wheel house
the mess deck, heavy davits and boats slung outside port and
and aftof it is the skipper's room, fitted with such starboard, with the purse seine gear inboard. All this
navigation instruments as echo sounder, direction-finder, lifts the centre of gravity, which has to be considered
radio-telephone, radio, etc. when determining dimensions and designing the lines.
About half of all boats up to 100 gross tons have In good herring fishing, the hold is filled and the hatch
diesels and the other half have hot bulb engines. The is supposed to be closed, but some fishermen prefer to
"
speed varies from 7 to 9 knots. It is thought that the keep it open as long as possible to make a herring
" " "
engines, in most cases, are too far aft, placed there feeder similar to the grain feeder of a grain ship.
because owners want the fish-hold to be as large as And when the herring catch is also loaded on the deck
possible. In the author's view, such a full stern makes to a height of 4 to 5 ft. (1.2 to 1.5 m.) the sea level is
for great resistance at high speeds, and the thick pro- about 1 ft. (0.3 m.) above the deck at midships but the
peller post which is necessary to accommodate the boats are found to be remarkably seaworthy.
stern tube is a drawback to efficient propulsion. In According to the author's experience, this should
fitting a large diameter propeller in a small boat with a affect stability, but in fact does not, probably because
-cruiser stern, it is very difficult to get sufficient distance the bulk of herring on the deck is a homogeneous load
between the stern timber and the tips of the propeller which the sea cannot penetrate, thus making it a part
blades. But fishermen want more speed, which is of the ship. When the purse seine boats and fishing gear
expensive, and it seems that shipbuilders should consult are hoisted in the davits with about half the fish load on
with propeller makers regarding both propeller design deck, the centre of gravity is lifted. It seems to the author
and location. Resistance, Propulsion and Steering of that the increased radius of gyration and the diminution
Ships, by Van Lammeren, Troost and Koning (1948) is a of the metacentric heights results, within a certain limit, in
very useful reference work when planning the propulsion an increased seaworthiness of the boats in this condition
of small craft. It considered that a reasonable speed
is of loading.
for a fishing boat very near to the square root of the
is A valuable paper is Spanner's Some notes on the
waterline length in feet of the vessel. In accordance design of trawlers and drifters, with particular reference
with this, a reasonable speed for a 64 ft. (19.5 m.) long to seaworthiness and stability (1947). Regarding the
boat would be 8 knots. stability of small craft, it is thought that a combined
The stability of a fishing vessel is different during form and weight-stability will give the best results for
various loading conditions and is a difficult problem to fishing boats, taking into consideration the great variety
solve. In the new Icelandic boats, in light condition with of loading conditions involved.
[212]
FISHERY RESEARCH AND EXPERIMENTAL VESSELS
by
G. L. KESTEVEN
present decade is seeing a considerable growth 3. Experimental fishing;
THE of interest in the possibilities of marine fisheries
and, in fact, in the entire hydrosphere. This interest
4. Continuing observation of fishery resources.
springs from certain significant improvements in tech- In fundamental research, observations are made on
nique and equipment for investigating and exploiting the the water massesand their biota, on the sea floor and on
seas, and from very important advances which have been the atmosphere. They are made according to established
made in theories of marine productivity and of fishing. scientific systems and irrespective of the commercial
The need for greater production from fisheries finds value of any element under observation.
immediate realistic expression in the drive by the industry In applied exploratory surveys, selected types of
to improve, extend and increase operations and gain fishing gear are used to determine the presence of com-
better returns. As a result there are urgent demands mercially exploitable stocks within an unexplored area,
for bigger and better equipment and for more extensive or to determine the limits of distribution of a resource
and more precise knowledge of the seas and, as a conse- whose presence is already established.
quence, the industry is achieving an almost startling Experimental fishing is the trial of various types of
evolution of its craft and equipment. At the same time, fishing gear (including, in some cases, novel equipment)
Governments are spending more money on the craft in an area where improvements may be effected in the
and equipment required for that part of the work which methods of fishing.
is, and must remain, their responsibility. Each year In continuing observation of fishery resources, normal
vessels are being planned and commissioned for various fishing gear, or especially designed sampling gear, is
types of government fishery work and this will lead to used to obtain samples of a stock which is being
wider and deeper knowledge. fished.
These developments cannot be regarded entirely These different types of work require different sets of
without misgiving for there is evidence that some of the equipment and plans of operation and, when coupled
planning and building is not well advised and is, in fact, with differences in circumstances of operation, they also
based upon misconceptions as to the nature of the work call for different designs of craft. A
research vessel
to be done by research and experimental vessels. A should be designed, equipped, manned and operated for
brief review of the types of work undertaken under the type of work which she intended to do, and,
is
governmental programme and consideration of the if this principle is substantially departed from, there is
designing, equipping, manning and operating of bound to be serious loss of time, efficiency and money.
the vessels, may make clear the differences between For instance, it may not matter much if, in attempting
the types of work. to transport a great iron casting with a wheel barrow,
the barrow is crushed so long as the casting is not
GOVERNMENTAL FISHERY PROGRAMMES dropped. Nor does the wastage much matter in carrying
a crate of eggs with a 10-ton truck. But the cost of
Governmental patrol vessels, although they may make
building, equipping and operating a sea-going vessel is
observations of weather, the sea or other elements and
a very different matter. And, with important issues at
police fisheries, are not in the research and experimental
stake, inappropriate equipment cannot be regarded with
class. Their design and operation are very different.
equal complacency. The task then is to consider the
There are four principal categories of research and
requirements, for each type of work, in respect of general
experimental work in sea fisheries, namely:
design, size, speed, equipment, accommodation of
1. Fundamental (oceanographic) research; various kinds, crew, scientific personnel, and other
2. Applied exploratory surveys; features.
[213]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
PROGRAMME CHARACTERISTICS behaviour of the element under observation.
In this analysis the programme characteristics may be A primary distinction must be made between
considered under two principal headings: (1) the investi- those objects which can be regarded as virtually
gations in respect of their nature, methods, patterns of stationary and those which move; thus, the
work (number and frequency of station, etc.), and the method to be used in searching for tuna cannot
observations or work at each station; (2) the vessel be the same as that used in measuring the
movements per se in respect of frequency of cruise, the abundance of a more or less stationary demersal
duration of cruise, various types of travelling and stock and the frequency of observation will be
much less across a very slight gradient of
working time, and the conditions under which the vessel
sails. Apart from placing these headings in their present change (say of water temperature), than across
a steep gradient.
order, it would be difficult to suggest any other order of
priority for the various matters to be considered, and 2. Vessel movements
it is, perhaps, questionable whether such an order exists.
(a) duration of cruise;
The following analysis, therefore, must not be taken to
(b) frequency of cruises each year; a function of (a)
imply any views in this sense.
with duration of working period of the year;
1. Nature of investigations: (c) conditions of operation, chiefly climatic and
(a) General objective: sea-surface;
fundamental research; (d) distance to investigation area;
(e) movement within the investigation area.
applied exploratory survey;
experimental fishing;
continuing observation of fishery resources.
VESSEL REQUIREMENTS
(b) Objects of investigation: within each of the Theoretically the decision on requirements of a vessel
divisions of (a) there is a range of possibilities. may be taken in three stages: (1) the decision on the
For example, in fundamental research the work nature of the investigations; (2) the decision on the
may relate to: vessel movements which will be required to implement
the first decision, and on the equipment which must be
meteorological elements;
carried; (3) the decision on design itself. With all the
hydrographical
subdivisions given in the analysis of the previous section,
hydrological
there would be an almost unlimited number of combina-
geological
tions, but, in practice, these could be placed in a number
biological
of main groups. When
vessels are being designed or
Within each of these there is,of course, a great purchased for these purposes, the whole range of con-
range for investigation. In each of the other siderations listed here should be taken in view. And while
three the primary object is fishery resources, no rules are proposed for design to pro-
fitting vessel
but there must always be parallel observations gramme possible to indicate some of
characteristics, it is
of other elements, chiefly of the environment of the errors which can be avoided.
the resource. The resources may be classified From time to time governments have sought to
for these purposes, in two ways: neritic or economize by combining fundamental research pro-
oceanic; and surface, middle or bottom water. grammes with programmes of other types and even, in
(c) Methods of investigations: it serves no purpose the extreme, with commercial fishing operations. In
here to attempt any listing of fundamental such circumstances, the loss of efficiency is considerable
research methods, but it may be stressed that and, at times, the usefulness of both lines of work is
the complexity of the equipment, its delicacy or greatly impaired or even entirely lost. This does not
otherwise, and its bulk, as required by the mean that the one vessel cannot at different times do
selected method, have considerable bearing on different jobs. Subject to limitations of design and
what must be required of the vessel. equipment, it is possible to make an arrangement of this
(d) Scope of investigation: under this heading must kind. But it is to be insisted that the operational require-
be considered the area which is to be investi- ments of one type of programme are often inconsistent
gated, the range of elements to be observed, and with those of another.
the duration of the project. Generally a vessel designed for fundamental research
(e) Plan of investigation: because all these pro- ischaracterized by making the fullest possible provision
grammes are, in essence, sampling programmes, for research equipment and personnel, both above and
their plan should conform essentially to the below deck. To reduce these requirements to accom-
principles of sampling. The methods of observa- modate fishing equipment lowers the efficiency of the
tions (including considerations of sample size), research programme without gaining much advantage
and the pattern of observation in time and space, from the fishing. In the other three types of programme,
should be planned in accordance with a logical the emphasis is on the fishing equipment and the
analysis of available information on the research equipment is a minor complement. It will,
[214]
RESEARCH FISHERY RESEARCH AND EXPERIMENTAL VESSELS
" "
however, command more attention in the case of the of the reluctance of the fisherman to accommodate
applied exploratory survey than in either of the other such work, in either physical or programme sense.
two. In respect of the last two types of programme (experi-
In exploratory work there should be research equip- mental and continued fishing observation), there should
ment and personnel of quality and kind sufficient to be certain minimal routine observations to permit the
observe various environmental elements and thus fishing results of such work to be fitted to the earlier
furnish data which should serve to guide the conduct of fundamental work.
the operations. Such operations (exploratory fishing) In many cases the planning of fishery work and the
imply the use of a systematic logic of searching along commissioning of a vessel are made under conditions of
determined co-ordinates: the use of geographic co- compromise; the research programme is presented with
ordinates alone is, in the light of our current knowledge a vessel and obliged to convert it to the programme
offish distribution and behaviour, not a great deal better requirements. It is contended that the principles dis-
than merely haphazard searching. This means that cussed can still be applied and that the result should be
hydrographic and biological observations should be the selection of the limited range permitted by the vessel
regarded as essential to the programme as the fishing in terms of these principles. It should not be taken to
operation. This statement is made in full knowledge mean an abandonment of the principles.
[215]
RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN ASPECTS
by
FRANCIS MINOT
through the collaboration of science, direction the wind and waves meet the ship; she will
ONLY engineering, economics, sociology and business
management together with forward-looking sup-
stay on her course with only an occasional use of helm,
she will respond quickly to small rudder angles and
port from government and private enterprise can world maintain a fair speed without slamming, abnormal
fish production be expanded on a scale and within a time fluctuations in shaft torque, or periodical racing of her
which can aid in meeting ever more pressing food engines. Open decks will be easy to traverse in all
problems. weathers, without danger or discomfort to her passengers
As evidence of the growing realization of the impor- or crew, and her behaviour in a seaway, i.e., her rolling,
tance of oceanography, the writer was recently privileged pitching, yawing, heaving, surging, and leeward drift,
to make a comprehensive study of the requirements of will be free and smooth from baulks or shocks ".
oceanographic research vessels, which was directly The most seaworthy of current research ships cannot
concerned, of course, only with the needs of oceano- work effectively in stronger winds than 5 Beaufort scale
graphy in the United States and was made for the Woods (17 to 21 knots or 9 to 11 m./sec.), and ability to do so
Hole Oceanographic Institution and the Office of Naval would add materially to the number of working days at
"
Research. The writer was fortunate in having associated sea. Seakindliness has direct bearing also on habita-
with him in this study, Dr. Colombus O'D. Iselin, of bility ",a most important quality for research vessels.
the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Professor No matter how well arranged the living spaces may be,
Emeritus Herbert L. Seward, of Yale University (a they will be comfortable only to the degree that the ship
vice-president of the Society of Naval Architects and isseakindly. It is, therefore, important that the ship shall
Marine Engineers), Dr. Kenneth S. M. Davidson, of the maintain displacement, trim and GM as constant as
Experimental Towing Tank at the Stevens Institute of possible at all times. A series of double bottom and
Technology, and Mr. Mandell Rosenblatt of New York, trim tanks, properly subdivided, will permit replacement
a designer of small craft and vessels for specialized of fuel by salt water ballast.
services. In the opinion of an experienced master of oceano-
The following is an outline of this study and some graphic research vessels, Captain Adrian Lane, of the
additional thoughts with regard to the more important Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, who has
characteristics of fisheries research vessels. commanded Atlantis and other research ships, heavy
equipment can be handled on vessels of the Atlantis
type and size only in winds not exceeding 4 Beaufort
OCEANOGRAPHIC VESSELS scale (1 1 to 16 knots or 6 to 8 m./sec.) and only medium
and light gear can be handled in stronger winds.
SEAKEEPING ABILITY Dr. C. O'D. Iselin, of the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Oceanographic research vessels must have sufficient Institution, has summed up the matter as follows:
metacentric height and adequate range of stability in all
"
There are certain aspects of oceanography that are
operating conditions, ample draft, freeboard and sheer, essentially independent of time. For example, most
and protected working area. In addition, they must problems in submarine geology can be equally well
embody characteristics and dimensions which result in studied at any time of the year or can be taken up next
minimum motion in a seaway, so that work may be year or the year after. But often the problem involves
continued in relatively severe weather, and so that they seasonal variations and, less frequently, it is a question
will fulfil Kent's (1950) description of a seakindly ship of comparing data gained at the same season and place
"
as one which rides the sea in rough weather with decks one year after the other.
free from seawater; that is, green seas are not shipped usually unprofitable to send a ship north in the
It is
and little spray comes inboard. No matter in which winter months because there may be so few calm days
[216]
RESEARCH RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN ASPECTS
and, beyond the limits of Loran reception, even naviga- The research ship must be able to heave-to and to
tion may be uncertain in stormy weather. It becomes maintain her position during heavy weather because it
impossible to carry out effective field observations if the affords rest and comfort to the personnel during storms
wind increases beyond about 5 Beaufort scale (17 to and gales and it saves the time otherwise required to
21 knots or 9 to 11 m./sec.). Even in low latitudes, regain position. The design must adopt some characteris-
tropical storms have resulted in big gaps in our knowledge ticsof the sailing vessel, particularly the fishing schooner
concerning seasonal changes. What can be done by and pilot cutter, whose ability to heave-to in comfort
dodging bad weather has been done. Amajor need in the and maintain position is superlative. Ample draft and
marine sciencies today is to round out both the picture of lateral plane and the judicious placing of masts and
seasonal changes and to secure observations for example, riding sails will assist in attaining the desired ability.
acoustical observations during the progress of a storm. Since an important requirement is that the research
The interest of the oceanographer corresponds exactly ship shall provide a steady platform, a moderate,
to that of the fisherman. In both cases, the maximum although sufficient GM
will be maintained closely, and a
number of working days in a selected area counts, long range of stability provided, through good sheer,
rather than a round voyage at minimum expense, which adequate freeboard and ample reserve buoyancy. It is
is the objective of merchant ships. The merchant ship planned that working decks will be protected from sea
can lengthen the course in order to avoid storms, but and wind from ahead by the superstructure, which
the oceanographer does not want to have to give way houses the main laboratory, the navigational and
to the weather. That he has had to do so in the past is operational headquarters.
very evident. For example, almost nothing is known Possibly the best assurance that research ships of the
about the Gulf Stream between the months of November proposed type will give superior performance in heavy
and April. In winter, the oceanographic vessel usually weather is that seakeeping qualities can be given prime
heads south because only in that way can the number of consideration. All favourable factors will be incor-
working days per voyage be kept at a favourable level. porated during the design stage and refined through
Some seaworthiness can, of course, be gained by comprehensive experimental tank tests.
increasing the size of the vessel but even if expense
were no consideration, the oceanographer prefers a not RELIABILITY
too large ship. As in fishing, the height of the working
The oceanographic research ship is often remote from
deck above the water should be kept as small as is
any port for long periods of time, sails the loneliest
consistent with reasonably dry decks because the safe
and least travelled ocean reaches, and is likely to do so
handling of instruments and nets in and out of the water more Where her work is done
frequently in the future.
is a prime consideration. Further, both operations are there no repair yard, no machine shop, no marine
is
carried out while stopped and with the sea abeam, during
surveyor, no aid of any sort, other than the experience
which time it becomes most desirable to reduce leeway.
and ingenuity of the personnel.
A deep draft and a well-balanced abovewater profile are, is of the utmost importance and it is
Reliability
therefore, important design features." the propelling equipment is divided into
obvious that if
The research ship is also required to be manoeuvrable
two independent parts, the chance of complete break-
under severe conditions. She must be brought on an
down is reduced, and the ship's manoeuvrability and
exact heading and held there, often at zero speed, while
steering are improved. The conviction is that twin
observations or measurements are made, a difficult
screw installation is essential on the basis of added
manoeuvre in rough water. The required manoeuvra- alone. The choice of engines is
reliability unusually
bility will be attained through good underwater hull
complicated by the need for effective noise control
design and through the installation of twin screws and because the ship must be suitable for use in research on
twin rudders. Consideration has to be given to the
" underwater sound and in the development of underwater
installation of some mechanism such as, an active
acoustical instruments and techniques. Other require-
rudder ", as a positive aid to precise manoeuvring.
ments to be met in the choice of the machinery are:
While it is hoped to avoid such features, it is strongly
felt that all possible means should be thoroughly investi- (1) simplicity of operation and maintenance;
gated and appraised during the design stage. Obviously, (2) low fuel consumption;
rudders should be of design and size to assure rapid (3) flexibility, covering the ability to operate steadily
steering effects at moderate helm angles. low speeds, and the ability to develop close
at very
Manoeuvrability can readily conflict with directional to maximum torque and power when towing heavy
stability, which becomes of equal importance in holding gear or trawls at great depths ;
the headings and in proceeding from station to station. (4) complete independence of starboard and port main
Directional stability will also be attained through engines and essential auxiliaries ;
good underwater hull design, which will take note of (5) ample reserve power;
course-keeping influences, and will consider the possible (6) auxiliary machinery suited to the unusual loads and
advantages of fitting twin skegs as well as twin screws demands of a deep sea winch, deck machinery and
and double rudders (Saunders, 1947). laboratory requirements;
[217]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
(7) well immersed, well protected propellers, com- Decision must be made on the basis of individual
pletely free from cavitation, and turning at perhaps designs the size of the proposed ship, the relative
200 to 450 r.p.m.; the lower the r.p.m. the better importance of reliability and simplicity or acoustical
the vibration characteristics; qualities, and the overall cost of machinery and installa-
(8) least objectionable properties from the acoustical tion. Both systems have the advantage of using undirec-
viewpoint, and capable of maximum noise control. tional engines at constant speed under most operating
conditions, but, in general, better noise control may be
With regard to the choice of propulsion systems, the expected from the diesel-electric system because noises
following have been considered as being possibly from low propeller revolutions (outside) and high speed
applicable: engines (inside) are more readily dealt with acoustically.
This system is particularly effective at very slow ship
(a) reciprocatingsteam engines with oil-fired boilers; speeds with very low propeller revolutions, conditions
(b) uniflow steam engines with oil-fired boilers; under which much underwater sound work will be
(r) geared steam turbines with oil-fired boilers; conducted.
(d) direct-connected diesels; In order to reach equally slow ship speeds, the direct-
(e) direct-connected diesels with controllable pitch connected diesel with controllable pitch propeller may
propellers; have to be reduced to its slowest steady revolutions
(/) diesels with reduction gears; (about 30 per cent, of the full revolutions) and the
(g) diesel-electric drive with multiple engine-generator propeller pitch reduced as well, thus resulting in lower
units. engine and higher propeller revolutions than in diesel
generators in similar circumstances, a less favourable
In view of the very long cruising range which is required condition on each end of the propeller shaft. The direct-
of offshore research ships, regardless of size, and the connected diesel will also have to be fitted with some sort
resultant disproportionate weight of fuel oil, all types of of fluid coupling in order to be acoustically acceptable
steam propulsion have been rejected as impracticable at all.
even though they satisfy many of the necessary conditions, By and large, the advantages of reliability, simplicity
since their fuel consumption is so much greater than the and fuel economy (it costs about 1 5 per cent, to make up
electrical losses) and first cost lie with the direct-connected
comparative diesel. Except in case of vessels engaged
in underwater sound investigations and perhaps, diesel with controllable pitch propellers, although, in a
therefore, on relatively short voyages it is unlikely twin screw installation, this reliability is to a very con-
that any type of steam reciprocating machinery will be siderable degree offset by the multiple units and cross
considered for future research ships. wiring of electrical generators and motors.
All forms of geared drive, turbo or diesel alike, are It may be argued that controllable pitch propellers
unsuitable for installation in the research ship because are much more damageable than fixed blade propellers
only some very experimental and expensive form of but experience does not seem to bear out this contention
flexible gearmounting could possibly subdue the noise. (Rupp, 1948). The original controllable pitch propeller
Acoustical advisors have discouraged any consideration installed in the research vessel Atlantis performed with
of propulsion systems which involve reduction gears. entire satisfaction and with almost no attention for
Finally, while direct-connected diesels satisfy the more than 1 5 years.
cruising range requirements through low fuel consump- Possibly and this view ventured without exhaustive
is
tion and minimum weight of fuel, they do not meet other study the direct-connected diesel with controllable
important performance standards. They do not run pitch propeller may be more suitable for the smaller
steadily at the low revolutions required for very slow offshore research vessels where weight, space, first cost
speeds. It is doubted whether any heavy duty diesel and simplicity are of great importance.
would be guaranteed to perform continuously at less Likewise, diesel-electric drive may more closely
than 25 to 30 per cent, full power revolutions. They do approach the ideal installation for deep sea research
not develop sufficient power and torque at lower r.p.m. s, ships in which acoustical investigations are a major
unless fitted with superchargers. Direct-connected undertaking and cost is of less moment.
diesels do notpossess the necessary manoeuvrability Finally, while no serious consideration has been given
as their direction of rotation must be reversed with to the gas turbine for obvious reasons, it is felt that its
compressed air and they require powerful compressors development should be carefully followed, as it may
and large capacity compressed air tanks. prove particularly appropriate to meet the requirements
Among the propulsion systems obtainable, there of the research ship.
appear to be only two choices:
(a) direct-connected diesels with controllable pitch RANGE AND SPEED
propellers; Oceanographic research ships may be called upon to
(b) diesel-electric drive with multiple engine-generator engage inworldwide expeditions which require complete
units with fixed blade propellers. independence from any shore establishment for a
[218]
RESEARCH RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN ASPECTS
period of not less than three months, or they may be tion, personnel and apparatus between the open working
away from port for only thirty days. Such a range might deck space and the main deck laboratory. In the vertical
run from as much as 25,000 to as little as 5,000 nautical plane, the nearness of the main deck laboratory to the
miles. But whatever her size and cruising range, the lower deck laboratory is necessary to obtain a free flow
capacity of any research vessel will on occasion be taxed of equipment and specimens from the main deck for
to the limit of fuel and stores. secondary study, and to clear the main deck laboratory
Speed, to satisfy the requirements for range, must be for other work quickly and easily. Above is the opera-
moderate for cruising, yet extra speed is of considerable tions office with the necessary chart tables, tracking and
importance, because physical oceanography is entering navigating instruments. Physical communication from
the synoptic stage, and there is an increasing need to the operations headquarters to the pilot house above and
secure a network of observations from a limited area in to the main deck laboratory below should be easy, if
the shortest possible time, so that a current pattern can not direct, so that during operations the scientists may
be mapped before it changes. The synoptic type of have ready access to the navigational and control centres.
survey does not require great endurance. If some reserve Generally speaking, the midship position of the
in power is available, the scientist can be given some working deck has been the one adopted on oceanographic
choice between speed and mileage in any given investiga- vessels used in Atlantic expeditions, and the stern working
tion. He can thus spend the available fuel quickly if it deck position has been generally used in Pacific service.
will contribute most to the scientific results, or he can There are good reasons for each arrangement both from
elect to stretch the fuel out over a great number of days the weather and the operational point of view.
when endurance seems more important. It is certain, Obviously, the midship position is close to the most
however, that for an all-purpose research ship, speed stable point on the ship. The open deck is protected
must give way to range, endurance and seaworthiness. fore and aft by superstructure and at the sides by bul-
A cruising speed corresponding to a speed length ratio of warks. As the deck laboratory entrance faces aft, there
85 should in most cases be adequate. is little danger of a sea breaking into the laboratory
Precise control over the speed from stand-still to when the doors are open.
maximum is essential, and the propulsion systems In the stern position, the open working deck space is
recommended have been selected, in part, because of certainly not located near the point of least motion of
their flexibility of operation and control. Evaporators the ship and, in heavy weather, the after deck is subject
and a reserve of potable water, generous allowance for to flooding unless the freeboard is so great that much
consumable stores and scientific supplies, a sizable of the advantage of this location is sacrificed.
refrigerated hold space, etc., will, of course, match the Oceanographers agree that some operations are best
intended range and endurance. performed from the midship position, and others from
the stern position, and they would like to see working
deck areas provided in both these positions. The position
ARRANGEMENT OF MAIN LABORATORY of the working deck, however, is determined by the size
AND WORKING DECK of the ship and the dual position might only be arranged
The main laboratory must be on the same level as the in ships of perhaps 170 ft. (52 m.) and upwards in
exposed working deck and there must be direct and easy length.
access from one to the other. Most important, these With regard to freeboard, the wishes of the scientific
two areas must be as large as possible. Furthermore, personnel and navigating personnel are diametrically
the main laboratory and the working deck must be opposed. The master of the ship wants as much free-
located as close as possible to the point of minimum board and as dry a deck as is compatible with stability
pitching. The superstructure, which houses the main and good handling; the oceanographer wants to work
laboratory, must be forward of the working deck to as close to the water as he can. The obvious answer is
protect it and shelter the laboratory entrance from wind, to provide the least freeboard possible at the primary
sea and spray from ahead. position of overside work, but sufficient to maintain
The main laboratory and working deck should be seaworthiness and reasonably dry decks.
adjacent to the control centre of the ship, having ready
access to the bridge and to operations headquarters.
And they should be conveniently located with regard CENTRE WELL
to the engine room, but this is not so essential. It is Much thought has been given to provision of some
helpful to relate the open working deck space and the internal access to the sea, a "centre well", through
main laboratory on a horizontal axis and the lower which instruments may be suspended, or even towed
laboratory, main deck laboratory (again), the operations at very moderate speeds. It may well take the form of a
headquarters and the pilot house, on a vertical axis. The rectangular well, or trunk, which extends from the
main deck laboratory is thus located at the origin of working deck down through the bottom of the ship.
the axial arrangement. The minimum useful dimensions of such a well might
The reasons for this arrangement are clear. On the be 8 ft. (2.44 m.) in length and 5 ft. (1.52 m.) in breadth
horizontal plane there must be a free flow of communica- at the deck, increasing in length at the bottom so that
[219]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
towing wires might avoid contact when the vessel is The laboratory spaces should not be used for recrea-
under way. tion spaces for the scientific party or the crew, nor should
The purpose of the well is twofold: to be able to they be passageways for the ship's company. The
suspend certain instruments from a point close to the scientific party needs a small ward-room where they can
centre of least motion in such a manner that they will have read and relax. The alternative is to give each man his
no contact except at the point of suspension, and to be own cabin, which is wasteful of space. To combine
able to carry on certain work through the well under dining-room and ward-room is, if possible, to be
weather conditions which would make it impossible to avoided.
do so over the side or stern. Much more consideration
of be required during the WINCHES AND GEAR-HANDLING EQUIPMENT
this proposed feature will
design stage. The winch is the most important piece of permanent
equipment on board the research ship and at least two
LABORATORIES winches for different purposes, and of quite different
The oceanographic required to carry equipment
vessel is design and capacity, are usually carried.
which is becoming increasingly delicate and complicated. The main (deep sea) winch must be effective for
Much of it com-
consists of hastily-wired electronic obtaining long cores of bottom sediment and for deep
ponents which must be protected from moisture and anchoring. For both purposes it must have great cable
vibrations if they are to function. As the objectives are capacity and power. It must run equally well throughout
constantly changing and the laboratory space is limited, the whole speed range and must be readily reversible.
much of the old equipment must be dismantled between Reserve power and a sensitive dynamometer are impor-
each cruise to make room for the new. This is very hard tant. In so specialized and expensive a piece of equip-
on the ship's permanent wiring, on the bulkheads, on ment, the user should be consulted before design
the work benches and even on the decks. At least three characteristics are decided, because probably each user
continuing classes of work have acquired some more or will have slightly different requirements depending upon
lessstandard equipment and, if possible, the laboratory his special field of interest.
space should be divided into three parts: (1) hydro- There is at least one deep sea winch in use in the
graphic; (2) biological and chemical; (3) electronics, Atlantic (and one in the Pacific) which functions reason-
geophysical and acoustical. ably well. The one on Atlantis of the Woods Hole
In the hydrographic laboratory standard equipment Oceanographic Institution, which was designed for
includes reversing thermometers, water bottles, echo- that vessel, has worked for some 22 years and was largely
ranging instrument, the recording echo-sounder, some rebuilt only five years ago (1948). It is harder than
form of surface temperature andsalinity recorder, racks desirable on the cable and has less power than is now
for spare bathythermographs, salinity sample bottles, needed, but on the whole it has given good service.
oxygen sample bottles, etc. This section requires the A new deep sea winch of advanced design has just
use of a large, permanent table, and should have ready completed two years' service on the Danish research
access to the ship's navigational centre and to the deck. ship, Galathea, and the reports of its performance are
The personnel will be standing regular watches so that awaited with interest. Likewise, the new winch just
not more than three persons are likely to be using the developed by the Scripps Institute of Oceanography
laboratory at any one time. and now on trial will certainly contribute much to deep
The biological and chemical laboratory requires sea winch design.
sinks, running salt water, racks for glassware, chemical Anchoring in deep water is not likely to become an
reagents, Except for buckets, bottles and glass
etc. important requirement. Long cores of bottom sediments
jars of kinds, the marine biologists have few bulky
all are already being accumulated more rapidly than they
permanent instruments. As they are acquiring increasing can be fully studied so it is difficult to argue that a new
interest in underwater sound, their space might well be vessel needs particularly elaborate deep sea winches
near the ship's permanent echo-ranging gear. A space until is known that real use can be made of such
it
for four or five men should be provided. costly equipment. Space will, of course, be provided
The electronics, geophysical and acoustical laboratory for the installation of a very large winch, but it is felt
needs the largest space and it must be dry. The connec- that one of about the capacity of that on Atlantis will
tion to the deck can be mainly through wires. Most of probably suffice.
the equipment can be mounted in standard electrical Greater flexibility of operation might result if new
racks, bolted to the deck. The laboratory also makes winches were provided with two drums for different
use of much standard asdic equipment. kinds of cable. It will probably soon be practical, at
Hydrography, biology and chemistry can, if necessary, some sacrifice in strength, to obtain a deep sea cable
** "
be combined into one wet laboratory, especially if a with electrical leads as the core, which would open the
small office space is provided for paper work. But way for many new kinds of observations. Probably a
electronics do not combine well with these activities. tapered cable would be best or perhaps one of greater
The joint facility needed by all is a well-equipped photo- diameter than those adequate for dredging, grappling or
graphic dark room, preferably with some supply of fresh air. towing nets off bottom. For such purposes one drum
[220]
RESEARCH RESEARCH VESSEL DESIGN ASPECTS
might be fitted with a spooling device to handle \ in. increasingly used in biological oceanography. Generally,
(12.7 mm.) diameter cable and the other take cable of acoustical work requires a ship which does not radiate
varying diameter. For handling otter trawls, the two noise in excess of certain prescribed values. It may be
drums could be used simultaneously, as on fishing vessels. shown that the amount of noise control required to
Shorter lengths of extra heavy cable could go on the produce an acoustically ideal vessel is in the range of
drum with the flexible spooling device. Both drums 40 to 60 decibels. No measures for noise suppression
should be of such a size as to take 5,000 fm. (9,150 m.) or control were incorporated in the original design or
-in. diameter wire, and all lead blocks should be large conversion plan of present day research ships and an
enough to handle 1-in. (25.4 mm.) diameter wire. improvement on today's standard of 20 decibels is
The requirements for a hydrographic winch have required as a minimum.
become more standardized and are much easier to meet.
It should be simple and rugged so that it can operate
HABITABILITY
for hours without attention. The new hydraulic hydro-
graphic winches provide nicely for flexibility in speed,
It isimportant that every provision is made which is
but as yet they have only been used for a few years. It is conducive to good health, good spirits and good work.
Instead of routine temperature and salinity surveys, the
thought that this design also should be deferred as long
as possible so that experience can be gained. trend is more towards actual research and analysis at
sea, rather than proceeding with a predetermined plan of
High latitude voyages call for extra heating capacity
and for extensive use of steam on deck for freeing deck observation. The party should be able to work
scientific
in the same sort of in the
atmosphere that prevails
machinery from ice. The relative advantages of steam
as well as electric and hydraulic deck machinery should laboratory ashore. The senior scientist should be
be thoroughly considered. encouraged to go to sea rather than to leave the field
Past experience indicates that the scientists will want work to technicians and students. Where possible,
to lower any sort of equipment that can be assembled separate facilities should be provided for the scientific
on the available deck space. If it is too large to assemble party, whose members are to a degree transient, and for
in one piece, they will want to place half of it over the the ship's complement, which is permanent. The needs
side in the waterand then attach the other half. Weights and privacy of both groups must be provided for, each
will often be as great as booms and winches can stand. in a somewhat different fashion.
Actually, oceanographic vessels must combine many of
the qualities of the fishing vessel, the cable ship, the PROPOSED TYPE
salvage ship, the buoy and the lighter.
setter,
For purpose of comparison, a parent form was evolved
An oceanographic vessel may have an anchor windlass, which incorporated the basic arrangements as outlined
a steering engine, a deep sea winch and a hydrographic
above, and expanded systematically from 125 ft. (38.2 m.)
winch, together with extensive engine room auxiliaries
length between perpendiculars, and 400 tons loaded
for varied ship's and scientific purposes, which, altogether,
displacement to 250 ft. (76.4 m.) length and 3,000 tons
make up a formidable array of machinery. Much of the loaded displacement.
ability of the ship to function smoothly and to meet
Then, costs of construction and operation were
unusual requirements and emergencies depends upon
estimated from known data, and these costs, together
the skilful choice and installation of this equipment.
with range and endurance, and the areas of laboratories
and deck spaces, were set up on a comparative basis.
EXPLOSIVES MAGAZINE Finally, a programme was outlined for further
development and design procedure.
Research ships must carry explosives, and the location,
accessibility and construction of the explosives magazine
is important. The entire load of explosives should be
FISHERIES RESEARCH VESSELS
easy to dump overboard. The regulations of the U.S.
"
Coast Guard concerning the Storage and Handling The principal requirements for vessels for fisheries
"
of Explosives and other Dangerous Articles require investigations are similar to those of ships for general
that the magazine must be adequately ventilated and oceanographic research. These are seakeeping ability,
wood lined, with no protruding fastenings of any sort. reliability, a considerable cruising range, appropriate
It may not be located adjacent to or in line with any facilities for science, effective noise control, habitability
berthing spaces, collision bulkhead or machinery bulk- and The difference is one of degree rather
versatility.
head. than one of kind. For instance, there is less science and
more commerce on board a fisheries research vessel.
NOISE CONTROL Maximum seakeeping ability is of paramount impor-
The development, testing and use of underwater tance and an appropriate balance between seaworthiness
acoustical instruments has become a most important and seakindliness is again called for if the largest divi-
function of the oceanographic research ship and it dends in terms of practical fisheries knowledge is desired.
seems certain that acoustical instruments will be The importance of reliability too must be be given
[221]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
great weight but the more specialized duties suggest that and the gear necessary for all major fishing operations,
it may be evaluated and provided for in a different such as trawling, purse seining, longlining, etc. The
manner for two reasons: (1) because the cruising range, vessel must be prepared to fish at depths and under
the distance from ports, and the need for total self- conditions once considered impractical. It is through
reliance are less than those required for the oceanographic such experimentation that new fisheries, or new sources
ship, and (2) because the handling of commercial fishing of old fisheries, may be found to be commercially
equipment, in both conventional and advanced style is profitable. There should be more deck space around the
essential. stern than is common to the trawler, so that large deep-
The required degree of reliability need not, and in all water seines may be effectively handled. There must be
likelihood cannot, be attained through twin-screw provision for the storage of a large seine boat of perhaps
installation of propelling machinery. Because the fisheries 35 ft. (10.7 m.) length, and there must be facilities for
vesselmust have maximum towing power available at the stowing and handling of dories and for their ready
reduced ship's speed when trawling, and because she launching and recovery at all times.
must, like the trawler, keep clear of the trawl warps, it is For experimental purposes, the vessel must be pre-
felt that the required degree of reliability must be attained pared to test and develop improved preservation of
with a single-screw installation. In addition, in trawling the catch, such as the freezing of fish in the round, the
operations, the fisheries research vessel requires the filleting and packaging of fish at sea, and explore the
propulsive characteristics associated with a large use of all parts of fish for the manufacture of fish meals,
diameter single screw and low r.p.m. liver oils, etc. forcommercial processes.
Both diesel-electric drive with multiple generator units, And, finally, theremust be ample laboratory and other
and the direct drive diesel with controllable pitch facilities for a wide range of biological study, and the
propeller, satisfy the particular requirements of the necessary arrangements and handling equipment on
fisheries research vessel. And, in view of the less severe deck for the proper management of scientific instruments.
requirements for long range, it would appear that the Obviously, practical fisheries biology and development
steam reciprocating engine of modern type and oil- of advanced fishing tools and techniques are the responsi-
fired Scotch boilers could be considered suitable, par- bility of the fisheries research vessel.
ticularly for fisheries investigations in cold climates In the matter of acoustical requirements, the vessel
where an ample supply of steam is a necessity both below must be silenced to whatever degree is necessary for the
and above decks. development, the testing and use of underwater sound
Steam, it may be added, is without doubt the simplest, equipment for the detection and identification of schools
the least troublesome, and the most flexible source of of fish, and she must be equipped to use the latest instru-
power for the trawl winch, a piece of equipment of first ments in echo sounding and echo ranging. The detection
importance to the fisheries research vessel. Steam, again, and identification of schools of fish may well be the
through the triple expansion engine, will approach the most revolutionary fishing development since the
necessary flexibility in power and speed so essential to earliest times.
trawler performance. The fisheries research vessel is thekey tool to fishing
The scientific facilities required are more limited. They development, and it merits all the scientific and engineer-
must include the deck arrangement, the equipment ing skills which can be enlisted in its design.
[222]
NEW MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
by
E. C. GOLDSWORTHY
new materials are used in fishing vessel short supply, led to a number of small deck houses
MANY construction, fishing equipment, interior linings
to fish-holds, insulation and for deck coverings
being erected, particularly in converting minesweepers
to fishing craft. The importance of these pioneer
and upholstery. They may be classified: (1) structural
and semi-structural applications; (2) insulation; (3) mis-
cellaneous equipment.
The demand for higher speedsand increased efficiency
in finding, catching and returning fish to port, has
resulted in changes in form and propulsion of fishing
boats. The hulls are tank tested to obtain the highest
speed consistent with carrying capacity and great care is
taken to ensure that a vessel be seakindly both when
fishing and in bad weather.
The problem of stability has become more acute
because of the demands made by the modern vessel at
certain stages of the fishing trip, particularly if she is
diesel driven. And the difficulties have been increased
by the improved standards of living in accommodation installations was appreciated by the aluminium pro-
above deck. It is not by chance, therefore, that designers ducers, who
gave every assistance through the Industry's
turned to new materials. Development Association and their own technical staffs.
Aluminium alloys, specially developed to resist Today many of the largest deep-sea trawlers and whale
corrosion from sea water and marine atmospheres, were catchers have their deck houses and deck ladders, funnel
introduced in 1930, but the world-wide depression in casings, radar structures and lifeboats made of aluminium.
It is not uncommon for 20 tons of aluminium alloy to be
shipbuilding restricted their use until 1933. From then
until 1939 they were used in yachts and other small craft, used above the main deck in a modern trawler; the same
and for lifeboats and scuttles in a number of big passenger structures in an all-steel vessel would weigh at least
ships. They were, however, mostly ignored in fishing 40 tons. And this is in a position where saving in weight
boat construction although their use for bridge and upper is of the greatest benefit to stability.
deck structures, including the funnel casing, would The corrosion resisting alloy used in shipbuilding
reduce top weight and improve stability, and make it today contains a percentage of magnesium and the
possible to place extra accommodation above deck strength of the alloy varies with the amount of mag-
without reducing the metacentric height. And then there nesium. For internal use, such as trucking or linings
is freedom from corrosion, cutting the cost of upkeep which are not subject to heavy blows, the alloy with
and lengthening the life of the structure. Venus (1951) 2 per cent, magnesium will be strong enough. For life-
gives the comparative costs for steel and aluminium boats, radar masts, accommodation ladders, funnel
funnels obtained from a firm of trawler owners, as casings and the like, 3 per cent, magnesium alloy will be
shown in table opposite. most suitable, and for lifeboat davits and some of the
Although these specific figures are given for funnels, more highly-stressed bulwarks and bulkheads, 5 per cent,
there will be a corresponding saving in maintenance and alloy would be used.
painting costs over the whole of the deck structures. Riveting is the normal method of joining and rivets
Aluminium alloys began to be used generally in the can be driven cold up to i in. (16 mm.) diameter without
structures of the fishing vessels in 1945. Their availability any difficulty. Above that size some form of heating is
immediately after the war, when steel and wood were in advisable. Welding with the Argon arc is fast becoming
[223]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Fig. 303. Aluminium superstructure 0/Red Hackle in course of Fig. 304. Insulated fish-hold of Cape Scatari in course of construction
construction
CUT OUT
HANDLE HOLES
CORRUGATED
DPAINACe tASE
STACKING AND
STRENGTHENING
CORNER PIECES
Fig. 306. Typical aluminium fish boxes
Fig. 305. Quayside scene at an English fishing port showing Fig. 307. Aluminium fish kits of the type seen here at Hull are
aluminium landing trunks and the trawler Jdrundur with rapidly replacing the traditional wooden barrel
aluminium superstructure and fish-hold lining
[224]
MATERIALS NEW MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
standard practice for work in closed spaces and it is purposes without disturbing the others and without
anticipated that, before long, the difficulties of using it removing loose insulation. Observations over the past
in the open air will be overcome. This will be important seven years show that a working surface of aluminium
because the Argon arc, requiring no flux, is inert to any is able to withstand rigorous service conditions and
corrosive influence. It is already used in the construction remain immune from corrosion. Soap and water can
of lifeboat davits, and many small structures, which can remove any film of grey substance that might appear on
be welded under cover for subsequent erection on board. idle surfaces such as deckheads.
The technique of using aluminium alloys presents no
difficulties to the fishing vessel builder, no matter how INSULATING MATERIALS
small he may be. He can obtain all the advice and The search for light weight non-hydroscopic non-
guidance necessary from the aluminium industry and inflammable insulatingmaterial has never ceased.
virtually no additional equipment is required. Certain Cork was virtually supreme in the past, but, because of
elementary precautions have to be taken to avoid its tendency to absorb moisture, disintegrate and cease
galvanic action where aluminium is joined to dissimilar to have insulating properties, it is being superseded by
materials such as steel or wood and, in particular, copper- new materials derived from glass, cellulose acetate or
bearing alloys. Many small wood boat builders have rubber, to mention three of those most commonly used.
stated that, after very little practice, they have found A
typical example is fibre glass which consists of a
work with aluminium quicker and easier than with wood. mass of very fine drawn glass wire. It is light, does not
A few typical examples of the modern fishing vessel absorb moisture and is impervious to attacks by insects
with aluminium superstructures, funnel casings, fish- and bacteria. The air trapped between the wires gives
holds, radar stands, compass platforms, etc. are the high resistance to leakage of heat. Its weight, when
Princess Elizabeth, built by Messrs. Cook, Welton and packed between the frames and fish-hold insulation, is
Gemmell Ltd., Beverley, the Jorunder, by Brooke Marine 5 Ib./cu. ft. (80 kg./cu. m.) with a conductivity of about
Ltd., the Red Hackle, by John Lewis and Sons Ltd., the 0.24 B.Th.U./sq. ft. per hour per F for 1 in. thickness
Canadian dragger Cape Scatari, built by Smith and (0.14 kcal./sq.m., hr., C for 10 mm.).
Ruland, Lunenberg, Nova Scotia, and whalers such as The synthetic material, " Isoflex ", is made from non-
Enern, built by Moss Vaerft og Dokk, Norway, and inflammable cellulose acetate film and is supplied in
refrigerating fish carriers, a typical example being Bemar, sheets,manufactured as a series of alternating corrugated
built by Haugesund Mek. Verksted, Norway. layers, which allows free drainage for condensation
New materials are also necessary in the fish-hold moisture. It is stated to be proof against vermin and
linings to satisfy the demand for better quality fish which bacteria and will resist atmospheric conditions. The
had to be caught at far greater distances than in the past. sheets are placed between the frames and cut to the
Wood was, for a long time, considered the most satis- desired dimensions, the weight being 12 oz./cu. ft.
factory material for lining a fish-hold and is still used. (12 kg./cu. m.) with conductivity of 0.32 B.Th.U.
Provided it is well varnished and kept scrupulously (0.19 kcal.).
4<
clean, it serves its purpose. But when the varnish wears The expanded rubber material, known as Onazote ",
off, fish slime accumulates in the crevices and bacterial with a conductivity of 0.20 B.Th.U. (0.12 kcal.) is unique
action takes place to the detriment of the catch. Some in that during manufacture completely sealed minute
owners have lined the wood with zinc but this is heavy gas cells are formed, making it an ideal light weight
whilst others used a thin gauge aluminium sheet, with or insulating material. The density most commonly used
without some insulating material between the linings for fishing vessel insulation is 4 Ib./cu. ft. (64 kg./cu. m.)
and the hull. with a tensile strength of 80 Ib./sq. in. (5.6 kg./sq. cm.)
Aluminium proved an ideal material for this purpose, and compression strength of 40 Ib./sq. in. (2.8 kg./
being non-absorbent, easy to clean and non-odorous, sq. cm.). It is manufactured in slabs which can be cut
and much thought has been given to find a method of to suit dimensions. It can be put between the frames
using it in conjunction with insulating materials. In (as other normal insulating materials) but it has also
some cases aluminium lining, sufficiently thick to with- been used extensively in panel form, faced by an alu-
stand the stresses and blows in service without wood minium alloy sheet. The panels form a strong and rigid
backing, has been installed. Another method is to make lining to the hold.
the hold lining from a number of prefabricated panels
taken off templates or cut to shape on the ship. The MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT
advantages claimed for this method are that the panels, Many fish-holds are equipped throughout with pound
faced on both sides with aluminium alloy and having boards, either of a corrugated section or of hollow
a core of 2 in. (5 cm.) Onazote insulating material, are floatable boxes with Argon arc welded ends. These
rigid and can withstand the heaviest blows from the boards are easy to clean and, although expensive in the
moving mass of ice or fish and of local blows from ice first instance, are proving themselves economical by their
axes. There are various methods of joining the panels longer life. Some vessels use the standard fish-hold
by aluminium screws or properly galvanized or cadmium- pound board for the deck pounds, and even the storage
plated screws. The panels can be removed for inspection bins and deck tanks for washing are made of aluminium.
[ 225]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
It is also used in making the para-otters for stern in different colours. They are easy to cut and form and,
trawling, marker buoys with radio transmitters for in the case of the hollow panels, give good sound and
whaling vessels, and trawl net and purse net floats. heat insulation.
Aluminium floats have been in use in North America
since the beginning of the century and, indeed, some of SHORE HANDLING
the original models are still in service. They are usually In all modern British fishing ports, wood for crates and
formed from two die-cast hemispheres joined by welding. boxes, kits and other handling receptacles, is being
Oval purse net floats are a comparatively recent develop- superseded by aluminium. The fish is landed in specially-
ment. Aluminium deck plating is also increasingly used constructed boxes or kits and transported in lidded
in the form of tread plates which help to prevent slipping boxes or liner crates to the wholesale market and retailer.
by fishermen in rubber boots. The boxes and kits are entirely of aluminium whilst the
Nylon cordage, the strength of which is approximately liner crates consist of a wood slatted crate in which is a
twice that of the best manilla, also being used in some
is detachable pressed lining of aluminium, the lid being
fishing vessels. Other advantages claimed are that it sheathed with the same material.
remains pliable under all conditions and handles better Another development is the use of very thin aluminium
than other cordage. It is rot proof and, although more sheet consumer packs for the direct supply of fish in
expensive, is economical because it lasts much longer. packages weighing from 1 to 14 Ib. (0.45 to 6.3 kg.).
Aluminium cans have long been a favourite because they
ACCOMMODATION are about one-third the weight of tin plate, are non-toxic,
The improved standards of accommodation have led to maintain their brightness and are easily opened.
the use of many new materials in the living quarters and In the processing of fish, the smoke house racks or
and upholstery. They should be capable of
for furniture horses and the screens are of aluminium, so also are the
standing up to hard service conditions and the marine filleting tables, fillet trays, quick freeze trays, and, indeed,
atmosphere, be fireproof or nearly so, and resistant to most of the equipment now used in the modern fish
attack by vermin. factory.
Rubber, as a flooring material, is extensively used in The new insulating materials are being used to a
sheet form or in a composition laid in a semi-plastic considerable extent in transportation of fish by road and
state. More use is being made of expanded or sponge rail. Road containers are often made up of aluminium
rubber for mattresses and seats, and cabin bulkheads alloy sheet and extrusions, with insulating materials
and furniture are being made from synthetic materials between the inner and outer walls. The interior is
derived from a mixture of wood fibres. There are also partitioned by shelves on which the fish boxes rest.
synthetic resin products, some of hollow form. These Railway engineers are also experimenting with new
materials are said to be resistant to water, oil and acids materials and, recently, in constructing 400 fish vans,
and have good fire-resisting properties. They are also the British Railways used aluminium extrusions and
" "
impervious to attack by vermin. They can be supplied inner sheet with Onazote insulation.
[226]
TEREDOS AND FOULING
by
H. KUHL
Federal Fisheries Research Institute (Inshore Adriatic and investigations of these were carried out
THE and Freshwater) Hamburg, working with a com-
mittee of representatives of all the port authorities
along the Italian coast in co-operation with the research
station at Venice.
and industrial organizations interested in controlling Timber may be protected from the teredo by: (1)
marine pests, has found an increase in the activities of the preventing the larvae from entering the wood, (2)
teredo all along the German coast and in other European changing the condition of the timber so that the pest is
regions. killed because it cannot digest it, (3) killing the teredo by
Damage to wooden vessels and port structures by changing the condition of the water.
worms was a particularly important problem when
teredo Painting will prevent the larvae from entering the
which is particularly suscep-
fishing cutters, built of pine timber a method as old as seafaring. In the case of
tible to attack and used, during the war, as patrol boats carvel built or any smooth bottom vessel, copper or
(kriegsfischkutter KFKs) were returned to the fisher- galvanized sheathing of the bottom will prevent growth
men. The damage done in the Elbe estuary, near there of marine pests. Anti-fouling paint, too, can be
Cuxhaven, was particularly great, infestation doubled used effectively as the larvae of the teredo are killed by
between 1936 (when the last survey was made) and the poison in the paint. Investigations showed that
1949-51. highly poisonous, first-class paint is needed to give good
The Prussian Institute of Sea Bottom and Air Hygiene protection and it should be applied at regular intervals
in 1925 suggested the following grading for teredo to maintain that protection. It is especially necessary to
infestation: apply a protective coat of paint before the time when
spawning begins and larvae are produced. The ordinary
Degree 1 very few borers.
tar or bitumen coats so often used by fishermen do not
2 only local infestation.
afford sure protection but some special tar products can
3 necessity to replace a pine pole, 10 in. (25 cm.)
be used with success.
in diameter after 10 to 20 years.
A complete soaking of wood with creosote under pres-
4 necessity to replace a pine pole, 10 in. (25 cm.)
sure gives long and safe protection. An example of its
in diameter after 5 to 10 years.
effectiveness can be observed near the engine of any
5 necessity to replace a pine pole, 10 in. (25 cm.)
boat where fuel and lubricating oils have flowed on the
in diameter after 2 to 5 years.
planking and soaked the timber. Infestation rarely
6 necessity to replace a pine pole, 10 in. (25 cm.)
occurs in such wood. Frequent coating of the planking
in diameter after every year. "
with tar oil products such as Xylamon ", gives suitable
For example, whereas Windolf (1936) estimated Cux- protection. Another process is to soak the wood with
haven as being infested to degree 3 in 1936, the author chemicals, such as fluorine, chromium and phenol com-
had to raise this classification to degree 5 in 1949/50. pounds, with poisons added, but as the experiments with
Poles as much as 16 in. (40 cm.) in diameter, were com- these are not finished, the effectiveness of this method is
pletely destroyed within two years. Further examples not yet known. Different kinds of wood react in varying
can be seen in Table XLV. ways when soaked. For example, oily substances sink
Investigations were confined to harbour structures as deep into pine but spruce and fir generally resist such
they are the source of infestation of wooden vessels. protection.
Experiments were also carried out on small wooden Rust hampers the growth of the teredo, but the use of
poles and it was found that in four months the teredos iron nails is hardly practical as some 400 would have to
had bored If to 2 in. (4 to 5 cm.) long channels in those be driven into each square foot (4,000 into each sq. m.)
poles which were insufficiently or not at all protected. of wood. Again, burning off the surface of timber is only
Three or four species of teredo are found in the effective in killing the teredo already in the wood and
[227]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
TABLE XLV
Locality Structure Age in Depth of infested Timber Remarks
years layer species
Lcntzkai exterior pole 7 sound The poles mentioned were made of
Steubenhoft exterior pole 8 1 J in. (29 mm.) pine wood with an average
construction pole l.R 23 4} in. (105 mm.) diameter of 18 in. (46 cm.)
of dolphin 23 sound
rear-pole
Fishery harbour east-side exterior pole 12 2-2f in. (51-60 mm.)
west-side exterior pole 14 totally destroyed
Landing bridge construction pole 31 3J in. (79 mm.)
Old harbour west-side exterior pole 13 2f-2f in.(60-70mm.)
Summary of Findings, 1948-1950 (Jahn, Ktthl, Osterndorf 1951)
Locality Structure Timber Remarks
species
Outside edge Steubenhoft 30 construction poles pine all poles uniformly infested
5 2.R
4 3.R
4 fender dolphins fir
Inside edge Steubenhoft 20 construction poles pine
8
Outside edge Steubenhdft squared timber 10/12 in.
in.
1
impregnated after the Riiping
10/12
process
gang ways 2 in. j
Osterhoft" 250 construction poles
40
Amerikahafen 9 poles dolphin fir
Landing bridge outside construction poles pine
inside in the vicinity of the sewer
Alte Liebe
squared timber 10/12 in.
Old docks exterior pole fir
Schleusenpriel Slipholms 11/12 in. pine
OsterhoTt landing dolphins 4 sets of 9 pole dolphins \Pommeranian pine wood rammed in un-
frame timber 10/12 in. / prepared original condition
even that is not sure. It will certainly not prevent re- 60 per cent, of effective poison did not prevent fouling
infestation. because the binding agent had, through action of the
The teredo cannot live in water containing less than sea water, become too hard to release the poison a mer-
.9 per cent, of salt and there is a possibility of clearing a curic Oxide HgO and copper Oxide CO,O mixture. The
vessel of the pest by leaving it at anchor in fresh water. binding agent and the poisonous substance should have
Three weeks is the minimum time needed to ensure killing about equal solubility, which will ensure the gradual
the teredo because the pest protects itself by closing its release of the poison, so prolonging the period of
hole with lime covers. Underwater explosions will also effectiveness.
kill the teredo but there are no details available of experi- Corrosion and fouling of iron ships go hand in hand
ments in this method. and protection against corrosion is a necessary pre-
To sum up, the best but an expensive method for requisite to the prevention of fouling. Attempts to cope
protection against teredo infestation is to soak the timber with the two problems with one paint have failed because
in an oily product. paints, to repel corrosion, must be hard, and those to
Fouling increases resistance and fuel consumption and kill marine pests and growths must be soluble in sea-
affects manoeuvrability. All the processes using mechani- water. Further, tests have shown that coats of anti-
cal, electrical and other principles to prevent fouling have corrosion paints sometimes have a detrimental effect on
failed, with the exception of that employing poisonous the anti-fouling paint.
paints, particularly copper and mercury compounds. A great variety of plants and pests are found on the
But even the length of their effectiveness is limited, being bottom of ships (Marine 1952) and it is an advan-
. . .
determined by the rate at which they are released by the tage if only a few non-specific poisons can be used to
sea water. A costly way to increase the period is to add kill them. Heavy metal compositions, especially copper
more poison but that cannot be done indefinitely. Experi- and mercury, are poisons of this type, affecting all organ-
ments have shown that there is still a lot of poison left isms that attach themselves to the bottom of a ship. A
in an anti-fouling coat when it has become ineffective. greatly enhanced effect is gained when two or more
The binding agent containing the poison is of great poisons are added together to the paint, being much dead-
importance. a If
very active poison is used with an un- lier in this form than when they are added separately.
suitable agent or vice versa it will not be effective. It is however necessary to protect the iron hull against
One experiment showed that a protective coat containing poisoned paints. For example, if copper and mercury
[228]
TEREDOS AND FOULING
combinations are used as poison there is likely to be an (Kiihl 1948). For example, combinations of the DDT type
electro-chemical reaction so that the poison will not dis- had a poisonous effect on balanids, a most important
solve (Kiihl, 1950), and the corrosion of the iron is fouling growth, but no effect at all on serpulids, bryozoa
increased. The anti-corrosive and other appropriate and other organisms. While a DDT coat remained free
insulating coats are applied first. There are good insu- of balanids, great numbers of bryozoa (membranipora)
lating paints but it is difficult to apply anti-fouling paint developed and covered the paint, and then balanids grew
containing copper powder to them when they are on an on top of the lot. As the specific poisonous effect of pure
" "
iron ground. Copper-bronze paints are, however, organic preparations is known they should be added to
excellent for use on wood. For the same reason, experi- the antifouling paint. They will not detrimentally affect
ments in sheathing iron bottoms in copper have failed each other in the water. Other features of anti-fouling
because it was impossible to obtain adequate insulation paints, such as surface condition, shade of colour, and
between the iron and the copper. so on, play some part but, generally speaking, they
This danger is acute if the metal ground is of aluminium are of little practical importance. Fouling control is
because of the position of this metal in the electro- an intricate problem involving a great number of
chemical series. Experiments were made by using non- questions which have yet to be answered and, so far,
metallic poisons but it was found that purely organic the best results are obtained by using poisons in
poisons only affected certain pests to a limited extent paint.
[229]
JACKETED, REFRIGERATED FISH HOLDS
by
W. A. MacCALLUM
watertight jacketed metal linings are fitted in fish The linings were the result of seven years' investigation
IF holds, mechanical refrigeration can be used as a
buffer against the flow of heat which tends to melt
at the Atlantic Fisheries Experimental Station of the
Fisheries Research Board of Canada, in co-operation
pen peripheries: the bottoms, bulkheads,
ice lying against with National Sea Products Ltd., Halifax, Nova Scotia.
ceilings and tops of holds. Wood and cement linings, A paper on the subject has been published (MacCallum,
not being watertight, cannot be used successfully in 1953), with illustrations and constructional details. An
bottom and ceiling jackets. Mechanical refrigeration, account of the experience with the construction and use
therefore, in a wood or cement-lined fish hold would of these, as well as conventional fish holds, is available
influence the temperature in only two pen areas, the pen in a Bulletin of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada.
top and the pen front.
In 1951 the fish holds of the two 1 15 ft. (35 m.) wooden REFRIGERATION REQUIREMENTS EXPRESSED
trawlers, the Cape Fourchu and the Cape Scatari, were
IN TONS OF ICE
fitted with jacketed linings of welded aluminium alloy, Based on summer temperatures of surface sea water and
believed to be the first installed aboard ship in this air in Nova Scotia and in Newfoundland fishing areas,
manner. the calculated requirements of ice over a six-day period
TABLE XLVI
Calculated ice consumption aboard medium-sized wooden Canadian Atlantic Coast fishing craft for six-day period
Insulated craft with 4 in.
(10 cm.) of cork equivalent Coldwall or jacketed and
on underside of deck and on insulated craft. (Insulation
Source of heat flowing into hold Non-insulated craft end bulkheads of hold; 2 in. and cold wall neutralizing
(5 cm.) of cork equivalent on all conduction heat gain into
ceilings holds).
Short Metric Short Metric Short Metric
Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons
Heat transfer through deck 3.6 3.3 1.1 1
Heat transfer through hull .... 5.0 4.5 2.5 2.3
Heat transfer through bulkheads . 2.8 2.5 0.8 0.7
Warm air infiltration, heat from lights and
workers in hold 2.9 2.6 2.9 2.6
Initial cooling of hull. 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.9
Theoretical ice requirements to cool of
200.000 Ib. (90,000 kg.) round fish
60deg.F.(16deg.C.)to32deg.F.(Odeg.C.)
plus 25 per cent, surplusf 20.9 19.8 20.9 19.8 20.9 19.8
TOTALS .... 36.2 33.6 29.2 27.3 2O9 19.8
Cold walls, floors, and de fttion capacity to take care of these heat loads.
t An estimate of the extra ice used for " insurance " that some shall remain at time of discharge.
[230]
FISH HOLDS JACKETED, REFRIGERATED FISH-HOLDS
for a typical 6,000 cu. ft. (170 cu. m.) fish hold are found angles and pen shelf and division boards and the hold
in Table XL
VI for a wooden craft where the hold is: stanchions are all of aluminium alloy extrusions.
and not
A Freon-12 marine condensing unit and all motors
(1) uninsulated, artificially refrigerated;
required for the refrigeration system were installed in the
(2) insulated only;
and cold wall jacketed. engine room together with an A.C. supply for the
(3) insulated
motors. The blowers were located opposite the blower
The show the quantities of ice required
table does not motors but on the fish room side of the engine room
from contaminated wood of pen or division
to shield fish bulkhead.
boards, shelf boards, and on pen partitions and ceilings
As shown in fig. 308, air is forced by two blowers,
of many wood fish rooms. The need for this extra icing mounted at F, through the finned evaporator coils A,
in wood constructed fish holds tips the balance even more where cooled to a temperature of about 30.5 deg. F.
it is
strongly in favour of the metal pens (MacCallum, (0.8 The circuit includes the cold air supply
deg. C.).
ducts extending on both sides of the keel, as shown at B.
1954).
The calculated thicknesses of crushed or fine ice to Mechanical and thermal pressure differences in the
combat leakage of heat into insulated and uninsulated
fish holds over a six-day period are given in Table XLVII.
The peripheral icing specified is difficult to achieve in
practice. In both uninsulated and insulated non-
refrigerated holds, some fish from these peripheral
areas were found to be in poor condition when landed.
As even a small percentage of poor quality fish can cause
loss of consumer confidence, it is felt that all fish should
be efficiently refrigerated.
DESCRIPTION OF JACKETED INSTALLATIONS
In the fish holds of the Cape Fourchu and the Cape
Scatari the ceilings, bottoms, bulkheads, and tops were
insulated and metal-lined. The lining is supported clear
of the surfaces of the ship to provide a channel through
which refrigerated air may be circulated. Aluminium
alloy sheets and extrusions were combined to provide
an uninterrupted metal interior lining in the fish room.
All joints and seams were argon-arc welded, with the
exception of those at the deck where mechanically- in th hold
Diagrammatic ketch of cold air circuit within jacket fith
constructed joints were used because there is no water of the trawler "Cape Fourchu".
** "
pressure. All pen partitions or wings are of heavy
gauge aluminium alloy sheet. The shelf board supporting Fig. 308
TABLE XLVII
Calculated thickness of crushed ice required to combat leakage heat into fish holds over a period of six days
Thickness
of ice melted
Locality of ice Wooden vessel
Uninsulated Insulated*
Above top layer of fish in pounds 4 in. (10 cm.) Hin. (3.8cm.)
Against ceilings .... 3 in. ( 7.5 cm.) 1} in. (3.8cm.)
Against engine room bulkhead . 5 in. (12.5cm.) 2 in. (5 on.)
Against forward bulkhead .
4 in. (10 cm.) l|in. (4.5cm.)
* The following thicknesses of corkboard were assumed in the calculations:
Between deck beams . . . 4 in. (10cm.)
Against ceilings . . . . 3 in. ( 7.5 cm.)
Against bulkheads . . . 4 in. (10cm.)
Included in each of the above totals is f in. of ke which would be i^iiired to contribute to the oooUng of the fish found iminea^
In all calculations, thicknesses are based on the density of fine ice, not block ke.
[231]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
enclosed circuit provide for the passage of air up the HOLD LININGS
ceiling at C and also vertically in the hollow construction The argon-
Inspections of seams are made periodically.
of end bulkheads, as at Cr
Other parallel circuits pro- arc welds are of high quality.
vide for refrigeration of the hollow stanchions and
ventilation of deckbeams and ships frames. D and E
ELECTRIC POWER REQUIREMENTS
show the return, within the deck jacket, of all air from the
The provision of electric energy for the refrigeration
parallel circuits.
equipment is not difficult but it is an expensive item. It
can be provided most economically by installing tail-
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF FISH HOLD shaft and auxiliary generators, each capable of handling
INSTALLATIONS all lighting, pumping, air compressor and refrigeration
REFRIGERATION EFFECT AND USE OF ICE loads. Another possibility is the use of an hydraulic drive.
A back pressure control which works a magnetic starting FUTURE PEN CONSTRUCTION
switch, used to control the compressor. Blower motors,
is
" "
Unit fish pens of heavy gauge metal con-
shell-like,
manually switched, are operated continuously to main-
tain constant air temperature in the jacket. struction fabricated ashore in standard size and shape
When the compressor operating time amounts to for assembly aboard ship, should be considered. Con-
about 50 per cent, of the period at sea, temperatures in struction and installation costs are reduced, there is
the jacket average 30.5 deg. F. (0.8 deg. C.). This is greater resistance to seam and sheet failure, and the cost
of refrigerating the hold is lower. When repairs are
sufficiently low to prevent the ice against jacket walls
from melting once the fish have been chilled, and ice is necessary the pens can be removed without delay or
preserved for the whole of a trip. Air temperature in the
damage to pen or hold. Also it would be worthwhile to
hold proper is maintained at 33.5 deg. F. (+0.8 deg. C.). consider changes in ship deck construction and in hatch
This may be compared with temperatures of 40 to layouts to provide for quick removal of the pens, loaded
42 deg. F., (5 to 6 deg. C.), observed in insulated and with fish and ice, at each landing.
non-refrigerated holds and in those insulated and
refrigerated by conventional grids installed below the
CONCLUSIONS
deck. The ineffectiveness of grid refrigeration is due to Ice is the logical choice on Canada's East Coast to take
frost build-up on the coils at an early stage of the fishing care of the product heat-load when large quantities of
trip. There is no problem in defrosting the coils of the fresh fish are stowed in a short time. However, the
Cape Fourchu and Cape Scatari because the circuit of the leakage heat-load cannot be offset effectively by the use of
refrigerated air is closed. ice alone, nor by using conventional grid refrigeration in
Consumption of ice in jacketed holds is about half conjunction with ice. It has been demonstrated that an
that used to equivalent refrigeration in an
obtain insulated watertight and cold wall jacketed metal hold
uninsulated non-refrigerated hold. There is less cost provides refrigeration most efficiently These holds
in ice handlingand an assurance of an adequate supply make proper handling of fish easier and lessen the effect
of ice throughout a fishing trip. of human error.
[232]
PROTECTION OF INSULATION AGAINST HUMIDITY
by
P. BAIN
vapour is continually moving from the been as high as 18 volume per cent. The heat losses
WATER outside towards the inside of refrigerated holds
through the insulating material. When it reaches
caused by humidity in the insulant may easily be twice
those of the dry material. Water in insulation material
a zone where the saturation pressure is less than the also shortens its life, and where serious ice formation
vapour pressure, condensation occurs. Later on this occurs the material is destroyed.
condensed water and the water already contained in the The Minikay system of dehydration is designed to
insulant goes from zones with high to zones with low prevent water accumulating inside the insulation of the
water content due to the capillary action. refrigerated holds. It consists of a drying layer placed
A Swedish engineer, Mr. Munther, investigating this between the insulant and the inner lining of the cold
process, has found that the heat transfer coefficient of an chamber. This layer is an insulating material in which
insulant can be increased by 30 per cent, for each volume dry air is circulated through ducts. Any vapour of water
per cent, of water in it and in expanded cork of first which penetrates from the insulant to the layer is brought
quality, after several years in use, the water content has with the air to a dehydrator where it is condensed by a
rapid fall in temperature. The dry air is then recirculated
to ar,*for suet/on iMt
through the ducts of the drying layer. The dehydrator
is periodically heated to remove the condensed water.
The whole installation consists of: (a) the drying layer;
(b) the ventilator; (c) dehydrator; (d) pipes between the
drying layer and the dehydrator; and (e) an automatic
control device.
The advantages claimed are:
1 . The heat transfer coefficient is kept at an almost
constant' value which increases the efficiency of
the refrigerating plant and saves power.
2. The thickness of the insulation can be reduced,
giving more space in the fish hold.
3. The insulation does not suffer damage from
humidity and the maintenance cost is, therefore,
lower.
The cost of installing the system in small is comparison
with the saving on maintenance. Fig. 309 shows the
Fig. 309 principle of such an installation.
[233]
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE ON DESIGN OF FISHING CRAFT
by
C. BEEVER
the developed fishery industries of the interest. Here the conservation of young stocks is hoped
A1ONG
world it clearly recognized that the size and
is
of fishing craft are governed by many
to restore the level of the sustained yield. The question
of design, and especially of size, will then turn, inter alia,
design
factors, including variation in catch and markets on the level of catches, i.e. what share of the total yield
available, which differ greatly in their importance can each craft hope to take. This will obviously depend
according to local conditions. They are familiar to on the number of vessels engaged and the methods
owners, fishermen and designers and they explain both employed. Owners are now critically examining the
the wide variations in fishing craft design, and the problem of whether to build at all and, if so, what size
orthodoxy observed in individual areas. of craft and to what extent the North Sea should be
Theoretically, it might be possible to take a particular exploited as a seasonal fishery.
fish stock on a particular fishing ground, and to calculate On the more distant grounds of the Arctic and North
what range, seaworthiness, stability, capacity and speed, Atlantic, the question of size is largely determined by
etc., would provide the most economic means of taking the nature of the seagoing conditions, but beyond that
catches. But the practicability of introducing such an it is really a question of what level of investment can be
ideal vessel would be determined by the demand for supported by markets in which a preponderance of cod
fish products, by the availability of trained fishermen, may create uncertain and unfavourable price structures.
by pilotage, berthing and maintenance facilities, by the Similarly, the future of the magnificently equipped but
level of capital reserves or the availability of credit and costly tuna fleets of California, built to range over
by numerous other factors which, in varying degrees, 3,000 miles or more, hangs on the assurance with which
are reflected in the profits and losses of day-to-day the elusive fish can be located, and on the stability of a
fishing. market, which has recently shown signs of disturbance.
This question of design can never be dissociated from If it is true that the picture of the world's fishing fleets
the number of the craft engaged in a particular fishery today reflects the wide range of achievements in the
and, in theory, the best design has to be related to a development of hull design, propulsion units, construc-
maximum fishing effort which is consistent with sustained tional materials and
and techniques, fishing equipment
yields and the capacity of the market. In other words, so on, it is and
also true that it reflects, in the very age
commercial efficiency dictates that there should be an composition of the fleets, the variegated economic
ideal number, as well as an ideal design, of fishing craft pattern of the fisheries. Historically, owners in the more
in any fishery. A precarious equilibrium is often estab- advanced fishing industries have been able to draw
lished by the force of competition, although many upon years of experience in determining the number and
fishermen show extraordinary tenacity before they design of their craft. of
Their intimate experience
relinquish the struggle to wrest a living from depleted fishing conditions, accumulated knowledge of
the
or unprofitable fisheries. generations about the habits and behaviour of the
In more recent years attempts have been made by stocks, and their ability to judge the vagaries of the most
governments, or by mutual agreement amongst the uncertain markets in the food trade, have all contributed
owners, to regulate the fishing effort in the interests of to that judgment on which the decision to build is based.
the resources or the markets, or of both. Today the Most owners will agree that there are many limiting
extension of the fishing operations over wide ocean factors to their judgment. Fishing is still a gamble which
areas often requires the sanction of international agree- deters all but the most knowledgeable and courageous
ment, which largely rests on an integration of national investors, and there is perhaps no other trade where
economies beyond the control of individuals. depends so much on the reciprocity
financial stability
There are many examples of the problem, but the case between unpredictable fluctuations in both supply and
of the North Sea especially is of historic and topical demand. Slowly, developments in research are making
[234]
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE ON THE DESIGN OF FISHING CRAFT
possible a more of the technical and
scientific analysis industrialization. The fishing effort expanded and
economic factors which govern the level of investment intensified spontaneously to meet demand for fish
in fisheries and, thereby, the size and design of the products among growing populations with rising levels
fleets. of purchasing power. It is of profound significance for
There is a division between those industries which have the underdeveloped fisheries that the same modernized
on call the highly developed skills and techniques of industries which they seek to emulate are now facing
modern shipbuilding practice and which are clearly critical marketing problems. In many of the areas where
aware of the economic factors determining the design of the need for fishery development is so acute, the initial
their craft and those in the underdeveloped economies demand is often lacking and is frustrated by ignorance,
of the world where there is virtually no experience, prejudice and, above all, by poverty. Even where it
training, equipment or financial resources to draw upon, exists, it has often been conditioned by old habits related
other than the energy and will of indigenous fishermen to familiar species deriving from traditional fishing
engaged in specialized but highly localized operations. operations and processed by traditional, but often
The fundamental problem is familiar: the nutritional primitive, techniques.
standards of large populations are seriously undermined In many places consumer demand has been built up
by acute shortages of animal protein which there is in coastal and large urban areas only, and the habit of
little prospect of relieving from agriculture alone. The fish consumption among rural inland populations is
existence of unexploited or partially exploited fish often weak and restricted to certain forms of preserved
resources has inevitably directed the attention of govern- products, e.g. sun-dried, pastes, sauces, etc. Commer-
ments to the great social, economic and strategic value cially,there is little prospect of success if unfamiliar
of increased fish supplies. Many of the problems con- products or, for that matter, unexpectedly large quanti-
cerned are rooted in low purchasing power, consumer ties of a familiar product, are introduced into the
prejudice or ignorance and the illiteracy and poverty traditional markets. And the necessary purchasing
of the fishermen in undeveloped countries. power must become available, which, in turn, will depend
Efforts to improve or replace local fishing craft vary upon overall improvements in the economy.
considerably in character, and reflect estimates of the The capacity and design of fishing vessels, with which
economic or commercial justification for investing in must be associated also the nature and location of the
certain types of craft. In many countries of the Far East, operations, must keep in step with demand if fishing
Africa and Latin America, the first steps have been taken ventures are to be commercially viable in these areas.
in the mechanization of local craft and the introduction Efforts to improve and extend the fishing operations
of new designs adapted to local experience and training. must be accompanied by efforts to improve and extend
There is already a well-established demand for marine consumption. It is worth noting in passing that if the
engines in several areas of rapid development, i.e. Hong nutritional needs of these great populations ever become
Kong, Singapore and Bombay, which might extend expressed, as anticipated, in an active demand for fish
rapidly with the provision of technical training, financial products at a price commensurate with costs of produc-
assistance and adequate servicing facilities. From the tion, then the combined activities of all the fishing fleets
economic standpoint the characteristic feature of these of the world would be hard pressed to fill the gap.
developments is that they preserve, in essentials, the
traditional patterns of production, i.e. short trips, small INCENTIVES
catches, close-range operations. The improvement of traditional fishing craft designs and
In some however, developments of a more
areas, equipment, especially mechanization, does not always
dramatic character have been promoted and have been have the desired effect because of the absence of incentives
strongly influenced, firstly by the belief in the existence for the fishermen to catch more. There are some situa-
of substantial deep sea resources, and secondly by the tions where mechanization of the fleets has proceeded
highly commercialized undertakings of north west smoothly but the effect has been to enable the fishermen
Europe and North America. Deep water trawling and to meet his simple needs for food and shelter more
seining, from vessels of European design, have been intro- quickly and with less effort. This reduces the financial
duced in several places in Asia, notably Bombay, increment and impedes further development. How far
Calcutta and Colombo. The remarkable feature of these the fisherman is willing and wants to go in improving his
ventures is that they represent a revolutionary departure professional and social status, has an important bearing
from traditional practice and are based on an urgent on the nature and cost of investment in superior craft
desire to bridge, as quickly as possible, the gap between and better techniques. A similar lack of incentive
indigenous fisheries and the highly organized enterprises manifests itself among the small merchants and dealers
needed to bring resources into full productivity. who dispose of the catches, and here again the reluctance
to increase turnover or to change traditional methods of
DEMAND handling and distribution imposes its own limitations
Development of the major fisheries of Europe and North on the fishing effort. Development has to be founded first
America has been inextricably linked with the general of all on the desire for, and then on the belief in, higher
heightening of economic activity brought about by standards of social and economic well-being.
[235]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
RESOURCES The need for capital in the fishing fleets is matched by
the need for a fairly heavy investment in harbour,
The location, composition and behaviour of the fish
stocks naturally govern the type of craft to be employed. market, transport, processing and ancillary under-
It is only comparatively recently that this problem has takings. Where not forthcoming, the types and
this is
sizes of fishing craft need to be adjusted accordingly.
received serious attention, and a number of countries
with important fisheries are conducting investigations
There may be very sound financial, as well as geographical
to provide the fishing industries with more reliable
or navigational reasons, for concentrating on types of
information on which to plan their operations. In the
craft which can be beached. It is also important to
consider the costs of labour and the bearing which they
under-developed areas, however, very little has yet been
done to make even a preliminary appraisal of the may have on the design of craft. Where labour is plenti-
resources which be into ful and cheap, the use of expensive labour-saving devices,
might brought profitable
either ashore or afloat, may prove commercially unjusti-
exploitation. Even in the traditionally exploited fisheries,
fiable.
few reliable estimates have been made of the total
fishing effort which can be indefinitely sustained. Clearly, EDUCATION AND TRAINING
until more is reliably known about both the onshore
and offshore resources, the introduction of new or The lack of education, which in so many fisheries
better craft will need to be cautious and, to some amounts to illiteracy, is reflected in the general standards
extent,
of commercial organization and practice. The very
exploratory. In the case of the smaller units especially,
the seasonal variations of the resources and, possibly,
remarkable which have been developed over the
skills
the variety and scattered distribution of the stocks, may centuries in many of the more primitive fisheries, have
been taught by demonstration and imitation. New
require a large measure of flexibility in the operations,
for which the designer must help to provide. techniques or the use of superior equipment must be
taught in a similar fashion and must be adapted to the
capacity of the fishermen to absorb instruction. Revolu-
FINANCE tionary changes of craft and techniques may alarm and
The problem of finding capital for essential equipment repel, while too many changes all at once usually confuse
is particularly acute, and the special risks attached to the fisherman. It is usually more profitable to introduce
fluctuations of supply and demand offer a serious changes one at a time so that the characteristic features
deterrent to the ordinary investor. Development, are retained. A fisherman who successfully tries out a
therefore, depends either on courageous private specula- new craft or a new engine on his familiar grounds with
tion or on planned financial assistance in the form of his own methods is more likely to co-operate in further
cheap credit facilities, direct or indirect subsidies, tax improvements than one who is introduced simultaneously
concessions, and other incentives. Even in the most to new grounds, different working hours, new equipment,
highly-organized modern fisheries cheap credit is proving new craft and so on. That is one of the more important
to be a corner-stone of development, but in the under- lessons learned from past efforts at development.
developed countries it is virtually indispensable. The At a different level, the lack of training is also reflected
widespread indebtedness and poverty of the fishermen in the commercial management of production and
militate heavily against rapid development. Their meagre distribution. Extended operations and heavier catches
incomes are often insufficient to finance even the replace- need a corresponding improvement in business practice.
ment of essential gear without the help of private loans, Commercial acumen is a factor of obvious importance
which serve only to perpetuate and increase the burden and there is little doubt that some of the underdeveloped
of debt. fisheriescould be made more profitable if the executive
Increased production based on improved fishing craft personnel could perceive and grasp trading opportunities.
and techniques is unlikely to occur on any extensive In the technical field there is a similar need for training
scale until cheap long-term credit facilities are made to operate and maintain hulls, machinery and engines.
available, and commercial organization permits the The problems can perhaps be illustrated by a typical
accumulation, collectively or individually, of capital case where, in the same area, a small craft mechanization
reserves. In such circumstances there is a need to con- programme has been developing simultaneously with
sider very carefully how the sums invested in fishing pilot deep-sea trawling operations.
craft, for example, can be used to the best advantage. The highest catch recorded by the trawler is reported
The danger of having all one's eggs in one basket is to be 80 tons for a voyage of ten days. Assuming such
particularly real in the more primitive fisheries where catches could be regularly obtained, the monthly catch
there is so little past experience to assist in measuring on the basis of two and a half trips per month would be
the financial risk. Heavy concentrations of capital as, 200 tons (in point of fact, the average monthly catch has
for example, in costly deep-sea vessels, may not only been considerably lower than this). The trawler carries
prove commercially unjustifiable, but may divert a crew of twenty, and therefore the catch per man-month
capital from more essential, more immediate uses would be 10 tons. In the case of the small mechanized
such as the purchase of small engines or better fishing craft, the record of landings of 46 craft during the last
equipment. quarter of 1952 showed an average catch per man-month
[236]
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE ON THE DESIGN OF FISHING CRAFT
of 1.5 tons (taking into account breakdowns, bad fishing, would be approximately 1 ,100,000 ($3,000,000), whereas
etc.). On
average, these small craft carry a crew of ten. the cost of a fleet of trawlers with the same catching
In other words, the quantity landed by the one trawler capacity would be 8,500,000 to 1 1 ,000,000 ( $23,000,000
could be landed in the same time by 13 to 14 mechanized to $30,000,000).
local craftmanned by 135 fishermen. Such a case emphasizes the wisdom of concentrating
In this comparison, the important point is that the primarily on the needs and prospects of the domestic
operations of the small craft involve so many more local fishing industry. It may be desirable to experiment
fishermen who are gaining experience in improving their with larger unfamiliar craft as a demonstration project,
own conditions and are getting a chance to accumulate and to test hitherto inaccessible resources, but it should
capital with which to build the larger craft they require never be at the expense of developments based on
to extend their operations. Moreover, the regular and existing industry.
frequent small catches, of good quality and composed From the point of view of the naval architect, the
usually of more popular varieties, which the local questions which naturally arise turn on the adaptation
mechanized craft can land, are more consistent with, of local designs, local building experience and local
and more profitable under present marketing arrange- materials, etc., to the need for more efficient operations.
ments. In fact, the landing of even a moderate catch by In fact, the ideal naval architect for the underdeveloped
a large trawler is apt to over-supply the local market and fisheries would also be a mixture of an economist,
cause resentment amongst the other fishermen. In this psychologist, biologist and teacher. Unlike his more
particular area there are some 15,000 local sailing craft, fortunate colleagues in the advanced fishing industries,
of which it might be possible perhaps to mechanize one- he cannot simply follow the judgment and wishes of
tenth. The theoretical catching power of these 1,500 owners and fishermen. His designs will invariably
boats, when mechanized, would require the equivalent reflectsomething of the traditional economic pattern of
of 110 deep-sea trawlers of the type now engaged. The the fisheries and some element of speculation as to the
total cost of
mechanization of this number of local craft future economic trends.
[237]
HOW COSTINGS RATIONALIZE CONSTRUCTION
by
ANDERS N. CHRISTENSEN
humanistic ideas behind FAO's world-wide payment, will be in a precarious state if they have
THE boat
activities will result in
for builders. On
new and difficult problems
the whole it can probably be
not got accurately entered notes to go by. A
reliable cost account will often save the builder
said that boat builders have not kept pace with the much trouble and it should be realized that proof
technical development of the times, partly because it is of the correctness of the bill undoubtedly rests
to break away from thousand-year old traditions,
difficult with the supplier.
but chiefly because fishing boat construction has not
been sufficiently profitable in most countries to allow (4) To carry out the right policy when purchasing
investment in plants and machines and there is a lack of materials and equipment it is important to know
people with the necessary theoretical and technical the stock of the various kinds of goods and what
experience. has been ordered but not supplied. The average
Our generation of boat builders lives in a transition consumption of an article during a certain period
period where machines must replace manual work. New of time should also be known. All this informa-
means must be found and it is of vital importance that tion should be given in a stock card-index. From
old-fashioned accounting should be replaced by estimates the estimates it can then be determined what
and cost accounts which give the necessary information quantities are kept in stock and what items are
promptly. to be purchased.
(5) Insurance premiums are high because boat-
THE ADVANTAGES OF CO-ORDINATED building yards are combustible. Large sums can
ESTIMATES AND COST ACCOUNTS therefore, be saved by a periodical adjustment of
A well developed account will cost both time and money. the insurable value. The cost account will indicate,
Most firms may find it necessary to collaborate with a at any time, the exact value of all stocks in hand.
book-keeping expert, in which case they should carefully
consider beforehand what kind of information they want (6) Labour will always constitute an essential item
in the account and, also, when they want to see the in the total cost of production. Even if the
results. The annual cost of book-keeping should be hourly wages are fixed in accordance with an
considered too. On the basis of this information a book- agreed scale, the amount may be subject to great
keeping expert will easily be able to find a suitable variations but clever management and rational
system for the firm concerned. The advantages repre- production should achieve the best results. The
sented by a cost account will, of course, vary in different demand for contract work must also be considered
companies but will generally include: and a well developed calculation system giving
all details of working hours will be extremely
(1) The possibility of more orders, as the firm has a useful when organizing such work.
safer basis for estimating minimum prices.
(7) It is important that the labour costs be divided
(2) The company can avoid contracts involving a loss. into "productive" and "unproductive" work.
If, for instance, the annual costs of transportation
(3) Many jobs can be carried out on a cost basis if it within the boatyard are known, one will no doubt
has been agreed beforehand that the price should find appropriate to consider the whole trans-
it
be the firm's own costs plus a specified profit. portation problem. First and foremost, buildings
Many buyers have a latent suspicion of the and machines should be placed in such a way
calculations of boat builders who, on the date of as to facilitate smooth production so that,
[238]
ECONOMICS HOW COSTINGS RATIONALIZE CONSTRUCTION
during manufacture, materials are not needlessly solve this problem satisfactorily. Here, also, the
moved about the premises. When the problem accounts giving exact working hours for the
of minimizing transportation has been solved, the various operations will provide valuable guid-
question of the cheapest way of handling move- ance for an estimate of the savings to be gained by
ment of goods and materials will arise. For most using improved mechanical equipment.
yards, trucks with rubber wheels will be suitable
for both indoor and outdoor transportation but (10) Lamination of wooden materials will be advan-
in addition equipment must be installed to give tageous in many cases. The cross section of a
adequate lifting power whenever needed in the detail can be reduced without diminishing the
boatyard. Such investment in suitable means of strength, and a more economical use of the
transportation will quickly pay for itself. materials, for instance for frames, is thus obtained.
Clearing-up and cleaning will also be classified The most important thing, perhaps, is that the
" "
under unproductive labour and it is an standard saw-mill dimensions can be used, which
essential cost item. A cyclone plant sucking away makes access to dry materials easier. In districts
shavings from wood-planing machines as well where large keel and keelson dimensions are
as an industrial vacuum-cleaner for use in the difficult to obtain, lamination is indispensable.
works and on board hulls under construction, Lamination, however, generally means increased
are good investments. working-time. Here, also, the accounts should
give the right comparison of the costs (materials +
(8) In order that the boat builders can keep pace +
wages overhead expenses) of the two alter-
with developments, new working methods should natives.
be applied. Here, again, it is important that the
account should show what can be gained when (11) Other materials are being used more and more
changing over to new methods. as a substitute for wood. Aluminium, for
Mass production is taking place in almost all instance, is used for superstructures, fish rooms,
industrial undertakings and might be applied etc. Many shipyards build the whole hull of
successfully to boat building. In that case, ship- aluminium; others use steel. Plastic also seems
yards will have to specialize in a few boat types. to have great possibilities as boat building
It ought to be possible to organize in each district material. But whatever the development, a
some suitable distribution of production amongst comparison of the costs of the various construc-
the various builders. tion methods will always be necessary, especially
It would be an advantage if several similar in a transition period.
boats could be built at the same time. By using
a system of measurement, most materials can be
manufactured for a number of boats at the same CALCULATION SYSTEM
time and various details of hull and fittings can To calculate the cost of a fishing boat involves much
be manufactured and assembled. work. The boat must be divided up into the smallest
In this way a better distribution of the work details. The more detailed the estimate is, the less will be
is obtained with more specialized work for every-
the effect of a miscalculation of a single detail on the
body. The machines are operated by special total sum. The calculation must be made according to
workers: the framework by one gang, the erection a system which can be compared with the cost account
of the frame by a second gang, the planking by as the construction of the boat proceeds.
a third gang, etc. This procedure, however,
requires several boats being built at the same DIVISION OF DETAILS
time, so that whenever a job is completed on one
The boat must be divided up into details according to a
boat, the gang can continue on another.
Such mass production demands detailed pre- system which is suitable for the enterprise. The following
9
division is adopted by the Norwegian Boat Builders
liminary work. The time for the various opera-
tions must be calculated carefully and the right Association. In the case of large boats this complete
number of workers placed in each gang, so that division only should be used; for smaller boats groups
00-10-20 have to be used.
production proceeds smoothly, i.e. one gang
does not have to wait until another gang has
01 Keelshoe 19 Miscellaneous
finished its work. Without a good calculation 02 Stem 10 Total framing
apron
system, it will be almost impossible to co-ordinate 03 Sterntimber horntimbers
the various working operations. 04 Dead woods 21 Planking
09 Miscellaneous 22 Keelson
00 Total keel, stem and stern- 23 Bilge stringer
[9) On the whole, the mechanical equipment of many post details 24 Beam shelves
25 Ceiling outside stringers
boat yards is old-fashioned and in view of existing 11 Frames (tool-timbers 26 Shaft IOH
high labour costs, it is of vital importance to 12 Frame fastenings 27 Engine foundation
[239]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
29 Miscellaneous 63 Oiling and painting To this must be added a considerable percentage of
20 Total planking 69 Miscellaneous
60 Total finishing which
loss will vary for the different details and types of
31 Deck wood and will also differ according to quality and
32 Deck beams 71 Engine dimensions of available materials.
33 Covering board 72 Engine installation
34 Bulwark 73 Engine room (plates, sheets, The cost account should indicate the exact quantity
35 Hatches asbestos) of wooden materials used for constructing the boat. If
36 Deckhouses and superstruc- 74 Accommodation engine " "
the built-in cubic is deducted from this, the loss in
tures room
37 Bulkheads under deck 79 Miscellaneous respect of the detail concerned or the whole boat is
39 Miscellaneous 70 Total engine shown. Expressed in percentages it is:
30 Total deck
81 Deck fittings
41 Fastenings and nails 82 Steering gear Loss in cubic x 700
42 Knees and strapping 83 Spares, sail and rig -percentage of loss
cubic used
43 Stem 84 Loading gear
44 Rudder 89 Miscellaneous
49 Miscellaneous (galvanizing) 80 Total deck fittings The most accurate result is obtained by calculating
40 Total fastenings and nails
the percentage of loss for the various types of wood
91 Interior equipment
51 Carpenter work 92 Deck equipment separately. The percentage of loss should be checked
52 Fittings (bull eyes) 93 Engine equipment frequently to gain experience for future estimates of
53 Water and sanitary arrange- 94 Life saving equipment
ments 95 Nautical instruments similar boats.
54 Heating and Ventilation 96 Wires, chains and hawsers (!B) Fastenings. expedient to separate spikes,
It is
55 Electrical arrangement and 99 Miscellaneous into
screws, bolts, nails, etc., special groups.
navigating lamps 90 Total equipment
59 Miscellaneous (lc) Other materials. Under this group can be included
50 Total accommodation 13 Miscellaneous (slipways, all other than wooden materials and fastenings. This
templates, transports, item may also be divided into different groups, but it
61 Caulking etc.)
62 Paying 100 Total sum should not be necessary as the groups of commodities
specified under the various boat detail numbers will be
uniform.
DIVISION OF EXPENSES
This splitting up of materials under the various boat
The cost of production to be calculated can be divided detail numbers is of practical importance. When the
into three main groups: material, productive wages,
prices change, each item effected, which on the whole,
overhead expenses. The item materials should be divided follows the same price level, can be corrected propor-
into sub-groups, for instance: wooden materials, fasten- tionately. Really accurate results are not obtained in
ings, other materials. this way but in any period with continual changes in
Under the various boat detail numbers there will thus it will be a hopeless job to correct all the calcula-
prices
be an estimate for each of these items: .
tions.
For firms with a saw mill of their own, the ready-cut
(!A) Wooden materials; wooden materials should be transferred to the rest of
(Is) Fastenings; the production according to current prices.
(lc) Other materials; For firms with, for instance, a forge, a plate shop,
(2) Direct wages (productive wages); a carpenter's shop, of their own, semi-manufactured
etc.,
(3) Overhead expenses. parts, such as stem- and
rudder-fittings, rudder, hanging
and horizontal knees, bolts, doors, cupboards, tables,
(!A) Wooden materials should be classified separately etc., should be calculated by the shop concerned so
according to each type of wood used. Quantity could that only the price for the whole finished article is given
be calculated in linear measure, grouped according in the boat estimates.
to breadth and thickness; or square measure, grouped Freight expenses must be included in the price of the
according to thickness. But the best thing is to use materials with such percentage added as experience has
cubic measures this being the easiest comparable unit and, proved necessary.
at the same time giving the necessary basis for estimating (2) Direct wages. The splitting up of the total wages
the weight of the wooden materials. The method of bill is taken up in the cost account section. (Editor's
calculation chosen should, however, be used consistently note: It is not included in this paper.). Only direct
for all later calculations. The next question is whether (productive) wages are mentioned here. The working
one will calculate the net cubic content of the finished hours are calculated in hours and decimals of hours.
detail or the cubic content of the wooden piece which, For instance 5 minutes=0.12 hours. The working hours
according to experience, will be used to provide the are calculated for each detailed number in such a way
finished detail. In the latter case the off-cuts must be that they permit a reasonable profit for contract work.
added, and for curved pieces, the breadth must be The calculated working hours should form the basis
considered. Here, also, it will be necessary to carry out of contract work and a very exact estimate must, there-
an absolutely uniform method of calculation for all fore, be made. Time studies would be of very great
estimates. importance.
[240]
ECONOMICS HOW COSTING RATIONALIZE CONSTRUCTION
(3) Overhead expenses. These are summarized in cost given. And here we arrive at the most important
is
the overhead percentage. The current a
percentage is to point, comparison between the cost of the work carried
be found in the cost account. The usual thing is to calcu- out and the estimate of the same work.
late the overhead
percentage in its entirety, but larger The differences that may occur are:
enterprises may calculate different percentages for their For materials: Changes in prices, quantities, types of
different departments. material or qualities.
For wages: Changes in working hours or wages.
(4) Special expenses. These are expenses not included For one can employ several assistant workers
instance,
under the usual overhead expenses for instance, or apprentices and get a great number of hours but,
guarantee-fees, provisions and expenses, for classifica- nevertheless, get reduced wages a fact which should be
tions, certificates, inspections, etc. They are added at closely analysed.
the end of the estimates. To what extent these changes should be corrected in
There should be special calculation forms for each the estimates is an important question which must be
of the three groups of materials and also for direct carefully considered. On the whole, the estimates should
wages and, finally, a form where wooden materials, express what the cost account has taught us after the
fastenings, other materials, number of hours, wages, construction of the boat. The estimates should, therefore,
overhead expenses and total costs are entered. be corrected correspondingly so that they indicate what
The first item to be entered in the estimates will then the next boat will cost. Such corrected estimates will be
be 01 Keel Shoe. It is compared with drawings and extremely valuable for future price quotations for similar
specifications: boat types or when fixing contract work rates.
Wooden materials are specified on one form, the In the case of great differences one must try to find out
percentage of loss is added, and the total is transferred whether these are permanent or caused by special cir-
to the final form. cumstances during the construction of the boat concerned.
Fastenings such as bolts and spikes are measured, For example, specially favourable or unfavourable
added up and arranged according to dimensions on a purchases of material, or delayed supplies which have
second form. The total is transferred to the final form. rendered rational working methods difficult, are devia-
Other materials are entered on a third form in the same tions that should not be expressed in the estimates.
way. On the other hand, differences caused by the fact that
All the data necessary to estimate the number of the quantity of materials used is inconsistent with the
working hours are then given in the various forms and estimates, and price differences, must be corrected.
"
they can be specified on a form for direct wages ", Wrongly calculated working hours and changes in
from where the total can be transferred to the final hourly wages must, of course, be corrected.
form. (Editor's note: This paper has been translated from
The procedure is same for each boat detail number.
the Norwegian. The original contribution also included a
All materials arc entered on the respective forms
first section on cost accounts but the translation was confined
and then the data necessary to estimate the number of to the material here given. Readers are referred to the
working hours are taken from these forms. author's extensive article (Christensen, 1948) on the
The cost account should follow the same lines as the subject presented at the Scandinavian Fishing Boat
estimates so that for each boat detail number the exact Congress in 1947.)
[241]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
Mr.Jan-<>lafTraung(FAO): Different fishing methods deter- that fishing can be carried on by small crews. Some of them
mine the various boat types. The main methods used are: are designed as combination boats. This raises the point
trawling, purse-seining, gill netting, Danish seining, long whether it is economically sound to design a boat to be used
lining, trolling, hand lining. for two, three or, perhaps, all the various fishing methods.
Trawling is done over the stern on the Pacific coast of In a way every fishing boat is now a combination boat.
North America, in the Mexican Gulf, in the Mediterranean Norwegian boats, for example, use long-lines, hand-lines,
and, to some extent, in New England, U.S.A. (especially at trolling lines, purse seines and gill nets. Yet it would be
New Bedford, Mass.). On both side of the Atlantic- difficult todesign a combination boat which would be most
Canada, U.S.A., England, France, etc., trawling is carried suitable for every area of the world. In some places the most
out over one or both sides of vessels, while many fishermen important fishing method is trawling; in other places, purse-
of Portugal, Spain and Japan use the pareja method in which seining; so that a combination boat, to be the best boat for
the boats work in pairs and drag one net between them. In a particular area, would have to be designed to meet primarily
the Mediterranean and in Sweden and Denmark, very light the demands of the most important fishing methods used in
equipment is preferred, yet Dutch and English fisherman, that area.
working on the same fishing grounds as- the Scandinavians, The design of present-day fishing boats varies considerably
use quite heavy equipment. Floating trawls are normally from area to area. U.S. Pacific boats, for instance, have the
used by two boats fishing in pairs. steering house and engines ahead, but the boats used on both
Purse-seining is done over the stern on the U.S. Pacific sides of the Atlantic have them aft. The Mediterranean type
coast and over the side in European waters. The handling of boat has the steering house ahead, with the cargo room
varies in the Pacific boats, some using a turntable, some using underneath it and the engine room midships, a very awkward
a drum, and some using neither. Purse-seining is also carried and unpractical arrangement whereas the Irish type of
"
out from small seine boats working with the mother-ship ", fishing boat has the engine ahead, the steering house aft, and
such as those used in the menhaden fishery on the U.S. the cargo room midships.
Atlantic coast, much in the same manner as it is done in The problem of deciding whether to have the engine and
Norway and Iceland, but in Sweden the purse-seine is used steering house forward or aft is difficult. Placed forward, as
over the side on an ordinary fishing boat. Scottish fishermen in the Pacific type of boat, it permits a large fishing platform
also employ this method when using their type of purse- aft, but it makes difficult the captain's task of watching
seine, the ring net. The gill net is sometimes used from the fishing operations, especially when setting a trawl. Steering
fore part of a vessel in Iceland and Scotland, but from the a straight course is also more difficult and pitching is felt
stern on the U.S. Pacific coast, where some boats are equipped more. From a naval architectural point of view, it cannot be
with drums. considered right to have the main weights concentrated in
Danish seining is common in Europe and it is also practised the fore part of the ship and heavy tanks situated aft. There
in Japan and, to some extent, in Australia. It consists of a are extraordinarily large torsional stresses in the long propel-
type of drag net with long ropes, which is laid out in a circle ler shafts while the hull is subject to hogging and sagging.
or triangle. The long ropes and the net are usually hauled in For seaworthiness, the centre of gravity should be aft of the
by the boat lying at anchor. A variation, in which the boat midship section and not before, as it is likely to be with such
is steaming slowly while hauling in the ropes, called fly- an arrangement. An engine forward raises the centre of
dragging, is being used more and more, particularly in Ireland gravity.
and the U.K. Danish seining is an efficient method but is There appear to bediffering opinions regarding the use of
not yet in use in North America, with the exception of some wood or steel and other materials in building fishing boats
boats in Newfoundland. In long-lining, Norwegian fishermen and, where preferences have been expressed, they seem to be
use a long-line winch in the fore part of a vessel. Then there based on familiarity with the material concerned. The excep-
is the type of halibut long-lining used on U.S. and Canadian tion is Mr. H. C. Hanson who, although he probably has the
west coast boats and the Japanese type of tuna long-lining, best knowledge of wood of any living naval architect, prefers
which Mr. H. C. Hanson recommends as an additional steel. In Europe, sawn frames are used for almost every fishing
method for American tuna vessels. boat down to 40 ft. (12.2 m.) in length, but on the Pacific coast
Hand-lining, considered to be a primitive method of fishing, of North America steam-bent frames are used in building
can be carried out from almost any small boat, but the most boats up to 130 ft. (40 m.) in length. The advantages of
complicated fishing boats in use to-day, the tuna clippers, are using steam-bent frames are: they save space; they are
designed to use this simplest of all fishing methods. cheaper; and, in bending them, a check is made on the quality
The trolling boats on the U.S. west coast are very specialized of the timber.
and are fitted with much mechanical handling equipment so There is considerable difference of opinion concerning the
[242]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
merits of government regulations controlling the construction be good enough to remain in service for another 25 years.
of fishing boats. Where, as in the United States, there are no In an effort to offset the big labour costs to-day, aluminium
rules, some builders construct boats that are too weak. In was being used in the hulls of smaller vessels. It was hoped
Europe there exist a number of classification societies, such that more use could be made of such material, and of plastics,
as the Bureau Veritas, with flexible rules. If a boat builder to reduce construction costs.
can show that a certain design is safe, even if it does not Instead of trawl winches being set up in the sides of a
conform to the printed regulations, the plans are approved. vessel, there should be a single combination winch in the
But many European governmental regulations tend to stifle centre of future vessels. Much time would be gained by using
development, although, of course, there are always exceptions. dynamometers or gauges with the trawl winches, as they
There has been disagreement over the question of V-bottom would tell when it was time to haul the trawl. Hydraulic
design, some experts claiming it to be cheaper, some saying drives are used in U.S. vessels operating in near waters. Air
it is dearer. An
important point concerning V-bottom design is also used, but most drives are mechanical, because there are
is of material is the same and the number of
that, if the cost big distances to be sailed and mechanical drives are most
working hours is the same, a saving would still be made by reliable.
using less skilled, cheaper labour. Some Europeans are critical of the light-weight engine but
A main obstacle to mechanizing fishing fleets in under- U.S. boat builders are grateful for its development. Many
developed countries is the lack of harbours. Knowledge of owners cannot afford heavier engines. That is not to say
design of beach-landing boats is, therefore, important. The the light-weight diesel should be used for every fishing boat,
Danes and the Portuguese, among others, have shown that but it has its place.
mechanized boats can be landed on beaches. The problem Costs are causing great concern in the U.S. boat building
is to design a boat which is simple and cheap enough to build industry. A 57 ft. (17.4 m.) boat now costs about $70,000
for, say, India, and this is one of the acute difficulties faced (25,000) and a 100 ft. (30.5 m.) one about $300,000
by the Fisheries Division of the Food and Agricultural (107,000) prices that are far too high. In view of such costs
Organization of the United Nations. it isprohibitive to build a one-purpose boat.
A world standard fishing boat would be impractical not Laminates are being used in construction in an effort to
only because it could not be designed to be suitable for fishing reduce costs but in many cases the material is being over-
everywhere but also because fishing boats are, in the main, dried, which means that rot will set in within a few years and
built locally. The boat-building industry does not lend itself the boat's life will be finished in 10 years. Prices being what
to the standardization and mass production that takes place, they are, an owner will be lucky to recover his capital in
for example, in the motor car industry. Boats are more varied 20 years, which makes it economically unsound to build a
in size, design, purpose and so on and there will never be boat that will last only 10 years. That is a basic objection to
anything near the demand for them as there is for cars. In laminates and, if they are to be used, they should be used
any case small private boat yards would still be in the position where they can be easily repaired.
to build cheaper.
Mr. Howard I. ChapeUe (U.S.A.): In dealing with the effect
of fishing methods and operations on the design and safety
of boats, he referred again to the Joncsport or Cape Island
COMMENTS BY SOME OF THE AUTHORS boat. It is very easy to point out the deficiencies of this type,
but it is less easy to produce a safe launch, even if changes
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): Small boat yards often tend to are made, because there are certain requirements in a launch
be slack about fastenings, etc., as there are no rules laid down that occasionally put it in a dangerous condition. For
concerning them. The timbering and fastening tables given example, it is necessary to have a low freeboard for handling
may start a move towards setting up recognized standards. certain types of gear; again, it is necessary to have a large
V-bottom construction is cheaper than that of any other cockpit for some types of fishing. No change in model, or
type, with the exception of barge building, when ordinary in the basic design of the hull, will improve the safety of a
floor timbers and frames are used and built up and bolted boat if a large cockpit with low freeboard is a necessity.
together. The V-bottom type of construction will cost 25 per There has been a trend towards steam-bent frames, simply
cent, less in labour than the round-bottom type, although the because they save a great deal of labour, which is cost. Every
cost of materials will not vary much in either case. Steel is sawn frame has to be bevelled and, even though part of the
more often used for building trollers than for gill netters, and work can be done on the handsaw, there is always the dressing
the vessels are usually developed into combination types, off and hand fining to be done, which amount to many hours
because it is of the utmost importance for a boat to be able of labour.
to work the year round to enable the owners to recover their The use of the V-bottom design in the fishing industry is
capital outlay. This is especially true for U.S. fishermen as an economic one. It may cost either more or less than the
they do not receive government subsidies. round-bottom design, and this difference is not wholly con-
The trend now in the U.S.A., in the case of combination trolled by the design. The size of the boat, where it is being
vessels, is to use welded steel construction. Up to 1935 only built, the availability of materials and of skilled labour, are
about 10 per cent, of his designs were for steel vessels; to-day factors which influence the cost. Labour is one of the chief
the proportions are 90 per cent, steel, 10 per cent. wood. factors in the cost of construction of wooden craft, whether
The U.S.A. Register does not cover ihc construction of V-bottom or round-bottom.
wooden boats under a certain size but it is hoped that a stan- V-bottom construction has been almost the only method
dard will be set up for them. used in building commercial boats in Chesapeake Bay
The 24-year-old tuna clipper, Northwestern, was shown in (Virginia, U.S.A.) shipyards for more than 50 years. The
his paper because it was a fine example of sawn frame method was first used for sailing craft and oyster dredgers,
construction, built by Petrich of Tacoma, and would probably but now it is used also for cargo boats. The largest are about
[243
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
70 ft. (21.3 m.) long. They have to be thoroughly seaworthy able saving is effected in the cost of construction. But there
because they work in winter, when Chesapeake Bay can be are other factors involved. For instance, the construction
very rough. The largest boat built by the Chesapeake Bay shown in many of the U.S.A. Pacific Coast craft, either the
method was about 94 ft. (28.7 m.) long and she was later sold round- or V-bottom, would be expensive on the Atlantic
to the West Indies to operate as a fruit carrier. Coast because there are no timbers of large scantlings. If the
He expressed the opinion that it is possible to build a boat yards on the Atlantic Coast adapted the Pacific Coast
V-bottom boat by omitting the standard framing system and type of construction, particularly in small craft, it would
by changing the planking system. By doing this, a consider- increase costs, an instance of how locality affects the price.
1885
.6ogitta
MM"? 1939
.UMIUW*
610 fete*
1900
mi
W50
WM
19S5 1951
193* 1952
1936
1953
Fig. 310
[244J
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
Again, there are the different costs of materials and labour. into the design of the post-war vessels, and all crew are now
In some places labour is of the greatest importance to cost sleeping aft. For example, a man can now pass to his quarters
but elsewhere materials may be the chief factor. Locality is, from the wheelhouse without going on deck, which was often
in fact, the chief consideration when determining round- and dangerous in bad weather in the old type of trawler. More
V-bottom designing cost. A great many boat yards cannot than one fisherman has been washed overboard in doing that
determine the true cost of a boat until it is completed, so it walk.
is not simple for a naval architect to determine what will be Hebelieved in going to an expert for the design of a new
cheaper. vessel. The best way is to give the naval architect the length,
The speed-power characteristics of the V-bottom type have the breadth and the depth of the vessel, and the h.p. and speed
not been fully explored. A good deal of research has been required. The architect is then in a position to design the
done on V-bottom models for high speeds but they are un- new trawler. It is always best to leave the matter entirely in
suited for the relatively low-speed ratios of fishing boats. the hands of the architect and not try to tell him how to
There can be a saving in constructing steel boats with make the design. Then, having obtained a first-class design,
V-bottoms but reasons of economy control the selection of it is best to go to a first-class builder and keep a careful
steel or wood. In some areas it is cheaper to use steel but that watch on the construction. He stressed the point that the
is not applicable to all areas and there are many places where
it is cheaper to build in wood.
Fig. 311
Mr. Fred Parkes (U.K.): As an owner he praised the part
Fig. 312
played by France in the post-war development of various
types of trawlers, especially those with diesels designed by
Mr. E. R. Gueroult. They proved to be excellent vessels. technicalities of design and boatbuilding should be left in
After more than 50 years in the fishing industry, Mr. Parkes the competent hands of the experts.
found it paid to proceed cautiously with investments in fishing Friends from Holland had asked him why he was building
boats. His companies had built more than 60 fishing vessels small ships when the North Sea is being over-fished. The
of various types since the war distant, middle and near water reason is that the Government in Britain makes a grant of
trawlers and drifters. All this experience has led him to 25 per cent, of the cost of fishing vessels up to 1 30 ft. (39.6 m.)
believe that diesel-driven vessels are the boats of the future. in length. For example, the Government pays the fishing boat
The old coal-burning steam trawler is now too expensive to owner 25,000 ($70,000) if the boat he is building costs
operate. Before World War II, coal used to be 21s. ($2.95) 100,000 ($280,000). In addition to this money the Govern-
a ton, f.o.b., in England; it is now 4 ($11.20) per ton. ment also makes loans to owners at a low rate of interest to
What owners chiefly demand is a constantly dependable provide for at least part of the remaining 75,000 ($210,000).
diesel, otherwise operation of a diesel trawler may be very The Government gives owners further help by means of a
expensive. He illustrated this point by saying that if a trawler subsidy if a vessel is losing money. The sum does not cover
has to put into a port, say on the Norwegian coast, for engine the difference between loss and actual operating expenses,
repairs it costs a lot of money, sometimes as much as 2,000 but it may be 100 to 120 ($280 to 340) on a single voyage
or 3,000 ($5,600 or 8,400). Such a sum eats into the year's plus 4d. a stone ($0.0033 a Ib.) on all fish landed for human
profit, and it can nullify the advantage of the lower fuel con- consumption. These are the reasons why near- and middle-
sumption of the diesel. Constant reliability is, therefore, a water fishing boats are being built in Britain, but construction
most important factor for trawler owners. of distant-water ships has almost ceased because they do not
A great deal of thought for the welfare of the crew has gone pay. They cost up to 200,000 ($560,000), their upkeep is
[245]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
very expensive, depreciation is heavy, and the price of fish
is not high enough to make big fishing boats an economic
success.
Mr. H. Karat (Germany): A comparison between the first
German steam trawler, Sagitta, and the
motor trawler,
latest
Cap Blanc Ncz, shows that there has been no significant
change in the size of the vessels since 1885. On the contrary,
during the past 10 years there has been a slight trend towards
smaller trawlers (fig. 310).
Since 1945 an effort has been made to find out the most
efficient method of propulsion of fishing boats of various
countries whether it should be coal or oil burning for
steamers, with or without an exhaust steam turbine, or direct-
drive diesel, diesel-electric or diesel "father and son"
arrangements. German shipyards have also studied the
problem of finding the most economic propulsion.
Bauer-Wach exhaust steam turbines have been fitted in
steam trawlers and where, for financial reasons, such turbines
cannot be fitted immediately, provision has been made for
installing them at a later date, as in the case of the Wartburg.
Exhaust turbines, either closed or open, have proved very
efficient and trouble free (fig. 311 and 312).
There has been no fundamental change in catching methods
but the conventional fishing gear has been strengthened and
improved. For example, the fairlead has been arranged so
that the crew can control the length of the trawl warps more
easily and the starboard trawl can be used over the port side
fairlead. A mechanical towing block for the warps has been
developed to prevent accidents and to enable the warps to be
handled better.
Another development is that of an oil-filled rigging screw
(fig. 313). There is also a new type of safety hatch (fig. 314)
which prevents water flowing into the coal bunkers when a
vessel is swept by heavy seas.
A saving in top weight has been effected by reducing the
weight of the davits, thus improving a vessel's, seaworthiness
and sea-keeping qualities. Fig. 315 illustrates a new one-
legged davit, which is very simple to handle.
Efforts are being made to prefabricate equipment in traw-
lersand, in this respect, a new type of stanchion for fish-
holds has been made (fig. 316), which is built in by merely
welding two seams.
Professor H. E. Jaeger (Holland): The ideas expressed by
Mr. Gueroult are similar to those contained in his paper
dealing with large trawlers, but he did not feel so sure that
very big trawlers with a fish-hold capacity of 53,000 cu. ft.
(1,500 cu. m.) were suitable for general fishing. They are
perhaps more suitable for long voyages and salting the fish
which they catch. The problem of keeping fish in fresh con-
dition while filling up such a big hold, or even a smaller one,
has yet to be solved.
Mr. E. It Gueroult Between the 140 ft. (42.7 m.)
(France):
French fresh and the 225 ft. (68.6 m.) salt cod
fish trawler
trawler there is a gap which is to be filled in the future. The
fresh fish capacity of the 140 ft. boat will remain what it is
(12,000 cu. ft. or 350 cu. m.), as this is considered to be the
maximum quantity that can be brought to port in good con-
1
dition. It represents about 12 days fishing. The remainder
of the catch will be salted, frozen or otherwise processed.
The fish-hold capacity on any of the new French trawlers is
the same as that of the 140 ft. boat, but on the large trawlers
that fish off Newfoundland, the fish-hold is divided into two 314
Fig.
[246]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
provide plenty of space for fishing equipment. The boat has
a 5 h.p. outboard motor and, in good weather, can sail at
about 8 knots. The larchwood planking is f in. (15 mm.)
thick. The weight of the hull is about 775 Ib. (350 kg.) and,
when taking into account the weight of the motor, equipment
and crew, displacement is about 1,300 Ib. (600 kg.). In this
condition the freeboard is about 16 in. (40 cm.). When used
for transport purposes the boat can carry eight people.
Mr. J. F. Petrich (U.S.A.): One of the problems arising
from the papers and the discussions was to find suitable types
of boats for the expansion of fisheries in the underdeveloped
regions of the world. There are many areas, for example,
in the South Pacific, which are now being developed and the
ways inwhich they should be fished and the types of boats
to be used had to be decided. It seems that small boats
will have to be employed and it is thought that the long-
lining method will be very suitable. This is a problem which
must be common in other parts of the world, and it would
be interesting to know if experts had in mind types of boats
Fig. 315
particularly suited for development in these new areas.
On the Pacific Coast of the U.S.A., for example, are many
watertight holds which, in turn, are each divided into two boat types. Here the greatest development of
efficient fishing
compartments by wooden partitions. fishing took place when the combustion engine was being
The problem of wood or steel construction was examined evolved, and, unhindered by former tradition of sail boat
when it was decided to start the French reconstruction pro-
gramme after the war. It was then decided that, due to the
quality of labour and material available, all boats longer than
85 ft. (25 m.) would be built of steel but, because of the
progress made in welding, the limit has now been lowered to
65 ft. (20 m.). He expressed the opinion that the choice
between wood and steel construction depends on local
conditions.
DIFFERENT TYPES
Mr. W. S. Mines (Canada): There are 5,000 Cape Island
boats in use in the inshore fisheries of Nova Scotia and
Chapelle's criticism of them, particularly about the loss of life,
does not reflect on the hull form or the model but the use to
which the boats are put. They are inshore boats but are being
used for offshore fishing.
Mr. Howard I. Chapelk (U.S.A.): The point raised by Hines
illustrated one of the problems of criticizing fishing boats.
The standard Cape Island boat and the companion Jonesport
boat of Maine (U.S.A.) were both excellent for inshore work,
where shelter can be reached quickly, and for use in protected
waters. Nobody could design and produce such a small boat,
with relatively little power so cheaply or with better qualities,
but both types of boat are being employed for offshore work,
for which they are not suitable. On the other hand some of
them are satisfactory for certain offshore operations because
theirmodel has been improved along the lines mentioned in
his paper. That is, they have been deepened, and for certain
offshore work it would be difficult to find better boats.
Mr. A. Schenrl (Austria): On inland lakes a fishing boat must
not only be suitable for several methods of fishing but also
usable for transport, for which reason the boat must be
stable, seaworthy and spacious. These requirements are met
by a design, fig. 317, for a 20 x 5.6 ft. (6.1 x 1.7 m.) boat
which can accommodate a crew of two or three men, and Fig. 316
[247]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
designs, resulted in the development of very efficient types of regularly so that there is no hold-up in the three production
powered fishing vessels. Adding an engine does not neces- lines which the shipyard keeps going.
sarily make the boat more efficient and might in fact make it
more uneconomical by increasing costs. On the other hand, Mr. Jarl Lindbkmi (Finland) Finland had to tackle the task
:
if the fisheries of the world are to be adequately developed and of building 90 300-ton fishing schooners for the Soviet
expanded, suitable types of power boats must be introduced. Union which were to be delivered within four years as war
reparations. She had no shipyards in which to do the work
Mr. L. C. Ringharer (U.S.A.): The shrimp catching industry and these had to be built before construction of the schooners
of the Mexican Gulf has grown rapidly. For example, a man could be started. Up to 1953 his shipyard had built 45 of the
who had $30,000 (1 1,000) invested in boats in 1947 was con- 90 schooners and, as the result of a trade agreement between
sidered to be a big operator; to-day a man who has $100,000 Russia and Finland, 30 more fishing and seal-hunting vessels
(36,000) invested is thought to be a small operator. In have been ordered. All the boats have been built to the
1947 his shipyard produced about three boats a month, requirements of the Russian Marine Register. Measurements
usually about 50 ft. (15.2 m.) length. About 45 men were of the schooners are: 130 ft. (39.6 m.) over-all length, 30 ft
LENGTH OVER ALL 20 FT.- 6.1 METRES
BREADTH 1.7
Fig. 317
employed. In 1949 trade became bad and the company (9.1 m.) beam, and 30 ft. maximum draught. The full load
started to build a specially designed Florida type shrimp displacement is 730 tons and the speed is 9.3 knots. Cargo
trawler, 60 ft. (18.3 m.) length, by using the idea of mass capacity is 6,900 cu. ft. (195 cu. m.), and they have very
production. Since that time the yard has never been able to large fuel tanks which allow 900 hours of running at full
produce enough to meet the demand. It is now building 10 speed. They have to carry a food and water supply sufficient
shrimp trawlers a month and has set up a programme to for a three months' voyage. To save their fuel, they are
install threeengines a week. The 2 x 4 in. (5 x 10 cm.) equipped with exhaust -gas boilers. They have evaporators for
frames of oak are steamed and spaced at 12 in. (30 cm.) producing fresh water and machines for making bread.
distance. The men start work at 7.30 in the morning and by As the schooners have to operate in Arctic waters, their
7 o'clock in the evening the boat is framed. They can plank planking is very heavy. The outside planking is 4$ in. (1 1 cm.)
a boat in three and a half days and complete a pilot house on on double frames of 6 x 14 in. (15 x 36 cm.), spaced only
a boat in four days. One of the reasons for the success of the H ft. (450mm.) apart. Inside the frames a complete ceiling
methods employed is that Mr. Ringhaver was trained as a is built up to the deck. On top of the planking they have an
cost accountant and he knows exactly how much each and extra thick ice-protection planking of 2\ in. (6.3 cm.) of hard-
every operation costs. The result is a shrimp trawler, com- wood. Sterns are laminated from fir and Brazilian hardwood
pletely ready to fish, for less than $40,000 (14,300). called perola.
One of
the problems arising from such quick production Because of the adverse weather conditions in Finland the
isto get the right lumber, such as the oak frames, planking boats have to be built under cover. In the plant where he
and the material to build the pilot houses. The supply must works, there is space for eight schooners to be erected inside
not only be of the right kind of wood but also delivered the building at the same time.
[248]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
Thekeel is laminated of hardwood and underneath there suitable also for trawling, purse seining and long-lining.
is another keel of solid wood. In accordance with Russian They also use the floating trawl.
requirements all the frames in the foreship are placed together The bigger type of these cutters, ranging from 50 to 100
so that the foreships of the vessels are practically solid. The gross tons, fig. 319, fish mainly in the Barents Sea and in the
hydraulic deck machinery installed is of Norwegian design. waters of the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland. All the
One schooner was built completely anti-magnetic, even the cutters are built of domestic hard oak, a wood unsurpassed
riggings, chains, anchors and everything being made of non- for ship construction. The scantlings are determined by
magnetic material. He added that he could give no infor- official rules. The bigger cutters are often built to a special
mation about the main engine of this anti-magnetic schooner Danish edition of Bureau Veritas rules, which give scantlings
as it was delivered cngineless to the Soviet Union. about 10 per cent, above the usual requirements. This is in
keeping with the best Danish traditions, especially with regard
Mr. Knud E. Hansen (Denmark): Fishing has always been to fastenings and transmission of stresses. Only galvanized
of the utmost importance to sea-girt Denmark, and the variety fastenings are used, and both the equipment and the accom-
of the surrounding seas and the nature of the coast have modation are of a high standard. Direction finder, echo
demanded the development of different types and sizes of sounder, wireless telephone, and decca (loran) are usually
vessels. The most important and best known type is the installed. The motors are mostly the Scandinavian semi-
North Sea cutter, usually from 30 to 50 tons gross, fig. 318. diesels, with controllable-pitch propellers, which have been
It has a reputation of being a most seaworthy boat and is in general use since motors were introduced to the fishing
used for fishing such as the Barents Sea
in distant waters, fleet. A number of cutters are now fitted with Danish built
and the areas off the west coast of Greenland.These cutters diesels of a very reliable type.
are engaged mainly in Danish seine fishing but they are often A smaller type of cutter about 10 to 20 tons gross is com-
equipped with a combination type winch, making them monly used in the inshore fisheries. The cutters are similar to
SCALE IN FEET
J SOonoM TowFISHING BOAT
DIMENSIONS: 65X1 7X0 FEET
10.85 X 3.20x2 75 METRES
Fig. 318
[249]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
the North Sea type but differ in being fitted with a well for the shipyards could carry out only a limited programme of
carrying live fish. The well located in the hold below the
is building replacement because of the shortage of raw materials.
watcrlinc, between two watertight bulkheads. funnel to A Among the new boats built there are two of remarkable
the main deck in the centre line gives access to the well from design. The smaller type has a length of 69 ft. (21 m.), breadth
the deck, and leaves space for dry holds at both sides. of 18 ft. (5.50 m.), moulded depth of 7.8 ft. (2.37 m.), draught
A typical boat for the coastal fishery is about 23 ft. (7 m.) aft of 8.9 ft. (2.70 m.) and draught forward of 6.4 ft. (1 .95 m.).
in length but is seaworthy and reliable under all conditions, The displacement is 105 tons (they measure 64 gross and
fig. 320. Such boats are generally clinker-built and are inex- 20 net register tons) and they are built completely of steel.
pensive. The motors are single-cylinder semi-diesels, very The fish-hold has a capacity of 500 baskets of 1 10 Ib. (50 kg.)
simple to operate. Many of these boats are shipped each year offish. The engine is 150 h.p., 6cyl., 4 cycle, 375 r.p.m., with
to Greenland for coastal fishery work there, for which they reverse gear, but each vessel is also equipped with auxiliary
SCALE IN FEET 100GROSS TONSFISKEKUTTER
1OO GROSS TONS FISHING VESSEL
DIMENSIONS 70 x 21 x 10 3 FEET
24 0X64X315 METRES
. 319
are excellently suited. Numbers are also exported to other sails of 540 sq. ft. (50 sq. m.). Fuel space is provided for
countries. 7 tons. The crew consists of five or six men and the fishing
The west coast of Jutland has few harbours and it is exposed gear and equipment are up to modern standards. These
to strong westerly winds and a special type of beach landing boats are designed for fishing in the North Sea but of the 1 5
craft is used there. Such boats are generally from 30 to 35 ft. that have been built some have been sold abroad.
(9.1 to 10.7 m.) in length, are very seaworthy, and can be The bigger type of cutter has a length of 84 ft. (25.5 m.),
beached, stem first, even in rough weather. They are clinker- a breadth of 21 ft. (6.40m.), a moulded depth of 10.6ft. (3.23 m.)
built of sturdy but not too heavy construction, and are and a draught of 9.8 ft. (3 m.). The displacement is 158 tons
usually powered with semi-diesels, although diesels are some- and they measure 135 gross and 86 net register tons. The
times preferred. In addition to these typical boats, Danish boats are built completely of steel. They are equipped with
shipyards also build steel motor trawlers of the bigger size. 180 to 200 h.p. 6 cyl. diesels with reverse gear, and carry
Many of these trawlers are built for French and Spanish 970 sq. ft. (90 sq. m.) auxiliary sails. The trawl winch, with
owners. two drums of 110 fm. (200 m.) of wire, in. (14 mm.) in
diameter, is driven by the main engine, the trawl wire can
Mr. Paul A. H. Lembke (Germany): Although the German be hauled at a speed of 72 ft. (22 m.) per minute.
fishing cutter fleet had suffered severe losses during the war, The boats are equipped with echo sounders and radio
[250]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
telephone. The fish-hold is 18 to 21 ft. (5.5 to 6.5 m.) in general purpose vessel, which engages in drift net fishing for
length and can store 800 to 1,000 baskets of 1 10 Ib. (50 kg.) herring.
of fish. The crew consists of six or seven men. So far 10 In boats of 50 ft. (15.2 m.) there is much to be said for
boats have been built. They have proved very successful and having the engine forward and the cabin aft, as the hold is
should provide a suitable basis for further development of then located about the longitudinal centre of buoyancy. Thus,
fishing cutters. when fully loaded, good trim is possible in a properly designed
hold, while the cabin aft makes full use of the space up to the
Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.): It is impossible to produce rudder post. While the longer propeller shaft is a disad-
a standard fishing vessel. On the other hand, it is interesting vantage, it is acceptable because of the greater benefits found
to know that the Pacific Coast type of tuna clipper and purse in other directions. In larger boats, of 60 ft. (18.3 m.) and
seiner is arousing much interest in other parts of the world. over, there is more scope for placing engines. Even so,
For example, such purse seiners are fishing at Walvis Bay, it may well be that for a specific purpose the forward instal-
Union of South Africa, while in Australia another type of lation is best.
boat based on the tuna clipper is being used. His firm is building a standard 50 ft. hull (illustrated in his
He recalled that the Pacific Coast type boat was fishing paper) and, of the 30 built in recent years, the engines have
over the stern and said that the new British fish factory ship, been installed in various places, such as right forward, less
the Fair try, does the same. She uses a chute similar to that far forward, right aft and close forward of the cabin. The
of a whale factory ship. She has an aft bridge from which she original hull design was prepared with these alternative
is controlled. The net is drawn up through the stern chute, positions in view. He added that it is usually the owners,
who are extreme individualists, who insist on having the
engine where they want it.
In answer to a question by Mr. Traung as to where he
would personally place the engine in a boat to be used for
Danish seining only, he replied that, in a boat of 50 ft. or
over, he would prefer the engine aft.
Mr. William P. Miller (U.K.): In Scotland builders have
long experience in positioning machinery, dating back to the
conversion of the sailing boats of the herring fishing fleets
to engines. At first it was thought that the crew must be
accommodated aft and the fish-hold placed amidships, with
the engine placed forward of amidships. But it was not long
before builders were experimenting with the engine placed
aft because a number of troubles arose from the engine for-
ward arrangement. There were, in particular, difficulties with
the propeller shaft and trim. As the result of this experience,
the standard position of the engine to-day in Scottish boats
is aft of amidships but forward of the crew's quarters. It
may be said that the modern Scottish fishing boat is some-
320
Fix.
thing of a compromise as it has evolved and developed from
sailing boat types. The key to the problem is the trim of the
vessel with a full hold of fish.
and the fish are carried down through a hole in the deck
into the factory deck below. The chute arrangement might Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.): It seemed to him logical
be something for future Pacific boats. in ship design to put the machinery of the ship
in the part
where it would not take up valuable space which could be
Mr. Howard I. Chapelle (U.S.A.): Fishermen will resist for used for other purposes. For that reason, apart from ques-
practical reasons any great change arrangement of trawlers.
in tions of stability and trim, the arrangement of machinery
For reasons of safety it is desirable to place the pilot house forward could be recommended because it leaves clear the
aft, so tha. the helmsman can watch the winch-man. It also best part of the amidships. It also allowed fish-holds, refri-
has the advantage of simplifying and reducing the cost of the gerating rooms and bait tanks to be placed aft from the break
control equipment. of the foVsle. If the machinery is placed forward there is the
In Irish boats the engines have been placed forward. The choice of having a high-speed diesel driving a generator, with
designers in the United States would like to follow this small electrical propulsion motors at the stern, geared to the
example, but for several reasons it would not work very shaft, or the Pescara free piston generator could be used,
well. For instance, in most of the small U.S. trawlers a chain with its generators forward and its turbine placed towards
drive off the main engine is used to operate the winch, and aft, thereby making it unnecessary to have a long shaft through
to put the engine forward on the other side of the fish hold the hold. Such a shaft is subject to torsional vibrations, and
would call for the use of an hydraulic or electric drive. That stressesdue to possible sagging and hogging of the hull, dis-
would not only add considerably to the expense but would advantages which are the main reasons why the machinery
also increase maintenance problems. should not be placed forward.
Mr. John Tyrrell (Ireland): The best position of the engine Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): He designed and built craft with
depends on the use for which the vessel is intended. What may engines both fore and aft, the decision depending upon the
be ideal for trawling and Danish seining, will not suit a work the boat was expected to do. But practically no one on
1251]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
the Pacific Coast of U.S.A. would build a fishing vessel with suggests thinking of the wheelhouse as a high-visibility con-
the engine aft because it would then have to be a one-purpose trol station,with remote rudder and engine controls available
boat, whereas, with the engine forward, it was possible to at the necessary vantage points. Aside from its other advan-
build a five-purpose boat, able to fish all the year round. tages in propulsion, the possibility of direct bridge control
In the larger wooden vessels, where the engine is placed for- inherent in diesel-electric or controllable-pitch propeller
ward, trouble is experienced with the shaft, but this is not true drive lend further weight for its consideration on the merits
in the case of steel boats. of better manoeuvrability.
IMtARCATIOM
SCALE
01 23456760 IN FEET
10
He thought would be a good idea to place electric propul-
it The unsheltered unpowered steering station belongs to the
sion motors over the shaft log, and the diesel-generator
aft, past; it is recognized that better working conditions permit
forward. This would keep the hold clear and would dispense better work. In the trawler control station adequate heating
with the shaft alley, carrying conduits in the wings. and better window design can play their part. A continuous
convector under the windows, with perhaps a perforated
Mr. Philip Thiel (U.S.A.): Hauling and setting a trawl is a metal glove-drying rack above at sill height, should be con-
complicated and dangerous process. It is important that one sidered. So should an existing type of sash windows incor-
man be in constant and complete control of the situation, porating a horizontal opening that can be quickly varied in
with all means of control at his fingertips. His position is extent and height.
similar to that of a jockey riding a horse; and the engine and Entrances to crew's quarters from deck should have some
the helm should be manageable by him from a position of sort of vestibule to act as a wind trap. This provides a good
complete visibility of the gallows and fishing deck. This place for hanging oilskins. Access to washrooms and toilets
[252]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
Fig. 322
can be from these vestibules, which are thus equally acces- Mr. Eric Estlander (Finland): Two disadvantages connected
sible from the deck and from berthing spaces. Washroom with beach landing to-day are: (1) the boats have to be
areas can then be made the centre of discharge of a mechanical heavily built to stand the wear and tear and strain of beach
exhaust ventilating system. landing; (2) a big crew is needed for both launching and
In the interest of sanitary berthing, the consideration of beaching. In an attempt to eliminate these disadvantages
metal pipe berths is suggested with plywood or other wooden he had designed a very light fishing boat, fitted with wheels,
lining boards on the inside to prevent contact with the cold and had devised a new system for launching and beaching.
metal. Individual clothes lockers of open wire mesh would The boat, fig. 322, measures 24.6 x 8.2 ft. (7.5 x 2.5 m.),
help the ventilation problem. is open and has a cruiser stern. It has an enclosed section
fore and aft, which makes it unsinkable, and has a rather flat
bottom. The boat can be fitted with a normal propeller.
BEACH LANDING This bottom shape may well be changed if experience shows
that the landing frame gives good protection to the hull.
Mr. Hans K. Zimmer (Norway): The Danish naval architect, In that case, it would be given better sea-going qualities.
Knud E. Hanson, recently designed a beach landing craft The rudder is placed outboard and is pulled up when the
for use in the Mediterranean. One of the features of his boat goes into shallow water. It is propelled by an 8 to 10 h.p.
design is the fitting of a centre board. This may be of impor- 4-cycle diesel, with high r.p.m. and low weight. This operates
tance as there is no possibility of beaching if the boat is a 24 in. (610 mm.) Hotchkiss internal cone propeller, which
caught in a storm. It must be able to ride out the bad weather gives the boat a speed of about 6 knots. The engine is sup-
under sail. The design appears in fig. 321. plied with a simple winch device, consisting of a capstan
Fig. 323
[253]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
which is fitted on the camshaft. It revolves with half the lighter and stronger than present beach fishing craft, but the
revolutions of the engine. costs of maintenance would be reduced. Such boats could be
The landing frame fined to the boat is operated by a lever mass-produced and, for delivery to distant places, the hulls
and can be hoisted or lowered. The nose' wheel is
easily could be set into each other and all the machinery and equip*
16 x 4 in. (40 x 10 cm.) and the other two wheels are ment transported separately. The boat could then be fitted
18 x 7 in. (46 x 17.5 cm.). They are equipped with up with its engine, landing frame, and other machinery and
springs
and have a total capacity to carry 7,000 Ib. (3,200 kg.). gear, at the place from which it is to operate.
The landing method, fig. 323, consists of using the boat's
own winch to pull it up the beach along a hawser, one end Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): He described an Army
of which is anchored on the beach, and the other in the sea amphibious vessel, called the Bare, which is a development
some 100 ft. (30 m.) offshore. The hawser is left slack and is of the World War H DUKW. The Bare is more than 60 ft.
supported by a buoy. In landing, the hawser is picked up (18 m.) in length, weighs 200,000 Ib. (100 short tons, 90 tons)
from the buoy and is paid through the boat's hawser pipe and has a capacity to carry 200,000 Ib. (100 short tons,
fore and aft and run over two pulleys down to the capstan, 90 metric tons) of cargo ashore, run up the beach and dis-
Fig. 324 Fig. 325
around which it is turned. By this means, the boat is hauled charge
it. Its four tyres are about 9i ft. (3.1 m.) in diameter
up the beach. and when the amphibian beaches there is only a negligible
In launching, the boat can easily be swung round on its impact on the tyres. In fact, tests with delicate recording
wheels and then it is hauled out to sea by the same method instruments in surfs which ran up to 20 ft. (6.1 m.) gave nega-
with which it was beached. tive results very surprising but agreeably so because it
He had built an experimental boat of 18 ft. (5.5 m.) length meant a considerable reduction in required design criteria.
and 5 ft. (1.5 m.) width, and fitted it with a 3 h.p. one cyl. He endorsed Mr. Estlander's view that beaching with the
Stuart Turner, operating a Hotchkiss internal cone propeller, help of wheels could be employed on fishing boats and the
fig. 324. His experience showed that the Hotchkiss propeller present round-bottom lifeboats. An interesting point is that
has three advantages (1 ) it is so well protected that it cannot
: the Bare has no springs on its wheels so that it would seem
be damaged by beaching; (2) it cannot get tangled with the that a very simple set of wheels, on a retractable arm with
fishing gear; (3) its situation on the hull enables the boat to no springs and no great supporting members, could be
ride safely and well in heavy seas. But it is heavier, less attached to a beach landing fishing craft. Such a method might
efficient and takes up more room than a normal propeller. well eliminate some of the difficulties now encountered in
This experimental boat, fig. 325, operated excellently, landing and launching fishing boats and it might well increase
landing with little trouble even in comparatively rough water, the number of days such boats could be at sea, and, therefore,
and launching, against quite heavy waves, was found to be increase their earning power.
much easier than had been expected. He described also the development of a rubber-tyre beach-
Boats to his design could be built of aluminium or fibre ing carriage. This was first thought of as a portable, marine
glass. Using these materials would not only make the boat railway which could be transported to any part of the world
[254]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
and used in the repair of vessels. It will have four rubber This will give the vessel a good range of stability and adequate
tyres of 9} ft. diameter and 36 in. (0.9 m.) width and the seaworthiness. It will also provide a dry and completely
carriage will have a capacity to take 150,000 Ib. (68 ton). protected working deck.
The fishing gear will be installed on the shelter deck to keep
Commander R. E. Pkkett (U.S.A.): An interesting cargo it clear of the working deck. The deck gear will consist of two
handling system is used on the west coast of Africa. Cargo pairs of gallows, two steam trawl winches and two deep-sea
vessels sail via Freetown, Sierra Leone, to Matadi on the scientific winches. The fish-hold will have a capacity of 50
Congo river, making 25 to 30 stops on the way. Discharge tons, and a freezing plant will be installed in the vessel.
of a vessel is completed at Matadi and loading starts for the A triple-expansion steam engine will propel the ship, which
homeward trip when much the same stops are made. Most will alsobe equipped with an exhaust gas turbine, water tube
of these stops are in the open sea, the ship anchoring two or oil burner. The maximum speed will be 12 knots,
and
boiler,
three miles offshore where a heavy surf, varying from 14 to " "
and to increase manoeuvrability an Active rudder of
60 ft. (4.3 to 18.3 m.) is almost always running. The loading 100 h.p. will be installed.
and the discharging of cargo between beach and shore is
handled chiefly by surf boats. The procedure starts at Free- Mr. Hans K. Zimmer (Norway): The Norwegian Directorate
town on the outward voyage. Here the ship takes on board of Fisheries took over a whale catcher hull, 170 ft. (51.9 m.)
a tug of about 28 ft. (8.5 m.) length and some 12 surf boats, and adapted it to use as a fisheries research vessel.
long,
with a crew of winch operators and cargo handlers, about It is propelled by two two-cycle engines driving through
50 men in all. When
the ship anchors off a surf port, the tug friction couplings and reduction gear a single shaft which is
and surf boats are lowered overboard and take up positions fitted with a controllable-pitch Three diesel
propeller.
where the cargo can be loaded into them. Each boat usually 70 kW. D.C. Deck gear includes two trawl
auxiliaries supply
takes two sling loads or between 3,000 or 4,000 Ib. (1,400 to
winches, one big and one small, a windlass and two special
1,800 kg.). Then natives, who arrive from the shore, take winches for handling water specimens. All equipment is
up their stations in each boat and the tug tows them to the hydraulically driven.
edge of the breakers, usually about j mile offshore. At this The ship, G. O. Sars, is, of course, equipped with such
point the surf boats cast off from each other and ride to the instruments as echo sounder and radar. The work carried
beach, each being steered by a sweep and propelled by 8 or 10 out through the vessel has been successful, particularly investi-
paddlers, who are ranged along and sit on the gunwhales as gations of the herring fisheries Which have proved to be of
the cargo takes up most of the space in the boat. In this loaded
outstanding value.
condition the boat has 12 to 16 in. (0.3 to 0.4 m.) of freeboard. A feature of special interest is the asdic (sonar) used for
As soon as the bow of a surf boat touches the beach, the finding fish shoals on the sides of the vessels. The echo
paddlers jump out and, on the next wave, swing the stern sounder, of course, registers shoals passing underneath the
up the beach and tilt the boat towards the shore. The cargo vessel, but the asdic can detect them at any angle. Mr.
is then removed.
Zimmer mentioned also a recent Norwegian invention which,
Asurf boat might be described as follows: double-ender,
by the use of a metal mirror, makes it possible to employ an
single-chine V-bottom, 28 to 30 ft. (8.5 to 9.1 m.) overall, echo sounder as an asdic.
about 4 ft. (1.2 m.) in depth and having about 7 ft. (2.1 m.) The G. O. Sars operates in cold and stormy waters and it is
beam. The sides seem to be flared about 2 in. (5 cm.) per recognized that she is on the small side. She has, however,
foot amidships, and the stem and stern have a slight rake. been so successful that a companion ship is being designed.
The deadrise appears to be about 15 to 20 deg. from the It will be larger and have a different type of main engine
horizontal. There are no thwarts and some bottom boards are installation.
used to keep the cargo out of the bilge water.
On the return voyage of the cargo vessel, when freight is Mr. T. C. Leach (U.K.): British research vessels are basically
loaded, the surf boats are launched into the heavy sea with, fishing boats modified to accommodate laboratories and sea-
again, two sling loads of cargo on board. They are then going scientific staff. They are manned by specially selected
paddled out past the edge of the breakers and are picked up fishing crews so that all fishing gear is handled competently.
by the tug. The usual cargo loaded consists of bags of cocoa, The research vessel Ernest Holt was launched in 1947 and
palm kernels or other baled or packed produce of the West is similar to the big British distant-water trawlers. She is
African Coast. 175 ft. (53.3 m.) in length and 30 ft. (9.1 m.) in beam, and has
He expressedthe opinion that surf boats of this type might laboratories below deck and level. She is fitted with
at deck
be with two air-cooled petrol engines, the twin screws
fitted all the latest navigational aids and is propelled by a steam
being protected by skegs and guards. The steering could engine with an oil-fired boiler. She is used for research within
still be done by sweeps. the Arctic Circle Barents Sea, Faroe Islands, Spitzbergen,
He had seen nothing like these boats in other parts of the Iceland and Greenland. She works to carefully planned pro*
world. They were simply constructed and, in addition to grammes with a different team of scientists for each voyage,
being hoisted on and lowered off the ship several times a day, depending on the nature of the work in hand. For example,
they make four or five passages through the surf in a day and one voyage may be devoted to plankton and echo trace obser-
are used to carry fresh water when lying on deck. They are vations and another to hydrological or fish tagging work.
very strong and seem to last for many years. Another British research vessel is the Sir Lancelot, a trawler
of 126 ft. (38.4 m.) in length and 23 ft. 8 in. (7.3 m.) in beam.
She is also propelled by a steam engine with an oil-fired boiler
RESEARCH VESSELS
and her area of operation is the North Sea, the Channel and
Captain H. Bertram (Germany): A German fisheries research waters near the British Isles. She has a laboratory below
vessel now under construction will have the shape and size deck and she is mainly engaged on echo surveys, plankton
of a modern trawler but will be built with a shelter deck. work and gear tests.
[255]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
There are two other research vessels, the Platessa, an ex- auxiliaries are stopped. A transformer is fitted for land attach-
Admiralty wooden motor fishing vessel of 88 ft. 6 in. (27 m.) ment when the ship is lying in port.
length, 24 ft. 4 in. (7.4 m.) beam, diesel driven, and the There is accommodation for 22 people in 10 two-berth and
Onaway, a small wooden drifter of 53 ft. 3 in. (16.3 m.) in two spare cabins.
length, and 16 ft. 3 in. (5 m.) beam. Both vessels work in The main winch, driven by two 32 kW. motors separately
near waters and their programmes include herring tagging, or in conjunction, is suitable for two purposes: (1) For
echo surveys and research on demersal and pelagic fish stocks. hoisting the deep-sea net by a single wire of conical shape with
Both vessels have small laboratories on board. a maximum diameter of i in. (19 mm.) and a minimum
In addition to these vessels there are those controlled by diameter of i in. (9.5 mm.). There are 3,300 fm. (6,000 m.)
the Scottish Home Department. The largest is the Explorer, of wire which is hauled by two central drums, 17.3 in.
135 ft. (41 m.) in length. She is being replaced by a 175 ft. (440 mm.) and 23.7 in. (600 mm.) diameter respectively, with
(53.3 m.) distant-water trawler. Then there is the Scotia, a speed of 100 to 165 ft. (30 to 50 m.) per minute. The maxi-
a convened Admiralty trawler of 164 ft. (50 m.) and two mum load taken by the wire is about 6.6 tons. (2) For
wooden motor fishing vessels, the Kathleen, 55 ft. (16.8 m.), trawling. In this case there are two drums each large enough
which is a seine net vessel, and the Clupea, 75 ft. (23 m.), to hold 1,400 fm. (2,600 m.) of i in. (16 mm.) diameter wire.
which is a drifter. The wire, as it comes from the drums, is led under the
TheBritish Herring Industry Board also owns two motor deck to a winding up drum with a minimum tension of about
fishing vessels, the Silver Scout, and the Silver Searcher, 1 10 Ib. (50 kg.). To overcome the difficulties of the constantly
which are used on research work occasionally but sail mainly varying number of revolutions, the winding up drum is
as reconnaissance vessels during the herring season. The worked by an air-driven motor.
Marine Biological Association at Plymouth recently launched At the rear end of the deck there is a large roll to help haul
a new research vessel of 115 ft. (35.1 m.) length, driven by the net, work which is normally done by hand in the final
diesel. stages. The cylinder is turned by an air-driven motor of 14 h.p.
A large platform, inclined against the stern, receives the con-
Mr. P. Mardesic (Yugoslavia): A new research vessel, owned tents of the net and keeps the deck dry and clean.
by the Institute of Oceanography and Fishery in Split, Two 3-ton derricks handle the trawl boards. They can
operates in the Mediterranean, the Adriatic and the Red and swing in and outboard, and can be used to lift a boat across
Black Seas. The work done in her includes the study of the the stern.
life of the sea, oceanography and experimental fishing of On the port side are two serial winches for oceanographic
various kinds. The principal dimensions of the vessel are: work, each taking 3,300 fm. (6,000 m.) of 0.16 in. (4 mm.)
diameter wire. They are each worked by a 5 h.p. air-driven
Length over
Breadth
Displacement
....
all . 99 ft. (30.0 m.)
22 ft. (6.7 m.)
250 tons
motor. All told there are four air-driven motors on board
and the compressed air for them comes from an electric-driven
compressor in the engine room.
Main diesel 380 h.p. at 375 r.p.m. The main propelling machinery consists of a 380 h.p.
Maximal speed . 1 1 knots 4 cycle direct reversible diesel of 375 r.p.m., giving a cruising
Low-speed electric drive 32 kW. speed of 10 knots and a maximum speed of 11 knots. A
Giving a minimum speed of 0.25 knots special electric drive is provided for the very low speed neces-
sary for oceanographic work. This consists of a reduction
She is built of wood and has steel superstructures. Accom- gear and a motor of 32 kW., which enables the speed of the
modation for scientists and the crew is located below deck boat to be slowed down from 5 knots to about 0.25 knots.
and the laboratory is placed in the best position on the main The propeller shaft is in two sections. There are two clutches,
deck. It measures 26 x 13 ft. (8 x 4 m.) which is large one each side of the gear, with a small servo motor acting
enough for 15 persons to work in. upon each clutch. Both engines can be kept running, one
The ship is equipped with a windlass driven by an 18 kW. ahead and the other astern. By pressing a button on the
motor. The windlass has two gypsies for ordinary chain, and bridge the electric drive is engaged ahead. By pressing
one drum for deep-sea anchorage, carrying 1,1 00 fm. (2,000 m.) another button the diesel is engaged astern. This causes the
of i in. (12.4 mm.) wire. At the end of this wire there are boat to stop immediately.
27 fm. (50 m.) of | in. (9.5 mm.) chain and a 100 Ib. (50 kg.) Because of its relatively low running costs a vessel of this
anchor attached. Hand hydraulic steering gear is used. The size has advantages over bigger ones. It can be kept running
main mast has two derricks of 3 tons capacity each. To avoid throughout the year and can undertake various types of work
exhaust gases from the engines, all three exhausts are led for which a big research ship would never be used.
through the mast. The cooling water from the auxiliaries is
led to an insulated tank on the flying bridge. From there the Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.): Two new research vessels
water is piped to radiators and shower baths, the galley and have been launched recently in Great Britain. One, the
the laboratory. Surplus water is led overboard. To prevent Africana II, has been built for the South African fisheries.
waste of drinking water, the tanks are connected to individual While she is a Newfoundland Banks size deep-sea trawler,
hand pumps wherever water is made available. Only the she was designed at the start for research work. She has a
laboratory has running water. The main source of electricity double compound totally enclosed steam reciprocating
is in two diesel generators, each 50 kW. of 230 volts D.C.
engine. This takes steam at about 300 Ib./sq. in. (21 kg./sq.
A second supply comes from a 10 kW. dynamo driven by a cm.) pressure from a water tube boiler. It is reported that she
belt off the main engine. In addition, both auxiliaries have is operating successfully. The second ship, built for the Torry
U kW. 24 volt generators for charging batteries. All instru- Research Station, Aberdeen, is also a trawler type but she has a
ments are connected to 220 volt. Those used in ports and on diesel electric propulsion. The high-speed diesels can be com-
stations are of 24 volt, which is used for night work when the pletely removed in one unit, a feature of that kind of installation.
[256]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): The Baird was built for the U.S. Mr. Francis Minot (U.S.A.): The Geophysics Branch of the
Fish and Wildlife Service in 1946. She is a steel vessel, 138 ft. U.S. Office of Naval Research has compiled a catalogue of all
(42.1 m.) long, built as a tug with a raised deck forward and research ships in America.
powered with two 900 h.p. diesels turning one propeller
through a gear. The laboratory was placed where the towing Dr. Waldo Schmitt (U.S.A.): He thought a definite effoi*
winch had been, and a large trawl winch, with four reels, and should be made to find out what engineers, sub-officers and
a hydrographic winch were installed. She has a three-com- crew thought was wrong with each research vessel now afloat.
partment, refrigerated bait well on the aft deck, and a deep- He had worked on Navy vessels and, as a civilian, he got to
freeze compartment below deck. There was hardly any infor- know the crew better than their officers could. From the
mation available of the design of the equipment required and, crew he had heard many complaints about vessels and engines
because of this, he kept a record of the details concerning the and he thought that a compilation of such criticisms would
vessel, together with plans and photographs, and he had read be of value in designing an ideal vessel. The men who have to
a paper about it before the Society of Naval Architects and work a ship have very real practical knowledge of its faults
Marine Engineers, New York. and its virtues.
Mr. Jan-Otof Traung(FAO): Research vessels are sometimes Mr. G.C. Eddie (U.K.): All research vessels have to do experi-
expected to do too many different types of work and are mental fishing and they should, therefore, be basically fishing
equipped with laboratories that are too elaborate. As the vessels. He spoke as one who has been associated with the
ships go out for relatively short periods, they could bring the design of two vessels for research purposes one for fishing
samples they gather ashore and work on them there. There commercially and the other for exploratory fishingand has
is also a tendency to provide too much accommodation on watched the planning of three others. In more than one case
board for guests and government officials in addition to the the employment of consulting naval architects who, in Great
scientists. This takes up space that should be provided for Britain, do not normally deal with fishing craft, resulted in
research work. designs which were underpowered, had insufficient draught,
A research vessel for experimental fishing should preferably and too much side area above the water line.
be built on fishing boat lines but, when most of the research There is a tendency to make research vessels too versatile.
is basic or oceanographic, there seemed to be no reason why Scientists tried to think of all the possible gear they would
a trawler hull should be used. In the Far East, where there need and have it built into the ship. For instance, they have
is much need for basic research, boats of shallow draught, been known to ask for separate electric supplies of 12, 24,
such as motor torpedo boat types, could be used in off- 110, 220 and 440 volts, and frequencies of 50, 60 and 1,000
monsoon periods. He cited, as an example of unnecessary cycles. It very often happens that, after one or two years'
expense, a research vessel built on trawler lines for Indonesia. service, some of this excess gear has to be removed to make
It does not have even a trawl winch, but only a few hydro- room for essential equipment not thought of at the time of
graphic winches which could be carried just as easily on a planning. It is necessary, therefore, to distinguish between
cheaper hull. basic permanent equipment and portable temporary apparatus.
Mr. R. T. Whiteleather (U.S.A.): The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Mr. Francis Minot (U.S.A.): The purpose of his paper was
Service have had a lot of experience in converting all kinds of to indicate what oceanographic ships should be, by deter-
hulls into research vessels and in some cases very great diffi- mining their requirements and indicating how these require-
culties have arisen. In his experience there is no question ments may be fulfilled. It also provided some standard of
that to design and build a ship for a particular purpose proves comparison between research ships in existence to-day and
economical in the long run, even if war surplus hulls could those which might be built in the future. Oceanographic
be obtained for only one dollar. The initial cost of the new and fisheries research are becoming so important and call
ship is, of course, higher than that of the converted hull. for such specialized activities that the day of the converted
But over a period of five or six years there is no doubt that a ship is probably near its end and that, in future, vessels will be
new ship is the better proposition from both the economic and specifically designed and built for the jobs they have to do.
operating point of view. If a research ship is wanted, he Noise control is of the greatest importance in oceanographic
would strongly recommend building it, keel upwards, to the ships. The problem is so new, and the solution so obscure,
design of a good naval architect. that there may have to be many modifications of design before
noise control is satisfactory. For example, the choice of
Dr. Milner B. Schaefer (U.S.A.): It seems perhaps impossible machinery for the ship, and the arrangement and everything
to build a research vessel to serve all oceanographic and to do with the engine room, may be severely affected.
biological purposes simultaneously. It will probably be neces- Mr. Minot referred to the oceanographic research vessel
sary to design a research vessel not only for particular work Atlantis, which he designed for the Woods Hole Oceano-
but for operating in particular areas. For example, research graphic Institution 25 years ago. The only requirements
vessels expected to work throughout the year in the North mentioned at that time were that the ship should be able to
Atlantic must be different from research vessels designed to carry a complement of scientists and scientific equipment, be
work in tropical waters. able to go anywhere on the ocean and maintain herself, and
also be able to move continuously at very slow speeds
Mr. Howard I. Chapelle (U.S.A.): The aim should be to about half a knot. As against those few specified require-
define the purposes of a research vessel and try to build an ments, the naval architect to-day is asked to fulfil a great
ideal ship. In this case, all available information should be many more.
provided at the start and he thought that the catalogue of The Atlantis has been repowered with a 400 h.p. diesel with
research vessels proposed by Mr. Kesteven should include fixed blade propeller as the power requirements have grown
the total cost of a research vessel. continuously since her launching. The controllable-pitch
[257]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
propeller, which was fitted to her originally, did 17 years satisfies investigators;they only do it because they have to
service until it lost a blade during World War II. As it was do In the future such work will have to be done with the
it.
a German propeller there were no means of getting replace- ship under way and with machinery in operation.
ments, so she had to be fitted with a fixed-blade propeller, and
she cannot now produce the same slow-speed characteristics. Mr. D. E. Brownkm (U.K.): The underwater noise problem
Replying to a question by Mr* Nkkum regarding noise in was probably more difficult than most others. In research
research ships, Mr. Minot said it is the over-all noise level ships the aim is to install the smallest and lightest engine with
which so much affects underwater sound equipment. In the greatest power, but the higher the speed, the bigger
other words, it is the engine room noise, the shaft noise, the becomes the noise, especially high-frequency noise which is
propeller blade noise and the noise made by the waves outside
most difficult to deal with. Experiments in Great Britain
the ship. He added that if underwater sound equipment is to show that combustion noises present one big problem, and
be used by fishermen, then these problems concerning noise high-frequency vibration in the framework of the engine,
control will also have to be considered in designing and equip- transmitted to the hull of the vessel, presents another difficult
ping fishing vessels. There has been some discussion as to problem. Mountings and couplings and so on, are being
whether many of these noise problems might not be solved insulated with rubber, and exhaust noises are being silenced,
by using a wooden ship, but there is not enough information but there are certain high-frequency noises which do not seem
available to settle that question. to respond to insulation.
One point concerning noise control is that, whatever the
Commander R. . Pickett (U.S.A.): A
possible solution to
propulsion system used, the internal noise must not be trans-
the engine noise problem in the oceanographic research vessel
mitted externally by a completely rigid shaft. It must be
broken by using some sort of flexible soft coupling. Another
might be to install a high-pressure steam turbo-electric plant
similar to that installed in the T2 tankers. This installation
point is that acoustical experts are rigidly opposed to any
consists of a turbine generator set driving a synchronous
form of reduction gear because all such gears have a noise
propulsion engine. The ratio of the number of poles on the
frequency most difficult to suppress.
engine to the number of poles on the generator is the reduc-
Mr. George C. Nickom (U.S. A.): A large steel tuna clipper tion ratio. Speed is regulated by slowing down or speeding up
was built on the west coast of the U.S. A. in 1937. The ques- the turbine. The main power plant has only three bearings and
tion of the noise level was then debated in great detail, as it no gears, and only two bearings on the electric motor, which
was thought that it might reverberate through the steel hull should ease the problem of eliminating engine noise. With a
and scare away the bait and the tuna. Experience showed synchronous type of engine, with a squirrel cage starting line,
that it had no effect on the fish. it is possible, by using a controllable-pitch propeller, to obtain
any speed control necessary. It is also possible to take off
Mr. W. C. Gould (U.S.A.): A steel vessel had been built in
any power requirements of the ship from the main generator
which absence of noise was required throughout the ship, which, at normal speed, produces 60 cycle A.C., and is con-
except in the engine room. Much development work was trollabledown to about 15 cycles. Controllable-pitch propel-
done to effect noise control and the engine room itself was lersshould be used with this machinery.
insulated. The engine room noise started at 91 decibels and Another type of installation that might be suitable is the
had to be reduced to zero. The insulating consisted of in. H slow-to-medium speed direct reversing diesel, used in com-
(4 cm.) glass wool in the engine room itself and noise baffles bination with an electro-magnetic coupling.
placed in the air intakes. The air-conditioning equipment was For fisheries research vessels, the uniflow steam engine
placed in the engine room and, again, noise baffles and with high-pressure boilers might be suitable. It could have a
flexible couplings were used to suppress sound from it. The fixed-blade propeller as the lead and cut-off are adjustable
engines and the generator sets were installed on spring on the engine. The fuel rate is between that of the turbo-
mountings to deal with the airborne and vibrating noises. electric plant and that of the modern quadruple expansion
Two Morse rubber couplings were used on the propeller counter-flow engine. Problems such as excessive ring and
shafts because a Morse coupling can take a thrust in both
cylinder wall wear and fouling of boilers, and damage to
directions, therefore it was unnecessary to put additional tubes from excessive cylinder oil, have been found in practice
thrust bearings on the shafts. The shafts were about 61 ft. to be capable of satisfactory solution. New cylinder lubricants
(18.6 m.) long and carried intermediate bearings about every and lubricating equipment, diatomaceous earth condcnsate
12 ft. m.) suspended in rubber in sheer. The owner's
(3.7 and judicious surface blowdown seem to solve the
filters
quarters were immediately aft of the after bulkhead of the problems.
engine room, 3 in. (7.5 cm.) from which a false bulkhead was
installed, packed with two more inches of glass wool material. Mr. R. T. Whiteteather (U.S.A.): One of the problems in
The walls and ceilings in the owner's quarters and the deck- research ships to supply a constant voltage to the various
is
house were inserted in rubber channels instead of being delicate electronic instruments. When the voltage varies it
secured to the steel hull directly by bolts and screws. The upsets the accuracy of the instruments. On the John N. Cobb,
rubber channel method, incidentally, was cheaper than the the exploratory fishing vessel built for the U.S. Fish and
normal method. As a result of this insulating there was never Wildlife Service, the problem has been largely overcome by
any noise noticeable at any point in the vessel except in the using hydraulic equipment for taking care of heavy loads.
engine room itself. Such insulating might well be suitable for But problem is so pressing that the
in other U.S. vessels the
a research vessel as there was no noise externally or internally, installation of a separate generator and switchboard panel
other than normal propeller noises. has been considered.
Mr. Francis Minot (U.S. A.) : The present practice on oceano- Mr. W. C. Gould (U.S.A.): One way to solve the variable
graphic research vessels is to stop the engines when carrying voltage problemis to have a 1 10 v. D.C. system on board the
out work which demands silence. This is not a practice which ship. A motor generator set is used, the D.C. motor being:
[258]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
rated at 75 volt. Between the board and the motor generate; on
starting research special subjects. Until that general
set isa sensitive carbon pile voltage regulator which acts very
knowledge has been gained nobody can tell what astounding
quickly. The voltage seldom drops below 45 and it is possible things a deep-sea core may reveal, and anybody who allows
to convert and run the current at 400-420 cycle A.C. his present choice of coring stations to be limited by considera-
There are now small diesel generator sets available, tions of bottom topography, depth, the nearness of land, the
equipped with icocronous governors, and they will keep the influence of volcanism, etc., will miss many opportunities to
current within half a cycle with a voltage variation of about make interesting discoveries.
35 per cent. load. When a great number of cores have been collected in an
The icocronous governor increases the cost of the generator area advisable to make a preliminary examination, and
it is
set by about $200 (70). this is not very expensive, which makes it possible to select
cores which are best suited for a detailed investigation of
Dr. B. Kulfenberg (Sweden): In his valuable study of the
physical, chemical, mineralogical and biological charac-
requirements of the oceanographic research vessel, Mr. teristics.The remaining cores will not be wasted. The geolo-
Francis Minot stated that long cores of bottom sediment are
gist can use them in his attempts to evaluate the detailed
already accumulating more rapidly than they can be fully analysis of the specially selected cores. They will give indica-
studied. A
similar remark was made by Dr. E. C. Bullard tions as to whether certain features are local or general, and
at a meeting of the Society for Visiting Scientists in London in
" they can be useful, without detailed investigation, in con-
1951. He said It is now possible to
get cores 80 ft. (24 m.) sidering the stratification in distant cores which have been
long which, in practice, represent a considerable embarrass- subjected to a full analysis. In this way some of the cores may
ment to their owners". At the same time Dr. J. G. H. reveal facts which, but for them, might have remained un-
Wiseman stated that it is useless to take a core where there known for a long time to come.
is interference from volcanic dust or glaciation or where the
rate of sedimentation is small. Dr. Wiseman protested against Mr. E. R. Goeroolt (France): It is important to have research
the indiscriminate collection of miles of deep-sea cores. vesselswhich are genuine fishing boats, preferably of modem
Dr. Kuilenberg said that, as he is responsible for the fact
design and at least as big as trawlers. They must also be
that cores of 80 ft. can now be gathered and as he had collected able to be used as demonstration boats for fishermen. They
miles of the deep-sea cores complained about, he felt entitled need to be propelled by machinery which is very easy to
to take part in the discussion about them. It is important to
control, so that there is no difficulty in working at very low
keep in mind that it is much cheaper to take a core than to speeds, such as from | knot to 3 knots. Such speeds are
make a detailed investigation of it. If a first-rate winch is necessary in trawling the plankton nets and in using other
available it is possible to take a core at a depth of 3,300 fm.
oceanographic research gear. Controllable-pitch propellers
(6,000 m.) in four hours. The Danish winch Mr. Minot seem to be necessary.
referred to was developed for the Swedish Deep-Sea Expedi- Scientific personnel, who may not be used to life at sea,
tion 1947/8 by Swedish engineers and was then transferred must be provided with comfortable quarters as they may have
to the Danish research ship Galatea. It was most suitable for to stay on board a long time and the success of their work
this work. The expense of a deep-sea expedition is little
depends a good deal on the provision of comfortable accom-
affected by the number of cores collected during the cruise modation.
and, of course, the cost of each core will decrease as more Instrument makers always complain that the recordings
cores are taken. The difficulties arise when the time comes are not very good because the sensitive part of the equipment
to make a thorough investigation of a long deep-sea core. concerned is working in the wake belt of the ship. Attempts
Not only is an investigation expensive but it takes a lot of have been made to suspend the instruments outside the ship's
time, which is one reason why the cores are being accumu- path by means of a retractable device.
lated. If the collection of deep-sea cores in
great numbers is
stopped, the alternative is to collect a few but good cores. Mr. Francis Minot (U.S.A.): In the U.S.A. recording instru-
This may sound very convincing but how is one to know that ments are submerged and towed at a considerable distance
a core being taken is a good one? It is possible to select a from the hull of a research ship. This method might not be
suitable bottom topography but this may take so much time practical for a fishing boat searching for shoals of fish as it
that several cores could be collected meanwhile, and one of would call for the use of elaborate and delicate equipment.
them might be better than a core obtained from a selected
site. It is difficult to choose a site where a good core may be Mr. R. T. Whiteteather (U.S.A.): Asked by Mr. Arthur de
expected. For
instance, unless one is studying slumping, the Fever about the sea scanner used in the John N. Cobb, Mr.
site should be free from slumping, or, unless one is Whiteleather replied that experiments indicate that it is a
studying
volcanology, the site must be free from volcanic ashes, and very satisfactory instrument of the asdic (sonar) type for
so on. Cores often display unexpected features, sometimes
locating not only shoals of fish but, in many cases, individual
interesting, sometimes undesirable, and provide a valuable fish. It has a range of 1,600 ft. (490 m.) and is, presumably,
opportunity for research. effective throughout that range.
The difficulty in dealing with cores seems to be caused by
an exaggerated idea of the value of a core and this leads to
an unnecessarily thorough investigation which does not V-BOTTOM
always pay. But it would be a serious error to cut down the
number of cores to be collected. A new coring technique Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): The cost of labour is about
has opened a new field of research, and new methods are 25 per cent, less in building V-bottom design boats than it is
required to deal with the long cores now available. It is in building the ordinary round-bottom vessels. In his opinion,
appropriate that extensive work is being carried out to obtain V-bottom design is to be recommended for use in the Far
a general knowledge of deep-sea deposits within reach before East.
[2591
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
Mr. G. O. Hnet (U.S. A.): The question of the advantages or MATERIAL
disadvantages of V-bottom and round-bilge boats depends
on the use the vessel is to be put to. He cited his experiences Commander E. C. Goldsworthy (U.K.): Hulls of vessels built
in building 100 vessels of a certain type for the U.S. Army. of aluminium alloy to the correct specification show that after
The Army drawings showed a round-bottom hull but his 15 years there has been little or no corrosion. The metal is
employer, who is a practical man and had been an operator in excellent condition. But a steel hull of the same age
of boats, wanted to know why the boats should be built so would have rusted, no matter how well it was kept painted.
and whether it was economical. Mr. Huet looked into the An important point concerning aluminium alloy hulls is that
question and found that, instead of using the plain V-bottom anti-fouling paint containing mercury should never be used.
design with a single chine, a better form could be obtained by As a large number of anti-fouling paints do contain mercury,
using a double chine. Amodel was constructed of this design, care should be taken to find out the actual composition of
together with a model of a round-bottom boat, and both were a paint before using it on a light alloy boat.
tested at the University of Michigan. It was found that for The radius of gyration of a light metal vessel is the same as
the purpose for which the boat was to be used and the speed for one built entirely of steel.
it was to make, the double-chine type was the best. Efficiency
had been increased by about 18 per cent., and there was no Mr. Wm. P. Miller (U.K.): For a long time past there has
difference in the cost between the single- and double-chine been talk in shipbuilding circles that the day of the wooden
hull because so many boats were being built to the one design :
ship is almost over, but he felt confident that timber would
both types were much cheaper than the round-bottom hull.
In the case of building one boat there is no doubt that a
V-bottom costs must less than a round-bottom design. He
added that if the naval architect is given full information as
to the speed of a proposed vessel, the type and cargo it is to
carry, the waters it is to operate in, etc., then a V-bottom or
modified straight section boat can be designed which will be
more efficient than the round-bottom boat.
SECTION IN WAY
Mr. W. C. Gould (U.S.A.): There growing interest in the
is
or
fishing industry in the double-chine type of design which
enables yards to build in steel without using bending rolls or
furnacing the frames of the plates. Tank tests show that this
design is as efficient in the water as the round-bottom hulls,
certainly in the speed/length ratio of 1.25. He cited a case in SECTION A- A
which this firm had built an 86 ft. (26.2 m.) vessel, having a
cruising speed of 18 knots. It had a speed-length ratio of
almost 2.1, and several models were built and tank tested
before it was decided to adapt the double-chine design. One iKt WAV OF
of the advantages of the type of plating used* in the double- FISH HOLD
chine vessel is that it is possible to weld the ribs to the plating
before they are placed in the ship's hull. They can be placed
on the forms made by the boat ends, sometimes with a few 326
Fig.
additional wooden frames, until they match the plates. They
do not have to be exact entering the chines as they are welded
at that point. This is often an advantage because of the always remain a shipbuilding material because almost every
waviness present in welded vessels of light plating. country in the world has natural home-grown stocks to draw
from. It is true to say, however, that timber is not being used
Mr. Howard I. Chapelle (U.S.A.): The V-bottom design, to the best advantage and few people recognize that it provides
or the chine hull, has been used for generations. The Japanese the basic food of a very large number of parasites. The life
sampans, for example, have been designed that way for cen- of the wood is measured by the number of parasites living in
turies. This is just another case of using a primitive idea in it. To put it in simple language, they live on the sugar content
modern naval architecture and tank tests show that such of the timber and the most common of these parasites are the
an idea has advantages. Wooden V-bottom hulls are death watch, toredo and gribble and those fungi causing dry
comparatively more expensive to build than the steel type. and wet rot. If the life of timber is to be increased, it must be
given treatment to resist the attack of these enemies. The
Mr. Philip Uriel (U.S.A.) The greatest economies in building
: sugar content must be reduced and, as far as possible, wood
V-bottom steel hulls appear to result from the use of a longi- should be kept in its natural element fresh air. When these
tudinal system of framing, where web frames only are fabri- two points are recognized in ship construction, the life of the
cated from plate and bar stock by welding, and the longi- wood increases enormously. But there have been a large
tudinals are flat bars sprung to shape cold. A
96 ft. (29.3 m.) number of cases in recent years where timber boats have been
vessel was lofted by one man, and entirely fabricated by one condemned. A study of the design shows the reason why:
welder and one burner with no previous ship construction there were large areas of unventilated space and untreated
experience, under the supervision of a loftsman. Aside from timber.
one bow plate, no plate rolling was necessary. This vessel His firm hasmade extensive use of the copper sulphate and
was built under survey of the American Bureau of Shipping a brand now being used, applied by a brush on one side only,
and its scantlings appear in fig. 326. can penetrate 1 in. (2.5 cm.) thickness of mahogany. To
[260]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
eliminate stagnant air spaces, a special ventilator has been
patented which forces fresh air into the bilges and other
inaccessible places.
While he considered steel to be a very good material for
shipbuilding, he pointed out that it has many drawbacks and
is not superior to timber for building small craft. He added
that there are and will be many more cases of steel being
replaced by alloys and plastics than there will be of wood
being replaced by steel.
Mr. S. A. Eaco (U.S.A.): The problem faced by owners in
the U.S.A. was to get delivery of steel boats. It takes 18
months to get one. It seemed that few shipyards were building
such vessels of good design and performance. On the coast
stretching from New Orleans to Brownsville there are, per-
haps, some 3,500 small or large shrimp trawlers in operation,
and there is a strong desire among owners to replace or
expand their fleets with all-steel boats. Would it not be
possible with a system of prefabricated steel hulls? One of
the problems is the high cost of construction, now about
$1,000 (360) a foot. Naval architects, builders and steel
makers, should co-operate to bring down the cost of con-
struction.
Mr. W. Zwolsman (Netherlands) : The question of wood or The cost of the upper part of the pilot house, the masts,
steel belongs to the sphere of economics. The problem is: panelling the crew's quarters and boarding the fish-hold, must
how can fish be produced cheaply as far as boats are con- be added to get the price of the complete hull. In the case of
cerned? The answer is, of course, that the life of steel-built bigger vessels the cost of the wooden deck should also be
fishing boats is longer than that of wooden boats and that, added, but in smaller boats the steel deck is made of plate
together with the low maintenance cost, makes the steel and is already included in the price.
vessel a much more economical proposition.
It would be interesting to know why only the Netherlands Mr. PhUip Thiel (U.S.A.) The deck of a trawler is often wet,
:
have generally taken up construction of steel fishing boats. and the lower part of the deck house sides is thus subject to a
Countries such as Belgium, Germany, France and England, great deal of corrosion. A practical solution is to employ a
for the economical reasons stated, long ago gave up wooden 12 in. (30 cm.) coaming of a heavier plate at the deck, with
constructions of harbour lighters and tugs, etc., which are the main deck house plating lapped inside of this along its
used in great numbers, but their fishermen have not turned upper edge. A light continuous weld on the outside and an
to steelbuilt boats, at least not in the smaller sizes. intermittent weld on the inside are sufficient for attachment.
Another advantage of the all-steel vessel is that deformation Fig. 326 shows this detail.
does not take place in it. It has been stated that wooden Wooden vessels are better off with a steel deck house or,
vessels built after the war have not shown deformation over at least, a steel trunk over the engine room. In some cases
a period of six to eight years and that it has not been neces- this has proved cheaper than a wood house; and in any case
sary to correct the alignment of the engines, but an interesting itdoes reduce the problem of leaks into the engine room.
fact is that many French marine engines are provided with a He regretted that in some wooden vessels the worthwhile
flexible coupling as the manufacturers consider this necessary practice of extending the stern post up to the deck is not
to cope with the deformation of wooden vessels. followed. By pinning the head of this post into the adjacent
One of the first criticisms of steel boats is that they are sub- deck beams, as shown in fig. 327, greater transverse stiffness
ject to rusting. This objection was raised by the Dutch fisher- of the after-end of the hull is assured. Check pieces extending
men in the years 1914/1920when small steel fishing boats past the post on both sides stiffen the counter framing. It is
were introduced. But experience soon showed that these
first felt that if this practice was followed many of the mysterious
" "
objections were not valid. The vessels, varying from 50 to stern post leaks of wooden ships would not occur.
80 ft. (15 to 24 m.) and equipped with 80 to 300 h.p. engines, Foundations for heavy diesels in wooden vessels are always
fish usually from Monday to Saturday. On arrival in harbour a problem: here again steel permits a more satisfactory solu-
a member of the crew walks around the ship to see if there tion. It is important that a steel engine foundation be well
are any spots of rust. If there are, they are brushed with bedded to the keel, as this will use the stiffcst longitudinal
oil or coal tar. The latter is a cheap and effective material member of the hull to advantage in preserving shaft alignment.
and is still much used on the underwater section of hulls of In the case of some 132 ft. (40.2 m.) wooden trawlers the steel
boats in the Netherlands. engine foundation girder plates were extended from the engine
Mr. Zwolsman then gave the following information regard- bulkhead well up into the horn timber. Aft of the engine the
ing the price of steel vessels to facilitate comparison with girders knuckled in to the sides of the shaft log,
and were
wood. The price for the steel hull does not include woodwork moulded to the bearding line. The thickness of the girder
or inventory, but does include built-in fuel and drinking water plate was increased where its depth was reduced. Through-
bolting locked the entire stern assembly into one unit with
the
tanks, superstructure and steering gear. The types refer to
Table XXXVIII of his paper. engine. Fig. 327 shows such an arrangement.
[261]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
LAMINATION used can be straight-grained. Another advantage with
laminated construction is that the risk of drying out the wood,
Mr. John Tymfl (Ireland): The plant and equipment neces- as may well happen in steam bending, is eliminated. There
sary for laminated construction on any considerable scale are times in steam bending, when 'it is not possible to control
would be far too costly for the resources of ordinary boat the extent of the drying and the wood then becomes more
building yards. Orders normally received for new vessels do subject to rot. Preservatives are, of course, being used in
not warrant much expenditure on capital fixtures, especially laminated construction to extend the life of the material.
as there is usually little standardization in size or shape of The problem to-day in wooden ship construction is that of
fishing boat hulls built at any one yard. finding suitable timber. It is becoming scarcer and scarcer
allover the world and that which is available is usually of
Mr. Howard L ChapeDe (U.S.A.): The U.S. Navy is making quality. The result is that, if two or more boats are
mixed
extensive use of laminated structlire but it is notan economical of the same grade of timber, one may be subject to rot
built
method of construction so far because the specifications call in two or three years, while the other may remain in excellent
condition for, say, twenty years. He cited the example of
boats built in New Orleans 20 years ago that are still intact
and without a trace of rot, but, on the other hand, there are
r boats, built at the same time, in which the keel or the chine
or some other part has rotted. In view of this inequality of
the timber available, laminated construction is a distinct
advantage.
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): He designed laminated construc-
tion on high-speed vessels twenty-five years ago. But he was
not impressed with laminations and would like to know how
a laminated frame could be considered good when, if it is
dropped from a height of 5 ft. (1.52 m.) it breaks into three
separate pieces across the laminations. There is also the case
of the laminated wooden keel which broke when lifted. In
his view, the U.S. Government should not have spent untold
millions of dollars on a plant for producing minesweepers
constructed of laminated materials. They should have built
an experimental vessel first. As it is, they have gone ahead
with the building of a whole fleet of boats which, in his
opinion, are likely to rot hi a few years.
If laminations are not done properly the material becomes
wtvs brittle and breaks just like glass. If there was a way to leave
the moisture content in the timber when it is glued, it would
be a different matter, but even then rot would set in.
Mr. LindWom (Finland): He agreed with Mr. Hanson
Jaii
that, under certain circumstances the strength of lamination
SECTION A-A
5CCTION B-* may be open to question. Oak, for instance, is not easy to
Fig. 327
laminate. Experiments carried on in Finland have shown that
the Brazilian wood, peroba, can be laminated fairly easily
but, of course, the best material for laminating is a softwood,
for timber of superior quality. It is necessary to use low cost such as pine. He agreed with Mr. Huet that for the bigger
wood and depend upon preservatives to give it a long life, scantlings it is necessary to use laminations. In building the
iflaminated hulls are to be produced cheaply. The strength schooners for Russia natural wood was tried for the keels,
of lamination is very difficult to ascertain but, then, an analysis which are 100 ft. (30 m.) long, but it was found to be impos-
of the structure of wooden vessels is not easy. sible because, when a log had only a small defect, it was con-
demned. Tests showed that laminated frames with no glue
Mr. G. A. Hnet (U.S.A.): His firm are building about 30 between them were stronger than frames of ordinary construc-
minesweepers which have laminated construction of the tion. The laminated keel was found to be 30 per cent,
frames, the stem and the keel. It was thought, at the start, stronger and about double the sitffness of a solid wood one.
that the cost was going to be very high but it is now found
that it is actually less than it would be if these vessels were Dr. G
A. Rishell (U.S. A.): His experience of laminating or
built by the sawn-frame method. One reason for this is glueing wood together for boatbuilding started 12 years ago
that the cost for forms, damps, bending slaps, heating equip- when the U.S. Navy was in urgent need of laminated con-
ment, moisture recording devices and so on, is distributed struction. In those days there were no suitable glues and they
over the 30 boats. It is possible to use small sections of wood, had to be developed. In the case of bending oak, in ordinary
that have no defects, for laminated construction. In sawn- construction, only one out of 200 trees produced timber of
frame construction, the strength depends on the fastenings, the quality the Navy demanded, but now, due to laminating,
which are not needed in laminated construction. Again, with possible to use wood from every oak tree.
it is
sawn-franieconstniction,ithimpotMW During the Korean War, the U.S. Navy needed to build
grain timber, but with laminated construction all the timber very large minesweepers. These could not be constructed of
12621
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
metal because of new types of mines that had been developed, between 12 and 20 per cent. In glueing, the critical spot is the
and his firm was asked to carry out laboratory research with surface of the wood and it is there that the moisture content
the object of producing a 70 ft. (21.3 m.) frame to withstand is measured, not in the interior. If the surface is overdried,
a pressure of about 19,000 Ib. per sq. in. (1,350 kg./sq. cm.). the water in the glue is absorbed by the wood and that does
One frame was laminated of fir and the other of fine oak, not allow the glue to have proper adhesion. As long as the
and they were both put into the testing machine. The oak surface of the wood has the right moisture content, then there
frame finally broke at 56,000 Ib. (3,900 kg.), roughly three is no need to worry about the interior moisture content.
times the strength required. To-day timber may be laminated
to any size. It is also possible to treat timber, then glue it Mr. Howard I. Chapelk (U.S.A.): One of the reasons why
together, and re-bend it, so that it has a great deal more laminate frames are brittle is because they are very long and
strength than could ever be given it by bolting. their cross section in proportion to the length becomes quite
small, although, for structural purposes, it is more than
Mr. George C. Nfckum (U.S.A.): He asked Dr. Rishcli two ample. Speaking of his experience of die problem of laminated
questions. The first concerned the elasticity of the wood construction in the shipyard, he had found difficulty with
after drying and before glueing. Mr. H. C. Hanson had seen laminated keels in small craft. They did not come through
laminations broken by being dropped and so had he. The in exactly the same dimensions so that when the boat was
fracture was very similar to that which occurs in cast iron planked many hours were lost in compensating for these
and evidently the laminated frame was very brittle. He would differences. Such
differences could probably be controlled by
like to have evidence or data on the modulus of elasticity in proper manufacture but, at the present time, it is a problem
oak after drying or in the finished laminated frame. He would that some shipyards, building small craft, have not overcome.
like to have test data of the relation between the elasticity With regard to fishing boat hull forms and fishing boat
of wood and/or a lamination of wood and the moisture con- types, generally, laminated structure seems, theoretically, to
tent of it. offer important solutions to material problems. But, as things
The second question was concerned with the life of lami- are at present, lamination adds to the labour cost, thereby
nated wood. Had Dr. Rishcli any experience over a period raising the total cost of construction, unless a mass produc-
of time of the life and resistance to rot of laminated fir and tion system is used. A great deal of emphasis, perhaps undue
oak in actual service in ships? emphasis, is being placed on the enormous strength obtainable
through laminated structure. The question is: how much
Dr. C. A. Rishell (U.S.A.): Timber can be glued successfully strength is needed? It is quite possible that these laminated
up to a moisture content of 20 per cent., and it is thought pos- structures are being made much too large. He referred to the
sible to go further than that. Wood used for making furniture U.S. Navy specifications which called for the use of very fine
was once dried to about 4 or 5 per cent, in order to make timber for laminate structure, another factor which adds to
effective the glue used in those days, but the modern type of the costs and also increases supply difficulties. He thought
glue in marine structures would not be effective on wood that, perhaps, such stiff specifications are not necessary and
dried below 10 per cent. Another important point is that that it might well be possible to use poorer grades of timber,
timber has greater strength at 10 to 15 per cent, moisture a very important point if, in the future, laminated structure
content than it has at 40 or 50 or 100 per cent. It may be is to be used in building fishing vessels.
slightly more brittle but that should give no trouble if the Many of the failures of laminated construction are not due
moisture content is kept up to about 10 or 12 per cent, and entirely to the laminates or laminate technique. They may
there is evidence to indicate that elesticity is actually higher be due to the improper design of the structure. Too much is
if the wood is dried to 12 to 15 per cent. expected of it and, again, most boats have, or are always sup-
The timber is normally kiln-dried or, preferably, air-dried. posed to have, a certain amount of flexibility, but if a boat
When the moisture content is brought below 20 per cent, all is built entirely of laminated material, it is a very rigid struc-
the organisms which cause the decay in the wood are killed, ture and, therefore, subject to damage by shock. Perhaps
therefore, in laminated structures the boat builder is using
laminated materials should be used in shorter lengths.
sterilized material. New types of chemicals are now being
used in treating laminated material and they should help
HANDLING FISH AT SEA
to increase considerably the life of a boat. It is estimated that
the laminated boats built for the U.S. Navy will have a life Commander E. C. GoWsworthy (U.K.) Fish must be brought
:
of 12 to 14 years. With proper treating of the frame and to the consumer in first-class condition, and it does not
other sections, with the new preservatives, the life of a boat matter how good the fishing boats are or how skilful the
will probably be increased to 25 to 30 years. fishermen are if, at the end of a voyage, the catch must go to
the fish meal plant. That is wasteful, raises the price of good
Mr. Jarl Lindblom (Finland): Experiments in Finland on the quality fish, impoverishes the owner and frustrates the effort
question of moisture content led to the conclusion that 19 per to increase the quantity of food for human beings. For these
cent, was very safe and very good and that the strength of the reasons it is desirable to study experiment with and use new
glue joint was actually higher at that figure than with humidity materials in constructing fishing boats, and in transporting
at 8 to 16 per cent. Later it was found possible to laminate the catch, as an aid to keeping fish in prime condition for the
wood with as much as 29 or even more than 30 per cent, of consumer. In Great Britain much thought has been given
moisture content, and tests on the strength of these laminations to the use of aluminium, plastics and other new materials,
gave splendid results. and many experiments have been made with them.
Dr. CA. Rishell (U.S.A.): He would not recommend a Mr. W. A. MacCallum (Canada): The fishing ports in Nova
moisture content as high as 30 per cent, and he thought that Scotia, Newfoundland and New England are two to two and a
the best adhesion takes place when the moisture content is half days from the fishing grounds, therefore fishing trips may
[263]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD - BOAT TYPES
be limited to six to nine days. The industry concentrates on town water when the trawler is in port, to nearly boiling point,
landing iced fresh fish which can reach consumers in good for cleaning the deck and fish-holds. Steam may also be used
condition. With some improvement in handling aboard and for this purpose.
ashore the product can be landed considerably cheaper than
from freezer ships. It is felt that this method can be used as Prof. H. . Jaeger (Netherlands): It is to be hoped that, in
long as sufficient fish are available on the present fishing future, there will be more hygienic handling of fish and that
grounds. If this situation changes, factory ships may be no wood will be used in the construction of fish-holds.
called for.
Mr. G. Eddie (U.K.): The workers at the Torry Research
Mr. Mogens Jul (FAO): When small fish,such as mackerel, Station have been getting a clearer idea of the relative impor-
herring, etc., are caught they are normally immediately iced tance of cooling, handling and hygiene in the preservation of
in the holds. Larger fish, such as cod, salmon, halibut, etc., fish in crushed ice. A
series of observations on board trawlers
are usually gutted first. Government regulations in Norway have been supported by laboratory experiments. The work
require that every white fish must have the main artery cut is not finished but it is clear that the most important factor is
the instant it is taken aboard; if the fish are to be sold fresh temperature. Whether anything more than washing the fish
or frozen, they must be eviscerated, as soon as possible there- with ordinary care has a significant effect on stowage life has
after, preferably within one hour of capture. Then the fish not yet been determined. But it seems quite practicable to
must be washed, preferably in ice water or in running sea keep a wooden fish-room in a satisfactory hygienic condition,
water, then placed in boxes and iced if the air temperature although, naturally, more time and trouble must be taken to
exceeds 46 deg. F. (8 deg. G). Therefore, a Norwegian purse do this than in the case of metal fish-rooms. Considerations
seiner fishing for cod must be provided with a grating for of durability, weight, convenience and saving of labour,
throat cutting, 26 in. (65 cm.) above the deck, and three or rather than of preservation, should govern the choice between
four bleeding ponds, where the fish are bled for at least wood and metal for fish-rooms. The latest experience of the
15 minutes. Torry Research Station in these matters is recorded in a new
On British trawlers, the gutted fish are nowadays often edition of the pamphlet "Care of the Trawler's Fish"
washed in a fish washing device, which consists of a trough (Cutting, Eddie, Reay, and Shewan, 1953). The main points
filled by powerful water jets. An overflow takes the fish to a brought out are: (1) The fish must not be allowed to accumu-
grated spillway over which they tumble through the hatch late on deck and must be gutted as soon as possible. Many
into the fish-holds. British trawlers now use a washing machine to maintain a
In the holds, the fish may be boxed, with ice, or placed in steady flow of fish into the hold. (2) The fish must be cooled
pounds. The pound boards on British trawlers are normally quickly and kept cool, and crushed ice is the only tested
4 ft. x 8 in. x IJ in. (1.22 m. x 20 cm. x 3.8 cm.). A method of doing this. Special precautions are necessary to
trawler may carry as many as 3,000 of them. The fish are prevent entry of heat through the sides and deck. Insulation
placed on layers of ice. There must be a layer of at least or refrigeration or a combination of the two may be used for
1 ft. (30 cm.) ice between the hull and the fish. The ice-fish this purpose. It has been demonstrated that a catch can be
ratio should be about 1:1 under tropical conditions. The satisfactorily cooled, even in a wood-lined fish-hold without
pounds in Icelandic trawlers have a size of about 70 cu. ft. insulation, by building a wall of ice against the linings, so that
(2 cu. m.). During the first days of fishing two parts of ice is only an extra precaution, and
in Arctic trawlers insulation
are used to three parts of fish. There must be a free space an expensive one. Some owners are now taking an interest in
below the bottom pound through which the ice water may the method described by Mr. MacCallum, of circulating
drain away. refrigerated air between double walls, a system which is
If fish are iced in thick layers weight losses may occur, while coming into commercial use in Canada, and experimentally
fish iced in thin layers, on single shelves or in boxes, may gain in the United Kingdom, for cold stores. An advantage is that,
slightly in weight. It is for this reason that on Norwegian besides keeping the insulation dry, it allows the relative
cod purse seiners the distance between the shelves in the humidity inside the refrigerated space to be kept high. In
fish-holds may not exceed 28- in. (70 cm.), except for the this respect the jacketed cold store seems better than the
upper shelf where it may be 43 in. (110 cm.). The fish may Minikay system cited by Mr. Bain. It is also simpler. But the
be stowed in boxes instead of pounds, but bulk stowage is best use of mechanical refrigeration seems to be to pre-cool
not allowed. Gratings on the floor of the hold to permit the holds and fittings and keep ice in an easily handled con-
drainage of blood and water are also required. dition. Although many skippers do not start the refrigeration
Until recent years the interior of the fish holds was normally machine until the first fish is caught, it seems better to use
made of tongued and grooved wood, and the pound boards mechanical refrigeration on the outward voyage and to rely
were of wood. This made cleaning difficult and caused exces- mainly or entirely on ice during the rest of the trip. (3)
sive penetration of fish slime and ice water into the walls. Because of the pressure caused by the weight of the fish,
This was particularly bad for insulated holds, as it resulted losses in weight average about 8 per cent., with a maximum
in rotting of wood and insulating material and loss of of about 16 per cent, on the trips of Arctic trawlers, which
insulating properties. take about three weeks or so. These figures refer to shelf
Nowadays, the walls are often metal lined, frequently with spacing in the vertical direction of 3 to 4 ft. (0.9 to 1.2 m.);
an alumimium alloy. In construction the first plates are nor- closer spacing is advisable.
mally screwed to the wood, the following plates overlap the
screws and are welded on. Transverse bulkheads are attached Mr. W. A. MacCallum (Canada): Experience on Canada's
to T-sections of the lining. Similarly, pound boards, stan- east coast, unlike that in Britain, reported by Mr. Eddie, is
chions, etc., are now often made of aluminium alloy. that wood hold linings are for the most part slime sodden
The pamphlet " Care of the Trawler's Fish " suggest that and carry large populations of facultative anaerobes within
a heater be provided aboard trawlers to heat sea water, or a few weeks after the annual refit and thereafter throughout
[264]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
the ensuing months. The most careful washing is of no avail dressed fish is placed in stainless steel sea water tanks. The
whatsoever in decontaminating these holds. Whenever fish sea water is chilled by mechanical refrigeration to tempera-
lie in contact with porous, scarred, slimy wood surfaces for tures close to freezing. He considered this method of stowage
a few days (steak cod in this environment for as short a time considerably superior to ordinary ice stowage, one advantage
as four days may be unfit to market) they develop strong being that all bruises on the fish are avoided.
bilgy odours which may sometimes be found throughout both
cut from the fish. The same cleaning procedure, how-
fillets Mr. L. Fernandez Mufioz (Spain): Perhaps a fish-hold capa-
ever, has proved to be very effective in reducing the contami- city of 3,500 cu. (100 cu. m.) is most convenient for northern
ft.
nation in our metal-surfaced holds. It is an exception to find European trawlers, but in Spain, where the trawlers have to
bilgy fish against a metal surface at time of discharge (Mac- go longer distances from port to fishing grounds, a capacity
Calilum, 1954). of 6,600 to 7,700 cu. ft. (150 to 170 cu. m.) is thought to be
As long as wood-lined fish-rooms are employed, extreme the most economic.
care should be taken to ensure that crushed ice separates all Again, the problems connected with refrigeration of fish-
fish from wooden surfaces. One of the methods to accom- holds are different in Spain from those of northern countries.
plish thiswhich rules out the human factor is to use screens For one thing, temperatures in the ports are different, and
over contaminated surfaces (MacCallum, 1954). Spanish fishermen also go to African waters where the tem-
The Canadian viewpoint is to consider ice as (1) a means of perature of both air and water is much higher than in the
refrigerating the fish, and (2) a means of shielding the fish northern seas, so that the problem of insulation of fish-holds
from contaminated surfaces and from one another. More- needs special consideration. Deck insulation must be heavier
over, the choice of metal or wood in the fish-hold must be than that on the sides because of air temperatures of about
considered from the standpoint of preservation of the catch, 104 to 1 13 deg. F. (40 to 45 deg. C.).
as explained above, as well as for savings in ice required for Another problem has been the stowage and carrying of ice.
stowing and shielding the fish, for convenience, for saving in About 90 tons of ice are necessary to preserve 1 50 tons of fish,
labour and efficiency in refrigerating the fish-hold by artificial and as the ice melts the change of weights has a very adverse
means. effect on the trim and stability of the trawler. But a solution
to this problem was reached some years ago by using an
Mr. G. C. Nickum (U.S.A.): The jacketed refrigeration hold auxiliary refrigeration plant solely to take care of transmission
described by Mr. MacCallum is likely to be used for trans- losses. This is most effective and made it unnecessary to carry
portation of carcasses. The great advantage of the jacketed more than 35 tons of ice for preserving 150 tons of fish.
hold is that the circulating cold air can be kept away from the
product, dehydration is minimized, and discolouration of the
flesh of the fish is avoided. But installation of a jacketed ECONOMICS
hold in a vessel is very expensive and its value for iced products
such as fish is doubtful. Mr. Seamus O'Meallain (Ireland): The papers by Mr. C.
Beever and by Mr. Christensen deal with two different sets
Mr. W. A. MacCallum (Canada): The value of metal sur- of problems.
faces in Canada's east coast trawlers not at all in doubt.
is The problem presented by Mr. Beever is a fundamental
The reasons for the use of metal have been given above. one: how can be put into the catching side of the
capital
Granting this, and whether we use a closed jacket system of fishing industry to bring about a large increase in production
air circulation as in the Cape Fourchu and in the Cape Scatari within a relatively short time, especially in under-developed
or the closed jacket system integrated with unit pounds, or areas, without over-capitalization or over-specialization which
an open jacket system which also could be employed with the could result in a fall in production, or tying up capital which
unit pounds or with metal boxes used to hold the iced fish, could be better used elsewhere?
we have, in supplying and installing this metal, contributed Urgent reasons are given against an attempt to effect a
to most of the cost of a wholly refrigerated, metal surfaced revolutionary departure from existing practice. A
sudden
fish-room. Therefore, the actual cost of refrigeration is not expansion offish supplies to a market, even in highly developed
expensive, as stated by Mr. Nickum. areas, usually causes a serious dislocation, sometimes with
the effect of driving fishing vessels off the sea. Again, a
Mr. Mogens Jul (FAO): Refrigerating coils in a fish-hold sudden increase in catching power in an under-developed
with a conventional refrigerating system might be 1 to H
in. area might be followed by a decline to a lower level than had
"
(2.5 to 3.1 cm.) in diameter and spaced with 5 to 6 in. (12.5 existed before the improvement ". Many of the factors men-
to 15.2 cm.) between centres under the deck. If coils are tioned, and some not mentioned, apply equally to both highly-
needed on the sides, they might be a little further apart. One developed and under-developed areas. A great majority of
or two coils may be run down the shaft alley and two or three European countries and in North America
vessels operating in
around the hatch coaming. are owned by the men who work them. Such vessels seldom
Landmark (1950) estimates that a trawler with 15,900 cu. ft. exceed 70 ft. (21.3 m.). This is a healthy condition. Boat-
(450 cu. m.) holds needs about 100 tons of ice, but only half owning fishermen can derive some sort of livelihood from
that amount, mechanically refrigerated. This gives a
if it is fishing even in a condition of depression in the industry, when
refrigeration need ofabout 16,000 B.Th.U. (4,000 Kcal) per large trawlers might well have to be laid up. Mr. O'Meallain
hour. He also gives diagrams for refrigeration requirements expressed his belief that there is an advantage to be gained in
under various conditions. Ofterdinger (1950) on the other having in any area a reasonable wide range of vessels, some
hand feels that a trawler with a 7,060 cu. ft. (200 cu. m.) perhaps too expensive to be owned by the ordinary working
fish-room should have a 24,000 B.Th.U. (6,000 Kcal) refri- fisherman, providing ways can be found to prevent large
geration installation. vessels driving the small ones off the fishing grounds. Unfor-
Lantz (1953) has experimented with systems whereby the tunately there is often over-capitalization to be found among
[265]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
owner-fishermen. The big industrial fisheries, being more Bureau Veritas, were drawn up for the various lengths and
objective in their approach, do not usually tie up capital in types of boats. A costing experiment was tried on a tonnage
unproductive assets. Owner-fishermen, compelled by a basis but was unsatisfactory. A scheme for cubic measurement
number of motives, including some which are not economic, was then adopted and this has been in use for the past
tend to invest in craft, engines and equipment out of propor- 15 years.
tion to the return that might be expected. In addition to the The boat-building trade was compelled by the trade unions
provision of education and training and improvement of to adopt a payment-by-results scheme, which meant having a
and technique, as suggested by Mr. Beever, Mr.
fishing craft fixed wage rate. This rate is not constant on all lengths of
O'Meallain added two recommendations. The first is to boats but varies and is controlled by graph. The smaller the
encourage general purpose fishing so that boats can be boat, the higher the wage per cubic foot. Graph measurement
employed profitably throughout the year, and the second is is also used in dealing with the timber situation.
to discourage over-capitalization. It is comparatively easy to calculate the cost of fastenings
Dealing with Mr. Christensen's paper, Mr. O'Meallain and other small items on the cubic foot basis. Standard outfit
pointed out that costing is not a means of providing a histori- specifications have been drawn up and price calculation is
cal account of how the cost of a particular boat has worked fixed on a cubic foot basis. It is now a very simple and quick
out, but it is a part of the process of production. It is an calculation to arrive at the price of a given size of hull.
investigation or analysis to establish the cost of the boat in
advance of its production, and cost control is the process of Mr. John Tyrrell (Ireland): The lack of standard designs is
verifying that the costs incurred during the construction are one of the greatest obstacles to the reduction of building costs.
not excessive. Cost control must be applied at all stages of The individualism of the ordinary fishing boat owner is to a
construction so that any falling off in production or increase large extent responsible for this. He suggested that there
in expenditure may be corrected without delay. Discussing might be standardization of fishing boats of 50, 60 and 70 ft.
the way in which Mr. Christcnscn divides materials into sub- (15.2, 18.3, 21. 4m.) lengths.
groups, he disagreed with the method. It is most important One
serious problem faced by the boat builders is to keep
that the cost control should proceed step by step with the employment a trained and skilled staff. The absence
in full
construction of a boat. Materials should be subdivided, not of a steady flow of orders creates the difficulty. The ideal
as Mr. Christensen indicates, but in accordance with the actual staff consists of men who have started as apprentices in the
boat sections. If this is done it is easy to check progress once yard and have continued in employment there because these
each week or at even shorter intervals, and to do it without men will have absorbed fully the established routine and will
any complex calculation. For instance, if a particular section be thoroughly familiar with the plant and machinery. Such
should be completed in four days but the actual time taken men are able to get the fullest benefit from their machines and
is longer, there is a loss. If it is completed in less than four tools, and from the management's point of view, all the men
days, there is a gain. This process is common in civil engineer- are known thoroughly and their individual capabilities are
ing works where operations are carried out on a time schedule fully assessed. The most suitable man for a particular opera-
along the lines mentioned. tion, therefore, can be picked without hesitation. If, through
An essential part of control is the ordering of materials. lack of work, any of the men have to be laid off, the whole
Ideally, they should be ordered in such sequence and at such balance of the team is upset. Furthermore, the men laid off
time as to ensure delivery at the time they are to be used. This sometimes leave the district and are permanently lost to the
seldom can be done in practice because of the danger of a shipyard.
hold-up or non-delivery of any one item. On the other hand,
ordering can and should be balanced. There is little point in Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): There will be a decline,
having in stock three years supply of half-round galvanized perhaps a very severe one, in the shipbuilding industry unless
iron and only three days supply of nails. costs are reduced. Costs require a great deal of detailed study.
Treatment of overheads is another very important matter The average fishing boat owner and the average small boat
and should be applied to sections or departments of construc- builder know, usually, only the total cost of the vessel con-
tion. Allocation on a percentage basis, although approximate, cerned, but there should be a careful investigation into the
gives sufficiently accurate results. cost of each item. It is very easy to add some gadget which,
Many boat builders think there is enough book-keeping in itself, does not have much effect on the price, but it often
in boatbuilding as it is, without adding to it. Mr. O'Meallain happens that the gadget leads to an increase in other costs
observed that, while a proper system of costing requires expert because, perhaps, a little larger power plant is now required
advice for its installation, it actually can have the effect of or a bigger pump is made necessary by the presence of the
reducing clerical work. All that has to be done on the costing gadget. One of the reasons why the building costs have gone
of the production side is to check progress by stages, a job so high is because nobody has considered all related costs and
that can be done on a simple numbered card. what are thought to be desirable improvements. If these so-
called improvements were considered in such a way a lot of
Mr. Wm. P. Miller (U.K.): Economics in boat building is them would be left off and that would bring down the price
most important to the boatbuilder. The Scottish Fishing of boatbuilding.
Boat Builders* Association have given this matter considerable
thought and have taken action. Most small boatbuilders are Mr. Howard L Chapelk (U.S.A.) In many small boat yards,
:
practical men, highly efficient in their own trade, but with and even in some fair-sized shipyards, there is an old-fashioned
no office or business experience, and usually with very few approach to costing. The people concerned know the final
office facilities. This being so, the Association decided that a cost of the boat but they do not know the cost of each opera-
simplified scheme of costing was essential and, after some tion, which makes the design of a low-cost boat very difficult
experiment, a scheme was adopted and is now in general use. to do. If a complicated set of drawings is presented to one
Standard hull specifications, much in excess of Lloyds and of the smaller yards the cost of building the boat is likely to
[266]
BOAT TYPES DISCUSSION
go up because the builder realizes that his supervisory per- may warp his appraisal of the financial risks involved, the
sonnel will have to stop work and study the plans. For this legal and managerial problems to be considered and in many
reason simplicity in design and in construction is a most cases he requires expert guidance. Where grants are awarded
desirable feature. he may be apt to overlook that these, nevertheless, represent
part of the capital cost of the boat; he may underestimate the
Mr. Jan-Olof Traung (FAO): Sometimes when a boat yard cost of engine and hull maintenance; he may never have paid
" "
quotes for two equal boats, one drawn by a cheap naval comprehensive insurance before; finally he may base all his
architect, delivering a few sketchy plans, and the other by an calculations on the results of a successful trip or at best the
" "
expensive one, giving lots of detail drawings for easier earnings of an average trip. He is not always alone in this
work, gives a higher price for the last design. Some boat
it kind of fallacious reckoning, nor in his embarrassment when
" "
yards do not yet appreciate the value of clear distinct plans and the average trip eludes him for a few weeks and he cannot
specifications. keep up his repayments.
In the discussion on engines, Mr. T. S. Leach makes some
Mr. G. O. Huet (U.S.A.): It is very hard to determine costs cogent references to the disastrous costs of engine-breakdowns
but the designer knows that the more details he puts into his which are out of all proportion to the isolated cost of repairs.
plans the higher the cost is going to be. If the designs can be This is particularly true in the case of the craft newly-built on
simplified then the cost must come down because cheaper credit. Manufacturers* guarantees never cover the costly
labour can be employed to do the work. loss of fishing time, deterioration of catch, towage charges,
He recounted his meeting with a fisherman in a shrimp boat. 1
agents' fees, labour, crews pay, provisions, fuel and so on,
On talking to the man about his shaft log, Mr. Huet found he that a mechanical breakdown incurs.
had a pipe and on the offside of the pipe, in the stern, he had a Mr. Beever did not know what could or should be done to
large oak bearing made out of wood. Inboard he had a live reduce this risk, but it is one which should be carefully
oak bearing and over the pipe he had a piece of raw hide, appraised both in supplying and taking financial aid. There
wrapped around and tied with string, to keep the water out. are many other kinds of risk of course, but this one is selected
When the hide wore out he merely replaced it with another chiefly because it is especially relevant to the question of
piece. For his throttle arrangement he had a piece of string fishing-boat efficiency and because it exposes so many of the
and wire going from the throttle past the boathead. There problems which the owner/operator of a fishing boat has to
was a loop in this wire into which he put his big toe to operate face and which should therefore be considered when launching
the engine. This fisherman had a boat that was more econo- any kind of building programme by means of easy credit.
mical to build and operate than anybody could give him, There is the question of ownership itself. TTiere is so
although he might not have known it. The abilities of such much more to successful ownership than the ability to
fishermen should be recognized and their opinions should be catch fish and the fisherman often has little time, aptitude
respected. or inclination for the business side of his venture. A little
guidance in legal and business matters can be very helpful
Mr. John B. Bindloss (U.S.A.): In his opinion the cost factor indeed if applied with the necessary tact and understanding.
has been over-stressed. He did not believe any person oper- It is equally important that the responsibility of ownership
"
ating fishing boats is so cost-conscious as not to want improve- shall be fulfilled so that credit is not misused. Easy come,
"
ments or new designs. Fishermen, like others, have to be easy go is true in fisheries as elsewhere and may result in
shown and part of the work of architects, designers and negligent maintenance and skimpy repair-jobs. In this
builders should be to show the fishermen the way to improve connection the relative merits of mortgage and hire-purchase
their boats. arrangements might well be considered where the loan is
secured by a first mortgage on the boat, lengthy legal pro-
Mr. C. Beever (FAO): Credit schemes are usually designed cesses may be involved if foreclosure is applied and the boat
in an attempt to meet the special economic problems which may be laid up for a long period serving no useful purpose
the fishing industry has to face. Mr. O'Meallain referred to and probably deteriorating. Under an arrangement where
the danger of over-capitalization. Mr. Beever agreed that possession only is given and legal ownership is contingent
his paper was much too brief and sketchy to contain more on repayment of the loan, it may be possible to exercise more
than a passing reference to the problem and in a very broad effective supervision. Legal and other conditions vary but
"
context. He was thinking of what has been called the oppor- the aim should be to protect the investment adequately while
"
tunity cost of investing in a particular enterprise for recognizing the special circumstances of the fisherman.
example deep sea trawling operations based on a hitherto This may dictate some flexibility in the timing and method
unexploited and unpredictable resource. In other words, of repayment. Fixed sums at fixed intervals may be out of
"
what alternative and possibly more attractive oppor- line with fishing practice whereas repayment by share of
'*
tunities for investment could have been utilised with the catch earnings may reduce the incentive of some fishermen
same capital expenditure, e.g. small-craft mechanization. to get their boats paid for.
However, Mr. O'Meallain also had in mind the temptation In connection with financial assistance schemes, it should
of the owner-fisherman to invest too heavily in his own be remembered that these, while they may have been designed
particular type of fishing which is especially great when easy to assist the fishermen directly, can also assist the boat-
credit facilities are available. It is a very big step from building industry. New construction, regular maintenance
employed fishermen to owner-fishermen or from owner of an and repairswhich are made possible by easy credit facilities,
old, long-depreciated craft to owner of a new craft of modern also promote more stability and efficiency in the boat-yards.
construction whose capital cost, depreciation, insurance and This may be an optimistic view to take and no doubt it has
maintenance must be met out of current earnings. The not been confirmed by experience everywhere, especially
fisherman may not be prepared for such a jump his enthusi- where the increased demand for boats may have caused
asm for a new boat and his confidence in his own fishing skill prices to rise. However, it is a consideration which should
[267]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD BOAT TYPES
be taken into account. Financial assistance schemes should details required may, therefore, be determined by the type
be designed with an eye to the boat-builder as well as the of boat being built and the known ability of the builder to
fisherman if the maximum benefits are to be secured. In make the details "by heart". The main thing is that plans
would probably mean more joint consultations
practice, this should be clear and distinct irrespective of the amount of
with boat-builders and fishermen, in regard to the flow of detail, and there is a need for more emphasis to be placed
work deriving from credit facilities, the recognition of on the value in terms of labour and accuracy of plans and
" "
standard types evolved commercially, the cost of accom- specifications which can be readily interpreted by the builder
modating individual preferences among fishermen, the loca- Insurance is perhaps too wide a subject to broach here
tion of fishing centres and particular types of fishing in but it is one that requires careful study in relation to fishing
relation to building facilities and so forth. It may be true craft. Consideration might be given to some spreading of risk
that in cases where financial assistance for new construction over as many fishing craft as possible and to mutual arrange-
has failed to achieve its object, the boat-builder has been the ments whereby claims are reduced, e.g. by charging the actual
only one to profit from assistance intended for the fisherman. cost of towage (including lost fishing time) rather than
This, however, is a reflection on the operation of the scheme taking into account the value of the boat under tow. Cases
and in the long run the builder, like the fisherman, has a are known where the annual insurance premium has cost the
strong interest in seeing that the investment in new craft and fisherman as much as his annual loan-repayment charges.
equipment proves economic in commercial practice. On the operational side the influence of breakdowns has
It is interesting to note that quotations by boat-yards are already been mentioned and raises the question of trained
often influenced by the quality of the drawings. Where two mechanics. In many small craft the engine-man has to be a
sets of drawings are prepared for identical boats, one set fisherman too and he is not always adequately trained in the
comprising a few sketchy plans and the other including a lot maintenance and repair of modern diesels. Special training
of detailed drawings, a boat-yard will often quote a higher is required and perhaps manufacturers could help by
price in respect of the latter. While it is true that the more encouraging courses for the purchasers of their engines. A
precise detailed drawings willdemand correspondingly careful few weeks spent in the factory might save a skipper/owner
supervision during the construction, they do provide a better a great deal later on.
guarantee that the finished boat will conform to the designer's These are very superficial observations which are designed
requirements. If sketchy plans produce the same end-result, to indicate problems rather than to offer conclusions. It is
" "
itsimply means that .the boat-yard is relying on memory believed, however, that there is room for more consultation
and the builder 's former experience of similar designs. Other between the respective authorities and interests when building
things being equal, where a design incorporates certain programmes are being planned, in order that the technical,
innovations or departures from traditional practice, the social and economic problems of the fishermen are understood
sketchy plans would probably require longer to interpret by those who try to serve his needs, whether it is the designer,
than careful, clear and detailed drawings. The amount of the builder, the engine-manufacturer or the Government.
[268]
TANK TESTING TECHNIQUE
by
W. A. P. VAN LAMMEREN
object of tank tests is to promote the efficient (6 to 7 m.), because a smaller one would lead to flow-
THE design of a ship. This is done by analysing the
experiments to find the most economic hull shape
phenomena that would produce
The model must also be large
unreliable
enough to contain the
results.
and propeller design. propelling machinery and various measuring appliances.
There has been a great advance in the theory of pro- The model is first observed in the model basin, where
pulsion during the last two decades, but empiric investi- it is towed in a straight line at the required displacement
gations on small-scale models are still necessary to find and draught reduced to scale. The resistance is measured
concrete answers to specific questions concerning design for a range of speeds and is converted to the required
and performance of fishing vessels. Naval architects effective or tow-rope horse-power (e.h.p.) for the full
Fig. 350. Ship model basin with adjustable floor
generally make use of the results of systematic research size ship. At the same time the wave pattern reveals
and special model tests are usually made during the possible defects in the shape of the hull.
design of any ship of importance. It is important for The model is then fitted with an electric motor to drive
the owner that his ship has the greatest possible speed the propellers or paddles, etc., and with an inboard
for a certain dead-weight and engine power, or that she dynamometer to record the torque on the propeller shaft
has the least possible power and fuel consumption for and the thrust of the propeller. The r.p.m. is also
a certain speed. Such efficiency is also in the interests recorded. By conversion of these data the shaft horse-
of the national economy. power (s.h.p.) is calculated and the quotient e.h.p./s.h.p.
Tank tests are usually carried out as follows: a pro- gives the quasi-propulsive coefficient (q.p.c.).
visional lines plan is submitted to the ship model basin The results of e.h.p. and s.h.p. are then converted
and from this drawing a paraffin wax model is made. into non-dimensional coefficients and plotted in standard
For sea-going vessels this model is usually 20 to 23 ft. diagrams.
[269]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
By comparing these non-dimensional figures with the depth for shallow water tests with river and canal
results of previous tests it is possible to decide whether boats. The basin must be of large dimensions in order
the results are satisfactory or whether they can be to simulate the motion in the open sea and eliminate the
improved. If it is necessary to modify the design, adverse influence which the walls and bottom might
the paraffin wax model is easily altered and testing is have on a travelling model. In fact, it is not practicable
continued until satisfactory results are obtained. to make the model or the tank smaller.
By testing the propeller model separately (in open The model is attached to a heavy tow carriage (fig. 351)
water) and by comparing the characteristics with those which moves along rails on the top of both sides of the
of the self-propelled ship model, all the factors affecting tank. This carriage is electrically driven at predetermined
propulsion can be analysed and steps taken to improve speeds, the limits of which are 1 to 2 in. (2 to 5 cm.)
them. Many other factors may have to be investigated, per second and 28 ft. (8 m.) per second. Once fixed,
such as flow measurements, tests in shallow water, over- the speed of the carriage must remain constant during
load tests (for trawlers and tugs when towing), steering the run, and the position of the machine-finished rails
and turning tests, rolling tests, etc. must, therefore, meet the most exacting requirements.
When the tests are concluded a report is made which The top of the rails must be parallel to the water surface
contains all the necessary data and plans for the hull to an accuracy of 0.004 in. (^ mm.). They must follow
form and the propellers. From these details an accurate the curvature of the earth which, for a distance of
prediction can be made of the trial and service speeds. 827 ft. (252 m.) is roughly &
in. (2.5 mm.). The speed
Usually two or three weeks are required for the tests of the carriage is controlled by the voltage transmitted
but, in urgent cases, they can be carried out in eight to to the driving motors.This voltage is kept constant to
ten days. The costs depend on the elaborateness of the I/1,000th by an ingenious regulating device equipped
tests, but generally they amount to a few thousand with high vacuum electrode valves.
guilders (a few hundred pounds.) Such an outlay is The towing carriage has four motors of 20 h.p. each,
of minor significance when the ship is big and costly and is controlled from a glass cabin at the end of the
but in the case of small pleasure and fishing vessels the tank. The carriage weighs 15 tons, and is fitted with
test programme has sometimes to be reduced to save special devices to stop itquickly during high-speed tests.
money. The carriage is also equipped with various automatic
recording and measuring appliances. The observers
always stand on the carriage near the model to attend
SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENT to and read the measuring instruments, to take photo-
A typical basin, such as that belonging to thq Netherlands graphs and to plot the results of the tests. A self-
Ship Model Basin, is 827 ft. (252 m.) long, 34.4 ft. (10.5 m.) propelled model can travel independently under the
wide and 18 ft. (5.5 m.) deep. It contains about 495,000 carriage and is only kept on a straight course by this
cu. ft. (14,000 cu. m.) of water. At the bottom of the carriage. About six runs per hour can be made, depend-
tank there is an adjustable floor, fig. 350, about 660 ft. ing on the speed and the wave-motion set up in the
(200 m.) long which consists of 25 heavy pontoons water.
26 ft. (8 m.) long. This floor can be fixed at any desired Clients are encouraged to attend the important test
Fig. 351. Towing carriage
[270]
HULL SHAPE TANK TESTING TECHNIQUE
Fig. 352. Workshop for the manufacture of paraffin models
runs, as it is highly instructive to watch the model and ments are made, verified and calibrated. The main work
it stimulates the exchange of ideas for improving the however, consists of casting and finishing the propeller
hull shape. models. Here again are to be found ingenious copying
The model basin building contains offices for draughts- and measuring devices to ensure the highest degree of
men, workshops and rooms for the staff. The shop where accuracy (fig. 355, 356, 357). The propellers used are
the models are cast and shaped is the largest (fig. 352, made of white metal and, as a rule, have a diameter
and 353). Among the equipment in it is a model cutting of 8 to 10i in. (200 to 270 mm.). Propellers intended
machine which accurately copies the water-lines from for cavitation tests are cast in bronze with a diameter
the drawing. of about 18 in. (450 mm.) .
In the instrument shop (fig. 354) measuring instru- When the pressure on a propeller blade is reduced
Fig. 353. Model workshop
[271]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
Fig. 354. Instrument shop
below that of the vapour pressure in the surrounding MEASURING TECHNIQUE
liquid,vapour bubbles burst on the blade with great TESTS CARRIED OUT IN THE BASIN
force. This phenomenon, known as cavitation, gains in
The following tests are part of the normal routine wori
intensity with increased speed and engine power and can
carried out in the basin.
badly damage a costly bronze propeller.
It is impossible to study cavitation in a model basin
because the atmospheric pressure cannot be reduced to 1. Resistance tests
correspond to the scale of the model. It can only be done The paraffin wax ship model is attached to a resistanc
in a totally enclosed canal, the cavitation tunnel
(fig. 358, dynamometer on the towing carriage. The resistanc
359, 360), through which water is pumped at high speed of the model is measured at a series of speeds above an<
to pass the rotating propeller, which is kept in a longi- below the trial speed. According to Froude's model-la\v
tudinal position. the corresponding speed of the model is equal to th
Cavitation can be observed by means of stroboscopic quotient of the ship's speed and the square root of th
lighting and the characteristics of the propeller can be ratio of ship length to model length.
determined by thrust and torque-measuring devices. The firstrun of the model, before the water has beei
A typical tunnel is 35 ft. (10.5 m.) long and 23 ft. (7 m.) disturbed, used to engrave the wave profile in th
is
high and in full operation requires 700 h.p. model. This is usually done at a previously-estimated
jfoj** < !^
Fig. 355. Propeller cutting machine Fig. 356. Apparatus for measuring propeller models
[272]
HULL SHAPE TANK TESTING TECHNIQUE
2. Propulsion tests (fig. 362)
The model is self-propelled by electric motors, which
drive the propeller models.
The model is not connected to the towing carriage
during the measuring period except through the trimming
apparatus, which prevents it deviating from the course.
This apparatus exerts, if necessary, small athwartships
forces on the hull. The towing carriage travels with the
model and at the same speed.
Thrust and torque of the propeller or propellers are
recorded by dynamometers coupled between the electric
motor and the propeller(s). The speed of the towing
carriage and the r.p.m. of the propeller(s) are simul-
taneously recorded on the drum of the resistance dyna-
mometer. In order to obtain the r.p.m. of the propeller
model, the motor has an installation which enables a
Fig. 357. Finishing a bronze propeller model
service or trial speed. To assure a turbulent flow along
the model in the boundary layer, a
trip wire 0.04 in.
(1 mm.) thick is fitted at 1/20 of the length of the bow.
This causes an increase in resistance of 2 or 3 per cent,
which is maintained in calculations as a safety margin.
The accuracy of these resistance tests is within to
1
per cent, for fine ships, 1 to 2 per cent, for full ships.
After a run during which measurements have been
laken runs are always made in the same direction
the towing carriage travels slowly back to enable the
water to calm down again. This time is used for com-
puting and plotting the recorded data. Four to six
runs can be made per hour, depending on the speed of
the model.
In fig. 361 the attachment of the model to the resistance
dynamometer can be clearly seen. The motor and the
propeller dynamometer have already been installed for
the propulsion test, which usually immediately follows
the resistance test.
Fig. 359. Lower part of a cavitation tunnel
current circuit to be closed every 25 revolutions, thereby
causing a displacement of one of the recording pens.
A
certain towing force is applied to the model to
account for certain frictional differences between ship and
model. The thrust and torques for the ship at corre-
/7ST\
sponding speeds can be calculated by taking the respective
model measurements and multiplying them by the third
and fourth powers, respectively, of the model scale.
The r.p.m. of the ship's propeller are found by dividing
the model r.p.m. by the square root from the model
scale, a method easily deduced from the model-laws.
\ The accuracy of thrusts and torque measurements are
within 1 to 2 per cent.
Propulsion tests are made over the same range of
speeds as the resistance The propulsive coefficient
tests.
is found by dividing the tow rope e.h.p. by the corre-
Fig. 358. General plan of the cavitation tunnel of the Netherlands
Ship Model Basin sponding s.h.p.
[273]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
This coefficient, plotted in statistical form, shows the blade area ratio, pitch ratio, etc., it is possible to develop
efficiency of propulsion. open water propeller diagrams, which are of great
The show the engine power necessary to
tests also assistance in designing efficient propellers.
propel a given ship at a given speed. A certain allow-
ance is given on the s.h.p. values to compensate the 4. Steering tests
influence of greater roughness of the ship's hull, wind, A model basin can be used for testing steering properties
rough seas, possible absence of appendages on the model of ships. A self-propelled model is kept on its course by
and bearing losses of the propeller shaft. These allow- two dynamometers placed athwartships fore and aft,
ances are different for trial and service conditions, and and is able to move slightly on its natural revolving point,
are based on experience. They depend very largely on which lies at about one-third the length from the bow.
the route to be followed by the ship. It is possible to measure the torque exerted on the model
caused by turning the rudder over at a certain angle.
3. Open-water propeller tests (fig. 363) The rudder-head torque, or the forces exerted on the
Resistance and propulsion tests are often followed by rudder in longitudinal and transverse directions, can
by an open water propeller test. The propeller is then also be measured.
operated in front of a slim, streamlined body because These tests provide only a momentary reproduction
the object is to study the properties of the propeller of the conditions prevailing on the actual ship imme-
alone. Thrust and torque are measured at constant diately after the rudder has been put over, and then only
r.p.m. over a range of speeds varying from zero to a if it has been put over quickly. But the tests are very
value where thrust=0. The accuracy of these tests is useful for comparing steering properties of various
equal to that of the propulsion tests. From these figures rudder shapes and the various rudder positions. River
the efficiency of the propeller in open water can be vessels, with one or more rudders and operating in
determined. The test also provides the data for breaking restricted water, are also tested for steering properties.
down the propulsion coefficient into a number of Fig. 364 shows the stern of a twin-screw ship during
propulsive components. a steering test. The stern dynamometer, fixed athwart-
If these tests are carried out with series of propellers, ships to the frame of the towing carriage, can be seen
having a systematic variation in the number of blades, clearly. The centrifugal dynamometer is connected to a
fig. 360. Upper part a cavitation tunnel
[274]
HULL SHAPE TANK TESTING TECHNIQUE
Fig. 361. Resistance tests
Fig. 362. Se(fpropulsion tests
[275]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
vertical lever which turns on the point of the frame, it follows that when movement of ship and
the rolling
situated at approximately the same height as the clamp model are mechanically similar, the rolling period of the
of the model. The bottom of the lever is connected to a ship will be equal to that of the model, multiplied by the
vertical rod. The rod can slide up and down as the model square root of the model scale.
trims during the run. The rolling period of the model can be adjusted to that
Zig-zag and turning-circle tests can only be carried of the ship by moving balance weights in a vertical and/or
out in specially constructed steering basins or ponds. athwartships direction. The GM
can be determined by
The Netherlands Ship Model Basin uses a pond with a an inclination test. It is not always possible to adjust
diameter of 180 ft. (55 m.) and a depth of 9 ft. (2.75 m.) the rolling period and the metacentric height to the
Since it is not enclosed, it can only be used under favour- correct values. In this case the GM
is set at the correct
able weather conditions and then only for taking approxi- value and the rolling period is adjusted as close as
mate measurements of turning-circle diameter and possible. Rolling movements are recorded on a revolving
deviation angle. Models used for this purpose are often drum by a vertical pendulum suspended at the meta-
made of wood and manned by a helmsman. They are centre.
propelled by electric motors run off a storage battery. These tests are very useful for determining the influence
The speed of the model is deduced as accurately as of anti-rolling devices such as bilge keels.
possible from the r.p.m. During the tests, the model is attached to the resistance
The chief aim is to compare the efficiency of different dynamometer and kept on its course by the trimming
rudders. Fig. 365 shows a turning-circle test being appliances. The points of attachment, about which the
carried out with a destroyer model in a pond of the model rolls, are fixed at the same height as the meta-
National Park, De Hoge Valuwe. centre. The towing carriage is not required when there
is no ahead speed on the model.
5. Rolling tests (fig. 366)
The aim of these tests is usually to determine the damping 6. Wake tests (fig. 367)
curve, when rolling, at rest, or at fixed translational
To make propeller calculations with the aid of systematic
diagrams of propeller series, and to determine the
speed.
From the formula for the rolling period of the ship propulsion components, it is necessary to know the
mean wake figure:
i=radius of inertia
g= accelerationdue to gravity where v model speed and v e - main speed of advance
GM metacentric height. of fluid to the propeller. This figure can be determined
Fig. 363. Open water propeller tests
[276]
HULL SHAPE TANK TESTING TECHNIQUE
of the speed field behind the model, Prandtl or Gebers
pitot tubes must be used and the whole field systematically
investigated.
The accuracy of these speed measurements are within
\ to 1 per cent.
TESTS IN THE CAVITATION TUNNEL
1. With propellers
The top horizontal part of the cavitation tunnel contains
the bronze propeller which is to be tested. The r.p.m.
of the propeller, driven by an electric motor, and the
translational speed of the water in the measuring space,
are chosen so that the slip of the model propeller and of
the actual propeller are the same. This is the only essen-
condition for applying the law of Newton for con-
tial
verting the results on the model to the actual propeller.
The static pressure at the centre line of the propeller
shaft is regulated by means of a vacuum pump connected
to the air space above the free fluid surface. This is done
in such a way that the quotient of static and dynamic
pressure is the same for the model and the full-size
propeller.
Fiff. 364. Initial steering tests on a twin-screw model
The cavitation phenomena can be observed and
photographed by stroboscopic lighting, synchronized
according to Froude's method when the data resulting with the r.p.m. of the propeller shaft (fig. 368). This is
from the propulsion and open-water propeller tests are done in the vicinity of the propeller by an observer who
available. also keeps water-speed and static-pressure constant.
Other methods must be used, however, if it is neces- Another observer reads the r.p.m., the thrust and the
sary to determine the wake distribution in order to torque.
calculate, by means of the vortex theory, the propeller The tests are carried out at a constant water speed in
adapted to a radical wake distribution. Fixed rings or the tunnel by varying the number of revolutions of the
revolving vane wheels are attached behind the model. propeller model. This is contrary to the method applied
They are calibrated in open-water condition on resistance during the open-water propeller tests in the basin to
and r.p.m. By measuring the resistance of the rings or ensure that the cavitation number remains constant as
the r.p.m. of the vane wheels the mean wake figure can the slip varies. The first observer, therefore, has only to
be determined for any diameter of rings or vane wheels. see that the static pressure, once established, remains
If it is necessary to find out the \vake at every point constant.
Fig. 365. Steering tests in an open air pond
[277]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
Fig. 366. Roiling tests
If the tip vortex and the cavitation remain within speed field. The horizontal portion in front of the
certain limits, so that there is no influence on thrust and measuring section is, however, so arranged that bodies
torque, not necessary to determine the propeller
it is can be introduced to excite a variable velocity field so
characteristicsand observation of the cavitation phe- that the influence of the irregularity of the speed-field
nomena is sufficient. This offers the great advantage of on the cavitation characteristics can then be examined.
allowing the propeller to be equipped with three or four The whole speed-field is measured in the usual manner
blades of varying design. Each blade caa be observed by means of pitot tubes.
and photographed It also eliminates the The accuracy of the equipment depends on the extent
aypatefy.
need to ''tSr" three extra propellers which of the measuring range. For torque and thrust it varies
maj^jpri^
because of ffieir large dimensions up to 20 in. (50 cm.) in the lowest part of the range from 2 to 3 per cent, and
diameter are comparatively costly. in the higher from 1 to 2 per cent, thrust up to 2,800 Ib.
The tests are usually carried out in a hpmogeneous (1,270 kg.), torque up to 795 ft. Ib. (110 kg.m.). The
Fig. 367. Wake measurement device Fig. 368. Cavitating propeller
[278]
HULL SHAPE TANK TESTING TECHNIQUE
ProMlt 4 <X5
$
/l0,0400
0,7500
Fig. 369. Curves of pressure distribution at different cavitation numbers and a certain angle of attack
r.p.m. can be determined within 3. As the r.p.m. side limits of the profile. For this reason, lift and drag
varies from 300 to 3,000, accuracy is within 1 to 0. per 1 are determined from pressure and impulse measure-
cent. The speed measurements are accurate within ments in the vertical symmetry area. The theory that
1
per cent.
2. With profiles
The Netherlands Ship Model Basin has also a measuring
section for examining the cavitation properties of profiles.
This is done by measuring pressure distribution and
resistance in cavitating and non-cavitating conditions
of the profiles. The data acquired form a valuable
addition to the numerous measurements which have
been carried out in air-tunnels. It is also possible to
examine profile forms which are of special importance
for propeller design.
The section consists of an entrance, a cylindrical
middle where the measuring is done, and an exit. The
profile to be measured is placed in the middle of the
section together with the apparatus for measuring the
speeds and pressures in front of and behind the profile.
The profile is fixed to two discs on either side. These
can revolve in the tunnel wall, so that the angle of
attack of the profile can be varied. The discs are fitted
with windows to enable the flow phenomena around the
profile to be observed. An upper and a lower window
make it possible to observe the profile from other direc-
tions. 370. Profile no. 4 (sll^O.0400, fofs^
Fig.
The determination of the lift and the drag, by means 0.7500), -5, <J=7,0, v=JO m./sec.
of a balance, is not sufficiently accurate because of the
limited width of the profile in proportion to the length the resistance of the profile is equal to the change of
1
(b/l=0.75). The circulation round the profile does impulse of the water flowing per unit of time along the
not remain constant across the width because of the profile is used in making the measurements.
boundary layer along thevertical walls, which form the To determine lift and drag as functions of the angle of
[279]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
attack and the cavitation number, measurements are Model Basin uses the Amsler tow-rope dynamometer
attack=+8, +5% +3,+ 2,
usually taken at angles of which is connected between the boat and the trawl
+ 1,0% -1% -2, -3% -5 and -8. The cavitation wire. It gives complete satisfaction.
numbers = are 4, 1.25, 1.0, 0.75, 0.50, 0.40 and 0.35.
The last number is the lowest that can be reached with
this apparatus. Ship data Scraw data
With number =4, cavitation does not occur at any L bp 140 20Sm Oiamt tt r 4724 mn
angle of attack in the range, so that in this condition 1*1 144 875m Pitch at tht bladt root 2625 5mm
lift and drag values of the
B 17963 m . . . m 3353 Omm
non-cavitating flow can be
tip
Ta 6331 m . 07 R -33530mm
determined. The intake speed at this cavitation number
Tf m fyF 0433
is 24 ft./sec. (8 m./sec.). At other
cavitation numbers, Tin m -00504
t/0
the speed is 44 ft./sec. (13.5 m./sec.). The values of the 16447 m* Numbar of bladt> 4
Reynolds number corresponding to these speeds are
3.2X10 1 and 5.4x10', respectively. Fig. 369 shows the (Drtd action ot 06% owing to an
ovtrload on OHP of 13<fe
pressure distribution curves of a profile at these cavitation
numbers and an angle of attack of +5, while in allowance of 22% for difftrtnct in wftkt
eooo 150
fig. 370 the cavitation phenomena of the same profile
at cavitation number =
1 .0 and
angle of attack= +5 can
be seen.
TRIAL MEASUREMENTS
Measurements taken on the trial and in service are of
great importance for the evaluation of towing-tank
results. They are indispensible when establishing proper
allowances on the tank results, from which the trial
prediction diagram (fig. 371) is made.
Measured mile runs are well known for establishing
speed, power and r.p.m. Power is frequently deter-
mined by means of indicators, but the method using
torsionmeters fixed to tfcfr'shaft or shafts is more reliable.
The Netherlands Ship Model Basin has a number of
Maihak torsionmeters for this purpose, suitable for
using with shafts of 7J to 19J in. (200 to 500 mm.) in
diameter.
Trials can also be organized at sea if there is a reliable
log available. The Netherlands Ship Model Basin has a
self-recording log, designed by Kempf, which gives
satisfactory results. The r.p.m. of the propeller shaft(s)
and the wind speed and direction are measured at the
same time as the speed of the ship. These measurements
are necessary for making corrections if there is extra
wind resistance. With trawlers, it is sometimes desirable
V in knots
to measure the bollard pull or the tow-rope force in the
ft
operating condition. To do this the Netherlands Ship Fig. 371
[280]
SOME TANK TESTS
by
JAN-OLOF TRAUNG
T^EXT-BOOKS on naval architecture and literature Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of United
J^ about the resistance and powering of ships are of Rome, Italy).
Nations,
limited value for estimating the resistance of a new
fishing boat hull. It is obvious that knowledge of the DISCUSSION OF DATA SHEETS
resistance, before construction starts, would eliminate
many mistakes and would help in the choice of engine Due to the limitation in staff and funds available to FAO,
and design of optimum propeller. it has been necessary to develop a simple system of
The author has tried to evolve a fairly simple system, recording tank tests. The material is derived from original
based on tank tests, for estimating fishing boat resistance. tank reports, technical papers and abridged magazine
It issimilar to Ayre's (1948) system for large ships. The articles.
idea is that the naval architect himself should be able to Calculations of the effective (tow rope) power by the
different tankshave been considered adequate and they
study, with reasonable accuracy, the influence of length-
have been used in calculating the quasi-non-dimensional
displacement ratio, location of centre of buoyancy and
the prismatic coefficient. He should be able to determine form value
the difference in required engine power between an
c,=
vf. v
optimum hull shape and the hull determined by working p.
**
conditions. The author has compiled many results of popularly called the Admiralty Constant ".
tank tests with fishing boats and similar types from This constant is based on the wrong assumption that
published data and through personal contacts. He was the frictional resistance is two-thirds of the total resistance
given research grants to test several models and he also and that the frictional resistance per unit of surface area
had opportunity to test models for both his previous isthe same for ships of different length. Although wrong,
employer and for FAO, so that he has collected the and although many other non-dimensional form values
results from more than 120 different models tested on are being used, the use of the C t value has grown so
different displacements and trims and totalling more popular with the years, that it has been selected for the
than 370 tests. non-dimensional presentation of the results.
The efforts to design a simple, reasonably accurate Some calculations have been made, in order to deter-
system for estimating resistance, with the help of results mine the variation of Q with different L. For larger ships,
of available tests, have been in vain so far. It is doubtful there is a rule that one should use C only for L=
t
10 per
whether it will ever be possible to design an accurate cent, of the original length. In this way the results of a
and simple system covering all fishing boat types, as 65.5 ft. (20 m.) boat should only be compared with boats
these vary to a large extent. having L-=59 to 72 ft. (18 to 22 m.). Now, the frictional
Much can be learned, however, from single or related resistance of large ships is often about 75 per cent, of the
tank tests. A uniform presentation of fishing boat tests total resistance, but fishing boats have" higher normal
should be valuable not only for practical design, but speeds and hull forms with proportionally less frictional
could also form the basis for further research. resistance. An investigation of three models (la XXXIV,
FAO started, in 1952, to prepare data sheets of avail- 2a XXX, 5b I) shows that, on Froude's number
able tests. The sheets are not intended to be selective =0.30, the frictional resistance is about 34 to 48 per cent.
as both models with good and bad qualities are being and at 0.35, only 22 to 35 per cent, of the total resistance.
covered. This paper contains 29 sheets, fig. 372-400, Another calculation of the resistance of model No. 5b I
of model tests not published before. Work is in progress with 65.5, 100, 131 and 200 ft. (20, 30.5, 40 and 61 m.)
to issue a catalogue of fishing boat tank tests containing waterline lengths showed that the increase of C 4 was
more than 150 sheets. (Copies can be had when ready, rather small; the increase over the original 60.5 ft.
on application to Technology Branch, Fisheries Division, (18.45 m.) waterline and Froude's number 0.30 was
[281]
FAO No.
Type FXSHUG ; Material, Finish Paraffin la
Tank 88PA Appendages lo Roughness allowance
Test date 17/18 April 1953 Turbulence Hot Indhaoed Reference FAO
Ship/Model Ratio 8.5 Friction Formulation Notes
I 3 4 8 t MITCH*
XXXIV 10 to rtcr
XXXV
XXXVI
-
XXXVII
Model 551-A ZZZI? XUV1 xxmi
2910 2910 2910 2910
-3.06 - .09 -2.18 -4.32
4.95 4.97 4.94 4.98
.356 .347 354 .350
.560 .547 .555 .553
/B 3.99 4.00 3.97 4.02
J/T 2.72 2.68 2.69 2.67
23 24 23
01 5.00 5.04
ft. 16.4
ais
l.fc
6.10
ar as t.7
66. e b.3
~io u it is" 7.63 7.58
2S.1 25.0 21.9
-i * * 2.3l 9. 2.84
9.23 j. 33 9.33
* 4- II It 233 231 236 230
ton 239 237 -2&2L -226.
Fig. 372
[282]
FAO No.
Type PISHING SCHOONER Material, Finish Paraffin |
Tank SSPA Appendages No Roughness allowance
Test date 18/20 April 1953 Turbulence Not Reference FAO f!!
Ship/Model Ratio 8.5 Friction Formulation Notes
XXXIX
___ YI
AU.
XLI
KLI| IKKXVHI
Model 551-A ravm xzxn XL XLX
32.94 32.40 32.79 32. 9CT
ft. 108.1 106. 3 107.6 107.9
ft
7.87 7. 88 7.88
ft. 25.8 25.9 25.8
T aft 4.15 3.41 3.82 4-74
ft. 13.6 11.2 12.5 15.6
3.35 3.46 3.42 3.44
ft. 11.0 11.2 11.3
m 2.65 3.02 2.13
fwd ft. 8.70 _nj 9.90 7.00
n.2
-
18.3
2355
252_
2355
359
12355
*
18.4
359
12355
ton! 353 353
m2 o 312 312
ft* 3358 3358 3358 3358
-3. a -1.80 -4.19
4.67 4.60 4-65 4.67
.402 .395 .395 .392
.581 .578 .580 .578
L/B 4.18 4.11 4.15 4.18
B/T 2.35 2.28 2.30 2.29
25 26 26 24
m 4.78 4.86 4.81 4-79
ft. 15.7 15.9 15.8 15.7
m 2.03 2.13 2.09 2.10
810
(0 ft.~ 6.65 7.00 6. 84 6.86
78.0 81.8 79.5 78.8
O8 Of " n i.
yvTff. 80.0 83*8 81.5 80.8
m 7.28 7.42 7.33 7.30
6 7 8 10 II 12 13 ft. 23.9 2L.L 24.0 2A.O
3.10 3.26 3.1* 3.19
4 4 * 1 1 ir
iS VtOm 10.2 10.7 10. A 10.5
276 292 281 278
*~vioon ton 283 299 288 285
Fig. 373
[283]
FAQ No. 1C
FXBHXW Material, Finish Paraffin
Type i
Tank SSFi Appendages Mo Roughness allowance
Hot induosd Reference FAO files
Test date 21 ipril 1953 Tu rbu ence I
Friction Formulation Proud* Notes
Ship/Model Ratio 8.5
Model 551-A ILII ILHI TLT9
34.03 33.81
ft. 111.6 111.0
7.90 7.91 7.91
ft. 25.6 25,6
IftO m 3.94 4.35
'aft ft. 15.3 12.9 14.3
3.91 3.96 3.94
ft. 12.8 13.0 12.9
3.15
Tfwd
-2.82 -1.15 1.92
4-44 4.42 4-44
.423 .424 .423
.598 .589 .590
L/B 4-31 4.28 4-31
3/T 2.02 2.00 2.01
270 280
4.79
10 ft. .7 15! 7
0.10 OtO OLtd O.SO 036
j I 1 I 1 I f
ft.- 7.S
i
6
0*
11
7
0.7 Oi
i
t
Of
i
10
IjQ
II
M
i
1C
l.t
IS m
96.5
99.0
7.08
93.3
95.
9775
ft. 23.2 23.4 23.2
i 4 * 4 i fr-
itP
T 9 II It 322 330 325
ton 330 338 33)
[284]
FAO No.
Type HIW ENGLAND TR1WLBR 19U Material, Finish Paraffin 2a
Tank SSPA Appendages No Roughness at lowance
Test date 16 April 1953 Turbulence Not latoos* Reference FAO filmi
Ship/Model Ratio 8.5 Friction Formulation Notes
Mi 10
Node I 550-4 zzz mz mm
29.84 30.12 30.66 30.88
ft. 98.8
7.19
ft. 23. 23.6
m 2.34 2.86 4' 04
aft ft. 7.68 9.38
M 2.58 2.54 2.54 2.54
ft. 8.46 .33
m
fwd ft.~
ttl 139 135 136 135
250 250 250 250
56
all5
tons. 252 252
250 250 250
2691 2691 2691 2691
-.400 -2.93 -5.35 -7.42
4-74 4.78 4*90
.451 .454 .446 .442
.649 664 .647 .648
/B 4.14 4-19 4-27 4.28
/T 2.79 2.82 2.82 2.83
25 23
4-77 4.69 4-67
ID ft. 15.6 15.6 15.1
1.69 1.
QI9 QtO ate 0.30 ass 0.4O SIT ft.
10 77.1 75.0 71.1
79 10 M It
m
ft
7.36
24.1
2.64 2.57
7.15 -S*
4 i- 8.66 8.44 8. 3P 8.23
"nT~K0 267 259 246 2U
ton 274 265 252 247
^i^. 375
[285]
Type Htf MOLAND TRAMLBl 19U Material, Finish Paraffin
FAQ No.
2b
Tank SSPA Appendages No Roughness al lowance
Test date 14 April 1953 Turbulence Not induced Reference PAO files
Ship/Model Ratio 8.5 Friction Formulation Proude Notes
XXIII
XXIV
XXV
* I
Model 550-A XXIII XXIV XXV
31.64 31-96
ft.
ft.
500 T aft 3760 3-17 36
ft. 11. S log 3
.15
ft. 10.3
1.0 Tfwd ft.
400 400 .2
1.1
it
\
1.4
- 300
I 500
toni
3132 3132 3132
IS
-2.85 -1.37 -5.32
i.a
4.49 4.42 4.54
to
too 200
.489 .486 475
t4
.670 .665 .630
50
L/B 4.32 4.25 4.37
4.0 100 100
ft/T 2.37 2.32 2.32
SSPA 25
550-A ft.
015 QtO OJS 090 Q90 8
' '
_J
oa as 92.7
10
-Wr
9.78 10.2
1
I A ton
314
922
330
338 512
Fig. 376
[286]
IFAO No.
Type 0V INQUMD TRAWLER 1944 Material, Finish Paraffin 2c
Tank 8SP4 Appendages NO Roughness al lowance
Test date 15 April 1953 Turbulence Mot iadoood Reference FAO filea
Ship/Model Ratio 8.5 Friction Formulation Notes
XXVI
XXVII
XXVIII
XXIX
H I
KXVUll lynvii
Model 550-A zzm xxnn XXII
32.25 38765 32.73
ft. 8 107. 4 6.8
.32 7.32
ft. 240 QI ft
24.0
00 VftT 3.66 4-20 4.82 5.35
ft. 12.0 13.8 15,8 17.6
3.80 3*82 3.79
ft. 12,6 12.5 12.5 12.
Tfwd ft.
4.02
13.2
3.40
n.2
2.83
9.28
Hr
22.1 21.6 4?-
238 -
480
to
ft 16944 16944
484 484
340 340 340
Jk 3660 3660 3660 3660
-.260 -1.92 -3.88 -5.88
4.12 4-17 4.18 4.16
.530 .529 .525 .531
.674 .681 .670 .652
L/B 4. a 4.46 4.47 4.45
I/T 1.91 1.93 1.92 1.93
33 30 25
4.48 4.47 4.49
ft. 1Z..7 1A.6 3U.7
2.33 2.33
0,15 Q20 OCS 0,30 0.36 040 J 7.64 7.64
04 0.7 Of 1.0 IJ l.t 1.9
110 109 ni
118 113 112
fll 6.92 6.84 6.82 6786
7 a 9 10 II It 19
ft. 22.7 22.4 22.5
i * t fc- 3.63 3.56 3.55
4 4
5 ft. 11. ^ 11. 11.6
v non i 392 394
T a t 10 it it a 416
ton 402 399 404
Fig. 377
[287]
FAO No.
Type MEW ENGLAMD TRAMUCR 1952 Material, Finish Paraffin
Tank SSPA Appendages Mo Roughness al lowance 7.
Test date 15 J 1953 Turbulence Mot induced Reference FAO ttlee
Ship/Model Ratio 8.5 Friction Formulation Notes
im Model 552-A LII LIII LIV LV
32.58 32.63
1
1 107.1
7.U 7. L
12
ft. 23.4
500 V*r
8.20
3.36
11.0 12.6
9.58
2.28 2.26 2.26 2.29
7.50 7.41 7.
1.16
a 7.51
2.05 1.60 .740
Tfwd 6.72 5.25 3.80
13.3 13.5
146 149
-$-
256
250 250
256 256
8825 8825 8825
252 25
-it-
2885 2885 2885 2885
-1.76 -3-67 -4.82 - 6.12
4.97 5.01 5.H 5-18
J .490 .491 .479 .470
.600 .587 .568 .555
L/B 4.38 4.44 4.53 4-59
B/T 3-13 3.15 3.15 3.10
Iqf E 22 21 19 15
4-56 4.52 4.40 4. 56
eo 14-9 U.4
45 1.43 1.40
*^M.
ft. 4.7D 4.58
^ m3" 64.8 63.5 59-0 -4
,A. t or
^r 65.1 -
6.66
21.8
.
to m 7.28 7.17
231 225
4- 13 V 100 ft ton 237 231 214 209
Fig. 378
[288]
FAQ No.
Type MEW ENGLAND TRAVUR 1952 Material, Finish Paraffin 3b
Tank SSPA Appendages No Roughness al lowance
Test date 11/12 JUM 1953 Turbulence Not lafaoed Reference PAO files
Ship/Model Ratio 8.5 Friction Formulation Pronto Notes
Model 552-A ZLV ZLVI XLTO
33.38 31.85 33.75
ft. 109.5 104.5 110.7
7.16 7.16 7.14
ft. 23.5 23.5 23.4
soo 'aft
ffl
3.68 2.83 4.55
ft. 12.1 9.28
m 2.85 2.90 2.8
ft. 9.35 9.51 9.3
T fwd ffl
2.03 2.97 1.18
ft. 9.74
17.5
186 188 192
350 350 350
359
12355 12355
tonl 353 353 353
312 312 312
336 336 336
-2.31 -.331 -5.60
4.74 4.52 4.79
.514 .529 .508
.606 .628 .583
L/B 4.66 4.45 4-73
B/T 2.51 2.47 2.49
220 26 18
ffl
4.29 4.50 4.23
ft. Li. 8
0.15 020 OtS 030 0.35 Q4O
7K -tfr
t 5.61 .97 5.54
0* O7 04 Of 10 I.I l.t 13
75. -4 677 72^
77.3 88.
7 f 10 12 V 33.39m 6.54
II IS
21.2
"VKm 2! 60
8.53
Wr
22.
9.12
2.58
8.46
K> II V KX> ft "*
267 308
I Ai ton 374 316
Fig. 379
[289]
Type W BttUMD TRAUIJR 1992 Material, Finish Bareffia
FAO No.
3c
Tank 86PA Appendages Io Roughness al lowance
Test date 12/13 ta 1953 Turbulence Not ladueed Reference FaO filee
Ship/Model Ratio 8.5 Friction Formulation Notes
0*1 t * I
Model 552-4 LI
17 34-
7.21
Ui
7.21 7.21
ft. 23.7 23.7 23.7 23.7
3.78 4.64 5.08
ft. 15.2 16.6
ft 3.59 3-58 3.57
ft. U.8 11.7 11.8 11.7
A 3.40 2.95 2.52 2.06
Tfwd ft. 11.2 8.27 6.76
22.3 22.2 22.4
o/n 299 9/1
480 480 480
492 Z.92
tt*
tons.
*
169U
3897
16944
362
3897
16944
382
3897
169U
362
3897
+ .001 -1.19 -2.57 -4*70
4-32 4.36 4.38 4.37
.548 .546 -542 545
.628 .630 .630 .626
L/B 4.70 4.75 476 4.75
3/T 2.01 2.02 2.02 2.02
29 28 25 22
4.26 4.22 4.20 4.21
ft. 13.8
M .09
ft. 6.88 ..88 6.88
0.7 OS Of U> IJ It IJ 95.2 95.9
101 98.7 97.6 98.3
e r e t 10 M it o M 6.50 6.44 6.41 6.42
2 10 ft. 2.10 2.11
i 4 * 1 i fe * Jfcir 3.19 3.18
10.6 10.5 10.4 10.4
T t 10 II It
II 352 342 337 339
ton 361 351 345 347
Fig. 380
[290]
IFAO No.
Type SHRIMmAWUR 1945 Material, Finiah Paraffin 4a
10.
Tank SSPA Appendages Mo Roughness allowance
Tu rbu ence Mot indited Reference FAQ file*
Test date 4 Naroh 1953 I
Friction Formulation Fronde Notes
Ship/Model Ratio 6
Mf FT*
1 Z 3 4 METERS -50
Model 549-1 in XXI XXII
18.23 18.93 18.97 19.02
ft. * 62.2 62.4.
ft.
Hr 5. 19
17.0
5.1
17.0
00 ft so
1.78 2.02 2.26
ft. 4.89 5.84 6.63
at 1.57 1.55
ft.
-442-
1.68
10 ft.
coo
1 1 59.7 60.7
18 66.
2295
65.6
300 150
1087 1087 11X7 1087
16
K455 -1. 53 -4.82 -8.15
IS -
4.53 4-71 4-72 4-73
to -
eoo
.434 .421 .427 .438
24
.642 .609 .604
30
L/B 3.51 3.65 3.66 3.71
40
3.29 3.30 3.33 3.42
SSPA 29 26 24 19
549-A ft,
5.70
18.7
5.48 5.46 5.44
1.73
0.15 0*0 025 0.30 0.36 O.4O 5.68 5.21
at ar 85.0 75.8
ot ijo 1.1 i.t 1.3
87.7 78.5 77.9 77.7
a t 10 yi*m 8,70 8.36 8.29
ft. 28,5 27.4 27.1
t io VtOm 2.64 2.53 2.49 2.42
8.67 8.30 8.20 7.29
II
304 272 270 268
ton 312 279 277 275
Fig. 38 J
IFAO No.
Type OUMPTfUMJR 1945 Material, Finish 4b
Tank sSPi Appendages Mo Roughness al towance
Test date 19 retr. 1953 Turbulence Mot Reference FAO files
Ship/Model Ratio 6 Friction Formulation Notes
FT
50
0-L
XIVl IXIII
Model 549-4 XII XIII XIV
19.12 19.09 19.17
ft. 62-7 62.6 62,9
5.31 5.31
ft. 17.4
60 2.03 2.32
ft. 6.66
m 2.03
ft. 6.66
2.03 1.68
Tfwd 6.66 5.51
200 -I* 7.94
85.5
100
103 103 103
3530 3530 3530
1313 1313 1313
-.596 4-1.36 -3. 44
4.12 4.U
485 .481 .492
.651 .651 .657
L/B 3.60 3.60 3.62
2.61 2.59 2.65
32<> 33
5.56 575* 5.53
ft. 18.2
ai9 oto ots 0.30
HA- 2.09
6.86
OS 07 OS Of 10 M l.t 1.3
in
117
I
s
, I, 1 I t
7 8.49
10
ft. U 27.9
-4 4- 1C
3.1
r* itf ID /
406 408 402
ton 416 qe 412
[292]
FAO No.
Type SHRIMPBUWIXR 19)45 Material, Finish Paraffla 4c
18.
Tank S8PA Appendages lo Roughness al lowance
Turbulence Reference FAO files
Test date IS/20 Fbr. 1953 Mot iadueed
Ship/Model Ratio 6 Friction Formulation Notes
9*
Model 549-A xv XVI XVII rviii
19.26 19.35 19.38 19.44
i- ft. 63,3 63.6 63.8
5-42
5-4 5.41 5.40 5.39
ft. 17.8 17.8 17.7 17.7
500 tftO m 2720 2.45
'aft ft. 7.22 8.04 8.83 9.68
2.55 2.52 2.49 2.47
ft. 8.27 8.17
2.59 2.29 1.98
Tfwd
400 >.s ft." 9.50
10.8
8.50
10.6
7.50
10.6
6.50
10.2
116 11A
tun.
ft 7
ton*
ISO 140 UO 140
1507 1507 1507 1507
tit -.628 -1.13 -2.95 -4.89
i s
3.71 3.73 3.73 3.74
20
.526 .531 .537 .541
24
.673 .683 .682 .679
90
L/B 3.55 3.58 3.59 3.61
4O 100 50
B/T 2.13 2.15 2.16 2.18
SSPA 35 34 34 33
549-A m
ft.
5.63 5.59 5.57
18.3
5.55
18.2
18.?
m 2.65 2.57 2.54
0.16 020 025 050 0.35 0.40
ft. 8.53 8.43 8.31
Q ar at 09 i.o u 154 154 153
/\i to
5 6 7 t 10 8.53 -ttr 8.46
ft. 28.3 28.0 27.8 27.7
-* 4 * 4 1- ~VtOm 3*97 3.92
13.2 13.0 12.6
557 549 546 542
ton 570 563 560 556
Fig. 383
(293)
FAO No.
Type SHRDfPTIUWUR 19*6 Material, Finish Paraffin
13.
Tank 3SPA Appendages Mo Roughness al lowance
Test date 20 Feter.- 3 fereh 1953 Tu rbu enceI Mot lotos* Reference FAO files
Ship/Model Ratio 6 Friction Fo mutation Proud* Notes
-50
-1-
/, I 2 3 45 6
Model 548-1 VIII XI
m 17.55 18.17 18.42 18.43
ft. 57.6 59.6 60.4 60.5
5.29 5.29 5.28 5.28
ft. 17.4 17.3 17.3
m 1.88 2.16
ISO 'aft
ft. 5.25 6.17 7.09
1.71 1.70 1.69
ft. 5.61 5.58 5.51
1.83 1.52 .91
6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00
too 6.20 6728^ 6.40 6-48
66.7 67.6 68.9 69.8
65-0 65.0 65.0 65.0
66.6 66.6 66.6 66.6
89.0 89*0 89.0 89.0
958 958 958 958
-2.01 -2.12 -3-22 -5.01
4.37 4.52 4.58 4.58
.409 .398 .395 .398
.597 .570 .551 .544
L/B 3.32 3.44 3.49 3-49
B/T 3.09 3.11 3.12 3.U
24 22 20 17
m 6.03 5.82
ft.
015 OEO 025 030 0.35 O4O ^JgL 6.14 6.04 5.97
OS
-
'
507 O.7
'
J
OS
~
'
Q9
i
10
8
II
__j
g
9
12
|
13
10
O>IO
s
(A
ft.
96.2
98.6
30*2
2.98
9.78
88.8
8.89
29.2
2.86
9.38
83.7
85.8
8.74
28,7
2.80
9,19
83.0
85.0
8.74
28.7
2.78
9.12
I I
7 e t u n 12 "VtOOfl I)
342 309 295 295
ton 351 317 302 302
F/.C. 384
\ 294 ]
|FAO No.
Type SHRIMPTRAWLSR 1948 Material, Finish Paraffin 5b
Tank (4.
SSP4 Appendages No Roughness allowance
Test date 16 Fetor. 1953 Tu rbu ence
I Not laAuoed Reference FAO files
Ship/Model Ratio 6 Friction Formulation Notes
FT'
01234 METERS
5 -
-30
0-L-o
10
Model 548*4 II III
03
ft. ill
1ft, 3.33
50< tso aft
ft.
ft.
-%2*19
7.19
17.5
2.53
8.30
17,
f*r
6.53
2.19 2.18 2.21
ft. 7.19 7.15 7.25
m 2.19 1.83 2.44
10 - Tfwd ft. 7.19 6.00 8.00
400 too 9.00 9.00
I.I 96.9 96.9
100
It tan 103
ft*
tont
14 . 300 ISO 112 112 112
1206 1206
IS -2.09
!
4.06 4.10 4.05
ro
too
452 .452 .452
t-4
.992 .584 .591
uo
/B 3.56 3.57 3.53
IOO
I/T 2.43 2.45 2.41
SSPA 25
548-A in
ft.
5.60
2.29 2.35
at* aao 7.71
o? to
m
120
ft. 28.2 28.0
3.53
U.6 .
4ao 410
ton 430 420 437
Fit. 385
1295]
|r*u no. 5c
Type saumuMUBt 194* Material. Finish Paraffin
15.
Tank SSPA Appendages lo Roughness al lowance
Test date 17/18 Fetr. 1953 Turbulence Bet ladvoed Reference FAD files
Ship/Model Ratio 6 Friction Fornulation Notes
KI 10
Mode! 548-A YI VII
m
ft.
19.43
63.? K3
ft.
5.33 5.33 *&r
230 aft ft. 7.87 9.61 10.J
2.72 2.70 2.69 2.67
ft. ~8.92 8.86 8.83 8/76
ffl 2774 2.44 2.13
ft. 10.0 9.00 8.00 7.00
200 *2 11.7 11.5 11.5 11. &
Ul 126
uo
t 144
ft 4942 4942 4942
ten* i/o
132 132 132 132
1420 1420 1420 U20
+.790 -.602 -2.16 ^4.09
3-74 3.75 3.75 3.74
-497 .500 .502 .506
.616 .626 .626 .621
L/B 3.65 3.65 3.65 3.65
B/T 1.96 1.98 1.98 2.00
34 32 32
5.49 5.49 5.49
ft. 18.0
2.80 2.
oto ate 030 095 a4o t. 9.19 9.12 9,09
a? as at M "3 153 153 153
1.0 i.e 13 157 157
9 8 9 10 V 19.49m
ft.
8.37 8.37
27.5
Hr 27.3
i *- j 1 fe Yt0m 4.24 4.19
14.0 13,9 13.8 13.7
-t- t to H it a 542 541 541 541
556 555 555 555
Fig. 386
\ ^OA 1
Trawler Wood FAONo.
Type Material, Finish
Tank SSPA Appendages rudder, propellerboee and
aftest part of keel
Roughness al lowance -
Test date 14 June, 27 Aug. 1946 Turbulence not lnduo . d Reference JO T filea
Ship/Model Ratio 6 Friction Formulation Froude Notes *VH without appendage.
50
9tt 10
Model 206 II XVI XVII
23.68 24-45 24.0 24.0
77.7 80.2 78.7 7 fl -7
6.20 6.25 6.25 6.25
t. 20.3 20.5 2O.
2.62 3.20 2.88 2.88
8. 10.5 9t45
V Poff 3.20 2T4& ""2^45"
Tf.d
6.78
1.52
4.98
10.5
3.20
10.5
8.1!
2.
6.82
2.*
8.15
6.82
9-25 16.4 12.0 12.0
99.6 177 129
250.7 173.5 173-5
134 257 178 178
4624 6125 6125
132 175 175
219 183 183
1765 2357 1970 1970
-.760 -.532 1.25 1.25
4.66 3.88 4.30 4.30
431 513 .466 .466
.598 .625 .602 .602
/B 3.82 3-91 3.64 3.84
3.00 1.96 2.52 2.52
23 32 27 27
ft.
1-75 2. 2.07 2.07
0.15 OtO Oft f 5.73 8.60 6.79 6.79
3" 79.0 137 101 101
0* 0.7 U> 1.1 l.t 1.5 ^ ton J11P_ JL&L J4_
5 C 10 II * ft.
3.15
W
3.15
4
i "i i Ki4i 10.3 10.3
281 486
-i * H it 5T"^^^^ A ton 266 496 365
356
365
Fix. 387
[2971
Type T r w 1 r Material, Finish Wood FAO No.
6B
Tank SSPA Appendages HO Roughness allowance
17.
Test date 3/16 Oct. 1946 Turbulence lot induced Reference j o T files
Ship/Model Ratio 6 Friction Formulation Notes
I
'/*
I Ixviti
Model XVIII XIX XX XXI
24.10 2A. 06 24.10
ft. 79.1 78.9 79.1
6.25 6.25 6.25
ft. 20.5 20.5 20.5
tso A 2.91 2.97 3.12
aft ft. 9.25 10.2
ft.
-m
8.22
2,42
7.93
9.77
2.42
7.93
2.42
7.93
n 2.11 2.02
ft. 6.91 6.63
too 13.2 1276 12.6 12.6
142 136 136 136
184*5 173.5
ton 178
ft* 6125 6125 6125
tonl 185 175 175
175 170 170 170
1884 1630 1630 1830
-.581 -.146 -914 -2.24
4.24 4.31 4.31 4.24
.485 .476 .476 .477
.598 .592 .592 593
L/B 3.85 3.84 3.85 3.85
B/T 2.49 2.58 2.56 2.58
25 25" 25"
5.20 5.20
eto ft. 17.1 17.1
III 2.03 2.01 2.01
Sio
r ft. 6.83 6.58 6.58 6.58
II 990 99.5 99-5
102
7.91 7.93
10 010 it. 26.0 26.0
3.07 3.07
8 10.4 10.1 10.1 10.0
i 372 353 353 352
"*
I A ton
381 362 362 361
Fife. 388
[298]
Type T r a w t r Wood FAO NO.
1 Material, Finish
Tank SSPA Appendages No Roughness allowance
IB.
Test date 6 Nov. 1946 Turbulence Not induced Reference JOT files
Ratio 6 Friction Formulation Proud
Ship/Mode! Notes
Model 206 o XXVII XXVIII XXIX
m 24.46
ft. 80,3
25 6.25 6.25
ft. 20.5 20.5
250 2781 2.62 3-35
'aft ft. 9,20 6.58 11.0
09- in 2.06 2.06 3.18
ft. 6.76 6.76 10.4
10 -
\ m 1.30 1.50 3.00
ft.~ 4.27 4.92 9,82
10.0 10.2
I I
111 107 110
131 131 251
IE 134
ft 4624 4624 8860
ton% 112
14 - 100 158 158 219
1695 1695
- 3.84 - 2.16 -.300
i.a-
ro 4.65 4.64 3.88
too
.430 .432 .516
.4
.554 .545 .600
/B 3.78 3.76 3.92
4.0 100 50
J/T 3.03 3.03 1.96
16 17
m 5.2B 5.31 5.11
eo ft. 17.3 17.4 16.6
1.74 1.75 2.60
OJ oto ote OJO 040 as 5.70 5.73 8.52
79.0 137
u 80.^
-
ar LO i.t
ail o 1AO
m 8.06 8.09 7.79
5 6 10 II ^ 13.99m.
ft. .
26.5
m 2.66 2767
4 i * "id ViOm ftl- 13.0
4B6
\ *vaon /t ton 288 292 498
Ffc. 3R9
[299]
Type T r a w 1 r Material, Finish FAO Mo.
Wood
Tank SSPA Appendages Ho 19.
Roughness al lowance
Test date 5 Nor. 1946 Turbulence Hot induo*d Reference j o T
Ship/Model Ratio 6 Friction Formulation Proud* Notes
-J^
-100
XXII 012345
I
. . .' I
5
.. . .
\
10
. Ji I
IS
i
1
METERS
FEET
XXIII -
5
50
XXIV
O J-
Type Trawler Material, Finish Wood F* NO-
6Cc
Tank SSPA 20.
Appendages NO Roughness al lowance
Test date 5/6 NOV. 1946 Turbulence Hot induced Reference j o T files
Ship/Model Ratio *
Friction Formulation Notes
IVW////
XXIV
XXV
XXVI
SSPA
206- C
ar ot at uo u it u
5 7 t
t i * 4
Typ Trawler Material. Finish Wood
MO.
60a
Tank WPA Appendages Ho Roughness a lowance
I
21.
Test data 30 for. 1946 Turbulence Hot induced Reference JOT files
Ship/Modal Ratio 6 Friction Formulation Froud* Notes
-100
012345 METERS
LV 10 15 FEET
5 -
LVI
J- O
Model 206 d LV LVI
22.65 22. JO
ft. '.4.3 73.
5.2
6722 6.22
ft. 20.4 20. A
250 2.90
ft. 9.50 8*. 20
2.C 2.11
ft. 6.6 6.90
1.28 1.71
ft. 4.20 5.60
ZOO 9.50 9.42
102 101
121 121
to 124
ft 4270 4270
tool 122 122
150 150
1615 1615
>+*(. - 3.13 * .00
4.58 4.51
.410 .413
.562 .576
/B 3.65 3.58
I/T 2.98 2.95
17
ft
1.85
Bmtf ft 6.08
O.T OS Of LO U |,t
H
U
0.38
10 II 010 ft. 27.5 30.7
2.01
"KJDm rs ft. 9.20 9.50
Jiu
n
1
I A ton
301 318
Fig. 392
[302]
Type Trawlr Material, Finish Wood
FAD No.
6DJ>
SSPA - 22.
Tank Appendages No Roughness allowance
Test date 29 HOT. 1946 Turbulence Not induced Reference JOT files
6 Proud* Notes
Ship/Model Ratio Friction Formulation
01 2345 METERS
O 5 IO IS RECT
Model 206 d LCI
22.70 22.78 22,84
74.9
ft. fcP
tso 'aft
ft M
2.5 3.15
10.3
2.34
ft. 7.76 T.TO 7,68
1.96
too
ft. 6.50 JJL
0.9
10.
117
ISO 163 163 163
1755 1755 1755
-.530 - 1.93 - 3.35
4.33 4.35 4.35
429 .431 .430
577 .580 573
L/B 3.63 3.65 3.67
I/T 2.64 2.66 2.67
21* 20" 19"
ft. JJ1.
2.C 05
ait a*o 010 Oft* 040 Xfer 8I 6.8 ML 72
or
-4
at
*
-i
i*
i-
u LI
II
u j#Z7*
a3.19
10.4
27.:
3.12
10.2
351 347 341
i * * fr-
ton 360 356 350
F//r. 393
[303]
FAO No.
Type T r a w 1 r Material, Finisn Wood 6Dc
29.
Tank SSPA Appendages No Roughness allowance
Test date 29/30 HOT. 1946 Turbulence Not induced Reference JOT files
6 Notes
Ship/Mode! Ratio Friction Formulation
>/* I 9* 10
Model 206 d LII LIII LIV
22.84 22.86
ft. 74.9 75.0 liii.
ni
6.25 6.25
ft. 20.5 20.5
tso 3.15 3.35 2.40
ft. 10.3 11.0 7.88
2.33 2.36
ft. 111 7.64 7.74
Tfwd ft, 1:13
11.0 11,0 11.2
116 1J8 121
toj- 508
toni 145
163 163 163
1755 1755 1755
- 3.35 - 4.74 1.93
4.35 4.36 4.26
.430 .432 .437
573 573 576
L/8 3.67 3.66 3.58
J/T 2.67 2.66 2.65
19" 16 24
Ml 47 5.47 60
5.6<
ft. 17. s 17J9 18.4
0*6 aso ase L_"t.
3
6.72
96.4 103
a? at at i.o 1.1 i.t 1.3
v*
/V. tor 98.8 106
734
10 ft.
3.23
10,2 10.4
341
4 4" J
I A ton 350 351 377
Fig. 394
[304]
Typa Trawler Malarial, Finish Wood FAO No.
6Ea
SSPA 24.
Tank Appendages Ho Roughness allowance
Tast date 21 Deo. 1946 Turbulence Hot induoed Reference JOT files
Ship/Model Ratio 6 Friction Formulation Froude Notaa
-100
LXII 5 METERS
LXIII
-50
Model 206 e LXII LXIII
21.25 1.00
ft. 69.8 8.9
N 6.15
ft. 20.2 20.2
5OO tSO 2.80 2.50
ft. 9.20
ft. 6.50 6,52
'
10 ft,
400 too * .2 8.45 8.45
1 1 91.0 91.0
*7j 100 100
i.t
N ft'
103 103
3530
101
14 300 190 132
1420 1420
It
- 3.16 -.670
i.e-
4.58 4.52
t.o
too 100
.387 .369
t.4
.556 564
3O
3.46 3.42
40 IOO BO
i/T 3.10 3.09
15" 17
ID ft.
ate ato ate aao 8? 6.10 6.2
M 03.2 66.0
1,0
85.3 88.2
"4 * 4 4
ft. Af
2.64
-4 * 4 1- 'VtOm
-*vioon ton 302
F&.395
[305]
Type T r w 1 r Malarial, Finish Wood Ho.
Tank SSPA Appendages Ho lowance 23.
Roughness al
Test date 20 Deo. 1946 Turbulence Not induced Reference j T flit*
Ship/Model Ratio * Friction Formulation Froude Notes
JLL
100
O
i
I 2945 * * i
'
METERS
O 9 IO 19 FEET
-*-
O
tf I 2 3 4 i
vill I 5
Hod. I LVII LVIII LX
Hi 21.30 45
21.4' 21.50
ft. 70.4 70! S
ft.
-%-
20.2 20.2
290 2.90 3.04
ft. 9.50 9-97
2.26 2.26
ft. 7.42 7.42
1.62 1.46
Tf.d ft. fcS 5.32 4.78
200 10.1 10.2 10.1
*.
f
ton
109
122
110
122
109
122
125
ft*
tons,
145 145 145
1560 1560 1560
-.830 - 2.57 - 3.73
4.30 4.32 4.33
.410 -407 .408
567 558 562
3.45 3.47 3.48
l/T 2.73 2.73 2.75
21 18
5.80
ft. 19.0
2.12 2.11
aid 8S ft* 6.96 6.92
101
or out LO IJ It IJ /V. toi 104
0.95
10 ft. 29.0
3.21 3.19
i 4- i * ft. 10.6 10.! 10.4
340
-
I A ton 359 357
Fig. 396
[306]
Tyaa trawler Malarial. Finish Wood FAO No.
6Ec
Tank SSPA Appandagaa NO Roughnaaa a lowanca
I
Taat data 20 &ao. 1946 Turbulanca Not induced Rafaranea JOT fil
Ship/Nod* I Ratio 6 Friction Foray at ion
I Proud* Notts
[307]
FAO No.
Type Trawler Material. Finish Wood 6Ed
27.
Tank SSPA Appendages Mo Roughness allowance
Test dtte 16 Jan. 1947 Turbulence lot induoed Reference JOT filoa
6 Friction Formulation Proud* Notes
Ship/Model Ratio
10 -i
-too
LXIV
LXV 01 2345 METERS
LXVI
LXVII
-1-
O O
O '/I I
Model 206 e LXIV unr LXVI LXVII
21.82 21.85 21.86
ft. 71.6 71.7 71*7
6.25 6.25 6.25 6.25
ft. 20.5 20.5 20.5 20.5
00 250 3.00 3.20 3.40
ft. 9.84 11.2
2.8, 2.83
ft. 9. 9.25 9.28
2.2}
ft. 9.2 8.73 7.3C
200 13.8 13.8 13.7
148 148 147
173.5 173.5 173.5
178 178 178 178
177 177 177 177
191 191 191 191
1.30 4.100 -970 - 2.47
l.t
3.90 3.91 3.92 3.92
t.0
too 100
.449 .449 .449 449
.578 576 576 .579
3.49 3.50 3.50 3.50
40 -
IAA 50
2.20 2.21 2.22 2.21
SSPA 28 26' 25*
206-6 14
2.61 2.58 2.59
8.57 a. IB
or
-t" -i i-
2. 2.86
477 474 471 472
i 4 *- 489 486 483 484
Fig. 398
[308]
FAO No.
Type T r w 1 . r Material, Finish Wood 6F
Tank SSPA 26.
Appendages HO Roughness allowance
Test date 12 March 1947 Turbulence Fot induced Reference JOT fil*
Ship/Model Ratio 6 Friction Formulation Froud Notes
100
LXVIII
LXIX
012345 METERS
FEET
LXX 15
50
LXXI
O *- O
Model 206 f LXVIII LXIX LXX UUCI
21.22 21.46 21.45 21.77
ft. 69.6 70.4 70.4 71. A
6.18
250
ft. 20 zU5
3.04 3.00
ft. 1:8 9.97 9.84
2.26 2.25 2.83
ft. 708 9.28
1.62 1.46 2.66
Tfwd ft. 6.13 5.32 4.78 8.7^
a
*
10.1
109
120.5
123.5
IP. 2
110
120.5
123.5
10.1
109
120.5
123.5
13.8
171.8
176.1
tni
fp 4290
121. S
140 140 140
ft! 1510 1510 1510
- .787 - 1.84 - 2.58 - .138
4.30 4.35 4.35 3.92
.407 .402 .404 .446
.562 .350 .556 .572
L/B 3.44 3.47 3.47 3.49
2.73 2.73 2.75 2.21
19 18 26
5.83
ft. 19.2
. 2.10 2.60
0.15 QtO Of aao 6.91 6.90 8.52
101 97-7 97.7 133
OS 0.7 IX) 100 100
"
10 II "~ 8 ft.
,
28.
8.78
28. ft
3.25 3.21 3.20 3.96
i fc rs 10.6 10.5 10.5 13.0
358 346 346 471
ton 367 355 355 483
Fig. 399
Y * a w 1 FAO No.
Typa r Malarial. Pint ah Wood 66
Tank S8PA Appandagaa Bo 29.
RougHnaaa allowance
Taat data 16 April 1947 Turbulanca Vot induood Rafaranca JOT fil
Ship/Modal Ratio 6 friction formulation r*oudo Notaa
LXXII
LXXIII
LXXIV
LXXV
a t 10 n
* 4 * 1
Fig. 400
[310]
HULL SHAPE - FISHING BOAT TANK TESTS
2.5 and 3 per cent, for the 131 and 200 ft. (40 and 61 m.) sheets weremade from a purely exploratory point of view
waterline lengths respectively, and for 0.35 it was 1.6 and and therefore do not always correspond to the real
2 per cent., respectively. displacement or trim of a ship.
During recent years, the problem of laminar flow in Data sheets can be analysed in different ways. It is
tank testing has been discussed to considerable extent. felt that when a naval architect is working on a specific
Under certain conditions, the flow of water along the design and has specific problems to solve, he wants to
model is laminar, whereas it is always turbulent along analyse only those factors which are relevant. In order
the ship. When converting the model resistance figures to to show how the sheets may be used only a few details
figures for the ship, one subtracts a calculated friction will be discussed.
resistance based on turbulent conditions from the total It is well known that a boat's performance is changed
model resistance, the rest being the residual resistance. If, by trimming, and that skillful skippers get much more
actually, laminar flow occurred along the model, one out of their boats by proper ballasting and stowing of
would thus subtract a part of the residual resistance, the cargo. In trimming, the effect of different LCB
with the result that the calculated total resistance for the (location centre of buoyancy) can be established along
ship would be too low. It is now fairly well determined with more favourable entrance and run angles of the
that laminar flow exists when the models are small, when water lines. The author believes that fishing boat models
the model speed is low, when the block coefficient is should be tested on different trim angles as this is an
high and when the angle of entrance is large. Small economic way of studying what can be done with a
models are especially subject to the effect of laminar specific design. It is also important that fishing boats
flow and different kinds of turbulence stimulating are tested at different displacements, contrary to cargo
devices are used, such as trip wires, sandpaper, struts boats where the load condition is of most interest.
and water spray to ensure correct prediction of resistance.
Turbulence is not always stimulated when larger models DESCRIPTION OF MODELS
are used because fishing boat models are mostly tested
Models No. 1 to 5 have been tested by FAO in 1953.
at high speeds and their block coefficients are low. As the
No. 1 is a typical Grand Bank fishing schooner which
resistance normally decreases with smaller angles of
was built in Clarenville, Newfoundland. The author
entrance, there is not much danger that laminar flow
visited Newfoundland in 1951 to investigate the possi-
on some tests should induce the selection of a wrong
bilities of improving locally-built fishing boats. He found
alternative. But it is recommended that naval architects
that these boats generally had favourable coefficients
should consider the problem and compare results from
from a modern naval architectural point of view and the
a large and a small model carefully. They must also
advice was that one should continue building boats
remember that a turbulence stimulating device has
resistance and that if of two similar models, the one with along the same lines, rather than to introduce new
the trip wire has a somewhat higher resistance, this designs from abroad. The Department of Fisheries and
Co-operatives in Newfoundland requested FAO to test
might be due to the trip wire and not to the quality of the a model of a typical fishing schooner so that it could be
lines.
It is rather unfortunate that there is no agreement to
compared with modern fishing boats from other parts
of the world. The type represented by Model No. 1
use a single friction formula to convert model results
was selected, more because a drawing was available than
into those for the full-sized ships. The Froude formula
because it was a so-called high-liner. The lines are
is used in Europe and the Schoenherr in North America.
considered typical for this class and a racing type of
Schoenherr gives somewhat higher figures than Froude.
schooner, such as Bluenose, was deliberately avoided.
As the friction part of the total resistance of fishing boats
Nos. 2 and 3 represent typical New England trawlers,
is lower than for large ships, the difference is also lower.
No. 2 being designed in 1944 and No. 3 in 1952. The
A comparative calculation of effective power for one tests were carried out at the request of the U.S. Fish and
model showed that the effective power, when calculated
Wildlife Service. No. 2 is typical of the boats in use
according to Schoenherr and including 12 per cent,
to-day, although naval architects are trying to convince
allowance, was about 1 to 3 per cent, higher than when owners that it would be better to change the design
calculated after Froude. When judging the data sheets,
towards the lines of No. 3. The designer of No. 2 when
one must therefore remember that results calculated after
submitting his plans, wrote the following:
Schoenherr seem to be 1 to 3 per cent, worse.
"
A data sheet shows a model test as such and does not This type might not be the best type of hull form
at all indicate that it is a report of a good hull shape. for you to experiment with in a tank, even though she
In many parts of the world, even in countries with well- is as good as we could make her considering all of the
developed boat-building industries, inefficient hull shapes factors involved. She is a very heavily displaced boat
are used. Since both good and bad models will be listed, for her overall length and if you will check with the
the naval architect will be able to estimate the resistance various dimensions of similar boats of her length,
of a variety of different designs and then, from the study you will find that she carries more beam and a great
of other sheets, be able to see if a better design could be deal more depth of hold than virtually anything you
developed. Many of the models shown in the data could put her up against. In 1951, I had occasion to
[311]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
incline two North Sea trawlers of the same overall are different. Here the resistance is almost the same at
length in England and was amazed to find they were lower speeds, but stern trim gives considerably less
boats of relatively small body, low freeboard, and resistance at increased speeds. The very heavy dis-
depth, when compared with such a vessel as this. They placement of 484 tons (480 cu. m.) is an exception, on
were, at the same time, 30 per cent, less in displace- which the designed trim is more favourable. It seems as
ment. .
Incidentally, this boat is fuller aft in the
. . if No. 3 would benefit from a sharper entrance and a
way of the machinery space than we like to see her, fuller aft body. The LCB would then be further aft,
but these little vessels, on this side of the Atlantic, but as the engine could also be fitted further aft, one
carry a tremendous amount of fuel and machinery should be able to make up for the change in LCB.
weights concentrated in this spot." The shrimp trawlers were tested at 65.6, 101 and
" 142 tons (65, 100 and 140 cu. m.) displacement. It is
"
The ready to go to sea displacement of No. 3 is interesting to study the influence of a large transom
estimated by the designer to be 367 tons on about 1 10 ft. stern in the tests with No. 4. On the light displacement,
(33.5 m.) waterline length, as compared with 332 tons the well-submerged transom decreases the resistance
on 102 ft. (31.1 m.) waterline length for No. 2. This gives
up to 40 per cent. A contributory factor might be that
length-displacement ratios of 4.7 and 4.5, respectively. the entrance angle is reduced from 29 to 19 and that
Models Nos. 4 and 5 are Gulf of Mexico shrimp the LCB moves aft. However, this type of boat is built
trawlers. No. 4 is of a V-bottom type and these lines are with engine and steering-house forward and it is rather
used in a number of boats, but No. 5 is of quite a new unfortunate that those heavy weights are not aft. The
design. There are other shrimp trawler types which medium displacement tests show less influence of trimm-
should have been included in the tests, such as the
ing. The same is true with the heavy displacement tests
round-bottom boats which have a fairly large transom at higher speeds.
stern. Models Nos. 4 and 5 were also tested at the request The with No. 5 show that the originally-designed
tests
of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, who submitted trim the best and that nothing can be gained by
is
the plans.
trimming or changing the LCB.
No. 6 is a type tested by the author under a grant made Model 6A was tested on three different displacements,
by the Icelandic Legation in Stockholm. The first version, but the form values were almost equal at high speeds.
6A, had been improved considerably over the original The traditional opinion that a lower length-displacement
design but was again altered several times. Model 6B ratio gives lower form values is not confirmed by the
had a fuller midship section and the hull floated some-
experience gained in these tests. The tests with Model 6B
what higher and had a lower prismatic coefficient. were made with only slight trims, but the stern trim was
Model 6C was sharpened in the forebody so that the more favourable. The same is true of tests with Model 6C.
displacement was reduced to 6A's. This model was The tests with Models 6D and 6E showed that the
some 15 to 20 per cent, better than 6A. Models 6D
shortening of the length or enlarging of the beam does
and 6E were arrived at by cutting 6C in the middle and not increase resistance.
taking away 5 per cent, of the waterline length each time.
This was an inexpensive way to get a model with the COMPARISON OF THE TESTS
same entrance and run but a smaller L/B ratio. Models when studying the
It is supposed that naval architects,
6F and 6G had the forefoot cut away in order to study C
pay greater attention to form value curves
tests, will t
the influence of different types of forefoot. than to the curves for effective (tow rope) power. As
the C, curves are non-dimensional and exclude the
DISCUSSION OF THE TESTS influence of length (if plotted to Froude's No.) and
Fishing schooner No. 1 was tested on 252, 353 and 454 displacement, the tests can more easily be compared.
tons (250, 350 and 450 cu. m.) displacement, each dis- Curves on each diagram, making it easy to determine if
placement with several trims. On the light displacement, a model is bad, fair or excellent, would have been useful
the resistance increased somewhat when the boat was but that would have required the selection of a few repre-
trimmed by the bow, the reason apparently being that sentative tests or the calculation from some standard
the entrance was fuller and the good run made possible series such as Taylor's or Takagi's, with the resistance
by the transom stern could not be used. The same is of models having the same main coefficients as the ones
true of the other displacements. The tests indicate that compared. In fig. 414 to 417, certain tests are compared
a well-submerged transom stern helps to decrease with models No. 6C and 6E, but it is felt that it is
resistance. premature to introduce in the sheets themselves such
The tests with the 1944 New England trawler, No. 2, curves before all sheets are made up.
show quite a difference on the lower speeds for different The
simplest way of analysing the tests is to use a piece
trim angles, the stem trim having less resistance. How- of transparent paper and transfer the C l curves from one
ever, with increased speeds, the resistance for all trims sheet to another or to select a representative speed and
is practically the same. It looks as if, at least for the compare how different models behave. Such a speed
lower speeds, the sterns of these boats are too full. should be the average speed which a boat makes and
The test results of the 1952 New England trawler, No. 3, not the trial speed.
[312]
HULL SHAPE FISHING BOAT TANK TESTS
Fig. 402
Models compared at -=-0.30
o
21 o
16
40O
CE E
c.
300
30O
20O 20O
C
CE
100
LIGHT IOO
MEDIUM DISPL.
FAO
HEAVY
*6C.6E
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -I +1 +2
3.9 4.8
0%
Fig. 404 Fig. 405
-
Models compared at 0.30
\ gL
[313]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
The Froude's No. 0.30 corresponds to about 8 knots
for a 65.5 (20 m.) boat or 10 knots for a 100 ft. (30.5 m.)
ft.
boat and represents fairly well such a general operating
speed. Fig. 402 compares Models No. 1 to 3 at this
speed. The form values C, are compared with the
different LCB's and the diagram shows, what was
already seen from the data sheets, that No. 1 does not
change its resistance much with a different LCB, and
that No. 2 does better with a forward LCB and No. 3
with an aft one.
Fig. 403 shows a similar comparison between Models
No. 4 and 5 and fig. 404 shows a comparison between
Models 6C and 6E, 6E being 10 per cent, beamier than
6C.
Fig. 402 to 404 show that on the selected Froude No.
0.30, Model 1 is better than No. 3 which, in its turn, is
better than 2. The Newfoundland-built fishing schooner v 12
is therefore better than a modern New England trawler.
Fig. 403 shows that the round-bottom shrimp trawler
No. is better than the
5 V-bottom No. 4, but the dif- lines of No. 1 would be able to carry 200 tons of cargo
ferences are not as great as those between the trawlers and still make the same speed.
Nos. 2 and 3. These shorter and beamier shrimp The difference between the shrimp trawler tests is
trawlers do also compare quite favourably with the not so great in earlier examples, but at 9 knots and
longer trawlers. 101 tons (100 cu. m.) displacement, No. 4 requires
Fig. 405 shows, for Models Nos. 1 to 6, the influence 20 per cent, more power than No. 5.
of length-displacement ratio at the most favourable LCB
for each model, and on Froude's No. 0.30. In this way HONEST COMPARISON
Model No. 2, which has more favourable values at the
Fig. 402 to 405 illustrate a quick way of comparing tests
forward LCB, is compared with Model 3, which has its
best C, values with the LCB aft. Fig. 405 shows that non-dimensionally, by selecting a specific speed. They
do not, however, show the influence of the whole speed
increased length-displacement ratio, i.e. less displace-
ment per length, increases the form value C 19 for Models range. Fig. 406 and 407 show a comparison on the same
2 to 5. Model No. 1, the fishing schooner, has little displacements, which is dishonest, because it does not
take into account that the models are of different lengths
variation in the form values for the different length-
and were therefore running at different relative speeds.
displacement ratios. If compared on a length-displace- In the following, Models 1 to 5 will be compared on
ment ratio of 4.5, the modern New England trawler,
the same displacement and the same water line length
No. 3, is 7 per cent, better than the old one. Similarly,
with Model 6. The larger boats are compared on a
the V-bottom shrimp trawler is 16 per cent better and
the round-bottom one 30 per cent, better. The fishing length-displacement ratio of 4.65 and the shrimp
trawlers on 4.1. The C values are obtained by inter-
schooner, too, is 30 per cent better than the 1944 New
l
polation between tests with different length-displacement
England trawler and Model No. 6 is some 38 per cent,
better. Fig. 402 to 405 only show the situation at the 150
specific speed of Froude's No. 0.30 and do not take the
whole speed range into consideration. 4
Models Nos. 1 to 3 and Nos. 4 to 5 were tested on the ft
same displacements, but with a different length. Fig. 406
and 407 show the best horse power curves from each 100
group. The values for 454 tons (450 cu. m.) in fig. 406,
for Models 2 and 3, have been arrived at through inter-
polation. The difference between No. 1 and 3 on 353 tons
(350 cu. m.) displacement and 10.5 knots speed is
9 per cent., between No. and 2, 60 per cent, and
1
SO
between Nos. 2 and 3, 47 per cent. At 1 1 knots there is
a difference between Nos. 1 and 3 of 8 per cent, and V-S M <
FAO
between Nos. 1 and 2 of about 70 per cent, to 80 per
cent, (extrapolated). The heaviest displacement for
No. requires less horse-power than the lightest dis-
1
placement of No. 2 on speeds higher than 10 knots. t 10 V M
If both boats weigh the same, a boat built along the Fig. 407
[314]
HULL SHAPE FISHING BOAT TANK TESTS
ratios. To make the comparison as fair as possible, the than the modern trawler. As all models are compared
best possible trim angle, not the designed trim, has been on the same waterline length and with the same dis-
selected from each displacement. Fig. 408 shows the placement, they will have practically the same cargo
C -curves
t
for the
best series for the three different capacity.
displacements of Model 3. Cross curves of these C t
A similar comparison between the shrimp trawlers
values are then plotted to the length-displacement ratio Nos. 4 and 5 have been made with Model 6E. All three
as the ordinata in fig. 409. The values for length-dis-
placement ratio 4.65 have been selected and plotted
in fig. 410. The dimensions for this interpolated test are
shown in L
and the profile, section area curve,
Table
shape of waterline and midship section are given in fig.
412. For Models Nos. 1, 2 and 6C, C t curves for the
I.C
1 1
24
10
length-displacement ratio of 4.65 have been interpolated
in the same way and the 4 C t curves have then been
converted to corresponding effective power and plotted
on fig. 410. Models No. 1 and 6 C are almost equally
good, the difference at 1 1 knots being only 6 per cent.
Model No. 3, the modern New England trawler, requires
27 per cent, more h.p. than 6C and 20 per cent, more
than No. 1, the Newfoundland schooner, and the 1944 were reduced to the same waterline length as Model
tests
New England trawler requires 54 per cent, more h.p. No. 4 and the Q curves and h.p. curves can be seen in
than No. 6C, 45 per cent, more than No. 3 and 25 per fig. 411 and the difference of shape in fig. 413, 6E
cent, more than the New England trawler (which, having less prismatic coefficient and much finer entrance
however, does not have such a favourable trim, under than both 4 and 5 and a slightly fuller run than 5. At
actual service conditions). Fig. 412 shows that Models 9 knots, the round-bottom type shrimp trawler required
Nos. 1 and 6C have a larger midship section and, 16 per cent, more h.p. and the V-bottom 43 per cent,
therefore, less prismatic coefficients than Model No. 3. more h.p. than the 6E, the difference between the V-
Also Model No. 6C has less entrance angle than the bottom and round-bottom shrimp trawler being 27 per
other models. Table L indicates that 6C has 10 per cent, cent. The dimensions for Models No. 4, 5 and 6E
more beam than the old New England trawler and are shown in Table LI. Also these models will have
Newfoundland fishing schooner and 25 per cent, more practically the same cargo capacity.
[315]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
. 470
HULL SHAPE - FISHING BOAT TANK TESTS
TABLF L
Main dimensions TABLE LI
for boats
compared in Fig. 410 and 412
Model
6C
I
2 3 4 M 5
-LQ
fig. 413
[317]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
TABLE LIT
Main coefficients for models Fig. 414 to 415
Fig.
No.
Model
No.
a 9 LIB BIT 0%
All 6C 4.65 .430 .540 3.78 3.03 16 -2.7
6E 4.1 .432 .560 3.49 2.42 21.5 -1.63
Norway
414 85 3.68 .430 .583 3.02 2.35 32.5 -hi. 15
92 3.99 .438 .600 3.40 2.40 31 +0.19
191 4.78 .456 .610 5.04 2.00 20 -0.79
Norway
415 165 3.7 .436 .593 3.13 2.25 30.6 4-0.3
183 4.46 .436 .593 4.37 2.04 23 +0.3
Norway
416 226 5.54 .423 .586 5.10 2.76 12 -3.1
217 5.46 .522 .575 5.78 2.55 13.5 -1.9
166 5.54 .499 .550 5.78 2.55 12.2 1.9
.600
417 Allan .625 5 to 5.5 2.5
.650
NPL2946C 4.96
COMPARISON WITH OTHER FISHING BOAT (Astrup 1951) and fig. 415 shows C, curves for tests with
TESTS 100 ft. (30.5 m.) boats (Sund 1951). The main co-
Fig. 414 to 417 show comparisons between Models efficients are listed in Table LII. These models represent
Nos. 6C and 6E with some tests which have been considerable improvements when compared with the
published recently. Considerable work on fishing boats, original fishing boat types used in Norway.
whale catchers and Fjord buses has been done at the Fig. 416 shows tests with whale catchers and Fjord
Norwegian tank in Trondheim and has yielded a number buses (Voll and Walderhaug 1952) and smaller, fast
of interesting results. Fig. 414 shows the best tests for passenger ships (Haaland 1951). In fig. 417 there are
40 ft. (13 m.), 65 ft. (21 m.) and 130 ft. (42.5 m.) boats curves for some results of modern British trawlers
Mttl
110 FT
\
4 i \
MM \
ttrr
-
14
fift
1.1
14-
Mt 14 00
M -
NORWAY ItS NORWAY
*I65.*I83
-JM*W Ill
10 OFT
ait a*o 0,10 AN
Fig. 414 Fig. 415
[318]
HULL SHAPE FISHING BOAT TANK TESTS
(3) The location of the centre of buoyancy should be
to (4)
far aft;
Differences in the block coefficient, below 0.55,
have no influence;
(5) The prismatic coefficient is very important and
14 * seems to be best at about 0.575 ;
I.I - (6) Transom sterns seem to give reduced resistance ;
(7) The entrance angle should be kept low;
(8) Parallel mid-body and sharp shoulders should be
300
avoided.
u '
IJt
14 :
to
I
S ^
22*
MOflWAY
.
U7
o)fcr
~#7*
14
Fig. 416
L4
(Allan 1953), showing the influence of different pris-
matic coefficients, fig. 417 also shows the curve for 14 -
Model 2,946C, tested at Teddington (Hunter 1952). >o"
This short review of tests is by no means compre-
hensive, but the differences are striking and it is evident ALLAN 1953
that fishing boats can be improved. The author's
NPL 2946C
experience is:
Qt
(1) The length-displacement ratio is of little import-
ance;
(2) The beam does not increase resistance; Fig. 417
[319]
PROPOSED STABILITY CRITERIA
by
GEORGE C. NICKUM
question of what constitutes a satisfactory and storing of fish have brought about big changes in
THE margin of stability for a floating object is as old as
the first floating structure and, up to comparatively
vessels used in certain industries. Snyder (1946) presents
the stability problems of U.S.A. tuna clippers using the
recent times, it has been answered only empirically. brine freezing method for the freezing and storing of
Vessels which continued to go to sea and come back tuna fish. In twenty years the average size of these
safely were judged to have a satisfactory margin of vessels doubled, evolving from conventional small ice
stability.Those which capsized and were lost had an boats to large craft filled with tanks and large bait tanks
inadequate margin. on their decks. Voyages of 2,000 to 3,000 miles became
In recent times man has applied his scientific tools to common and the size of generators, pumping and
the problem of ship stability and has devised means of freezing equipment grew proportionately. During this
measuring the stability of any type of vessel. But these rapid evolution many lives and vessels were lost because
methods have generally been applied only to the larger there were no suitable standards to establish an adequate
ships and, as naval architecture has advanced, they have margin of stability and, to this date, no criterion has
been forced into complications and elaborations which been generally accepted defining the margin of stability
further limit, by economic reasons, application to the required for such vessels. Fishing boat designers and
larger vessels. Fromsimple calculations of statistical builders use different methods of measuring stability,
stability and cursory examination of the effect of free and the underwriters depend on different designers and
internal liquids, there has been progress ta cross curves builders to examine and approve a vessel's stability.
of stability and analysis of the dynamic forces, to analysis If a simple stability criterion, easily understood and
of the problems of rolling in synchronous seas, to the applied, had been available for tuna vessels, it is believed
problems of combined rolling and pitching, and so on. that many of the early casualties could have been
All of these features and all of the new methods are prevented. In other fields of ship design, various criteria
essential to stability studies, and all have their place. have been developed for particular types of vessels.
They have contributed immeasurably to the comfort For example, the International Conference for Safety of
and safety of marine transport. But, because of the Life at Sea in 1948 accepted the criterion of wind heel
complexities involved, the vast majority of floating and passenger heel which was in general use in most
structures in the world today are built without any countries for determining margins of intact stability
analysis of stability other than the old empirical question : for freight and passenger vessels. The time should be
" "
Has it turned over yet? This is particularly true of ripe to establish such criteria for fishing vessels.
the world's fishing fleet. A criterion of stability for fishing vessels must meet
Fishing vessels generally are evolutions of types which definite requirements. First, it must be of such a nature
have been in use over a long period of time. fishermanA that the designer may readily forecast a new vessel's
stepping into a new boat, which is usually only slightly compliance with the criterion without requiring elaborate
modified from an existing type, has to decide by his and expensive calculations. Second, simple tests by
senses whether the boat is safe or not. Does she heel relatively untrained personnel must be able to verify
too much when he puts the rudder hard over? Is she the criterion without requiring design plans.
tender when she has a load of fish on deck? The fisher- The purpose of these two requirements is obvious.
man uses his sense of feel to evaluate these points. To Fishing throughout the world is a highly competitive
give him his due, he has generally been right in his business and is generally operated by individuals who
decision and the number of casualties in fishing vessels do not have resources to pay for elaborate designs and
due to an insufficient margin of stability is relatively low. complicated calculations and tests. Any criterion which
However, these are days of rapid change. Techno- does not meet these requirements would never have a
logical development in the methods of catching, handling, chance of being put into universal practice.
[320]
HULL SHAPE PROPOSED STABILITY CRITERIA
Here is the criterion proposed for this service: the calculation of righting arms at various degrees of
(1) The vessel, in its most severe operating condition, inclination and at various drafts. These calculations are
must have the following characteristics: lengthy and tedious, and to be properly used require
u the accurate determination of the location of the centre
(a) GM equal to or greater than either or 2 ft.
of gravity by means of inclining experiments. In addition
I0
(61 cm.) to the time and expense involved in preparing such
(*) F FA
equal to or greater than -15 calculations, they are of questionable value in small
,
LxB vessels, which are subject to large changes in trim due
Where: GM -- the distance between the centre of to heel. In one case, on a tuna vessel, a complicated
gravity of the vessel and the calculation was gone through to determine the effect
transverse metacentre; of trim on the actual righting arm. It was found that the
B maximum beam over planking or arm at degree inclination after the trim was 25 per cent,
1
plating at the waterline; lessthan that given by a conventional calculation, which
F freeboard from the waterline to neglected the trim due to heeling. In this case, the
the edge of the freeboard deck at variation was due to the fact that the deck edge at
the side measured amidships; the stern was immersed at about 2 degrees of heel, and as
FA freeboard area (projected on a the heel increased the deck immersion increased corres-
vertical planethrough the centre- pondingly with ever-increasing trim.
line) between the waterline and Because of the complication and expense of the use
the freeboard deck at the side; of cross curves and because of the need for careful
L the registered length. analysis of the results to determine whether they are
accurate or not, the use of freeboard and freeboard area
(2) Compliance with the above characteristics must is proposed as a substitute. The ability of a vessel to
be proved by physical measurements with the right itself, and the values of the righting arms, are
vessel in its most severe operating condition. GM primarily dependent on the location of the deck edge
is to be calculated from actual measurements of and how soon it is submerged when the vessel is heeled.
period of roll in this condition, using the following Therefore, freeboard and righting arms arc very closely
formula: related. Admittedly, freeboard as such does not give an
accurate determination of the righting arm at varying
CM,., . angles of heel but after a careful check of large numbers
(-;)'
of fishing vessels, it seems that it is a good indication
Where: /w, .40, 1 time, in seconds for one complete
of righting arm or reserve stability. Of several hundred
roll from maximum heel to one side to maximum heel
vessels checked, those having freeboards equal to or in
to the other, and return.
excess of theminimum freeboards set forth in the formula
(Editors note: m, includes here the 1.108 in the feet
have had sufficient reserve stability to withstand the
formula on p. 328. Hence mj --1.108w).
actions of the seas without capsizing.
The simplicity of the above parameters will be obvious. Because of variations in the sheer of different types of
To the designer the estimation of GM, whether made fishing vessels, the minimum freeboard set forth is a
by detailed and elaborate calculations or by approxima- combination of amidship freeboard and freeboard area.
tions based on experience, is an absolute minimum American tuna vessels, as an example, are so designed
requirement of any design. The determination of GM that in their worst operating conditions they have a zero
by the rolling period method is simple and requires freeboard at the stern. However, they are conventionally
neither a great amount of time nor elaborate equipment. fitted with raised forecastles and a very high sheer for-
Freeboard heights and areas can be easily obtained by ward. The loss of water plane at the stern due to heel
physical measurement and by calculation. Most vessels, can be accepted in these vessels; it represents only a
whether in the design stage or afloat, can be measured small loss of the total water plane area because of the
against this criterion with the minimum of time and high sheer forward. The use of freeboard also gives
expense. proper credit to the raised poops and forecastles fitted
The reasons for the parameters may not be as obvious. on many vessels.
The use of and the need for inclusion of metacentric The use of freeboard and freeboard area provides a
height in the criterion is undoubtedly apparent, since check of the most common reason for lack of stability
GM an indication of the force available to put the
is in an operating condition that of overloading. No
vessel back on an even keel. The use of freeboard and fisherman ever wants to stop loading when he has a full
freeboard area may not be so apparent. As the deter- net it is probably a truism to say that more fishing
and
mination of GM
gives us only the forces available to vesselshave foundered or capsized from overloading
restore the ship to an even keel for small angles of than from any action of the sea or other cause.
inclination, some other means is required to evaluate Many people will undoubtedly argue that the use of
the righting forces at larger angles of inclination. The freeboard and freeboard area as an indication or evalua-
conventional methods of determining these forces involve tion of available righting arm is not correct, and that it
[321]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
certainly does not indicate the vessel's ability to right of vessels which store their fish in the hold. However,
itself when the heel is, say, 45 degrees. But the fact is on the U.S.A. Pacific Coast, net boats, when they have
that large numbers of U.S.A. Pacific Coast fishing vessels, their full load of the nets on board and are light on fuel,
on which inclining experiment data and operational are in a condition where they have less GM
than when
information are available, have been operated success- their holds are fully loaded. Thus an experiment made
fully for years with the minimum CM
and minimum to determine the period of roll in the light
operating
freeboard area set forth in the formula. The writer's condition, plus either a measurement of freeboard
opinion is that these fishing vessels do not roll 45 degrees. when the vessel is fully loaded, or a calculation of free-
At least 50 vessels investigated have operated satis- board at load draft (which can be fairly readily made),
factorily for ten years and would certainly go to the gives an adequate check on the stability characteristics.
bottom should they 45 degrees, because of openings
roll Should conditions not be similar, obviously an inclining
in their superstructure and in the freeboard deck, which experiment and calculation of loaded condition is
would be exposed and flooded. essential.
" "
The term freeboard deck means the deck in which The proposed criterion of stability and the universal
all openings are so protected as to prevent the ingress of use of the period of check stability on fishing
roll to
water into the hull. This could be amplified at length and, boats, is based on experience in a limited type of fishing
as the international load line regulations show, is vessel because all the data used in arriving at the factors
amplified in detail in the case of larger vessels. From a of GM, freeboard, and rolling period come from U.S.A.
practical standpoint, however, the broad definition of Pacific Coast type of vessels. Tuna clippers conven-
the term seems adequate. The use of glass windows in tionally have a raised forecastle and a large, flat, low
an enclosure on the deck of a 400-ft. (122 m.) ship would stern and the Pacific coast type of purse seiners and
be heresy, but the fact remains that thousands of small trawlers are of similar (ype. And there are indications
fishing vessels operate through storms without damage that the American Atlantic coast trawlers and net
to the windows in their houses. boats are sufficiently similar for the stability criterion to
The use of period of roll to check the metacentric be used, although the use of rolling period instead of the
height is now a common practice throughout most of inclining experiment requires evaluation by experienced
the world. But the period of roll has been used only as a designers. The GM
requirements also appear to be
check of the GM and never as a means of determining applicable to European trawlers. Taylor (1943) has
the GM. Variations in the*' m," factor between various stated that British trawlers should have not less than
types of vessels have made designers hesitate to depend 2 ft. of GM in order to withstand the heeling moments of
on the rolling period formula. Fifteen years ago, the the trawl warps.
dependence of the rolling period in place of an inclining It would be surprising if the proposed criterion could
experiment would have been considered sheer lunacy. be applied to every type of fishing vessel in the world but
Since then, however, data on actual incjining experi- it is believed thai the method of the formulas can be
ments, in which the rolling period was checked on used, although there may have to be variations in the
hundreds of fishing vessels of various types and sizes, constants. The applicability of these constants can only
44
shows that the m," factor ranges between *385 and *4I5 be determined by designers familiar with the characteris-
in 75 per cent, of the cases. Only in a few extreme tics of the various types of fishing craft. After comparison
instances has the factor been as low as *37 or as high as of inclining experiments and rolling tests it may well
43, and it is a considered opinion that this represents be that boats of 30 and 50 ft. (9. and 15.2 m.) in certain
1
the range of inaccuracy of this factor on fishing vessels. trades require a different value. The
may same thing is
If this is correct, such a margin of error can be accepted true of freeboard. On the rolling period probable it is
in setting up a stability criterion. This range gives a that certain types of vessels with large amounts of
variation in GM ofi 15 per cent. With a 2 ft. (61 cm.) concrete ballast may have a sufficiently different radius
"
minimum GM, this means a possible error of ,", ft. of gyration as to require a revised m," factor in the
(18 cm.). Such an error can, it is believed, be accepted. rolling period formula or, if the amount of ballast
"
Earlier the statement was made that the period of roll varies widely from boat to boat, the m," factor may be
could be readily obtained for most vessels. Many of no value. In particular, it is felt that considerable
questions may be raised on this point, as the vessel must study and investigation should be made of determining
be in its most severe operating condition. Tuna vessels the worst operating condition and that in which the
can, it is realized, be more easily put in such an operating vessel must be rolled.
condition than any other type of fishing vessel. The tuna Almost all naval architectural theories stem originally
vessel is nothing but a tanker. When loaded with fish from assumptions, the validity of which have been
and brine, the weight in the vessel is for all practical proved empirically. The assembly and distribution of
purposes the same as when loaded with water and by data on fishing vessel stability and the proving of a
pumping water into the tanks almost any operating criterion by experience would be a real contribution to
condition can be simulated. This, obviously, is not true the art of naval architecture.
1322]
LOADING AND CHANGE OF TRIM ON SMALL TRAWLERS
by
WALTER J. McINNIS
" "
termsmall trawler is used to describe fishing completion. This sounds like a harsh statement but,
THE vessels less than 150 gross register tons. Approxi-
mately 92 per cent, of trawlers operating in the
nevertheless,it is a true one which is recognized by
those who are constantly seeking improvement.
North Atlantic waters of the western hemisphere, fall The principal factors which contribute to most of the
into these categories: difficulty are as follows:
Vessels Vessels Vessels
1 . Desire on the owner's part to secure (at the risk of
under 50 tons 50-150 tons over 150 tons
66 per cent. 26 per cent. 8 per cent. overloading) themaximum pay load on the minimum
overall length.
The figures given are compiled from the combined The relationship of pay load to be carried is far out of
" "
registers of United States and Canadian merchant balance with the loaded for sea port departure dis-
vessels. placement of the vessel. In average cases, it ranges from
Virtually all of the vessels under 50 tons are constructed as high as 45 per cent, in vessels of about 45 ft. (13.7 m.)
of wood, and 90 per cent, of those between 50 and waterline length and about 20 gross tons, down to
150 tons are also of wood, so it appears that the problem 38 per cent, in vessels around 100 ft. (30.5 m.) waterline
of securing and maintaining a proper loading trim is length and about 150 tons gross. This presents an
chiefly concerned with wooden vessels, a task more obstacle at the start which is more difficult to overcome
difficult than in a steel ship. It also goes without saying than in the sailing vessels where the centre of gravity
that the trim disturbances are generally in inverse of the pay load was located to correspond with the
proportion to the size of the vessel. buoyancy centres under different conditions of dis-
There are many underlying causes for the acute placement.
disturbances of trim due to loading. Some may be Extraordinary pay loads result in a trim
Effects.
brought about by the actual mechanical or engineering moment is virtually impossible to control at any
that
problems that confront the architect, but these are in time under conditions that generally exist.
the minority and they could be easily remedied if due Remedies. The following suggestions are offered as
opportunity were given to the designer or builder to the first and most important steps to be taken in remedy-
correct them at the source. ing these effects:
A very small percentage of the vessels are actually Attempts at cramming in the maximum pay load at the
"
designed or engineered but are just built ", either as a expense of other features should be checked. A reduc-
duplicate of some previous ship of the size wanted, with tion of at least 20 per cent, would make a good start.
some modifications to suit the particular owner, or This would leave a maximum load of not over 36 per
" " " "
fr6m a new model cut to the length required. At cent, of the vessel's loaded for sea port departure
this stage, there is little thought given to the completed displacement for boats of about 45 ft. (13.7 m.) waterline
vessel as a unit loaded for sea, and small consideration length, and about 20 gross tons, down to not over
of such important factors as propelling requirements, 28 per cent, in vessels of 100 ft. (30.5 m.) waterline length,
size of pay load, fuel and water capacities, crew and and about 150 tons. Naturally, this would result in
nature of waters to be fished in. shortening the fore and aft length of the hold. In almost
In the few cases where an architect is commissioned all Atlantic trawlers, this means taking the weight out
to prepare plans, or a competent building yard with a of the forward end of the hold, reducing the lever arm
proper engineering staff is engaged 'to design and build and disturbing moment. The few so-called mast head
a vessel, the problem is because control of the
difficult type trawlers with the steering house and engine forward
situation is easily lost during construction and even after and having the cargo room aft would be equally benefited
[323]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
by taking the excess weight out of the aft end of the hold is more needed in the engine compartment to maintain
and subsequently improving the trim. trim.
Limiting the hold size to these amounts would work
no hardship on the owner, as perusal of the reports 3. A general adherence to the arrangement of quarters,
of fish landings shows clearly that in more than 90 per disposition offuel and water locations found in vessels
cent, of the trips, vessels return to port with partial loads, commonly used in the locality, and lack of desire to
some ua
ovjuw as low
ivrrr as 50 per
*a */v/ of wapavj
cent, v/i
pvi wwiii. capacity.
v jr . departfrom such.
The adherence to popularly accepted arrangements of
2. Indecision at the start with respect to the size (par-
quarters, hold, machinery space, fuel, water, and super-
luuiuriy me
ticularly the lengin),
length), weight,
weigt type, and horse-power structure is easy to understand because of tradition. But
of
if the main propelling
DroDelline unit.
it is desirable to depart from such age-old ideas when
There seems to be no semblance of judgment used in there is a chance to secure a better control over trim.
determining in advance what the propelling plant shall So most of such approaches have been largely
far,
" "
be. And when the final decision is made, it is either based cried down
as not being wanted, and often the only
44
on the price of the unit or the alleged power to be reason given has been my grandfather had his vessel
delivered at the shaft, without due regard for the overall rigged this way and if it was good enough for him, it is
length, weight or suitability for the hull itself. Two schools good enough for me ".
of thought prevail, with the majority of operators It isnot intended to overlook the needs in specific
selecting the biggest, heaviest engine at all times and instances, where the fishing operation is peculiar to a
completely forgetting all of the consequences of such a locality, of staying as close as possible to the traditional
choice. Too little help is given to the architect or builder arrangement, but to point out the importance of the
by the engine manufacturer when advising an owner, ability to control trim, and the dangers when reasonable
as they seem to be chiefly interested in selling an engine control is lost. And it is in no sense implied that tradi-
whether it best fits or not. tional arrangements are not or cannot be considered
Effects. Failure to study the propelling requirements suitable at times. But it is suggested that there is too
well in advance can only result in haste and improvising much tendency to hold to these layouts regardless of
at a later date. There is a definite fixed relationship of the consequences.
engine to hull and fittings. If an engine selected is too It is difficult to prevailupon an owner or captain to
long and too heavy for a vessel, the centre of gravity split up or otherwise depart from the regular position of
of the pay load automatically is moved out of position, fuel and water tanks to ease the change of trim problem
and the trim moment increased. The emphasis for the The location of living quarters is perhaps the most
most part appears to be on this kind of thinking. inflexible feature and perhaps rightly so, as their position
When the total loaded displacement, overall vessel in the fore part of the vessel uses the rapidly changing
length, conditions for average fishing, etc., have been space form to the best advantage. All other arrange-
predetermined, it is poor judgment to select a motor ments, however, should be deemed adjustable. Where
which is not in complete harmony with these factors. they are held inviolate, there is little hope for improve-
To secure adequate trim control, as well as for reasons ment in control, and the result is standstill or even back
of proper shaft revolutions and propeller thrust, an sliding type of thinking.
early decision is imperative. The effect of such a balanced
set-up usually leads to satisfactory results; failure to plan Remedies. The attempt should be made to locate the
far enough ahead means additional expenditure for centre of gravity of the pay load over the average fore
44
second guessing ", and a feeling that it is, after all, and aft common centre of buoyancy in various conditions
"
only a makeshift ". of light and load. This is not easy but can be accom-
full
Remedies. All conditions must be studied early and plished. necessary, a small trimming fish-hold,
If
the decision on the main engine must be made to meet separate from the main hold, may be fitted. There will
them all, not just one or two. Let the engine be selected be considerable resistance to this on the part of the
first, if necessary, and a proper vessel built around it, operator but the importance of it in trying sea conditions
rather than otherwise. will more than offset the criticism levelled at the start.
The points to be remembered when selecting the motor It is also felt that now is the time to depart from the
are as follows: hide-bound ideas of fuel and water locations. These are
Has it enough power at the shaft to give the best successfully spread about in the larger steel trawlers,
results both at steaming and when trawling?
free so why not do something similar in the smaller craft,
Is it the right type of engine to suit the hull for length, particularly in the wooden vessels which predominate
weight, and shaft revolutions? in the fishing industry? It would enable the engineer
If the motor has to be of the reduction gear type to to exercise a very close control of the trim at all times,
best suit the hull for length, one should not arbitrarily provided the pay load was properly located in the
insist on fitting a long, heavy, slow speed motor which beginning. In other words, the pay cargo should come
upsets everything gained in other places. The reverse as near as possible to putting the vessel constantly down
condition is also true in the larger vessels, where weight on even keel.
[324]
HULL SHAPE LOADING AND CHANGE OF TRIM ON SMALL TRAWLERS
4. The feeling that trim disturbance cannot be corrected 6. A general trend towards over-ballasting (a throw-back
even in part and it must be lived with and considered from the days of sail).
one of the evils of the operation. Over-ballasting is a sore subject. In the days when sail
The mental on the subject of trim
attitude of fishermen was the only means of propelling fishing vessels, remov-
disturbance cannot be overcome easily. They think it able ballast in quantities to suit summer or winter
cannot be avoided. But before long this feeling may be fishing, was used to gain stability. Despite the fact that
driven out by demonstrating its fallacy. many present-day vessel operators have had no immediate
There is not much more to add to the defeatist attitude experience with fishing vessels of the sail type, tradition
on the part of owners. Failure to recognize this fallacy impels them to over-ballast, usually in the wrong place,
can only result in more obstacles to progress. and this is another cause of disturbance of trim.
Remedies. Sample vessels should be built in various SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
localities, each having suitable trim control, to demon- EFFECTS
strate that a condition which has existed for a long time The combination of all the factors discussed leads to a
can be corrected. Fishermen are hard headed, particu-
heavy fore and aft trim disturbance, ranging from as
larly owners of the numerous small vessels, and can only much as 5 per cent, of the load waterline length in the
learn to accept something new by seeing it perform. larger vessels, up to 7 per cent, in the smaller craft.
They cannot generally visualize it on paper.
Except for those few vessels which operate in Atlantic
waters, with the so-called mast head type rig and the
5. Tendency on the owner's part to allow each captain fish-hold located aft of the engine-room, the trim dis-
complete freedom to re-arrange, re-rig, or otherwise turbance is forward. A heavy trim by the head when
alter the vessel, either during construction or after
loaded is conceded by all to be bad, particularly in winter
he takes command.
weather when chances of icing up on deck are prevalent.
A small trawler, built carefully from design in 1939, had The ill effects on comfort in a sea way, steering ability,
little trim disturbance. In subsequent years, 44 more excessive wetness on deck, increased sluggishness and
vessels were built from the same plans, and if these lack of buoyant lift, increase at all times directly in
boats were placed side by side in the same basin, it would proportion to the amount of trim change. In an effort
be difficult, even for the expert, to determine that they to counteract this, many boat owners deliberately ballast
were presumed to be of the same class, so radical were their vessels and send them to sea badly out of trim in
the various conditions of trim.
anticipation of straightening them up to even keel when
The owner's relationship with his skipper's is again loaded. Such a procedure is negative and seldom pro-
one which can be readily comprehended. The old adage duces anything beyond normal trim with half to two-
" "
that no fishing vessel is any better than its skipper thirds of a pay load. And it still leaves the old problem
is generally true, for there have been many cases of of operating out of trim.
good skippers in inferior boats getting better results than While it is conceded that a stern trim is to be preferred,
poorer skippers in superior vessels Due consideration if there has to be such a thing, it still remains axiomatic
should at all times be given to the captain in matters of that any ship gives its best all-round performance when
rigging, deck and trawl gear, but it is dangerous to rely it floats and sails on its designed waterline or on a water-
too much on his knowledge of maiteis which could line closely parallel.
possibly upset performance and balance of the vessel. REMEDIES
This comment is made with all due regard for the
All problems of engineering, construction, or otherwise,
ability of the average fishing skippei, and is intended as
should be approached on the premise that there is always
a warning that the risk, if taken, can often become cause
room for improving that which has been done before.
for regrets. The architect and builder are the authorities
Careful study of conditions of operation, principal
all
on hull form, disposition of fixed and expendable weights,
components, propulsion, gear, handling, etc., should be
type of machinery, etc. It is asking too much of a skipper
to decide such matters and it is handicapping the put into the hands of one individual and the responsi-
bility should be his and his alone. He, naturally, is
engineer. Architects are not infallible and builders are
going to confer with and seek advice from the owner,
usually careful and feel they have a reputation to sustain.
captain, engine maker, fishing gear manufacturer, and
For the most part, however, both give due attention to
others but the final decision and responsibility should
the weight and moment of trim calculation, and they
be his only. No other approach will give such complete
see the picture of the vessel as a whole.
satisfaction.
Remedies. The architect should work closely and early CONCLUSIONS
with the skipper, the engineer, engine manufacturers, Fishing vessels, regardless of size, undergo severe
and fishing gear makers. Their ideas should be solicited treatment from all sources when in service. Let it not
and the difficulties discussed. And then, after due study, be said that any of these failed to come home because
the architect must insist on full control and must have they were not as well developed as possible to meet the
the backing of the owner in all final decisions. usual conditions encountered in fishing at sea.
[325]
BEHAVIOUR OF TRAWLERS AT SEA
by
WALTER MOCKEL
naval architect must know what stresses and so it is desirable to supplement the data with further
THE strains a ship has to face. There are two ways of
finding the necessary data:
measurements. But the results obtained so far embody
some new knowledge that may be of use to the naval
architect.
(1) through systematic observations on board ship;
The characteristic data of the investigated ships (all
(2) through model tests.
coal burners) are summarized in Table LI IF.
Model tests can give practical results only if they are The ships have raked stems, V-sections and cruiser
correlated to the data collected on board ship showing sterns with the exception of ship which D was built in
the behaviour of the ship in all conditions of service. 1913. The power of the steam engines was stated to be
Such research on large cargo boats has been carried 750 i.h.p. for ship A, and 600 i.h.p. for ship B. According
out in several countries, but little information is available to a power measurement taken on Ship A, the perfor-
concerning fishing vessels. mance was 580 s.h.p. at 110 r.p.m. at which the ship
The Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt (Ham- attained 1 1.1 knots. The speed of ship B was 10.8 knots.
burg Shipbuilding Research Institute), during 1946 to The measurements covered the speed of the ships,
1949, had measurements taken by the author on board the rolling and pitching angles, and the relevant periods.
some German trawlers. The critical state of trawlers The periods of encounter between the ship and the waves
in heavy seas is known and has been proved by relatively (apparent period of the waves) were also measured. An
frequent accidents. observation report was answered four times per day
The voyages were made in five trawlers sailing from (see Appendix). Special measurements were also made
the Elbe to the fishing grounds between Iceland and the when noteworthy phenomena occurred.
White Sea. One or two trips were made in each vessel. Ships A and B were equipped with a pressure log m the
The available results still possess a limited basis as yet bow for measuring their speed. As, in the case of very
TABLE LIII
Ship A Ship B Ship C Ship D ShipE
Year of construction . 1935 1948 1943 1913 1952
Length b.p. 157.4 ft. (48.00m.) 141.0 ft. (42.98 m.) 164.9 ft. (50.27 m.) 132.1 ft. (40.25 m.) 170.51 ft. (51.97m.)
Moulded breadth 26.17ft. (7.99m.) 26.2 ft. (8.00m.) 30.1 ft. (9.16m.) 23.23 ft. (7.08 m.) 28.68ft. (8.74m.)
Mean draught . 13.85ft. (4.23m.) 13.7 ft. (4.18m.) 14.1 ft. (4.31m.) 11.83ft. (3.62m.) 13.75ft. (4.20m.)
Displacement 856 tons (870 cu. m.) 786 tons (799 cu. m.) 1041 tons (1058 cu.m.) 550 tons (559 cu. m.)
Block coefficient 0.537 0.556 0.533 0.541
Midship section coef-
ficient . 0.88 0.88 0.83 0.79
Prismatic coefficient . 0.611 0.633 0.642 0.685
Length/breadth 6.00 5.37 5.49 5.69 5.95
Speed 11.1 knots 10.8 knots 11. 2 knots 9.1 knots 12.0 knots
[326]
HULL SHAPE BEHAVIOUR OF TRAWLERS AT SEA
violent pitching, the log indication may be erroneous, down by the head because of the full fish hold. The speed
astronomical and, when possible, terrestrial bearings loss in this condition, when
against seas, is
sailing
were taken continually. By determining distances in considerably greater than in case of stern trim. For
this way, and by paying due regard to the current, speed example, with the wind at Beaufort No. 6, the spefed loss
measurements of maximum precision were obtained. v Speed of 6hip in metenshtc
The rolling and pitching angles were determined, with c -
Waves - -
the aid of a protractor fixed to the ship, by reading the
reversion points of movement in the line of the horizon.
Thus the angles are related to the horizon and not to the
slope of the waves. The bi-section of these angles shows
the approximate magnitude of the rolling angle to each
side and of the pitching angle above and below the
horizon. In fact, the rolling angle is somewhat greater
to the lee side than to the windward. In the following homeward -
bound
description the total angles between the reversion points
of movement have been retained.
The length and height of the waves were estimated by
comparison with the known dimensions of the ship.
The wave period was measured by timing the motion of a
foam spot on the wave-crest and from this the wavelength
in metres was calculated as follows :
2 *> 6
i i Loss of Speed in per Cent
A=g/2irt =1.56t
418
where t is the period of the wave. The wavelength Fig.
determined in this manner is consistent to a satisfactory
on the outward trip amounted to 8 per cent., while that
degree with the published data of the Hydrographic on the homeward voyage in similar weather was 15 per
Institutes.
cent., i.e. nearly double.
Wind force (in Beaufort numbers) was estimated in
On the homeward voyage of ship A, in fine weather, the
accordance with nautical practice. The speed of wind was
the Admiralty constant is:
partly determined mathematically, after measuring
pressure by means of a column of water.
LOSS OF SPEED IN HEAVY WEATHER At Beaufort No. 5, this constant (with regard to the
Loss of speed in heavy weather is caused by increased output loss through the reduction in propeller r.p.m.
air and rough water resistance. Rough water resistance due to the increased load) is reduced to 179 and at
cannot be calculated, owing to the multiplicity and Beaufort No. 7 to 109.
In fine weather and at cruising speed, the resistance
impenetrability of the different factors of influence.
It
is only estimated on the basis of the measured speeds and of the ship is calculated to be 10,750 Ib. (4,870 kg.).
engine data with the aid of propeller diagrams. On This approximately corresponds to the resistance as
the
other hand, air resistance can be calculated in a simple measured on board other similar fishing vessels. At
way. Beaufort No. 7, the total resistance rises to 15,450 Ib.
In determining loss of speed of ships A and B in a (7,000 kg.) i.e. by 44 per cent. Of the absolute increase
head wind the speeds, measured at approximately iden- of resistance, 15,450-10,750=4,700 Ib. (2,130 kg.),
tical torque, were plotted against the force of wind and 1,500 (680 kg.)=14 per cent, relate to air resistance
Ib.
from this a curve of the average speed loss in per cent, and the balance of 3,200 Ib. (1,450 kg.)=29.8 per cent,
was determined. The speed loss curve has a parabolic to rough water.
course which, as shown in fig. 418, becomes straight The situation is similar during trawling. The captain
or almost straight if the speed losses are entered as a of ship A
endeavoured to maintain a trawling speed of
function of the second power of wind or wave speed. 3 knots. With increased head winds, power had to be
This linear relation is valid as long as the wind and wave increased. Fig. 419 shows the resistance and required
speeds are proportional within the observed range.
The power as a function of the wind. Trawling at 3 knots
could be done up to 770 h.p. i.e. up to approximately
diagram shows that, under the same weather conditions,
the ship A loses considerably less speed than the shorter Beaufort No. 7.5. But at higher wind speeds trawling
and broader ship B. had to be stopped, not because the handling of the trawls
Trim also exerts a considerable influence on the loss of was too difficult but because speed could no longer be
the two curves maintained. So if the design of ship and fishing gear are
speed. This is shown by a comparison of
of ship A. On the outward voyage she was trimmed down improved to the extent that trawling beyond Beaufort
the stern and on the homeward voyage she was heavily No. 7 is possible this is already the case with some
by
[327]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
modern ships it is also necessary to provide the engine In this formula: i- radius of gyration; g^- acceleration
-
power to maintain the required speed in rough water. due to gravity; rolling periods, in seconds.
t
Fig. 419 also shows the calculated resistance curve The radius of gyration depends largely on the breadth
for trawling. The total resistance in smooth water of the ship, and may be determined by multiplying the
breadth of the ship, B, with a value m known from
B
experience. Hence i^m.B. In the feet system .544
and in the metric -
1. Accordingly
VB
/1.108.m.B\ 2 _.. 2.m.B
GM y r GM
Ice!
A )
The stability of the trawlers investigated was continuously
determined during the test voyages by this method. Corn-
period on fishing vessels have produced, with a fail-
degree of consistency, an m-value of 0.40 for the ship
leaving the port, and of approximately 0.385 when
add/t/onal returning from a fishing voyage. The radius of gyration
water resistance of the outward bound ship is somewhat greater because
the fish-hold contains only ice and reserve coal. A greater
influence of the masses located on the periphery of the
"7 system is
predominant.
Seaufort Number The GM of the fishing vessels dealt with were calcu-
lated with the m-values. There were also available the
stability calculations of the shipyards, relating to different
amounts to 15,550 Ib. (7,050 kg.). At a speed of 3 knots, loading conditions of the ships. The calculated GM
without the trawl, the ship's resistance is about 880 Ib. from the rolling period agreed very well with this data,
(400 kg.) so that 14,670 Ib. (6,650 kg.) is accounted for considering that the hypotheses of the shipyards some-
At Beaufort No. 7, resistance increases times differed from the actual load conditions. For
by the trawl.
to 20,060 Ib. (9,100 kg.) i.e. by 4,510 Ib. (2,050 kg.)- example, according to the shipyard calculations, ship A
29 per cent. Of this, 1,040 Ib. (470 kg.) are calculated should have a GM
^ 2.8 ft.
(0.852 m.) on departure.
to be air resistance. The balance of 3,470 Ib. (1,580 kg.)
The GM calculated from the rolling period was 2.76 ft.
is additional resistance caused by the waves. According
(0.84 m.). The calculation of the shipyard indicated a
to these calculations, the additional resistance when GM of 1.48 ft. (0.45 m.) for the fully-loaded ship on
arrival while the rolling period gave a value of 1.41 ft.
trawling, and despite the lower speed, is only 4,700
than when (0.43 m.). A
similar consistency existed in the case of
4,510-190 Ib. (2,130-2,050-80 kg.) less
ship B, as shown in 420, which gives curves of
cruising at the same wind speed.
fig.
In order to know the required power to overcome air
resistance during cruising, the mean power requirement
was determined each day on the outward and homeward
-
voyage. It was found that an average of 26 h.p. 4.5 per
cent, was required to overcome air resistance.
should be added that these voyages took place
It in
the spring, a season distinguished by bad weather.
STABILITY DURING THE TRIP
The behaviour of a ship in a seaway is determined by its 0423^5676
of
shape and weight distribution. The period of roll Days voyage
depends, apart from the radius of gyration, on the meta- Fig. 420
centric height (CM), which can be determined either by
an inclining test or a moment calculation. Because the stability for an entire voyage, according to both
of the relation between the natural period of roll and
shipyard calculations and measurements of the rolling
GM, the latter can be estimated from measurements period.
of the rolling period in accordance with the known The coal and water consumption and the increase in
formula: the load by the catch were recorded daily, and the effect
GM = 27ri
V of these alterations of weight on the was calculated GM
g t/ by measurements of the rolling period. The results are
328]
HULL SHAPE BEHAVIOUR OF TRAWLERS AT SEA
shown in421 which contains the curves of daily load
fig. during the last, and on the second voyage during the
increasesand decreases, the total load and the GM. first,trawling days.
These data relate to both voyages of trawler A. Similar In fig. 422, the two stability curves of fig. 421
are entered together, with the mean stability curve
resulting from the two voyages. The curves of the
voyages show a strikingly parallel course, which is
quite consistent with the tendency of the curves of ship
B'in fig. 420.
The development of the GM during trawling days is
interesting. As shown in fig. 422, the GM increases from
f 5 6 7 6
Days of voyage
Days of voyage
. 421
curves were also established for other ships. In general,
the trend of the total loading of fishing vessels is similar
on voyages. It is only on trawling days that deviations
all
may occur, because of the contingency of the catch.
For example, on the first voyage the big catches occurred
first voyage
-
second
average value of GM
0,9-
0,8
0,3
Outward- bouna Fishing Homeward
0,4 bound
0423*5123156 74234-
number of days
Fig. 422 Fig. 423
[329]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
the first to the second trawling day by 2 in. (5 cm.), then narrowest ship shows the shortest rolling periods and
gradually falls again. The sudden rise of the metacentric the broadest ship the longest. It is of special interest
height follows the stowing of the first catches on the that the curves of ships A and B, whose breadths differ
bottom of the fish-hold. The centre of gravity shifts only by f in. (1 cm.) almost coincide. Ship C cannot
downwards and the ship becomes stiffer. During the
succeeding days, when the fish are stowed higher and
higher, the centre of gravity moves upward again, and
the GM is reduced. The slight rise of the GM
on the
fifth day occurred when the loading of the partitioned
small fish-hold was begun.
Fig. 423 shows the development of GM
of the five
fishing vessels investigated at typical stages of the voyages,
i.e. departure, outward voyage, trawling, homeward
voyage and arrival, all determined by measurements of
the rolling period.
The stability of ship C
differs from that of a normal
fishing vessel because, while in the Naval Service, con-
siderable top weights were fitted and compensated by
heavy concrete ballast. Later, when the deck weights
were removed, the ship became stiff and her rolling
motions were so jerky that they raised serious complaints 6 7 8
}
9 SP
from the crew. The vessel also shipped so much water Rolling Period in sec
that she had to stop trawling when other vessels continued
Fig. 424
without much difficulty.
The rolling periods of the five vessels are compiled in
Table LIV. be included in the comparison because of its abnormal
weight distribution but the position of its curve, as
compared with the curves for normal conditions, is of
interest. The tendency of the curve suggests that,
consistently with the breadth of the ship, it would run
to the right of that of ship E if the GM
were smaller.
In view of this result, it is obvious that GM
as para-
meter should be plotted versus the rolling period and
Rolling periods in seconds
Departure . . 6.95 7.00 6.30 6.20 7.60 the breadth of the ship. This presentation has been
Outward bound . 7.38 7.40 6.60 6.40 7.90 chosen in fig. 425. From this diagram, which was made
Trawling 8.14 7.80 6.60 6.70 8.00
. .
solely on the basis of measurements taken on ships, it is
Homeward bound 8.92 8.35 6.70 6.90 8.50
Arrival . . 9.34 8.90 6.80 7.10 8.80 possible to find the GM
any rolling time of fishing
for
vessels having normal weight distribution and breadths
within the limits that exist here. It would be desirable
In calculating the GM
at departure and arrival the
to carry out similar observations on a large number of
rolling periods were measured in the port or on the
fishing vessels of various designs to obtain a clear picture
river Elbe, the ships being set in motion by use of the
of their characteristic stability. It would also be par-
rudder. On the outward voyage, trawling and home-
ticularly desirable to measure rolling periods of ice-
ward voyage, the mean rolling period was calculated caked trawlers fishing in arctic waters, so that the designer
from daily measurements from which the was GM could have data concerning the stability requirements
determined.
for such conditions.
The figures indicate that ship C, owing to its abnormal
weight distribution, has an unusually short rolling
ROLLING AND PITCHING PERIODS
period for its breadth of 30.1 ft. (9.16 m.). In fact, the
rolling period is exactly the same as that of trawler D, Consideration of stability also involves the question of
which is only 23.2 ft. (7.08 m.) broad. a ship's behaviour in waves, because of the relation
Ships C and D
caught few fish during the observation between stability and rolling period, rolling angle and
voyages so the holds were not full. Ships B and E acceleration. The comfort of the people on board
also had some empty space. depends largely on the acceleration.
If the GMvalues of the five ships are plotted against The rolling periods of ships at sea can be measured
the rolling time, the influence of breadth, i.e. of the easily but correct determination of the natural pitching
radius of gyration, becomes very clear, as shown in period is difficult because they rarely pitch to the rhythm
fig. 424. Stability being identical, the curves adapt of their natural period. Instead, they adapt themselves
themselves smoothly to the breadth of the ship, and the to the motion of the waves passing under them.
[330]
HULL SHAPE BEHAVIOUR OF TRAWLERS AT SEA
In fig. 426, the rolling and pitching behaviour of ship A period th was several times measured in a transverse
isplotted against the period of encounter. The influence sea and found to be 3.5 seconds. Euler's formula,
of the waves is very apparent. The rolling periods are D
=2 " F^
Displacement
clearly shown in three groups, corresponding to the load th
V Waterplane
= Accelerationdue to gravity
g
predicts a heaving period of this ship to 3.6 seconds.
The difference between the pitching periods on the
outward and homeward voyages observed in ship A
is explained by the load situation. Owing to the con-
sumption of coal stored in the middle of the ship and
to filling the fish-hold, the longitudinal radius of gyra-
tion is greater during the homeward voyage. This also
causes an increase of the pitching period, provided the
second root of the longitudinal stability of the head
trimmed ship increases less than the radius of gyration.
If the measured natural pitching periods are assumed
to be correct, then the value m=i/L, calculated with the
aid of the longitudinal metacentric heights taken from
the hydrostatical curves, will be 0.275 for the outward
voyage and 0.32 for the homeward voyage. The m-value
for loaded cargo ships, with the engine amidships, has
been found to be approximately 0.36 to 0.38. The values
established for the fishing vessels agree reasonably with
6 17 8
the results calculated elsewhere.
Rolling Period in sec
ROLLING AND PITCHING ANGLES
Fig. 425
The and pitching angles were measured over the
rolling
horizon, between the inversion points of the ships'
conditions: outward bound, trawling and homeward motions. In the course of a long series of measurements,
bound. Those measured during the outward voyage the relatively rare maximum values were separated and
constitute the lower, and those measured during the from these the average of the maximum angle was cal-
homeward voyage the upper limit of the rolling period culated. The normal angle was calculated from the
range. The measurements on which this diagram is remaining values in a similar manner. The angles thus
based were carried out in a light wind, but there was a determined, which present a comparative survey of the
pronounced swell, so that the ship was affected chiefly
by one wave oscillation and not simultaneously by several
wave surges.
The diagram clearly shows that the rolling period is
little affected by the period of encounter. It is true that
with an increasing period of encounter the rolling period
also increases, but, within the range of these measure-
ments, the increase amounts to a maximum of only
0.3 seconds. The situation is different with the measured Period of Roll
pitching periods, which are grouped round the 45 line Homeward -bound
of the diagram. The pitching period adapts itself closely
to the period of encounter i.e. to the motion of the wave ^Nshing
Outward-bound
passing under the ship. A similar oscillating behaviour m
has been observed on large cargo boats.
* *
From a few measurements, the results of which may Calculated natural
be regarded as natural pitching periods, there emerges Ttr/od of Pitch
for ship A a pitching period of 3.6 seconds on the out-
ward voyage and 4.2 seconds on the homeward voyage.
It2
The pitching periods of the ships B, C and D are also '
of the order of 3.5 to 4.0 seconds. The differences between I
^ />
the pitching periods of these ships, despite the variation
42 3 * 56 78 9 4041 4243*45 #
in length, cannot be very great, considering that the
Ptriod of Encountering Swell
pitching periods of large cargo boats investigated are
from 7.3 to 7.7 seconds. On the small ship D
the heaving Fig. 426
[331]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
oscillations of the ships A
to D, are plotted against the Under identical wave conditions, ships C and hadD
Beaufort Numbers in fig.
427 and 428. Only such rolling the largest rolling angles. The reason for this in ship C
angles were used when the angle of encounter was less must be in its great GM
which gives a short natural
than 15 from athwartship, and pitching angles when rolling period corresponding to the most frequent periods
normal Angle of P/tch
maximum Angle of Pitch
35"
25*
'7
normal Angle of Roll
maximum Angle of Roll
Seaufort Number
Fig. 428
of encounter. Ship D, owing to her smaller dimensioi
particularly the breadth of only 23.2 ft. (7.08 m.), re
more than the other ships. In addition, the midship
Beaufort Number section coefficient of ship D
amounts to only 0.76, as
compared with 0.88 in ships Aand B, and 0.82 in ship C.
F\K. 427 The bilge radii and floor rise of shipsC and D are rela-
tively large. The, resulting smaller damping effect
the angle of encounter was less than, 20 on each side of explains to some extent the behaviour of the two ships.
the bow. In the diagrams, the curves of the normal The rolling angles of ships A
and B only differ by about
angles are drawn in heavy, and those of the maximum 3. Both vessels have the same midship section coefficient.
angles, in thin lines. In order to have, as near as possible, The curves of the angles of pitch in fig. 428 show that
identical conditions with regard to the effect of the waves ship B makes by far the greatest amplitudes. The reason
on the ship, the only measurements used were those might be the full shape of the bow, which possesses a
taken when the swell accompanying the waves caused relatively great reserve buoyancy. When steaming
by the prevailing wind was slight. against the waves the bow rises considerably. When
[332]
HULL SHAPE BEHAVIOUR OF TRAWLERS AT SEA
dipping, the full bow sets into the water with short, encounter from about 2 to 4 seconds, due to the greater
violent jerks. Owing to these pitching motions, which speed of the ship while cruising, occur more frequently
the crew finds very unpleasant, the vessel rarely ships than during trawling, where the maximum frequency is
water so that handling the catch is seldom disturbed even about 6 seconds. The longer periods measured during
in rough weather. And these motions, which are so
violent during cruising, are considerably more gentle
when trawling against the waves because of the longer
periods of encounter.
Evidently, the large pitching motions and the short,
jerky ploughing into the waves is one of the reasons why
ship B loses more speed than ship A.
Experience with ships A to D in heavy seas teaches
that, if fishing vessels are to be fast, the underwater part
of the hull should be of sharp design, and for good
cruising properties in heavy seas, the frames above water
should be of slight convex shape. The transition from
the underwater to the above water shape must be smooth,
otherwise the ship will plough into the waves in a jerky
manner.
The angles of pitch of ships A, C and D differs only
slightly. 5 6 7 8
It is well known
that pitching is influenced by the Period of Encounter in sec
ratio between the length of the waves \ and the length
of the ship L. If the four ships are compared, for Fig. 429
example, on ratio A/L 1, ship A pitches 6 to 12
normal-maximal, ship B 8 to 15
"
and ships C and D cruising occur in stern seas. Under those conditions,
5.5 to 10. the periods are shorter during trawling because of the
During trawling in a slight seaway the rolling and low speed of the ship.
pitching angles are almost the same as when cruising. It The diagram shows that in cruising the natural period
is only at wind speeds exceeding Beaufort 4 to 5 that of pitch of about 3 to 4 seconds coincides with the
the angles are smaller during trawling than during normal maximum frequency of the period of encounter, while
sailing. the natural rolling period is less subject to synchronism,
To show what oscillations may occur on fishing vessels, but during trawling the situation is reversed. There, the
the largest angles measured on the four ships are com- natural rolling periods come into synchronism with the
piled in Table LV. waves more frequently than the natural pitching period.
The periods of encounter show that there was synchron- This applies particularly to ship C, with the short natural
ism, in nearly all cases, between the ship's natural periods rolling period of about 6.6 seconds. As, however, there
and the periods of encounter. The great rolling angle of is a wide maximum range of periods of encounter during
ship A at y =-30
also attributable to synchronism.
is trawling, the pitching motions also often come into
Synchronisms frequently occur in trawlers, as shown synchronism with the waves. Owing to the great pitching
by the percentage of frequency of the period of encounter amplitudes that are to be expected for this reason, it is
on ships A to D (see fig. 429). The short periods of advisable to design the forepart of the ship so that the
TABLE LV
ROLLING PITCHING
Beaufort Beaufort
Ship j
/
Number T Number
A 21740" 30(T) 7:2 sec. 6-7 15727 4.4 sec. 10
B 28736 90 7.0 sec. 6 14725 10 4.5 sec. 6
C 29740 85 6.8 sec. 6 15722 6.8 sec. 7-8
D 25752 75(T) 6.6 sec. 6 13721 20 6.3 sec. 8
>- Rolling angle, normal /maximum r= period of encounter
/
Pitching angle, normal /maximum T)= measured during trawling
Bangle of encounter
[333]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
bow dips into the waves softly yet in such a way that If the ratio between the length of the wave and the
little water comes on deck. length of the ship is higher than 1, then there is the
2
47T additional danger that, owing to the contrary orbital
The maximum acceleration b
max =
77- h sin ,/>,
motions of the water, she will veer across the crest and
(h lever arm) shown in Table LVI,
may be regarded the trough, i.e. get out of control, and be rolled over
as typical of the crew's reactions to the ships' behaviour. by the sea, especially in breaking seas.
The maximum relate to the motions of the ships at A
further possibility of capsizing in seas running
Beaufort No. 6. obliquely astern has been pointed out by Kempf (1938).
TABLE LVI
ROLLING PITCHING
The lever arm h used for the calculation of maximum This danger arises when the ship rolls heavily, to which
acceleration of the rolling motion was assumed to be from synchronism may be a contributory factor, and is struck
the centre of gravity to the bridge rail, and that for the by a big wave on the windward side when inclined far
pitching motion from amidships to half of the foredeck, to the leeside. In this case the centre of buoyancy is
where the catch is handled. The angles entered were moved to the windward side, so that a static capsizing
half the angles mentioned in the table. moment is created. If, in this situation, the kinetic
The biggest rolling acceleration shown to be
is energy of the wave added and the leeside rail dips
is
C, whose crew also
a
1
4,8 ft./sec. (1.47 m./sec. ) for ship under water, there is an immediate danger of capsizing.
complained very much of the hard and restless rolling It is well worth noting Grim's finding that synchronism
motions. the other hand, ship B has the biggest
On is present not only in the case of synchronism between
pitching acceleration at b max 14.4 ft./sec. * (4.38 m./ the ship's natural rolling period and the period of
sec. ). On this ship the crew complained 'only of the encounter. Grim found several points of synchronism
1
unpleasant pitching. The crew of the small trawler D where, on occasion, very large rolling angles were
spoke highly of the sea-kindliness of their ship, which measured. These points arise when the ratio between
has the smallest acceleration of the four ships. the period of the change of the stability tj and the
rolling period t of the ship is 0.5 1 1 .5 ; etc. The largest
; ;
SAILING SMALL SHIPS IN A FOLLOWING SEA angles were measured at tg/t=0.5. The rolling angles
Far more attention is paid to the behaviour of ships become smaller with increasing period ratios.
sailing against the waves than with them, although the Another great danger arises when a big wave slowly
latter are a bigger threat to safety. Grim (1951) demon- overtakes the ship and floods the deck along its entire
strated, both theoretically and by model tests, that even length. The danger is increased if the doors of the deck
if a ship has adequate static stability she can be capsized structures are open. Several small German vessels,
if the waves strike her astern. There need be no syn- including a trawler, were lost* in this way in recent years.
chronism between the ship's natural period and the Owing to the extra weight of the water above the
period of encounter. In any case, a ship cannot be centre of gravity and the free surfaces on deck, such a
capsized through synchronism alone. As Grim has diminution of stability takes place that the resistance of
demonstrated by model tests, the greatest danger arises the ship to the dynamic attacks of the sea is almost, if
when the speed of the waves is equal to that of the ship, not completely, exhausted.
or when the waves overtake the ship so slowly that an It must be expressly pointed out that the dangers
almost static situation is created and the ship lies on the referred to can become acute only if the waves pass the
crest. In this position the lever arms and the degree of ship slowly, when they come from astern. The speed
i.e.
static stability can be reduced to such an extent that the of the ship must be reduced to allow quicker passing
ship capsizes even without the action of dynamic forces. of the waves so that the danger cannot develop.
The stability is reduced when the ship is travelling on the The author experienced such a case on board trawler A.
crest of a wave, as compared with calm water, but is The ship, travelling with a full fish-hold and with the
increased when she is in the trough of a wave. head down, was north of the Orkney Islands. The wind
[334]
HULL SHAPE BEHAVIOUR OF TRAWLERS AT SEA
and the waves were about 70 astern in relation to the evident on what simple nautical measures the safely of a
transverse direction. The wind force was Beaufort No. 9 shipmay depend.
and, in gusts, 10. The waves were not yet fully developed From this incident, the following conclusions may be
in relation to the wind speed. Their length was estimated drawn :
at 220 to 230 ft. (65 to 70 m.) and their height at 16.4
1 . Even a trawler known as seaworthy can incur the
to 19.7 ft. (5 to 6 m.) so they were very steep. The period
of encounter, measured with a stop-watch, was 12.2 danger of capsizing by shipping large quantities
of water.
seconds, and the pitching period 11.8 seconds. The
2. The situation is most dangerous when travelling
ship's natural period of roll, measured a few hours after
before the seas at a speed approximately, or actu-
the incident in calm water near land, was 9.01 seconds.
ally corresponding to, that of the waves, as then
Thus, there was no synchronism between the ship's
great quantities of water be shipped. The
may
natural rolling period and the period of encounter.
water can flood the
if the
From the rolling period, the GM was calculated to be
is
danger particularly great
1.6 ft. (0.49 m.), which corresponds very well with a
ship through openings in the deck superstructures.
moment calculation on the basis of the shipyard data.
3. Dangers of this kind are not the consequence of
faulty design but chiefly of an unfavourable ratio
The rolling motions were extremely hard and jerky in
L
between the speed of the waves and that of the
the heavy seas, and there were rolling angles of 15.4
ship. They can be largely or wholly eliminated
to 29.4. Occasionally, some water dashed over the rail
through simple nautical measures, i.e. by slowing
on the windward side. On the leeside, the vessel shipped
down.
green water over the bulkward when heeling. According 4. In the case of small vessels with a head trim,
to the trochoid formula, which of course applies only
additional danger arises when the head lies deep
with reservations to undeveloped waves, the waves
in the water, the light stern can be turned athwart
passed the ship with a speed of about 16 ft. /sec. (5m. /sec.). the seas by the orbital motion of waves coming
In fact, the wave-speed was probably somewhat smaller.
obliquely from astern, and the ship can be rolled
Suddenly the ship was struck with great violence by a over.
breaking wave coming from astern, which flooded the Hence, in designing trawlers, care must be taken to
low foredeck nearly to the level of the rail. The head ensure :
trim of the ship increased, so that the following waves,
Sufficient reserve buoyancy, particularly forward.
coming in from both sides, flooded the foredeck to the (a)
top of the bulwarks and the rails were in the water. A good freeboard should be aimed at, though
The situation of the ship, which was scarcely obeying this is unpopular with many fishermen because
the rudder,was very precarious. they consider it nu>. the handling of the trawl
the breaker struck, the engine was immediately
As difficult. Well flared sections above the water-
line in the foreship, and as large a forecastle as
stopped and the ship was turned with her stern straight
against the sea. She was held in this position by means possible, also contribute to extra buoyancy.
of rudder and propeller manoeuvres. (b) In calculating stability, the shipping of consider-
able quantities of water should be taken into
According to the drawings of the ship, the weight of
consideration. To keep rolling acceleration low,
the water taken inboard was calculated to be about
1 24 tons. At the same time, the ship took a list of about heavy equipment should be, if possible, arranged
r
to 7.
towards the ship's sides, as this will increase the
5
radius of gyration without decreasing GM.
the centre of gravity and
The increase of weight above
the free surface extending over the entire breadth of the (c) Scuppers must be large enough to allow the water
to run rapidly off the deck.
ship caused a negative GM, which was confirmed by
the list of the ship and its heavy and irregular motions (d) The superstructures astern must be built over the
and the fact that she stayed in any position into which entire breadth of the ship, as is sometimes done
she was thrown by the sea. Her labile behaviour on modern ,
trawlers,- to protect them against
conveyed the feeling that stability and buoyancy were overtaking waves.
exhausted and that she might at any moment capsize (e) The stern above the waterline must be as full as
and sink. possible, to provide extra displacement and to
Other high waves flooded the foredeck and it took adapt itself easily to the waves coming from
astern.
half-an-hour before the voyage, at slow speed, could be
resumed. The ship is known to be seaworthy and she (/) According to experienced trawler skippers, a
behaved very well, especially when she had resumed her GM of about 2.8 ft. (0.85 m.) at departure, and
normal trim.During the slow speed the overtaking wave one of 1 .65 ft. (0.50 m.) at arrival, is considered
the ship very rapidly, no further water was to be very good.
passed
shipped and the deck remained entirely dry. This (g) To obtain a satisfactory damping of rolling, it is
different behaviour of the ship before and after the not desirable that the floor rise and bilge radius
accident, i.e. at full and at low speed, made it dramatically should be too great.
[335]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
In operating trawlers, care must be taken: 3. Never to forget that there are natural limits to the
1. To keep the openings of superstructures closed in safety of even the best-designedThese
ships.
rough weather, and particularly in a high, over- cannot be exceeded without exposing the vessel
taking sea. to danger.
2. To reduce the speed of the ship considerably in a The combination of experienced design and true
high sea from astern. seamanship only will ensure safety.
APPENDIX
Log
Year Port of departure Draught at departure fore aft Mean draught Displacement.
Month . ... Port of return Draught at return fore aft Mean draught Displacement.
Fishing ground
Name of ship Owner Name of master Name of observer
[336]
SAFETY AT SEA
by
WM. C. MILLER
BILLION dollars are invested in the fisheries strong and physically safe, provided the crews do their
TEN of
industry
45 and 50
the United States of America.
per cent, of this amount is in
Between
boats and
duty as seamen rather than try to make their voyages
pleasure trips. This problem of personnel holds the
gear, the remainder being devoted to operations ashore. answer to safety at sea in all the fishing fleets of the world
The floating equipment is, therefore, the most important and, in view of this, it is worth considering those qualities
part of the industry, and no doubt this is also true of of seamanship which crews should acquire for their own
the fishing industries of other nations. and their ship's safety.
The loss on southern California fishing
financial
vessels and equipment has reached figures of such SEAMANSHIP
magnitude that there have been international discussions Seamanship includes the art of handling a ship or boat
in the insurance world and a threat by underwriters to under all conditions of weather, tide, or other influence
refuse fishing vessels as insurable risks. affecting its movement or safety. Seamanship should not
Safety at sea results from a combination of wide be confused with navigation, which is the art of determin-
experience and technical ability of naval architects and ing the correct course of a ship when out of sight of
boat builders to design, lay down, construct and equip land, nor with pilotage, which is the art of determining
a good ship, but it is not effective unless the vessel is the correct course of a ship when working along a coast
manned by competent officers and crew. or up a buoyed channel. Seamanship is a companion
art for without it practical effect cannot be given to good
PERSONNEL navigation or pilotage.
The serious financial losses in the fishing fleet along the Good seamanshipis essentially acquired by practice,
south-western coast of the United States of America, and a marked characteristic of certain races. It cannot
is
are chiefly due to improperly trained and improperly be taught by precept or mastered by a study of books,
equipped crews. For several years people who have although the basic practice can be learned that way.
realized this fact have been unsuccessful in impressing The capable seaman is made by long service in ships
it others, such as underwriters, who are in a position
upon and boats where he can obtain the necessary practical
to make certain demands and get results. The vessels' experience. Seamanship has not died with the elimination
owners have been unable to take corrective measures of sail but it is not taught in certain fishing areas in a
because of the regulations of organized labour. There way to retain it from generation to generation.
is no federal or independent agency in the United States The power-driven fishing vessel, despite all the
of America empowered to establish and certify the mechanical aids to handling her, is ultimately dependent
qualifications for seagoing personnel on fishing vessels, upon good seamanship. The officers and ship's company
other than some masters and engineers. The men are may not be efficient sailors in the old sense of the word
not compelled by labour unions to be seamen but are but they should be proficient seamen. In sailing ships
mostly fishermen, purely and simply. Everyone cognizant seamanship was, and still is, largely concerned with the
" "
of the meaning of the word seamanship and aware rigging, the making and shortening of sails, the correct
of the big losses sustained by the southern California manipulation of ship's sails and rudder for such opera-
fishing fleet in recent years, will admit the incompetence tions as putting about, wearing or club hauling, and for
*4 "
of the crews and their inattention to duty. And each making the best passage whether on a wind or
"
year recently the financial loss has been greater than in running-free ". But the handling of all vessels,
the preceding year. whether sailing or power-driven, requires a knowledge
The owner's position is like that of being in the centre of the influence on their movement of wind, tide or
of a devastating monsoon. It is possible to survive a current, their behaviour in a seaway, and various
storm with the existing ships, as they are adequately methods of securing them, by Anchor in a roadstead or
[337]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
by moorings to a pier or dock. Seamanship also involves for vessels operating in near waters would require a
the proper loading of cargo, shifting of weights, battening different treatment to those fishing in distant waters.
down hatches and making the ship generally " snug " Scantling sizes of fishing vessels have been determined
for heavy weather, together with lowering, handling and to meet the need for a given type under local conditions
hoisting of ship's boats and equipment, proper attention and most of the vessels have been seaworthy. However,
to ship's fittings, and innumerable other incidentals to some disastrous results have occurred when vessels have
safety of life and equipment afloat. In power-driven ventured into areas for which they were not designed
ships there must be knowledge of the action of screws. and, from this standpoint, standardization of design and
While certain general laws govern the behaviour of assignment in a classification would be helpful to the
nearly all such ships, individually they vary in their fishing industry.
response to helm and engines. However handy or By way of example of variation in scantling and
unhandy a ship may be, a good seaman will get the best fastening sizes of similar size fishing vessels, it is interest-
out of her, but a captain who does not know or under- ing to compare those on the west coast of the United
stand his ship, or who has a crew lacking in seamanship, States of America with those on the east coast (see
u ill often find himself in difficulty. The same applies tables LVII and LV111 prepared by Simpson (1951) and
to the good order of the ship and her fittings. Proficient Hanson (1951) of both localities). The difference in
seamen will keep her clean and trim, pleasing to the eye scantlings offers no special obstacle to the standardiza-
and ready for any emergency. The ill-manned ship is tion of design or construction of fishing vessels in the
slovenly in appearance, and some essential for her United States, but presents a challenge to formulate
safety will be found wanting at a time of crisis. data from which a set of standards might be developed.
If the crews of the world's fishing fleets were all seamen Information pertinent to design and construction
in this sense safety at sea would be largely achieved. methods in the British Isles, northern European and
For example, there are fishing vessels on the west coast Scandinavian countries would undoubtedly add priceless
of the United States whose crews are chosen and fairly data to any such attempt at standardization.
treated to ensure they will remain with the ship. These Wood is the material most used in the construction of
vessels are no different from the average but their loss fishing vessels today and, because of the advance in
has been approximately 90 per cent, below that of the design and in building equipment, it is no longer neces-
other vessels of the fleet. This fact bears out the need sary to depend on natural timber shapes. Adequate
for first-class seamanship among fishing vessel crews. strength to provide safety well beyond the required
tolerances is derived from laminated, formed and
SHIP REQUIREMENTS scarfed sections of much finer fashion than ever pre-
A study of the safety and efficiency of fishing vessels viously used. Much attention is still paid to grades of
has revealed that the average vessel frequently breaks timber, etc., in the design stage but it is impossible under
down at sea and completes relatively few successful today's conditions to find materials of the standard
fishing trips each year. This points conclusively to the used throughout the history of wooden ships and there
need for competent technical attention to design, con- are fewer naturally groun crooks of timber available.
struction, outfitting, operation and maintenance. Modem machinery, however, is able to duplicate
Potential fishing vessel owners do not always get the strength through various ways even though using inferior
technical advice they need, and too frequently they materials.
accept it from unqualified sources. But when they have Timber itself has no greater strength value than the
the advice of fully qualified experts they certainly profit fastenings which hold it to the structure, and, as every
from it. fastening reduces the strength of the timber to some
shown in small fishing craft design
Little interest is extent, the timber sizes must be adequately computed
by the classification societies, and their regulations for to allow for this fact. All wood, regardless of its density
construction of fishing vessels have never been established or strength factor, is soft in relation to modern steel
and there should be basic research to provide data on fastenings, and poorly mated structural parts will soon
which such rules could be established. Data which have wear and loosen. On the other hand, closely fayed
already been accepted by the societies might be useful, surfaces, securely mated with properly set fastenings,
but, for instance, the minimum requirements for scant- will allow a useful life of 30 to 50 years.
lings of fishing vessels should not necessarily be those The quality of fastenings and methods of inserting
demanded by the societies. They should be determined them have been improved, and it is possible now to build
by common consideration of the problem by a qualified a more seaworthy vessel in natural materials than it was
group of designers and engineers witi? world-wide in the past. In addition, modern wood preservatives,
experience in this class of construction. when properly used, add five or more years of useful life
luch information on scantlings, prepared by com- to a ship.
petent naval architects around the world, is already Approximately 98 per cent, of the vessels in use in
available. The economic condition of the fishing the fishing fleets are built of wood, and many losses,
industry, however, would offer a major problem to particularly in the United States, have been caused by
international standardization. For example, scantlings fire. These losses can be greatly reduced by using steel
[338]
SAFETY AT SEA
construction, and it is also possible to obtain better They have been organized as fishermen primarily, and
cubic capacity, better tankage, and stronger foundations. think that their major usefulness aboard is confined to
And if better foundations are provided, longer life can catching fish. In their opinion the vessel's maintenance
be expected of shafting, internal combustion engines and is the concern of the owners only. Yet the tuna clippers
other moving parts, which should reduce the frequency are at sea for three to six months on a single voyage, and
of breakdowns at sea. Steel will deteriorate more quickly the crews will only do minor maintenance merely to
than wood if maintenance is neglected, safety is jeopar- keep the vessel operating. Consequently, the clipper's
dized and a high financial loss may result. The difficulties condition deteriorates so much that proper maintenance
encountered in forming shell plates, bending of frames, cannot be paid for out of the share of the catch allowed
etc., also present problems, especially as it is necessary for that purpose. Many losses have resulted, and much
TABLE LVII A
Typical scantlings for wooden vessels of the east coast of U.S.A.
* two bent frames, one inside the other with a floor timber 2 x 12 All other boats have double sawn frames.
The 53-footer has in.
to keep down costs by building the boats in small yards unnecessary expense to owners and crews has been
where only a minimum amount of equipment is available. experienced, because vessels again and again put to
sea in the hope of making a fast, fruitful trip, the proceeds
SHIP EQUIPMENT of which will allow owners to put their ships in good
Equipment aboard fishing craft is generally of very condition.
good quality, although it is not always well maintained.
Then it deteriorates rapidly and reduces the overall FIRE PROTECTION
safety factor. In the past, safety equipment, meeting only the minimum
On the other hand, fishing gear is almost alwa>s the standards, has been carried aboard the majority of
best to be found locally and is usually well maintained fishing vessels. No authorized agency has ever estab-
because of importance to the livelihood of the fisher-
its lished the proper requirements and even labour organiza-
9
men, who apparently regard it with more concern than tions have disregarded their members safety in this
they do the vessel. This is a foolhardy attitude because respect.
their catch and even their lives may be lost if the vessel For many years independent marine engineers, sur-
is not adequately maintained. The restrictions of labour veyors and equipment suppliers have urged the use of
organizations have been made with little concern for the more positive safety equipment and methods. This would
safety of life at sea. For example, it is almost impossible call for rigorous training programmes, and there has
to find a real seaman among the members of the fisher- been little co-operation from owners because they can
men's union who work the California tuna fishing fleet. see no financial gain. Their attitude is strengthened
1339]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
by the ease with which they have been able to insure peak most of the gas is lost when released in the engine
against loss. room and the fire hazard is increased because the gas
Underwriters as a group are in a position to correct deprives the internal combustion engines of needed
this situationby making demands which owners could oxygen and puts them out of operation. This, in turn
not ignore. They are, however, divided in opinion and, cuts off the ship's electrical supply and puts the
on the west coast of the United States, one group of mechanical water pumps out of action. So, if the fire is
underwriters will not always agree to the requirements not controlled by the single exposure to the carbon it
of another. In many instances such disagreement has must be fought by a " bucket brigade " and, possibly,
been right because not all the requirements have reflected the ship will have to be abandoned.
sound engineering principles. Unless the ships carry an adequate supply of spare
For example, there is the existing underwriters' require- inert gas tanks, they must return to port to recharge.
ment for installation of carbon dioxide full flooding fire They are not required by underwriters or any agency to
protection systems in the engine rooms in tuna class carry spares. When proper rules are drawn up and
vessels. This type of vessel has always been fitted with adopted the owners will have to spend more money to
full flooding inert gas systems, installed principally to convert the system which would not have been necessary
protect the main engine room, and some total losses have had sound engineering principles been employed in the
TABLE LVIII B
Typical fastenings for wooden vessels of the east coast of U.S.A.
recently resulted from
fires gaining headway in the first place. Such lack of concern by underwriters for
unprotected forepeak area ahead of the engine room. their own financial welfare encourages both owners and
Underwriters immediately called for a revised system crews to disregard essential conditions of safety in
but, while the reasoning was sound, the engineering was vessels.
poor. Sufficient gas was added to the engine room Fires can be repetitive to some extent a more serious
system to protect the cubic capacity of the forepeak. hazard exists after a fire than before and mechanical
The discharge manifold and nozzles in the forepeak pumping systems should be installed in all vessels for
were piped directly into the main engine room system fighting fire with water, which is not only plentiful but is
and, for no apparent sound reason, two release stations superior to anything else for that purpose. Breathing
were installed for the single system one on the main vents are needed for auxiliary machinery so that release
deck outside the engine room and one on the deck above, of fire-fighting agents which deplete the supply of oxygen
completely removed from visual or voice communica- will not stop the generating units supplying power to the
tion with the escape passage from the engine room. pumps. The use of solid water injection, now recom-
Such a system endangers the lives of men who might be mended by underwriters, is dangerous to life but this
unable to escape from the engine room before someone hazard can be eliminated by the use of controllable
at the remote control station releases the gas, or the nozzles on approved type hoses. And, finally, there should
full benefit of the gas might be lost by release before those be a rigorous training programme to make sure that the
at the scene of action have been able to secure the com- crews are able to use the equipment efficiently.
partment for proper flooding.
These are two of the deficiencies. Another is that,
RADIO AND RADAR
to control a fire in either the engine room or forepeak Radio equipment installed aboard the majority of fishing
compartments, the entire volume of available gas must vessels is good, having long operating range and clarity,
be released at one time. Should the fire be in the fore- but few operators have been trained in proper radio
[340]
SAFETY AT SEA
procedure, although they do accomplish the desired (d) Proper maintenance while at sea. Crews should be
results admirably. trained to protect their own lives and the financial
Radar is not something to be dealt with by men who investment of owners and underwriters by proper
learn only the rudiments of its operation and who, as a attention to their duty in the care and maintenance
result, fail to read properly its scanning screen. When so of the boats. A requirement in the insurance
used the safety of vessel and crew is jeopardized and policy for maintenance by the crew while at sea
caseson record reveal total losses as a result of unskilled would relieve owners from certain labour union
persons relying on radar in bad weather. pressure on owners and would result in better
physical maintenance and higher moral attitudes
OTHER EQUIPMENT by owners and crews.
Rescue apparatus, shorings, collision mats, etc. are not
carried aboard the tuna vessels at all. This equipment //. Ship design, specifications, scantlings, and construction.
should be, and there should also be proper instructions Owners should be made aware of the advantages of
for its usage, supplemented by periodic drills. qualified technical attention to:
With so much capital invested in the fishing industry, (a) Design, including use of proved modern develop-
especially in boats and equipment, there should be a ments and the merits of wood versus steel when
TABLE LVIII
Typical scantlings for the west coast of U.S.A.
training programme for crews, and insurance under- contemplating new construction or conversion.
writers, owners, suppliers, and others who get a sub- (b) Construction, including use of modern methods
stantial income from the fishing fleets, should willingly and materials for both wood and steel, such as
aid such a programme. The results would certainly laminated components, scarfed sections, im-
yield high economic returns. proved fastenings, and preservatives.
(c) Powering, including use of modern engines.
CONCLUSION (d) Operation, including use of qualified engineering
The following is a suggested four-point programme: and other personnel at sea.
/. Personnel, including fishermen as seamen, owners, and (e) Maintenance, including application of modern
labour unions. improvements and methods.
(a) Masters and officers of vessels. They should be
required to demonstrate proficiency when they
///. Ship's fixed equipment, including safety equipment.
take control of bigger ships and more valuable
The crews should be impressed with the need for
equipment.
(b) Command of vessels. The practice on large fishing proper maintenance of:
vessels of carrying a federally-licensed master who, (a) Ship's fixed equipment at sea. Fishing equipment
although responsible for theship and crew, maintenance should be secondary.
relinquishes his authority at sea to a so-called (b) Positive water pumping systems for fire-fighting and
fishing captain, should be discontinued. Instead, other emergencies should be installed including:
licensed masters should be taught to operate as 7. Auxiliary engines with breathing vents to
fishing captains. Similarly, capable fishermen uncontaminated air supply.
should be helped to qualify for masters' papers. 2. Proper fire hoses and controllable nozzles to
(c) Training of crews in seamanship. They should be eliminate a definite existing hazard to life.
required to demonstrate their proficiency before 3. Collision mats with instruction in their use.
being signed on. Mattresses with hogging lines attached serve
[341]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
the purpose and would have prevented many should contain the conditions always shown on the
total losses in the past. insurance policies, but should make them under-
4. Shoring timbers and patching materials in standable.
minimum quantity.
5. Rescue breathing apparatus and minimum fire Underwriters should periodically make available to
penetration equipment. owners a list of per cent, differences in
fishing vessel
insurance premium rates for varying classes of vessels,
IV. Underwriters should publish a pamphlet in all the including certain commercial vessels outside the fishing
necessary languages depicting the advantages of industry, to arouse the owner's interest in paying
marine insurance, their own obligations to the assured, lower rates through better maintenance and fewer
and the assurers obligations to underwriters. It losses.
[3421
SAFETY AT SEA REGULATIONS IN NETHERLANDS
by
J. G. DE WIT
the Netherlands the enforcement of various Acts quently, rotate in an oil-bath, or when they are protected
IN and Regulations affecting fishing and other vessels
and their crews is carried out by the Shipping Inspec-
by a continuous bronze liner, they are only inspected
every three years. The boilers are inspected every year
tion Service of the Ministry of Traffic and Public Works. and the ships and engines every four years. The inspec-
There are three districts to cover commercial shipping, tion of boilers is work of the Inspection Service of
the
and a fourth for the whole seagoing fishing fleet. Steam Engines, which comes under the Ministry of
The Shipping Inspector in this fourth district is located Social Affairs. Air cylinders in motor installations are
at theHague, and there are deputy inspectors and surveyed every five years.
surveyors in the fishing towns of lymuiden, Scheveningen, When a ship is damaged, a provisional survey is made
" "
Den Helder and Flushing. There are 12 persons on the for the Shipping Council. The term damage has a
technical and nautical staff who supervise 740 fishing very wide meaning within the Shipping Act, covering
vessels of 72,000 gross register tons. Only 21 ships are any damage to the ship, her cargo or crew or damage to
under the supervision of classification societies, so that another ship. One of the main reasons for such investi-
virtually all the fleet is controlled by the Shipping gations is to find out whether something may be learned
Inspection Service. from the accident and whether new regulations are
The Netherlands fishing fleet is composed mainly of desirable.
trawlers, trawler-luggers and cutters, and some old Surveyors of the Shipping Inspection Service control
'* " " "
types such as botter ", schokker ", hoogaars the construction of ships. Drawings are subject to the
"
and hengst ". approval of the central office of the Hague. The Service
Ships of the first three types usually receive an un- has issued no rules on the scantlings but uses those of
limited Certificate of Seaworthiness. This entitles them Lloyd's Register, the Bureau Veritas or the Germanischer
to fish anywhere in the North Sea, and in more distant Lloyd. Where these rules do not cover the vessel con-
waters, provided the skipper or another member of the cerned the Service is entitled to issue regulations, and it
crew, possesses a supplement to the skipper certificate. is important to note their significance in relation to the
In the case of trawler-luggers, the hatch covers must design of fishing boats.
also satisfy certain requirements. The other boat types
may receive a Certificate of Seaworthiness A, which
entitles them to go up to 15 miles from the coast or if STABILITY
they satisfy certain additional standards of size and The bigger trawlers and trawl luggers are now subject
construction they receive a Certificate of Seaworthiness B, to stability tests since the Shipping Order 1952 reduced
which them to go 50 miles from the coast.
entitles the exemption limit from 800 to 900 gross register tons.
Docking must be reported to the Inspector and it is An inclining experiment must be made and sufficient
only occasionally that a shipowner or skipper is made data of stability for various angles of heel established
to have his ship dry-docked because the compulsory before the Certificate of Seaworthiness is issued.
limit of 12 months has elapsed. In particular cases the These provisions are of little use to designers. The
limit may be extended to 24 months. When a ship is question is whether the minimum stability should have
grounded or has run into some other trouble where been more definitely fixed, although the present rule
damage is presumed, dry-docking is compulsory. leaves the designer free to express his views on stability.
Every year the life-saving appliances, safety devices, But he should know beforehand what yard-stick will be
loading equipment and the engine installation are used when the Shipping Inspection Service considers his
surveyed. Propel'er shafts must be drawn every two plans. On the other hand, it is difficult, if not impossible,
years, but when thsy are protected by an oil seal between to establish a standard for minimum stability applicable
the propeller and the inside stern bearing and, conse- to both ocean liners and small fishing boats, but it would
[343 1
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
be highly desirable to reach agreement on a standard for (1913) who considered that capsizing is a dynamic
fishing boats, especially as so much spade work has been process and is not determined by the stability moment,
done. but by the work necessary to incline the ship. Benjamin
An example is the investigation made by the See- used the dynamical lever and not the curve of arms of
Berufsgenossenschaft (1904) in co-operation with the statical stability as a basis. He collected a great amount
Germanischer Lloyd, into the losses due to lack of of comparative material on big and small ships and this
stability, of a number of fishing vessels in 1903. As the led him to propose the following minima for the
stablility of the lost ships was unknown, it was determined dynamical lever: 2 in. (50 mm.) at 30, 8 in. (200 mm.)
by the stability of a number of similar ships. The curves of at 60; with a capsizing angle of less than 60 the
statical stability of August, Blexen, Breslau, Braunschweig dynamical lever must be not less than 8 in. (200 mm.)
at the capsizing angle.
This proposal was received with great reservation
and, in retrospect, it seems that the values rather than
the method were criticized. Too much importance was
attached to the form of the curve of arms of statical
stability beyond the point where the curve exceeded its
maximum, at about 35 to 45. Consequently, in 1927,
Benjamin greatly reduced the values (fig. 431) but,
nevertheless, they were not generally accepted mainly
due to the way in which they were presented, although
his method the use of the dynamical lever was
theoretically well founded.
Pierrottet (1935) developed, along the same lines, a
method for judging stability and laid down rules for
determining the minimum stability. This proposal was
based on two principles:
1 . Even under the most unfavourable circumstances,
Fig. 430. Reproduction ofJohon's data on the moments of statical in which all possible unbalancing forces act
stability and arms of statical stability of different types of fishing
vessels (from Johow's Hilfsbuch fuer den SchifFbau, 5th edition) simultaneously and in the same direction, the heel
*'
of the ship maynot exceed a certain permitted
angle ". In view of the risks of shifting cargo this
and Arthur Friedrich have since become known. They,
angle was generally limited to 50 25 for ferries.
,
or similar ones, have also been published by Johow 2. In this condition the dynamical stability must be
(1928) and are reprinted in fig. 430 and Table LIX. It
equal to or greater than the amount of work done
isonly to be regretted that these curves are given without by wind, waves, centrifugal forces and shifting of
comment, especially as only the last three ships were people on board, when acting between the 0'
" "
judged in the See-Berufsgenossenschaft report to be safe and the permitted angle of heel.
against capsizing. These data, however, did not lead
to a generally accepted definition of adequate stability. The discussion of these proposals brought no solution
A first step in this direction was taken by Benjamin and, again, the theoretical side of the problem received
[344]
SAFETY AT SEA - NETHERLANDS ACTS ABOUT SHIPPING
IN The " permitted angle " of heel is determined by the
following conditions:
"
7- 1 . Itshould be equal to or smaller than the critical
"
angle where the curve of statical stability reaches
its maximum.
2. Itshould be equal to or less than 40.
3. The non-watertight hatch-coamings and doorways,
5-
through which the water might flow into the ship,
"
4- may "not be submerged with the permitted
angle of heel.
4. If the cargo is liable to shift, the dynamical angle
5- of shift must be determined.
2- The proposal of Rahola deserves the greatest attention.
Fig. 432 shows the stability data of a number of ships,
known from literature or otherwise, which have been
i-
tested by the Rahola method. In the cases that have
come to the knowledge of the Netherlands Shipping
20 So 40
So Inspection Service it has been found that the Rahola
Angle of heel standard for dynamical stability is reliable in judging
the stability of a fishing vessel.
Fig. 431. Standards ofdyamical levers, according to Benjamin
The Shipping Act does not require the stability data
to be on board, as it is felt that the crews are not capable
little attention. The criticism only concerned the pro- of using them effectively. In judging stability the Shipping
" "
posed values and the permitted angle of heel. Inspection Service has to take into account nearly all
Just as Benjamin some years after his proposal reduced loading conditions. Consequently, the calculation of
to one half his second minimum, Pierrottet reduced the arms of statical stability should be made for the
" "
during the discussion of his paper his permitted angle following conditions:
of heel. Based on these methods, Rahola (1939) made a
1. Departure;
new proposal. He collected data on the stability of 2. Arrival at the fishing grounds;
capsized ships and ships that had been running suc- 3. Departure from the fishing grounds;
cessfully. He examined mainly small ships and his 4. Arrival.
statistical investigations led to the following conclusions:
should be assumed that on departure the ship is
It
1 . The values of the arms of statical stability must be :
fully supplied with fuel, water, stores and ice.
The
at least 5 \ in. (140 mm.) at an angle of 20" and at
J
voyage to the fishing grounds is assumed to last seven
least 7j in. (200 mm.) at an angle of 30 ;
" " days and the consumption of fuel, water, stores and the
2. The critical angle of heel of a ship must be On departure
melting of ice is calculated accordingly.
more than 35. By "critical angle" of heel is from the fishing grounds it should be assumed that the
meant the angle of heel at which the curve of arms fish-hold capacity. At this point the supply
is filled to its
of statical stability reaches its maximum value. of fuel should be sufficient for nine days and, on arrival,
it should be assumed that there is still enough fuel, etc.,
For big ships, whose GM metacentric height may often for two days. The loss in weight through ice water being
be small or proportionally smaller than that of small
pumped overboard should be calculated as follows :
ships it will generally be difficult to satisfy the minimum
value for 20 as proposed and Rahola
strikes a note of Condition 1
per cent.
warning that even standards for the stability of
his Condition 210
"
smaller ships might be too stiff. When the critical Condition 3 30
u
Condition 4 45
angle" is reached before 35 , Rahola considers the
stability to be sufficient, provided the dynamical stability These figures apply to ships with properly insulated
offers sufficient security against exceeding the critical holds and where insulation is bad or lacking the figures
angle. So the designer is not limited by the standard of are higher. When ships carry salt instead of ice, it should
Rahola uses the statical stability curve
statical stability. be assumed that the salt is distributed over the whole fish-
only as a starting point to find a more elastic deter- hold in conditions 3 and 4.
mination of the minimum stability based on the
dynamical levers.
The conclusion of Rahola's investigations is strikingly FREEBOARD
simple: The dynamical lever should at the "permitted Netherlands freeboard regulations do not apply to vessels
" Considerations which
angle of heel be equal to or larger than 3i in. (80 mm.) solely used for fishing purposes.
[345]
CRITICAL CRITICAL
CRITICAL CRITICAL
CRITICAL
CRITICAL 5UFFICICMT
3o^ ^45* *
55^. W 9*
Fig. 432. Data of the stability of some fishing vessels
[346]
SAFETY AT SEA NETHERLANDS ACTS ABOUT SHIPPING
have led to the exemption of fishing vessels from these SHEEP OF A
regulations are: antca
^fl,TAnD*gD
(a) Fishing vessels take their cargo at sea where it
to ascertain whether a ship is already
is difficult Ff
down on the mark.
Fig. 433. Comparison of a standard sheer and the actual sheer of a
(b) Fishing vessels with a full cargo hold generally motor lugger
have a fairly constant weight on board.
appears that the freeboard largely depends on the sheer
Nevertheless, surveyors of the Netherlands
the
(see fig. 433). From the fact that the sheer has its lowest
Shipping Inspection Service are instructed to make sure
point at about JL from the after perpendicular, it follows
that fishing vessels are not overloaded. In spite of the
that the sheer on this ordinate is negative in relation to
absence of a freeboard mark, any skipper who has the sheer at JL. and an increase of the table-freeboard
overloaded his ship is summoned before the Shipping is required. If the aft part of the sheer falls below the
Council. Dangerous loading occurs oftener than might " "
standard sheer, an should be given on the table-
extra
be expected and it is evident that a smaller freeboard
freeboard. These extras are generally not compensated
than the minimum for which a ship is designed can
by reduction on the table-freeboard because of the excess
nullify reasonable stability conditions. The question
of the sheer in the fore-part of the ship.
arises : Are the rules for the determination of the mini-
mum freeboard for fishing vessels necessary?
Three causes of overloading, in the opinion of the HATCHES
Shipping Inspection Service, are: The original lugger was a sailing vessel with a length
of 75 to 82 ft. (23 to 25 m.) and had a reputation of being
1. Small steam trawlers which were originally built a seaworthy vessel which shipped little water. The hold
for fishing on the North Sea are now often fishing was closed by a number of wooden hatches (fig. 434\
on more distant grounds. To make such long on a coaming with a height of about 3J in. (8 cm.) or
voyages they carry a larger supply of coal so that even flush hatches, and they presented little danger.
their freeboard is dangerously small on leaving port.
They were not perfectly watertight but, because the ship
The coal lies toward the stern of the ship, so that rode lightly, breaking seas were only dangerous when
the vessel has a heavy trim aft. hatches were carried away and, owing to this, some
2. In good seasons motor luggers, and motor trawler-
sailing-luggers have been wrecked.
luggers, fish inshore. They often make enormous In 1926 some sailing-luggers were fitted with motors
herring catches which exceed their loading capacity of 50 to 100 h.p. Because of the weight of motor and
and their fuel consumption is then very low. The fuel, the ships increased in weight and draught and
catch stored in the hold, and the barrels are
is
shipped water. To meet this situation, the hatch-coamings
filled and stowed on the after part of the deck. of the rope-hold and the store-hold were raised.
When, h} addition, the deck-pounds also are full, About 1 930 a start was made with lengthening luggers
it is clear that the freeboard may become danger- and was continued until recently. At first these lengthen-
ously small. ings were lather restricted but, in later years and especi-
3. In bad weather big quantities of water may enter World War II, lengthenings by 26 to 30 ft.
ally after
the hold through the hatches of luggers and trawler- (8 to 9 m.) were not uncommon. It is obvious that such
luggers, which means a further reduction of a lengthening must change the vessel's sea-going qualities.
freeboard. In addition, a number of luggers that had been requi-
sitioned during the German occupation were returned
These are reasons why regulations are needed to with motors of 200 to 300 h.p. and since 1945 many
establish a minimum permitted freeboard for fishing motors of this capacity have been installed. This, of
vessels and why they should carry a mark. Measure- course, called for bigger and heavier superstructure and
ments have been made of the freeboard of outgoing larger supplies of fuel and, because of the increased
and incoming ships but a satisfactory freeboard regula- weight, length and motor power, the reconstructed
tion has not yet been drafted from the material collected.
Since World War II, many motor luggers have served
as cargo vessels, mainly to transport barrels of herring
to ports on the North Sea, the Channel and the Baltic.
As these ships were used for purposes other than fishing
they were no longer exempt from carrying a loadline
mark and their freeboard was fixed according to inter-
national regulations. Generally, the freeboard of motor
luggers of about US ft. (35 m.) length, varied from
20 in. to 2 ft. (0.5 to 0.6 m.). In these calculations it Fig. 434. Classical wooden hatchcovers on Dutch luggers
[347]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
luggers no longer rode the waves but ploughed through most satisfaction. With it the number of double tiers
them, especially when trawling. To meet this situation, is not greater than usual and the danger for the stower
in many cases an open forecastle was put on the stem and in the hold is small.
it was an
improvement. When this hatch system had shown that it was prac-
Though it may be true that the forecastle protects ticable and that this arrangement of deck did not cause
the crew from heavy seas, trawler-luggers ship most of drasticchanges in working methods, the Inspector-
the water further aft behind the forward gallows. This General for Shipping issued the following order on
is not so bad when the hatches are closed but trawler- March 6th, 1952:
luggers have been frequently so flooded through open
hatches that both ship and crew were in great danger 1. Steel coamings about 14 in. (350 mm.) in height
and could only be saved by the utmost effort. shall be constructed round all hatchways on all
It was felt that the Shipping Inspection Service should future motor luggers.
pay more attention to this problem. At first little pro- 2. The coamings shall also be constructed on all
gress was made because, in the opinion of the crews, a existing motor luggers which have a motor of more
change in the hatch system would interfere with the work than 150 h.p., when:
THE HATCHED AREAS INDICATE
HATCHWAYS 3SO mm IN HEIGHT.
X SINGLE TIER
XX DOUBLE TIER
Fig. 435. Deck arrangement of a modern Dutch trawler-lugger
on deck. This applied especially to herring drift-net (a) the ship is lengthened;
fishing. The only thing the Service could do was to (b) the deck amidship is altered or renewed ;
make it compulsory to have sufficient covers and battens (c) the loaded ship has, in the opinion of the
on board to close the hatches with tarpaulins or steel head of the Shipping Inspection Service, too
covers in bad weather. Even this minimum requirement freeboard to be safe without raised
little
sometimes met with resistance. coamings.
In winter fishing at higher latitudes than 61 N.,
and in the Irish Sea, regulations now require hatches to 3. The coamings also be constructed on all
shall
remain closed during trawling and to have a fixed and which are later provided with a
existing luggers
closed inner hatch. A flush hatch must be caulked and motor of more than 1 50 h.p.
nailed in place and a fixed raised steel coaming must be
This order will ultimately lead to an improvement of the
placed on hatches that have to remain open. obsolete hatch system on lugger-trawlers. Already prac-
This method did not provide a solution for herring
tice has shown:
trawl fishing in which all hatches must be opened for
lowering the barrels and, in 1947, some ship-owners 1 . That the coamings work rather well, although the
began to change the existing system. Instead of two rows arrangement below deck and the working method
of wooden or flush hatches, raised coamings were built on deck have to be adapted to the system, and
on the centre line of the ship. Though far from perfect, 2. That the luggers and lugger-trawlers are safe at
this system has worked well in practice. After some sea, which cannot be said of lengthened boats with
experimenting, the solution shown in fig. 435 gave the traditional hatch construction.
;348]
SAFETY AT SEA NETHERLANDS ACTS ABOUT SHIPPING
For safety with the existing system of wooden hatches, night quarters of fishing vessels may not be less than
tarpaulins have to be used to run in one length, for and 97 cu. ft. (2.75 cu. m.)
per member of the crew. The
aft. They have to be nailed on the deck with battens. berths may be included in this calculation and, after the
This solution, however, provides only a minimum cover furniture has been placed, there must be sufficient space
of the hatches in stormy weather. for moving about. As a result, the cubic capacity per
member of the crew usually greater than 97 cu. ft.
is
(2.75 cu. m.). A lining is desirable where the berths
DRINKING WATER TANKS adjoin the hull, but no use is made of the regulation that
Fishing vessels were allowed to use new herring barrels a board of 16-in. (40 cm.) high is sufficient. Any space
for storing drinking water. But since 1952 the water between the lining and the hull must be accessible for
has had to be stored in suitable tanks, closed in such a inspection and cleaning.
way as to exclude any foreign matter. The tanks must The berths must be at least 6 ft. 3 in. (1.90 m.) long
be kept separated by cofferdams from fuel or spill water and 2 ft. 2J in. (0.68 m.) wide and not more than one
tanks and they have to be constructed so that they are above another. No berths are allowed under the openings
left clean when pumped dry. The quantity of drinking of ventilation ducts. One berth must be available as a
water depends on the number of the crew, the duration sick bay which means that it must be so arranged as to
of the voyage and the possible use of distillation which, allow the patient to be taken in and out easily.
in the case of fishing vessels, may be ignored. The dura- The height of the crew's quarters of fishing boats may
tion of the voyage, especially for luggers in herring fishing not be less than 6 ft. (1.83 m.) measured from the floor
with the drift net, is a rather uncertain factor. One to the underside of the deck beams.
solution is to determine the consumption per man per On ships less than 500 gross register tons ventilation
day, but there are no rules on this point. The Shipping may be natural but on those of more than 500 tons one
Inspection Service calculates on the following data: of the systems of ventilation must be artificial. It must
the crew on herring luggers consists of 15 or 16, and on not cause troublesome draughts but it must ensure the
trawlers, 11 men. The duration of the voyage is assumed removal of bad air and the supply of fresh air.
to be four weeks, and the consumption per man per day Generally, one lavatory is sufficient on fishing vessels
at 2.2 imp. gal. (2.6 U.S. gal., 10 1.). This means that and with a crew of more than four a lavatory is required.
luggers must carry 4} or 5 tons and trawlers 3 or 3J tons Proper washing facilities have to be arranged near the
of drinking water. Fresh water for other purposes, such engine room for the engine room watch. These regula-
as washing, is not included in this calculation, and for tions on accommodation date from 1937, and reflect
ships having a showerbath the figures have to be raised the social conditions of fishermen at that time. Condi-
by 50 per cent. tions have improved since then and fishermen now show
more interest in the lay-out of their quarters and every-
thing connected with it. This means there is considerable
ACCOMMODATION
support for all who make it their task to provide better
TJie Shipping Inspection Service is also in charge of the accommodation.
crew's quarters. They have to be arranged behind the
collision bulkhead and the distance from the foremost
berth to the fore perpendicular must be more than
LOADING AND UNLOADING EQUIPMENT
ok of the ship's length. On most Netherlands luggers and Loading and unloading seldom present great difficulties
trawler-luggers 12 men are accommodated in the forward on trawlers. As a rule a steel wire is stretched between the
and three or four men in aft quarters. In some ships main and the mizzen masts and is provided with eyes
there is still a cabin on the bridge for the skipper but from which a block is suspended. The weight lifted
the arrangement is not much favoured to-day. In the seldom exceeds that of a basket of fish, about 110 Ib.
latest vessels of the Netherlands fishing fleet the ten- (50 kg.).
dency is to accommodate the whole crew aft, which is Greater weights have to be lifted on luggers, such as
far safer and more convenient. barrels of herring weighing about 265 Ib. (120 kg.), and
A messroom is not yet required but the Service barrels of salt, weighing 330 Ib. (150 kg.). Barrels will
recommends one because it provides day quarters where sometimes stick in the hold and it is difficult to assess
the crew can eat and sit in their spare time. It also means the magnitude of the forces involved in hauling them out.
that the separate night quarters are quieter, more From fig. 436 it is evident that the forces in the horizontal
restful and cleaner. The messroom is usually built on wire between the main and mizzen masts increase as this
the upper deck where it can be kept clean easier. wire is tightened so that it is not desirable to fix the wire
In contrast to commercial ships, where the night on the mizzen with a rigging screw, as is often done. A
tackle with a manilla fall is preferable. The best is to
quarters must have a cubic capacity of not less than
70 cu. ft. (2 cu.m.) per man, and the day quarters not fix the block in the mizzen mast with a closed eye and
less than 76 cu. ft. (2.15 cu. m.) and a combined accom- shackle. When the wire is stretched so tight that it
modation for day and night not less than 124 cu. ft. sags less than 3.3 ft. (1 m.) in hoisting a barrel of herring,
(3.5 cu. m.), the cubic capacity of the combined day and the block in the mizzen must be strong enough for a
[3491
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
working load of 3 tons in the eye. With more sag, a Fishing vessels of more than 400 tons must have two
working load of 1 \ tons in the eye is sufficient. such boats, each capable of taking the whole crew.
In the fish tackle blocks in the main masts of trawlers The launching of life-boats present the least difficulty
and lugger-trawlers forces also act which are difficult to when the ship has two life-boats, because they are usually
calculate and it is assumed that a working load of 6 tons suspended from davits. When only one boat is required,
in the eye is not exceeded. The whole loading and un- it must be so placed that it can be lowered on either side,
loading equipment is surveyed annually by the Service. which means that it will have to be stowed on the centre
line of the ship. In this case davits are of no use and
LIFE-BOATS usually the spankler boom is used for launching, which is.
Fishing vessels of less than 200 gross register tons and no ideal solution for lowering the boat quickly because
with an unlimited Certificate of Seaworthiness must have the mizzen sail must be furled and the boom topped.
at least one life-boat. Such boats need not have air This disadvantage applies mainly when the boat has.
tanks or other means for increasing buoyancy but they been placed on the superstructure. When it is placed
must be large enough to take the whole crew. On ships on the upper deck, behind the superstructure, it may be
exceeding 200 tons, but less than 400 gross register tons, lowered by hand over the bulwarks again not an ideal
one boat is sufficient but it must be provided with means solution. Despite these disadvantages, which are fully
to increase buoyancy by 10 per cent, of its cubic capacity. recognized, a better solution has not so far been found.
Fig. 436. Arrangement oj loading and unloading equipment on Dutch luggers
[350]
PROBLEMS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF FISHING BOATS
by
LEANDRO FERNANDEZ MUNOZ
FREEBOARD
majority of craft in operation today have a which can be used for fishing in specified places. Among
THE very small freeboard, based on the regulations of
the International Load-Line Convention, which is
them is the Spanish Government which regulates the
fishing range according to the gross tonnage of the boats.
now considered to be too small. There is proof of this But this is not enough. Navigation on the fishing
in the great number of fishing boats lost and men washed grounds is different from that in the open sea and the
from the deck during fishing operations. These losses problem does not consist in calculating a boat length
are not all due to foul weather. favourable to develop speed, a study that has already
A merchant ship can, during bad weather, head the been made. The question is: how to build boats to
sea and, by changing the speed, lay-to easily. Work on ensure safety during dangerous work ? Obviously, the
fishing boats often continues through bad weather and circumstances are not the same on all the fishing grounds.
on the fishing grounds, because of the shallow waters, There are places which are fished only during special
the waves lose their rhythm and break in heights dis- seasons and under certain conditions; others, because
proportionate to the wave length. This means that of their proximity to a secure harbour, allow time for
decks are swept by water during normal fishing work. the boats to run to shelter. But in other places the speed
The situation is aggravated by the fact that the hull of of weather changes endangers the boat and the lives of
the majority of the fishing boats, during the return trip, her crew.
are deeply loaded, even overloaded on leaving the fishing It is to be stressed that a number of fishing boats, as
grounds in order to arrive at the home port with boat well as lives, are lost every year, due to lack of know-
loaded to the load line. The fuel consumption in fishing ledge of the conditions under which the boats operate.
vessels is very large in relation to the tonnage of the The nets could be hauled in, of course, and the boats
boat. At the same time, the ice melts and the water is go to port when the weather worsens, but this is not done,
bailed out by bilge pumps. In boats of special design, and even if it were recommended, it would not be done.
such as cod trawlers, where the haul is stowed in Fishermen stay on the grounds as long as they can
salt, the fish loses a considerable amount of water, thus because they are far from port and must get a worth-
decreasing its weight. The skipper always tries to land while catch. So the only thing to be done is to build
the greatest possible load and therefore he will overload fishing boats which assure a maximum amount of
the boat with the estimated consumption of fuel and ice, safety at sea.
when leaving the grounds. There is no doubt that the Once the normal and maximum dimensions of the
form loaded fishing boats is generally bad
stability in waves on every fishing ground are known, a study can
and, even if an excess of stability in the light condition determine the necessary dimensions for the ships, such
compensates somewhat for this defect, sailing with the as the freeboard.
boat fully loaded is always disagreeable and dangerous.
There is a need to investigate this problem thoroughly
and, in any case, the freeboard of fishing boats needs
LIFE BOATS AND RESCUE EQUIPMENT
to be increased. A new table of freeboards, different from Although much has been done, it is necessary to have
the one now in existence for merchant ships, should be compulsory adoption of complete rescue equipment.
drawn up. The majority of the men who are washed overboard
For this purpose it is fundamental to make a detailed cannot be rescued in spite of the available equipment.
study of the waves on fishing grounds. Up to now very Lifeboats are often the first to be lost in a storm, and in
little attention has been given to this important factor the rough sea and in the height of the waves on the
in the design of fishing boats, although some govern- fishing grounds, the boats can seldom be used.
ments have laws on the minimum dimensions of boats Regulations now require only one lifeboat in the
[351]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
small fishing craft, and not only is it often smashed by today because of the bad quality of the wood used after
the sea but is too small to carry all the crew. Life-rafts, the war.
with a greater capacity and buoyancy, should be used and, Some ship owners specify that wood decks should be
instead of one, the minimum carried should be two. thicker than the dimension requested by the regulations,
In addition, every man should carry, during his work, a demand that increases the cost of the work and only
an intense colouring material which, should he fall into postpones the problem.
the sea, would indicate his position clearly. He should A solution suggested is to deck the boats according
also wear a lifebelt which would automatically inflate on to the regulations and then use a second wearing deck
contact with the sea. that could be replaced periodically. This proposal is
based on the results of different satisfactory tests.
ANCHOR GEAR
The Classification Societies require that, in order to USE OF RADAR
anchor a boat, a certain amount of chain, a windlass,
and anchors of specified weight, should be carried. Radar should be compulsory in all the boats fishing on
It is well known in Spain that this equipment is on the International grounds because of the many ships
board only during the time the inspectors of the Classi- that gather there at certain seasons. The high cost of the
fication Society and the marine authorities are on board radar is an objection, but an increase in the number of
to give their approval. The windlass disturbs the freedom ships that use it may reduce its price. Or, as it happened
of movement of the fisherman when using the pareja with the radio-telephone, companies might be formed
nets. The chains, in. general, are not long enough for the to rent the apparatus for a fee so that even small ships
boat to anchor where the fishing is done, so it is secured could afford it.
by attaching the anchor to a trawl warp operated by the
trawl winch, which means that the boat is not safe nor
are the regulations followed. NAVIGATION LIGHTS IN PAREJA TRAWLERS
Nowadays the pareja trawlers do not carry more lights
STANDARDIZATION OF AUXILIARY than other trawlers because they only shoot nets by
EQUIPMENT day, but it can be foreseen that in the very near future
Standardization of the auxiliary equipment (snatch they will begin fishing by night. An additional navigation
blocks, sheaves, etc.) should be started as soon as light should be required to indicate that the net is being
trawled by the two boats so that no ship may pass
possible after a detailed study of the manufacturing
processes and materials. Experience shows that there
between them.
are no identical or similar pieces of equipment, either in
boats of different nationalities or of the same nationality,
nor in boats built by the same builder. If one piece is GALLOWS
broken, itnecessary to make new dies or to modify
is In the majority of the boats, gallows are installed on
others, which adds to labour and increases the price both starboard and port, but rarely, if ever, are both
considerably. sides used. Some ship owners justify the installation
There is no constancy in the hardness of any one of four gallows as a precaution in case of a breakdown
material, the foundries using all kinds of iron and steel. of the fishing gear but it appears to be merely a question
Because of this, at the end of every fishing voyage, it is of routine and tradition. The elimination of two of
usually necessary to refill the deep grooves in the sheaves them would save money and provide more space on
or to replace them, but in other cases, the cables are worn board.
by friction against sheaves which are too hard. Obviously
here is a need to study the hardness of cast material in
connection with the resistance of cables, and to determine CREW ACCOMMODATIONS
the adequate diameters of the sheaf to reduce wear to a
The efficiency of the crew is naturally affected by the
minimum. should be kept in mind that skippers are
It
conditions of life aboard, a truism which, it appears,
against the installation of snatch sheaves of adequate
is not generally accepted, and it is a shame to see the
diameter, as it is easier to manipulate lighter pieces,
conditions under which some crews sail. Great efforts
even if the results are not economical.
have been made improve conditions in Spanish
to
vessels and modern fishing boats have wide, clean and
WOQDEN DECKS well-ventilated crew accommodations.
Wooden decks wear considerably in fishing boats and An effort should be made even in small boats to
soon lose the required thickness, a problem that is acute protect the entire crew during bad weather.
[352]
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE DISCUSSION
TANK TESTS AND RESISTANC E A research
programme combining measurements at sea
and tank in artificial waves would clarify many
testing
Dr. R. Brard (France): There are few differences between questions. It would show to what extent rules could be laid
various tanks "because they are all mainly concerned with the down without being unreasonable and making them impossible
measurement of resistance and prediction of power, but some to apply.
establishments have, in addition, special tanks for channel In a sense, the hull of a fishing vessel is a big-scale model
and shallow water work, manoeuvrability, seaworthiness, and (
i to ,') of a fast passenger ship, but with a greater metacentric
rough water testing. height and aft. What makes fishing boat design
more draught
The possibilities of using a special tank for investigating so difficult that the hulls are not exactly similar to those of
is
manoeuvrability and seaworthiness are particularly important. passenger or sailing ships, or destroyers or tugs, but have
All fishing vessels, especially trawlers, need good manoeuvra- something of each.
bility as they must be able to steer while trawling at one third
or one quarter of their normal speed. And, of course, all Dr. W. A. P. van Lammeren (Netherlands): Every hull design
Hshing vessels must be able to keep a course in rough water. should be tank tested and, as Mr. Traung has stated, it is
Measurements in the usual tank give only the instantaneous important to collect and analyse systematically the data
turning movement due to rudder action, and some informa- supplied by tests at various model basins. They should also
tion on the start of turning following that rudder action. A be compared, if possible, with full-scale tests under trial and
circular tank is needed to watch the whole evolution. It takes service conditions.
more rudder to stop than to start a turn. In a circular tank all
the manoeuvres and behaviour of a ship at sea can be studied. Mr. Francis Minot (U.S.A.): Mr. Traung has performed a
Seaworthiness is not confined to rolling and pitching. Other very valuable service to the fishing industry and fishing boat
factors influencing it are the real freeboard above wave crests, designers and builders in compiling the data found in his
the shipping of water and the increased resistance due to paper.
rough weather. The final aim of seaworthiness is to design a The question next arises as to the application of this infor-
ship to sail and keep its speed and course in average conditions. mation. The two recently designed Boston trawlers men-
The analysed by Mr. Traung show, in some instances,
tests tioned by Mr. Traung provide a good example of what is
differences to 50 per cent, between models, indicating that,
up happening all the time in the fishing industry. Improvements
after centuries of experience, naval architects are not yet in could have been made to them in the design stage. It is true
possession of practical rules for designing fishing boats, and that the /designer has difficult problems to solve and he has
much the same can be said with regard to propellers. got to take into consideration all sorts of requirements but.
Fishing vessels have a high relative speed. The trawlers as Mr. Traung points out, if they can be satisfied and the
mentioned in Mr. Mockers paper operate just under the design of the ship improved, it is certainly common-sense
last hump of the resistance curve, and from that point of view for the owner, builder and designer to consider these things
they belong to the same class as passenger liners. Those with while the ship is in the design stage.
v
of .31 are beyond the hump, while others are still faster
\ gl-
Mr. G. S. Selman (U.K.): Nearly all the fishing boats in the
and are the range that Admiral Taylor considered suitable
in United Kingdom below the length of 80 ft. (25 m.) are built
for cruisers. The resistance rules act for all ships having the without lines plans by craftsmen who have little technical
same Froude's number. That explains why the transom stern, knowledge. They certainly know nothing about tank tests
by increasing the apparent length of the hull, is advantageous. and, in fact, very little interest has been shown in tank tests
The main dimensions which have an influence on the resistance with fishing boats by members of the technical societies in the
g United Kingdom. Mr. Traung's paper records valuable data
are the prismatic coefficient, the ratio, and the angle of
T relative to the resistance of fishing boat forms and it is to be
entrance. A small angle of entrance always means reduced hoped that FAO will find means of bringing this informa-
resistance and for this reason the bulb is often adopted on tion to fishing boat builders all over the world, and to educate
g them into the use of the data. With regard to technical
big ships. The T producing the lowest resistance is always details of presentation of tank tests, it seems unwise to follow
TO
the example of Taylor and Baker and use a universal maximum
greater than 3.0. On fishing boats _ is often smaller than 2.5, ordinate for both area and water-line curves. It is sounder to
so it is clear that B can
be increased without increasing the follow the example of Froude and express both area and
resistance. ratio is without a marked
The length-displacement water-line curves relative to a dimensional maximum ordinant.
influence on the resistance of fishing boats. The reason is that with relatively high speed craft the curvature
[353]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
gradient is important above everything else and means recent experiments carried out by the National Physical
must be found to express true shape as distinct from relative Laboratory, indicate that, with the exception of the 0.62 block
distribution of displacement. form, the other forms in his paper could be filled at least
With regard to the area curve of a boat with a large inclina- 5 per cent, in coefficient without loss of performance.
tion of keel, plotting does not give a true indication of shape.
Instead of this, the figures obtained by dividing each indi- Mr. E. R. Gueroult (France): Mr. Traung has arranged the
vidual sectional area by its depth should be plotted as results of his tank tests of typical fishing boats in a way which
ordinates. allows easy reference and the paper gives an all-round view
impossible for the ordinary naval architect to acquire in the
Dr. J. F. Allan (U.K.): It is unreasonable to expect that the normal course of his work. The U.S.A. tuna clippers, which
design of fishing boats can be standardized in all countries have provoked widespread interest in Europe, are not included
because of the wide variation of local conditions. Co- in the catalogue. The isolated tests on traditional hull forms
operative research on an international scale is not likely to are of great interest, but systematic trials on a series of
lead to useful results. Much more will be learned by con- models which allow for modification and improvement should
sulting papers presented at international conferences and also appear in the catalogue.
studying the methods adopted by other countries. The latest systematic trials are those which Dr. Allan
A
fishing boat must provide a stable fishing platform, near in 1953 presented at the Institute of Marine Engineers. The
the water-level and reasonably dry, even in severe weather results published in this paper seem excellent and difficult
conditions. It is a difficult problem to provide this on a to equal. But could Dr. Allan explain his statement on the
comparatively small vessel and a compromise is required longitudinal distribution of displacement, that is to give the
between the various factors involved. centre of buoyancy more precisely? The impression is that
Fishing boats generally have a maximum speed at or about a great part of the improvement obtained is due to fining the
aft bodies and, despite what Dr. Allan has said, the tendency
the unity V/vL (
-
=0.30) wave hump. Some smaller new is to restore the centre of buoyancy towards the middle.
\ v gL /
Mr. Gueroult agreed with Mr. Traung's conclusions with
boats are pushed towards the final wave hump around the following exceptions: The optimum prismatic coefficient
I.5V/VL (-7-7=0.45). For minimum is from 0.55 to 0.60, but he would warn against a rigid
gL U /
minii resistance in these
adoption of 0.575 which would lead, together with other
conditions the entrance angle must be fine and the forward given factors, towards forced forms and more resistance.
waterlines straight or only slightly rounded, with an easy Excellent results could be obtained with a prismatic greater
curvature to the midship section which is as full as than 0.60 when the centre of buoyancy is correctly placed and
practicable. This leads to an LCB position as far abaft the lines are faired well. Optimum prismatic should be related
amidships as can be allowed by consideration of the internal to the beam-draught ratio. As Sir Amos Ayre recommended,
arrangements and the trimming of the ship in the loaded one should avoid being prismatic conscious despite the
condition. importance of the prismatic. The resistance results in a tank
Mr. Tracing's paper gives a very useful collection of tank of smooth water, though interesting in studying lines, are
data on a wide range of craft of the type under consideration insufficient for the prediction of power and speed. The
and shows in general the trend in form referred to above. The resistances in the tank are generally increased to 25 per cent,
fining of the bow in the interests of maximum top speed or 30 per cent, to take into account the state of the sea, wind
causes some small increase in pitching, but a good compromise resistance, hull fouling, etc. Fig. 418 and 419 in Mr. Mockers
can be achieved by using a fairly straight waterline bow paper give for cruising and for trawling certain values of
combined with good flare in the top body. A good design increased resistance as a function of the state of the sea.
can also be achieved by adopting in the forebody the extreme These are values for which naval architects have been waiting
"
V " type of section favoured in Germany but this will and much is owed to the work of Mr. Traung and Mr.
show some increase in resistance at top speeds compared to Mockel.
fine entrance designs. The catalogues of tank tests should certainly be continued
It is important to keep the after-body lines, especially the and perfected in the form which Mr. Traung has chosen,
buttock lines, easy enough to ensure a good flow to the because the conventional system of reference is of little help.
propeller, and the adoption of the modern type of cruiser However, it is suggested that the non-dimensional comparison
stern helps in this direction. The stern profile must be raked of the models should take into account the important
well aft above the waterline for good seaworthiness in fol- differences of length from 50 to 230 ft. (15 to 70 m.).
lowing sea conditions. The transom stern has been referred In the reply to a question by Mr. Bordoli (Italy), Mr.
to, and if this is given a suitable rake aft it is not greatly Gueroult said they had not made tests on models shorter
different in behaviour from the cruiser stern and may be than 105 ft. (32 m.) before the French trawler building
useful from a constructional point of view. With reference programme started. Since then a number of tests have been
to the question of transom sterns it is interesting to note the made on ships of similar dimensions but differing in proportion
extremely heavily-raked transoms indicated in the Pakistan and fineness.
vessels. The rake appears to be overdone. is being said that still
It water resistance is not an
In the paper by Mr. Simpson it is stated that designs have important factor. He woild like to put the point in a
already been developed for a 140 ft. (42.7 m.) vessel to do different way. Quite a lot is known about still water, which
15 knots. This is just about the worst possible combination of enables architects to devote more time to seaworthiness and
speed and length that one can be faced with. It is known that manoeuvrability. As nearly all the operations in a fishing boat
the power curve in this region will be extremely steep, even are carried out at slow speed or at no speed, it seems desirable
if the vessel should have a reasonably fine coefficient. to carry out future research work in these conditions. There
The results given by Mr. Gueroult, when compared with is a big amount of money involved in the undue wear of the
[354]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
prime movers because of ignorance of the operation con- and they and naval architects of other coun-
excellent lines,
ditions at very low speed, such as trawling, and that should tries areurged to publish tank tests complete with detailed
be made the main object of future research work. information. Tank tests of old boats designed by good
craftsmen are interesting although, in under-developed areas,
Mr. N. Chr. Astrup (Norway): He accepted the general these boats do not have the high displacement of modern
validity of the need for a low prismatic and a sharp bow, but fishing vessels.
for low resistance in still water a knife-sharp bow is not The remarks made in this discussion are mainly valid for
absolutely necessary unless an effort is being made to get an European drifters and small trawlers.
extraordinarily low resistance. He had tested a model,
S.M.T. No. 92, of reasonably low resistance even though its Mr. Jarl Lindblom (Finland): He had been forced to try out
angle of entrance was as high as 30. When the load water Mr. Traung's theory about the influence of the prismatic
lines are drawn with the same width and length it appears coefficient and the increased fullness of the midships section
that this Norwegian model has a fuller waterline forward of vessels with a displacement of 640 tons. The owners kept
than any other vessel of equally low resistance. adding weight to the vessels after the contract stage. The speed
In the values of prismatic coefficient and longitudinal was to be 9 knots minimum and the power of the main
position of the centre of buoyancy, it is possible to depart engines could not be increased because it would have affected
considerably -from the data given in Mr. Traung's paper the radius of action if the fuel capacity was kept the same.
without suffering much of a penalty in increased resistance. There were penalties for excess draught. The problem became
A boat must be able to carry a big load of fish to pay its one of how much displacement could be increased. He saw
cost and provide the fishermen with a living. It is not usually Mr. Traung in 1947 and got information about his tank
possible for a fisherman to get a motor powerful enough to tests, so he increased the midships section. Displacement
double the speed of his boat so that he can do two trips in was increased to 730 tons and when the first ship was put to
the time he previously took for one. But if he buys a boat her trials she had a speed of 9.3 knots with only 320 h.p. on
of greater displacement, suitably powered, he may be able to a waterline of 120 ft. (36.6 m.).
return to port with a load of fish twice as big as he could carry
in his smaller boat. The fuel consumption of the bigger boat Mr. Philip Thiel, Jr. (U.S.A.): The longitudinal prismatic
will not be increased in the same ratio as the displacement of coefficient is the key to easy propulsion of any ship There
the boat has been increased. In fact, with a boat of good is an abundance of trial and test data available to indicate
design the fisherman might find that fuel consumption per the optimum value of this coefficient for each condition. In
ton of displacement is much less, a saving which may help in the majority of fishing vessels the prismatic coefficient is
paying for the new hull. Again, the bigger boat will need too high, although the value depends on speed-bngth ratio.
stronger construction and will cost more money in total, Complications in trim and stability because of the use of a
but it should not be double the price of the boat which has lower prismatic coefficient than usual can be resolved by a
only half the carrying capacity. little study on the drawing board. For example, detailed
From an economic point of view, an approximate measure calculations on nine trawler hull forms, of identical
of the quality of boats is the motor rating per ton of displace- dimensions (350 long tons displacement), 100 ft. (30.5 m.)
ment, necessary to drive a boat of given length overall at waterline length, 24 ft. (7.3 m.) bsam, 10 ft. (3.05 m.) msan
a given speed. For example, when the Pakistan boats are draught and a prismatic coefficient of 0.605) showed that,
compared with a Norwegian drifter the former are worse, for an assumed KG
of 10.5 ft. (3.2 m.), the transverse
compared in this way. GM could be varied from 2.19 to 0.60 ft. (0.665 to 0.183 m.)
A speed-length ratio, containing the length of the waterline and the moment to trim 1 in. varied from 29.1 to 19.95 ft./
of the boat at rest, should not be used in this case as a base. tons (9 m. tons to 6.2 m. tons). The variations are due to
This length is presumably less than the wetted length of the different vertical distributions of the displacement in the
Pakistan Bedi at full speed, because of the sloping stern and sections at the ends.
stem, and is also much shorter than the overall length. Most fishing vessels require buoyant quarters and ample
Mr. Traung states that the displacement-length ratio has deck space aft, and this is an added incentive for the use of
little influence coefficients. The Swedish and
on Admiralty the transom stern with its superior resistance qualities. If
Norwegian with drifter models show that it does not
tests some concern is felt over the use of the motor-boat type of
vary more than about 10 per cent, over a wide range of flat transom, a conical form with an underwater knuckle,
displacement variations. But for boats of very different similar to that used for destroyer hulls, might be considered.
design and for low displacement length-ratio, direct com- With a sufficient rake aft and adequate deadrise in the sections
parison of Admiralty co-efficients will not show whether the of the run, this form would have the seaworthy qualities of a
lines are good or bad. In the case of boats which do not good cruiser stern. Some research and considerable practical
depart too much in displacement-length ratio, in outline and experience are available to point the way to economy of
in type of lines, the method of comparison can show if one construction of steel vessels. Unfortunately, this is a factor of
of the lines is very good or very bad. design where conservatism and prejudice are most deeply
Considering all necessary corrections, there is little dif- embedded. Tank tests have indicated that double-chine
ference in resistance coefficients between the designs of able simplified hull forms can be designed to equal the best con-
naval architects. Better resistance coefficients than those ventional hull form, and to exceed the average in performance.
obtainable for a good multi-purpose boat may be got only by At the same time this hull form is cheaper to construct.
using less displacement-length ratios, less stability and sea- The design problem is little more involved than that of merely
worthiness or less available space forward. These conclusions approximating the sections of a conventional hull form with
are based on a comparison of the results of tank tests in straight lines. Consideration must be given to the trajectories
Japan, Norway, Sweden, Scotland and England. French of flow along the hull, to avoid their crossing the knuckle
and American designers, according to their papers, also make or chine lines. The above-water appearance can usually be
[355]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
Fig. 438
designed to be indistinguishable from a conventional form. Mr. Olin Stephens 11 (U.S.A.): The transom stern undoubtedly
Fig. 438 is an example of the double-chine hull, one of the helps at the high speed-length ratios associated with vessels
350 long tons displacement trawlers with a 300 h.p. engine such as 60 to 65 ft. (18 to 20 m.) trawlers. These vessels are
giving a speed of 10 knots. Fig. 326 gave a suitable scantling from the standpoint of naval architecture and the
fairly fast
section. transom stern is valuable for them, providing the rest of the
ft.
66.7
20.50
10.50
7.85
10.30
Fig. 439 and 440. Original conventional lines above tested in comparison with new design below. According to the latter
over 1,000 boats have been built.
[356]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
design is carried out so that there is not too much change in
the merging of the transom. TABLF LX
Mr. Stephens referred to the tabulation of smaller models
of 10 ft. (3.05 m.) in Mr. Traung's paper and wondered, Data for cutter series
as they had not been tested with turbulence stimulators,
whether the results given were truly reliable, particularly at a Type A B C D
lower speed.
Max. length
Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): A fine prismatic coefficient
overall ft.
m.
39.35 45.9
12.00 14.00
52.5 59.0
18.00
65.6 72.2 78.7
20.00 22.00 24.00
16.00
is essential for high speed of a vessel.
Length b.p. ft. 29.85 37.7 43.6 49.2 55.1 60.3 67.5
Mr. Frederick Parkes (U.K.): The assistance obtained from m. 9.10 11.50 13.30 15.00 16.80 18.40 20.57
the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington is invaluable,
Breadth ft. 11.15 14.1 15.4 16.4 17.4 18.4 20.5
particularly when one is building a new model. Although m. 3.40 4.30 4.70 5.00 5.30 5.60 6.25
the owner or builder may have experience of the type of boat
concerned, small differences in general dimensions can make Depth ft. 4.59 6.88 7.21 7.54 8.2 9.18 9.84
a big difference to seaworthiness, speed and power m. 1.40 2.10 2.20 2.30 2.50 2.80 3.00
required.
The National Physical Laboratory has put forward many
Draft, mean ft. 4.53 4.69 4.86 5.05 5.51 6.1 6.92
suggestions which have improved models materially at little m. 1.38 1.43 1.48 1.54 1.68 1.86 2.11
or no additional expense. He now makes a practice of going
to the Laboratory with any model that varies at all from
B.h.p. 30 50 70 90 110 120 150
boats he had previously built. In addition to tests of hull form
the Laboratory's advice on engine power and propeller design 550 500 425 375 330 310 300
R.p.m.
is also of great assistance.
One of the biggest improvements in post-war trawlers is the
development of a flared bow with a soft-nose, which gives the
crew more protection on the foredeck where most of the work graduation is made for every 6.5 ft. (2 m.) from 39 to 79 ft.
on a trawler is carried out. The design also helps a vessel (12 to 24 m.). The models have been tested in the Vienna
when homeward bound in bad weather. It lessens the danger experimental tank for resistance, propulsion and towing
to other ships should there be a collision. qualities, and have also been tested by measured mile trials.
The type D
comparison was made with the lines of a good
Dr. H. K. Kloess (Germany): The data collected by Mr. Baltic Sea cutter, and type G
with the lines of the best
Traung will be important to naval architects in designing new Finkenwerder cutter. Investigations included rudder, pro-
boats, but as a comparative basis for trawlers of different peller and propulsion bulb. Fig. 439 and 440 show the respec-
form the data does not seem to go far. In judging the influence tive lines and body plans of two of the 72 ft. (22 m.) type of
of ratio of main dimensions, of Froude's numbers and of boat.
displacement-length ratio, trawlers with affiliated lines can The shaft horsepower and Admiralty coefficients of two
be studied in the way shown by Taylor (1933) and Takagi of the 53 16 m.) vessels are plotted on the speed diagram in
ft. (
(1950). The qualities of different hull forms can only be fig. 441. The table shows the respective dimensions. The
determined by carrying out comparative tank tests with Maierform trawler reached a speed of 9 knots with 33 per
models of equal size and main dimensions. cent, less power than the best of Finkenwerder cutters. The
The Taylor displacement-length ratio reaches values up to 79 (24 m.) type indicated 41.4 per cent, saving in power or
ft.
250 (L/v J 4.9) only but for trawlers this ratio is about .82 of a knot increase in speed when using the same power.
500 (L/y J = 3.9). The work of Takagi may be considered Power curves, pull and r.p.m. of the 53 ft. (16 m.) type are
as a continuation of Taylor's standard series and it would shown in fig. 442. They are the result of investigating different
have been enlightening to have carried out the comparison propellers.
of fishing craft data collected by Mr. Traung on the Taylor The 39, 53 and 72 ft. (12, 16 and 22 m.) types have been
or Takagi basis. tested in the experimental tank and the values for other
The data collected do not make it possible to separate the types were determined from these tests. More than 1,000
influence of the shape of lines from the influence of the ratios vessels have been built on the basis of these standard models.
mentioned. A hull form should not be designed or altered During World War II many 72 ft. (22 m.) cutters were used
on the basis of measuring resistance only. It is common as patrol boats.
knowledge that vessels with fine ends show low resistance These cutters were designed in 1940 and much experience
but sometimes very poor hull efficiency, and vessels of low has since been gained in them, but there does not seem to be
resistance may also lack stability. Seaworthiness is not much scope for improving their hull form. better thrust A
directly dependent on resistance in calm conditions. Stability and pull has been obtained by use of the propulsion bulb,
and seaworthiness are of the utmost importance to trawlers which has been improved through experience. It was found
at all times. When trawling, the resistance in calm conditions that the efficiency of the bulb is increased with higher turbu-
has very little influence on speed because the pull far exceeds lence, which makes it suitable for use in trawlers and other
the resistance. fishing vessels (see fig. 443). The bulb improves weight
The answer
to Mr. Traung's question as to whether boat distribution, corrects the vortex aft of the boss and eliminates
" from the propeller. This improves
model types should be developed in series is Yes ". Similar the turbulence of water
work was carried out in Germany about 1940. Table LX propulsive efficiency and diminishes disturbing forces of the
gives the main dimensions (approved by the German Lloyd rudder. In making these improvements the performance of
Classification Society) of German cutters built in series. The vessels before and after fitting the bulb was compared (set-
[357]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
fig.444). At a speed of 9.1 knots there is a saving of about
20 per cent, in fuel or an increase of .5 of a knot in speed. Ft M.
Although the bulb device has been known for some years LCNOTHLWL 50.4 .30
a good deal of time was required to test it out on full-size CAM 17.4 5.0
U3PLACHT, 34.2 f
ships. The low Reynolds number obtained in the experi-
mental tanks does not allow accurate tank testing of the bulb.
Mr. Arthur de Fever (U.S. A.) Tuna clippers have been given a
:
fine hullshape to increase their speed. So far as hull design
is concerned, the vessels can be divided into two categories:
(1) those fishing the local banks; (2) those doing long-range
fishing.
MOOCL AlIftFOAM
LIMCTH O.A. M.t FT MJ0M. 914 FT. ir.t M.
LIMTM LWL 4tJ W.tl 0.4 IMS-
MAM 17.4
'
17.4 I* '
DRAFT 4.5" I/M
PlfFLACEMINT ISO FT* 11.4 M4
FOWf* tO NF
HfVt. B7S RFM
Fig. 442. 52.5 ft. (16 m.) trawler. Tow rope pull and free
running power with various screws.
Mr. Howard I. Chapelle (U.S.A.): There has been a tendency
to increase speed in fishing boats merely for the sake of it.
Some craft on the U.S.A. east coast, such as the Chesapeake
Bay launches, are capable of surprisingly high speed, and in
some cases that speed does pay for itself. On the other hand,
many boats are carrying a great deal too much power and can
develop a much higher speed than they can use economically
in their work.
When fishing craft develop high speed the cost of repairs
and maintenance are also high and, of course, crews have to
be better trained to operate high-powered engines than they
Fig. 441. 52.5 ft. (16 m.) Maierform trawler compared with
trawler of conventional lines. Results based on tests at the model do when low-powered engines are used.
tank, Vienna.
There is no great point in fining the hull of clippers fishing
the local banks as there is little to be gained by an increase
of speed, 9i to 10 knots being sufficient for them. The
longer, finer hull need only be designed for the long-range
clippers.
Mr. J. G. de Wit (Netherlands) : It seems from Mr. Chapelle's
paper that U.S.A. east coast fishermen desire a high speed. Is
there any reason for their wanting this? There seems to be a
lot of waste in such high speeds.
Ballast in the form of sandbags is carried on deck level in the
Bedi boats according to the paper on West Pakistan fishing Fig. 443. The anti-turbulence effect of the Costa bulb is shown in
craft. What is the aim of this? Although resistance seems to these four drawings. At left are two views of a conventional rudder
and propeller assembly with its vortex of turbulent water marked by
be fairly low, is it something to do with stability and sea-
heavy lines. At right, efficiency is Increased as the bulb eliminates
kindliness? the vortex and guides the water aft without disturbance.
[558]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
Experience shows that on the U.S.A. east coast a speed of Mr. G. O. Huet (U.S.A.): The average fisherman anywhere,
9 to 10 knots is ample for most purposes, although some who is brought up in the tradition of his father and grand-
small trawlers find it useful to make 10i knots. There are father, develops a very thorough knowledge of his craft
some lobster boats in New England that can do 20 knots whether or not he has had much formal education. It is
an hour but, of course, they do not pick up lobster pots at important to realise that these fishermen are very ingenious
that speed. In fact, the speed is used on one day a year in the way in which they have overcome obstacles in the
for racing. design and working of their boats. It is true that the naval
and technical man, with his knowledge of materials
architect
Mr. Jan-Olof Traung (FAO): Regarding the question about and design, and his experience of hull forms, has now reached
the ballast on Pakistan boats, it is understood that the sand- a point where he has so much scientific information available
bags are used on the windward side when tacking. Sandbags that he should be able to find the proper hull form for any
may also give the craft an easier motion in a rough sea. particular load condition and other circumstances. But this
knowledge is not used as it should be. For instance, in the
New Orleans area, the average boat owner will build a boat
to have a speed of 8 or 9 knots an hour. Later, he finds that
another owner has built a boat to do 12 knots an hour. That
TRRWLER .VfiLGR' boat may have an engine twice as powerful but the owner of
the slower boat does not consider anything but his wish to
Measured Trial Results
increase the speed of his boat to 12 knots an hour, so he
installsa more powerful engine. He does not understand that
the hull form of his boat could be modified in such a way
0?"**24S M Trip* expanse*
Jtorom* 2i' *' 6/12.. N, 2+SJHP that he could get the increased speed without any increase in
nfiraff 9' /*' 2,0 n 1S6 Ufmtn
power.
Bo+rprta ffSlbtfspjn 15,1
Kgfc He once built 100 boats for a foreign Government, the
original plans were for 50 ft. (15 m.) boats. One of the
draughtsmen put on the drawing a speed of 9 knots instead of
9 miles an hour so that when the representative of the
Government discussed the boats he insisted on 9 knots. It
was impossible to drive that particular hull model at 9 knots
with the power that was to be installed in it but, by lengthening
the boat from 50 to 65 ft. (15 to 20 m.) it was possible to give
additional cargo space and, with the same power, increase
the speed to 10 knots. Incidentally, the cost of putting the
extra 15 ft. (4.6 m.) on to the boat was small in relation to the
advantages gained. So a larger vessel carrying a bigger
payload and having more speed from the same power was
built. This is a good instance of what a naval architect can
do if he is acquainted with all the facts and has the
co-operation of the owner and builder.
Mr. W. C. Gould (U.S.A.) : There is a tendency to think much
about the cost of fishing vessels and little about the direct
first
operating expenses. Building the hull does not always repre-
sent a major portion of the cost and there are instances
where the hull can be lengthened to accommodate a bigger
fish load and produce more economic advantages throughout
the life of the boat. It seems invariable that the owner of each
new boat claims to be able to carry another 10,000 or 1 5,000 Ib.
(4.5 to 6.8 ton) of fish and that creates problems of seaworthi-
ness as well as cost. Yet an analysis of the average fish load
carried by a boat over a year shows that it rarely takes up
more than 50 to 60 per cent, of the vessel's capacity. If it were
possible to design a boat to take the average fish load, a much
Experience in making full-scale trials with a number offish- better hull form would result. For example, by lengthening
ing boats shows that invariably the skipper over-estimates the the hull slightly, it would probably be possible to arrange
speed his boat is doing. At the measured mile tests, the enough hatches in the deck to allow the equipment below
boat seldom makes the speed the skipper thought. Even decks to be easily and economically removed. If engines can
10} knots by a 65 ft. (20 m.) boat having a 200 h.p. engine be removed easily from the boat, the labour cost of over-
would be remarkably good if it was true. hauling can be cut by 50 per cent, and a much better job can
Regarding a question by Mr. de Fever of the best angle of be done. This is a point which naval architects should bear
entrance, one could get reasonably good resistance with a in mind in designing fishing boats. In addition, if a slightly
half angle of entrance of about 20. It might be possible to longer hull is used, it should be possible to get far better speed
get better results at 15 in a low Taylor length displacement from an engine of less power, and that in itself would be an
number, but about 20 is satisfactory. economy in operating.
[359]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
Mr. Howard I. Chapelle (U.S.A.) It is very easy to suggest
:
England trawler which appears in data sheets. The first
changes design but even in lengthening a boat there may be
in edition of theFAO Fishing Boat Catalogue will be issued in
difficulties. For example, in Canada there are certain laws 1955. It will be prepared in loose-leaf form and it will be
which provide a bonus for vessels built under a certain length, easy to add sheets following later. FAO would appreciate it
so that fishermen want their boats built within that length. if naval architects, ship yards, ship experimental tanks etc.
That is a definite limitation and boats must be designed to it. would contribute and submit tank results of fishing boats or
ft would be simple enough, of course, to lengthen such a related ship forms which could be worked up in data sheets
boat by 10 ft. (3.05 m.) and she would be a much better craft, There are a number of such tests which have not been pub-
but in that case the fisherman would not get his bonus and. lished and which would be of considerable interest to othet
consequently, he would not have the boat built. The naval workers.
architect must operate under such restrictions and do his The question of the round versus V-bottom design is not u
best within the limits imposed on him. simple one but if a round-bottom design is changed to a V-
bottom, and the same centre of buoyancy, entrance angle and
Mr. Robert F. Allan (Canada): It is regrettable that the coefficients are retained, then the ship should have about
" "
and fantail or
cruiser stern seine boat stern designs 5 per cent, more resistance. But the data available are not
according to fig. 278 in Mr. Hanson's combination boat conclusive. What usually happens, when a V-bottom design
paper are not compared on a basis of similar overall length. is tested, that the coefficients are improved so that the hull
is
" "
Itseems that the cruiser stern model B is actually a much shows better results.
finer vessel as indicated by an overall length of 95 ft. (29 m.) The paper shows that the V-bottom shrimp trawlers tested
and midship draught of 7.75 ft. (2.36 m.) as compared with are better than the New England trawlers. The tests have all
the fantail stern model which has an overall length of 89 ft. been made in the same tank and with the same length of the
(27 m.) and a draught of 8.70 ft. (2.65 m.). But there is no models so that they are directly comparable. The same
indication of any improvement coming from the adoption of diagrams also show that the Newfoundland schooner design
the cruiser stern alone, nor is it clear that resistance would be is better than the V-bottom design.
reduced in the load condition. Regarding Mr. Gueroult's advice of not to think too much
about prismatic coefficients, this may be true so far as it
Mr. Jan-Olof Traung (FAO): Speaking of his paper on tank concerns naval architects who know all about it, but there are
tests,Mr. Traung said that it was not so much about tests many who do not realize what it is. For that reason, this
and resistance as an outline to a catalogue of tank tests. So coefficient must be emphasized. It is true that the value of
many tank tests on fishing boats are available to-day that it .575 is not the right coefficient for every occasion but it is
was felt they should be compiled in a form which could be useful as a guide for a normal boat with normal proportions
used with advantage by all connected with the boat-building if the design is to yield maximum speed combined with
industry. From the data sheets published in the paper it is maximum seaworthiness.
already possible to draw some practical conclusions. For As an example of how dangerous it is to take too easy a
example, the Boston trawler (model No. 2), which was view on the prismatic coefficient, Mr. Traung referred to
World War II, can be improved by 54 per
built just after Mr. Gueroult's own fig. 215 indicating the economic speed of
cent. It be said that such improvements in design
may trawlers. The coefficient k given might well be correct for
would be at the expense of fish load capacity, but the com- certain trawlers with a certain prismatic coefficient but it is
parisons have been done as objectively as possible, using inevitable that trawlers with a bigger coefficient will have a
exactly the same length, the same displacement, the same lower economic speed. Mr. Gueroult's formula says the
freeboard, and the same gross tonnage. Having done so. the contrary and designers should be very careful not to use his
fish-hold capacity should be the same. diagram for other boats than those having the same prismatic
Resistance tests have taken place in tanks in various parts as the French standard trawlers.
of the world but there are very few naval architects who have While accepting the general validity of the need for a low
been able to collect them all, yet it is of great importance to prismatic coefficient and a moderate angle of entrance, Mr
have available all data concerning resistance before tackling Astrup says that it is possible to depart considerably from the
problems of propulsion and seaworthiness. Mr. Gueroult has optimum data given. This is in direct contradiction to the
asked if there will be reports on tuna clippers and other impressions one gains when reading Mr. Astrup's own report
Pacific fishing boats in the tank-test catalogue when it is com- (1951) on the Norwegian tank tests and it would have been
pleted. The answer is yes. Mr. Hanson has already given interesting to see proofs for this statement. If Mr. Astrup
two tests in his combination boat paper and has supplied his meant that one carefully designed boat with a prismatic
test data so that they can be worked up in sheets. The results of .600 can be as good as a badly designed one with .575,
given in Mr. Hanson's paper does not only show the influence Mr. Traung was in full agreement but why should not the
of a cruiser stern. The new type tested with a cruiser stern at careful designer take advantage of the possibilities to design
Ann Arbour was also longer and had a much finer entrance. a boat with lowest possible resistance? It seems sometimes
FAO will publish other tests of tuna clippers. For instance, to be forgotten that the largest influence of the prismatic
Mr. Nickum has provided a series of four models in which he coefficient actually is not at the top speeds of fishing boats,
tested bulbous bows against V-bows and cruiser sterns against but at the service speeds under actual working conditions and
fantail sterns. Results of the tests of some Colombian boats, they are often 2 to 3 knots lower.
built in Sweden with transom sterns, will also be included and Mr. Astrup's economic considerations are quite right for
FAO will publish data sheets on tests being made by General many types of fisheries and especially those in Norway.
Motors Corporation on V-bottom shrimp trawlers and on Conditions in the Far East are, however, not the same. There
New England trawlers of double-chine design. The New a large crew is used to living on open decks as they cannot
England trawlers have been tested at Ann Arbour, Michigan, stand the heat in cramped quarters. The Pakistan boats are
and have better C-values than the round-bottom 1952 New sailing boats and a good length is essential to get a kw
[360]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
Froude's number. Mr. Astrup is right in saying that the Dr. Kloess gives curves of effective (tow-rope) horsepower
Pakistan boats have a considerably different length-displace- of some Maierform designs. If the 53 ft. (16 m.) trawler is
ment ratio from normal fishing boats. Comparisons made compared non-dimensionally with model 206 E on fig. 395
between Pakistan and European boats on the basis of residual one will find that it has considerably higher resistance. The
resistance per tons displacement shows a greater difference in same is true of the larger trawlers shown in fig. 445 if com-
favour of the Pakistan boats than the given comparison in pared with fig. 417.
fig. 61. Dr. Kloess* reports of tests with propulsion bulbs are
Mr. Traung did not agree with Mr. Astrup's remarks striking. The question is, however, whether those tests have
that less stability and seaworthiness should be the penalty been done under absolutely equal conditions. Rumours are
for low resistance. The boats Mr. Astrup had developed widespread that both weather and roughness of the ship's
for the Norwegian Board of Fisheries, which show consider- bottom have been different during some of the tests, other-
ably (ess resistance than the earlier boats, do not (so far as wise it would be hard to explain the extraordinarily large
Mr. Traung understood) have less stability. The previous differences.
statement by Mr. Thiel clearly shows how the GM can be Answering Mr. Stephens, Mr Traung said laminar flovt
varied for lines with the same coefficients and approximately normally present at lower speeds, high block coefficients,
is
the same resistance. It is really up to the designer to ensure and at large angles of entrance. The published tests were
the necessary amount of stability and the skilled one can done at relatively high speeds and the results show that a
easily change his lines so that he can combine low resistance sharper angle of entrance gives less resistance. Although with
with sufficient stability. It is true, as Mr. Astrup states, that laminar flow there should be less resistance with boats with a
tank tests of fishing boats with low resistance are beginning larger angle of entrance, results of tests indicate the contrary,
to be published in different countries. It should however be and that is an indication of absence of laminar flow. And the
remembered that boats being built to-day seldom are of that tank mentioned in their reports that they had checked this
good design proposed in those tests. Very few boats have as problem.
an example been built after the fairly good lines represented Mr. Zwolsman explained in his paper that when the fisher-
by the models No. 206C and E in Mr. Traung's paper. Mr. men are asked which they prefer, a good sea boat or a fast
Astrup's statement easily gives the reader to think that every- boat, they choose the former. Everyone would probably
thing is all very good, but it is really not and operators of choose likewise if the answer to the question was simply
fishing boats in different places of the world should be aware either/or. Probably Mr. Zwolsman believes that a fine fore-
of the fact that considerable improvements are possible. body will produce a bad sea boat and when he advises fisher-
Answering Dr. Kloess* question as to why the tests were men so, they will naturally believe him, as a technician. But
not compared with Taylor and Takagi, Mr. Traung said that tests carried out in waves by men like Todd and Allan show
faylor's standard series, as Dr. Kloess admitted, did not the contrary, and all boats with fine forebodies, in Mr,
cover the length-displacement ratios of fishing boats. In Traung's experience, were excellent sea boats. Again and
Takagi's series, unfortunately, the basic model had a counter- again it must be stressed that a tank-test in itself does not
stern and the series therefore give a resistance which is higher mean that the hull is good. Normally the tanks simply test
than that obtainable with a transom or a cruiser stern. ,When a model according to the drawing submitted and give the
all data sheets have been worked out it might be possible to results in hard figures. They do not improve it, neither do
find some representative tests to use as a kind of eye-mark. they pass judgment, but still too many people believe that
Mr. Traung agreed with Dr. Kloess that the data published because a special design has been tank-tested it is guaranteed
in his paper were not sufficient. More sheets will be published. that the form is good.
On the other hand, it was difficult to understand how one In redesigning a boat the usual arrangements must be
could design some kind of Taylor series to cover all the considered. For instance, if the fish are stowed in the bow of
different types of fishing boats. When publishing results of the boat and the catch is big, as in the case of Scottish ring
tank tests, Doubting Thomases, without knowledge of the netters, then it is not possible to fine down the bow. In that
"
tank-test technique, always asked : What about the behaviour kind of craft it is necessary to have a slower hull because of
in bad weather, and what about the stability?** Jt is sur- the working conditions. If it is not possible to alter the
prising to learn that Dr. Kloess, with his large experience of general arrangements of such a boat and if somebody fines
tank-testing, is not better informed on recent papers which down the forebody, the result will be a bad boat as it will trim
definitely show that boats which were superior during calm- too much by the head loaded. That is not the fault of tank-
water tests were mostly superior in heavy weather too, and testing, but the wrong application of its lessons.
that boats having better resistance qualities often had better
efficiency of propulsion. It is exactly this situation which is
shown in Dr. Kloess's fig. 455, which demonstrates a model Dr. R. Brard (France): V-bottom design can be used in
with 20 per cent, improvement during calm-water tests. fishing boats because the beam-draft ratio is small as a fishing
This improvement was considerably greater according to boat must be very manoeuvrable and sea-kindly. There is
Dr. Kloess, when the full size ship sailed in bad weather. also the fact that a certain volume has to be carried fore and
Dr. Kloess states that the German Classification Society aft to ensure enough buoyancy to avoid the boat plunging
has approved the main dimensions of his trawlers. It was into a wave or being flooded by it and, finally, the fining of the
news to Mr. Traung that it was difficult to get approval of run is evidently important because of the flow of water to
dimensions by any classification society. If the statement the propeller. Like 'all other boats, the fishing boat is a
should mean that the Classification Society also had approved compromise because of the different and contradictory
the hull shape of the fishing boats, it was no proof of the boats conditions it must satisfy. It has a higher resistance than
being good. Classification societies never interested themselves other boats of the same coefficient and it must be designed so
in hull shapes, otherwise there would not be such a number of that the propeller has sufficient water to work it.
uneconomical boats sailing around. In fig. 441 and 445 Much work has been done in testing fishing boat models
[361]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
and comparing results with trials at sea and it seems that all committee of designers, skippers and teachers of navigation
the problems concerned with the boats can be studied through to reach agreement on the formulae to be used, the admissible
such tests. Even so, there is some doubt as to the validity rolling periods and, particularly, to provide information that
of the conclusions reached in tank-testing, and for this will enable fishermen to judge stability.
reason it seems that boat owners wish to compare such data Small boats should have a greater amount of stability. It is
with the result of actual trials at sea. a known fact that the chief dangers are ice, flooding, and
Fishing boats can be regarded, with few exceptions, in the wind pressure. In each case the small boat is in greater danger
same way as bigger ships are regarded so far as tank-testing than the big boat, so it is necessary to give smaller vessels
is concerned. But it is easier in the case of fishing boats to more stability. For instance, German fish cutters and luggers
carry the tests from the tank to the actual boat at sea. The have greater than large trawlers.
stability
aim of a tank-test is not to study the model but to study the Professor Jaeger demands in his paper higher stability for
real ship or the real boat, and it is right that the tests should the steam trawler because it has a greater change of load.
be extended to trials at sea. But the fact must be. considered that motor trawlers have
usually greater power and more open deck so that seas
breaking over them have a greater influence on stability. If
STABILITY the static stability curve was used instead of only to GM
judge stability, it should not be necessary to make a difference
Professor G. Schnadel (Germany): Under the new rules for between steam and motor trawlers.
the safety of fishing vessels in the Netherlands, stability Mr. Gueroult suggests using permanent ballast in fishing
curves must be calculated for ships of more than 200 tons vessels to minimize the big righting moment caused by the
register. Quite rightly, Mr. de Wit criticizes the failure to breadth of the ship. Many experienced fishermen prefer this
specify a minimum amount of stability. For 20 years curves and it is certainly a useful proposal for ships in which stability
of stability of fishing vessels have been collected in Germany is not sufficient.
and it has been found that statical curves give sufficient
information. When the arm is 8 in. (20 cm.) at the maximum, caoMCUtves OF
T. HANSOM 100*1 IT TftAWLEftS
srAM.trr.Aics ASSUMED e oorr AMOVE BASE LINE
the critical angle should be at least 30. Dynamical lever
does not seem to be so important. Being the integral curve
of the statical stability curve, it is only a summary of the
static stability. The metacentric
height for special ships is
found when the statical curve is determined. The freeboard
determines the statical stability and it is possible to have
ships with good seakindliness with a small GM
if the free-
board is sufficient and very bad stability with a good GM if
the freeboard too low.
is
The difficulty is that freeboard regulations are not applied
to fishing vessels. Nevertheless, the Netherlands shipping
authorities forbid overloading which often endangers fishing
vessels. This can be seen when ships load up for long voyages
not anticipated when they were designed. This is quite a
common danger as there is no agreement on a freeboard
regulation for fishing boats. The skipper may over-estimate
stability if he relies on Unpleasant and quick
his instinct.
motions are thought to indicate good stability. In some cases,
445
the GM may be very great but the arms of stability insufficient.
.
The skipper should have better information for judging
stability. Mr. Mockel determines GM
by the rolling period. Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): Curves of statical stability for
Skippers should be told the admissible rolling period for every his 100 ft. combination boat are shown in fig. 445
(30.5 m.)
freeboard and every important loading condition. Such and 446. They were calculated by conventional methods
rolling period must be determined for each individual case. and the results are probably optimistic, but the fact that the
Insufficient seakindliness may be the consequence of an ships have operated safely in a wide range of waters indicates
insufficient freeboard requiring high GM. Ships must that the curves are satisfactory. Nevertheless, it is folly to
primarily be safe from capsizing; making them seakindly is a rely too much on statical stability curves as criteria for
secondary consideration. calculating the range of seaworthiness of tuna vessels,
Most losses of trawlers are caused by lowering the free- especially the raised deck clippers. There are four erroneous
board. German boats originally designed for fishing near the assumptions based on statical stability curves: (1) initial
coast have had to go far to the north and have been overloaded. trim in some fishing conditions can be much more severe
The skippers were satisfied by habit with the stability of the than in conditions for cruising trim for which the calculation
boats but when they met the big seas in the north the boats is likely to be made; (2) increased trim aft while heeling is
capsized and were lost. Mockel found that the radius of usually substantial and cannot be taken into account by the
gyration of the trawlers was in the neighbourhood of 0.4 usual method of calculation; (3) free surface effect is generally
and gives the radius of 0.385 to 0.40. An American tuna ignored; (4) the combined effect of these factors may be so
-clipper expert, Dickie, has given 0.36 to 0.39. This is a very great as to make the curves unreliable at large angles of heel.
small difference considering that the types are wholly different. This stresses the fact that theoretical calculations are not
The president of the Schiffbau Tedmische Gesellschaft sufficient. The naval architect must have an inherent sense
{German Institution of Naval Architects) has formed a of stability and sound construction in designing a ship.
[3621
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
The arms of stability of the U.S.A. Pacific Coast combina- is shown in fig. 447D. The area O ABC shows
overall stability
tion fishing vessels aremuch higher than normally reached in what has been lost in the stability curve because of the move-
European vessels which, because of their high freeboard, can ment of men and equipment to one side of the vessel, and the
have less arms. area ABD shows what remains of the curve. By evaluating
the properties of the residual portion of the curve the stability
Mr. James C. Aguinaldo (U.S.A.): From the standpoint of of the vessel in any circumstances she may encounter in
safety there are limitless advantages to be derived from statical service may be exactly determined.
stability curves. They provide data which lead to an extensive It is seen that statical stability curves directly contribute
evaluation of overall stability when considering service heel to the final estimate of service stability. They serve as a
and trim of a vessel. basis and/or criterion for judging the overall range and sea-
For a vessel floating upright (fig. 447 A) the centre of worthless of any vessel regardless of type or service. The
buoyancy B and the centre of gravity G are on the centreline. curves, naturally, have their limitations, but they should "be
As weights are moved across the vessel (giving the effect of established before any further study of stability is made. It is
the crew crowding to one side as in fishing heel or trim) the the duty of naval architects to instruct engineers and ship-
centre of gravity shifts along a line parallel to the direction owners in the judicious use of the curves.
INCLMING EXPERIMENT MV ALASKA
CURVES OF STATICAL STABILITY
vtssct CONSOCRCO **re*-noMT TO MAIN otCK.RAiso etc* ANOTQT or BAIT c*t
STABILITY DATA FOR VARIOUS CONDITIONS
"CONDITIONS" ; n -A '
v vi
DISPLACEMENT S1 1.0*
.S7 4.0O
METAC 1.09 1.22
"T 36 0.02 0.96
H
1 1
iMTINC ANH AT 3O* " 0.2 3,29
ANGtE AT WHICH MAXMUM ftlCHTiNG A CUftSl 3JT|
34" 3*
RANGE Of STABILITY
10- ao* so' 45* 8736! 60*
O 0* 40*
Fig. 446
ANGLE OF HEEL
D
of the weights. G moves to a new position from G to G,,
Fif. 447
where
w, the sigma of weights moved
Mr. L. . Geary (U.S.A.): Mr. Hanson states that curves or
GG, the shift of weight moved
righting arms (fig. 446) made in the conventional manner
distance of weight moved
should not be heavily relied upon to represent all conditions
total displacement
of loading that may occur. The conventional method to-day
After the weights have been moved athwartships has G is to make the cross curves (fig. 445) from a double body
moved to t
G
and the vessel heels over, changing the geometric rotated about an assumed centre of gravity at various dis-
shape of the underwater hull. This means that the position of placements and heeling angles, and then to correct the righting
the centre of buoyancy must shift until B coincides with G arms for fig. 446 when the true centres of gravity for various
to restore equilibrium (447B). At
where buoyancy
this point, conditions have been computed.
and weight are in the same straight line, a permanent angle In the United States Navy the practice is to incline vessels
of list is developed as long as the crew remain on one side of in light condition. The vessels usually have double bottoms
the vessel. and have to carry a very heavy weight of armaments on the
If then the fishermen cast their nets the centre of gravity upper decks. Some of the early aircraft carriers had negative
will move further out from the centreline and a change takes metacentric height in light condition and had to carry liquid
place in the righting arm in all angles of heel (fig. 447C). in double bottom tanks before they could be brought to
" "
At such an angle the remaining or residual arm, tending Condition I for inclining. From this test it is usually easy to
to restore the vessel to even keel, is G,Z S If G remained at . calculate the centre of gravity of Condition II, which is
the centreline, the righting arm would be GZ, which is almost always the worst condition from the standpoint of
GG
cos 6. The latter is the loss of initial stability and range of stability. From the known centre
larger than G^, by l
"
" of gravity other conditions can be calculated and the curves
righting arm, commonly known as upsetting arm, of the
boat. The effects of the horizontal shifting in the centre of of righting arms for various conditions of load can be made.
gravity may be determined by plotting the value of upsetting The raised deck tuna clipper is in her worst condition when
arms at various angles of heel on the same diagram as the ready for her first catch. She has a full load of bait water in all
statical stability curves are plotted, and the effect on the available compartments, nearly a full load of fuel and stores,
[363]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
and almost no freeboard. When inclined close to this con- increasingly vulnerable to flooding through this door as the
dition the centre of gravity is accurately determined and from heel exceeds 20, but they rarely capsize because the rush of
the cross curves the true stability curve may be calculated. water across the engine-room tends to bring them back on
Other less dangerous conditions may also be calculated even keel before they founder.
although not so accurately. Conditions II, IV and VII give figures respectively for light,
A Navy ship is usually considered lost when damage homeward bound with full load of dry fish, and " worst
causes unsymmetrical flooding or some other mishap over- condition ", that is with a full bait load and ready to make the
comes her dynamic stability to about 50. Because little first catch.
attention is paid to making her watertight at the deck levels, Fig. 449: The Santa Margarita is one of the older live bait
a tuna clipper is usually lost if she takes a sustained list of and ice boats. She was modernized in 1945 and now has
e
40 To be sure of the direction of the curve of righting arms
. brine freezing equipment, and bait and fuel wells below deck.
smaller angles at which her dynamic stability may have been She is a borderline vessel, having maximum righting arms
overcome momentarily by the sea, it is desirable to make up to 20 but declining rapidly after that figure. With a full
cross curves to righting arm at any angle is the
60. The bait load she has only 30 range, and the instructions to the
measure of the ability of a vessel to recover after heeling. master require her to be operated with 2 wells dry at Condi-
The naval architect, shipowner or skipper with years of tion V. This is 31 tons lighter than at Condition VII and
experience can be misled by the looks, feel or rolling period of increases her maximum arm by more than 40 per cent, and
a vessel, or even by the GM
determined by tests. gives an extra 15 range. By taking 31 tons of bottom weight
INCLINING EXPERIMENT MV VIKING
CURVES OF STATICAL STABILITY
HATER-TIGHT TO MAIN DEC
STABILITY DATA FOR"
VARIOUS CONDITIONS
CONDITIONS Tn in- A ;
iv I
DISPL ACKMFNT TONS 733 6 416.921 470,62
I
2,39] 2/49
MCTACCNTRIC HEIGHT JGM| 1,16 0.79 0.76
I
1.34 0,5
MAXIMUM RIGHTING ARM 0,41 O.26
ANGLE AT WHICH MAX RfGHTMO ARM OCCURS 43' ,
RANGE Of STAB ILITY r]
m75l
20* 3D"
Fig. 448 FiK .
A vessel's stability is determined by the righting moment off, her metacentric height has decreased from 2.65 to 2.52 ft.
and They are calculated by using an inte-
righting arms. (0.81 to 0.77 m.).
grator over a double body plan and not by using metacentric Fig. 450: The Rajo is another of the older tuna clippers.
height, breadth of vessel, rolling period, freeboard and similar One day when she was loaded with bait and ready to go
factors taken together to provide an empirical formula. It fishing she was ordered to return to port to load with fuel.
has been said that stability curves are helpful but too expensive, She went into San Diego fuel dock, removed the bait from the
but hydrostatic curves must be made in any case. Anyone starboard well and started to pump the well dry to take on
who can use the integrator can make the necessary inte- board diesel oil. She took a list against the dock and was
grations up to 60 and compute and plot the GZ arms of the flooded through the port side door and sank. She was later
cross curves. Even a novice, with some assistance, can do raised and repaired and put to an inclining test, the results
this in 3 days or 24 working hours. The expense involved of which are shown in fig. 451. As she had maximum arms
in this calculation is relatively small, especially in relation to before 20 the largest of three bait boxes on deck was sealed
the cost of a tuna clipper which may vary from $350,000 to up so that it could not be flooded. After a year's fishing it was
3500,000 (125,000 to 180,000). decided that all three bait boxes were needed, so they were
The story of some tuna clippers is told by the following reduced 11 in. (280 mm.) in height and the vessel was re-
examples: Fig. 458: From the standpoint of initial stability inclined. It should be noted that this improved considerably
and range Viking is a better-than-average post-war tuna her stability (fig. 451) and she had no further stability trouble
clipper. As she has righting arms of more than 30, she can but was subsequently lost by fire.
make a quick recovery from a wide heeling angle. These and Fig. 452: The Santa Barbara is one of the well-known
succeeding curves show a typical dip to the righting arms at Courageous class tuna clippers of which five were built in
about 20 heel in full load condition. At this angle the low 1945-46. The first plans for the class revealed a low stability
freeboard of the main deck is under water. The water would and efforts were made to bring down the centre of gravity
also flow over the 18 in. (460 mm.) coaming of the door to by eliminating a heavy foremast, steel fiddley casing, and
the upper engine-room. Vessels of this design become other devices, and by using lighter stacks. The curves.
[364]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
of the righting arms show an increasing righting moment pumps were pumping water through the wells and boxes for
between 30 and 60 for the load condition. But she might thawing the frozen tuna prior to unloading, when somebody
be in danger between 10 and 25 if the wells and boxes were thought of saving time by putting oil into the empty tanks
to be flooded simultaneously and unsy metrically and she had before reducing any top weight. The free surface created as
too little righting arm up to the time her raised deck and the oil was pumped in caused her to list to port against the
dock. She flooded through an open door and sank in 27 ft.
INCLINING EXPERIMENT, M V. RAJO 3-0 4B
CURVES OF STATICAL STABILITY (8.2 m.) of water. She lost her $100,000 catch but was raised
VIMCL CONSIDERED WKTER-VIGHT TO MAIN DECK.FOC'S'L DECK AND TOP OP BAIT and repaired at a cost of more than $100,000 and is now
STABILITY DATA FOR VARIOUS CONDITIONS
operating again.
Despite the disastrous losses sustained by the tuna fleet,
DISPLACE HENT TONS 27160:50134 5O1 71 1 47770 the question of the stability of the ships is not the big problem.
333 371 2C 2 33
METACENTRlC HEIGHT CM 102, 0*3. 0l| 71 The usual tuna clipper has sufficient stability for safe opera-
1 221 047 O 30] 41
MAXIMUM RIGHTING ARM M 037 O14 I 00* O 12 tion if she is handled properly. The chief trouble is that the
ANGLE AT WHICH MAX RIGHTING ARM OCCURS clippers are under no supervision or restriction from the
35*
t N G E OP STABILITY .
7O*
Marine Inspection Services and this fact is chiefly responsible
"
10" 20* 30' 45* 0O*
for the enormous losses arising from fires and strandings. It
is up to the owners to take the necessary action to prevent
such losses.
INCLINING EXPERIMENT. MV SANTA BARBARA
CURVES OF STATICAL STABILITY
VESSEL COMWOEKEO WATER-TOUT TO MAIN DECK RAISED DICK Al
STABILITY DATA FOR VARIOUS CONDITIONS
DISPLACEMENT TON 66000 73660 79500
1 351 2 O1 2J03
METACENTRlC HEIGHT GM M 041 061 Oft?
rr 046 037
RIGHTING ARM AT 3O* M O23|
2 007 014 011
Fig. 450 ANGLE AT WHICH MAX RIGHTING ARM OCCURS 30*
1 so* 60 vr*
RANGE OF STAR I LI TV d jf avm ftp*
bait boxes lay in the water. This has happened to two of this
class of vessel, which has induced the fishermen to be careful
in handling them. The result is that the five boats have
operated successfully despite their poor reputation for
safety, and several of them have weathered tropical hurricanes
off Central America. The main vessel of the class. Courageous
INCLINING EXPERIMENT. MV RAJO 14 3 40
CURVES OF STATICAL STABILITY
VESSEl CONSIDERED WATER-TIGHT TO MAIN DECK, FOC *L DECK AND TO*- OF BAIT BCXtS
STABILITY DATA FOR VARIOUS CONDITIONS
DISPLACEMENT TONS 23709,484 34 4roo 45156 Fi>. 452
'T 297 90 73?>
. 2 61
METACENTRlC HEIGHT GM M 09, 06 M 0,0
'T 1 05 ?4 U4i') I OS*
MAXIMUM RIGHTING ARM M 037 0,13 1
0.17 The points raised by Mr. Hanson about stability curves
ANGLE AT WHICH MAX RIGHTING ARM OCCURS 3& . * ,?
'
20* are answered concisely by Charles L. Wright, Jr., naval
RANGE OF Bureau of Ships, in a paper entitled " Stability
ST. A.B.I L-J.T.Y CVJR 60*0 /t* trf* o>**ecr ifr/iEfto*
architect, U.S.
.
10* 20* 30* 40' eor
of Ships after Extensive Flooding ", read at the U.S. Naval
Institute in 1948:
"
Accordingly trim was considered to be a factor that could
be neglected in all studies. This course of action was con-
sistent with practically all studies ever made of stability
before damage as few cross curves of stability had been based
on trimmed waterlines. It is becoming quite generally agreed
that righting arm values are essential in presenting a complete
indication of the stability characteristics of a vessel. Factors
such as change of trim (when heeled) must be neglxted in
studies of stability if the calculations are not to become too
Fig. 451 involved to be practicable. It has become evident that GM
alone is not sufficient, that empirical and approximate methods
is said to have been the first post-war clipper to
pay for her- are not dependable, and that righting arms determined by
self 100 per cent, and that was some years ago. Curve V on direct calculation are the only satisfactory indication of
fig. 452 was plotted to determine if the Courageous class stability characteristics before or after extensive flooding;
vessel would be safe without permanent ballast or seawater made in accordance with the methods described they are
in the deck bait tanks when the fuel is burned out. The curve direct and not too involved to be practical ".
shows that she is. A steel tuna clipper will spill her first cupful at 27 to 30 heel
But in 1953 the Courageous was at the pier in San Diego and a wooden one at 35. Most of the losses from instability
with a load of tuna valued at $100,000 (35,700). The bait occur to boats that take an initial list of 10 and at about
[365]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
15" admit water to the low side double bottoms of fuel which is not taken in consideration in the curves of righting
tanks long before spillage occurs. It would probably be all arms.
right if a listed boat would spill water sooner and relieve Mr. Nickum said that some years ago he took a typical
herself of load, but these accidents can happen to boats tuna clipper and -went through a laborious calculation to
having no free water to spill. determine what the effect of trim would be on the righting
arm figures. He took 5 and 10 angles of inclination and by
trial and error methods determined the actual trim at each
Mr. Gordon C. Snyder (U.S.A.): It is recognized that statical
and then rechecked the righting arm at the correct trim. The
curves are the standard means of determining the probable
vessel had a righting arm of about 2 ft. (0.61 m.) before trim.
behaviour of a vessel at large angles of heel. In a practical
After trim the righting arm was reduced to 1 ft. 6 in. (0.46 m.),
sense, it is the best means available. However, it is also a 25 per cent, reduction due to trim alone. Such a percentage
recognized that the method involves assumptions and approxi- of error in small angles of inclination is enough to make a
mations which are unavoidable but which must be evaluated
designer hesitate in stating that a vessel is safe when his
for their unfavourable effects. Mr. Hanson is trying to
decision is based solely on the curve of righting arms.
emphasize that the effect of these assumptions is enlarged in a The most serious problem of the clipper is overloading.
typical clipper, hence there is an increase of error in calcula- Mr. Geary mentions two vessels which had been inclined
tions applied to the clipper, as compared with the accuracy
and in which the stability had been analysed, using the righting
obtained in applying them to more conventional vessels.
lever methods. Both these vessels sank. There is no doubt
It is customary in preparing statical curves to assume trim
that the righting curves prepared were correct for the draft
does not change when heeling. A glance at pictures of tuna for which they were drawn but there is also no doubt that
clippers will show that these raised forecastle ships are very the vessels were loaded beyond that draft and because of that
bulky forward in watertight enclosure but have only the bait the deck edges were brought closer to, or under, the water.
boxes above the main deck aft. It is obvious that with severe
The residual stability was not adequate to withstand the poor
heeling the stern will trim down rapidly, which is in contrast
operating judgment shown by the fishermen.
with the action of more conventional vessels which carry
Two steps should be taken by naval architects to increase
superstructure in a more central position. their knoweldge of stability. The first is to set up a standard
The tuna clipper is essentially a tanker, with a large pro-
of maximum operating conditions. There is general agree-
portion of the tanks having insecure covers or none at all ment that this is the first catch condition or the condition
for most of the time when they are full of bait water. It is
when the vessel reaches the fishing banks with a full load of
usually impracticable to calculate the very serious effect of ba t and with the first catch on deck and with the Irhe wells
:
spillage of bait wateron the action of the vessel but it can
filled with chilled water. Universal acceptance of this con-
obviously be great enough to affect seriously the accuracy of dition plus careful work on the part of the man in charge of
the statical curves.
stability investigation to ensure that the draft and freeboard
Advantage can be taken of the large pumping plant on these under this condition are known, will go a long way towards
vessels to incline in loaded conditions which closely approxi-
eliminating the capsizing and foundering of tuna vessels.
mate service load conditions. It is entirely practical to incline
The second step seems to be a matter of making multiple
six or eight times a day, in six or eight progressively loaded
experiments to determine a constant factor for correction of
conditions, from nearly light to near capacity; by gradually
curves of righting arms to allow for trim and for spillage of
filling the wells with water. One set up of inclining weights
water from the bait tanks. Such model work would enable
and pendulums serves the whole operation. This procedure
the designer to put his faith in the curves of righting arms and
saves a great deal of calculation, eliminates a multitude of
to make intelligent decisions based on the data supplied.
minor corrections, and gives a high degree of accuracy as far
In these days of rapid advances in technology it h apt to
as initial metacentric height is concerned. It has the additional
be overlooked that good ship design still remains in large
advantage of letting the crew actually see the water over the
part an art. The designer still needs an experienced eye and
deck of a top-heavy boat. This generally makes a beneficial
the gift of using calculations with judgment, nowhere more
impression and encourages caution in handling. so than in the field of small fishing boat construction. A
Regardless of whether the results of inclining are used to be adequate
stress calculation showing a particular fitting to
produce statical curves or are interpreted by any other in strength is of, no help to a fishermanthat fitting tears
if
means, the use of multiple inclining experiments should be loose at sea. iftr.Hanson's long record in design of successful
encouraged.
fishing vessels speaks for his ability to decide where science
leaves off and experience and judgment begin.
Mr. George C. Nkkum (U.S.A.): There has been considerable
discussion between those who are proponents of the use of the Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): The comments on the use of the
curve of the righting arm as the proper method of determining righting arm curves were intended to create discussion about
the stability of tuna vessels and those who feel that the curve is the very important subject of stability, especially stability of
not the whole answer. tuna clippers because so many of these very expensive vessels
Even though accurately drawn, the curve of righting arms have been lost in the past few years. Most of these losses are
cannot be used as the sole guide in the investigation of the not the fault of the naval architect, but much of the responsi-
stability of tuna clippers. Mr. Snyder has mentioned that, bility is being put on him. That is why it is desirable to
in a vessel with so little freeboard at the stern, small angles of create constructive discussion.
inclination immerse the deck edges which, in turn, changes the There should be no unstable vessels to-day because to
trim condition, thus seriously affecting the accuracy of the obtain a stable vessel is as simple as adding two and two.
righting arm calculations. Mr. Geary also mentions the Leaders in the fishing industry, such as naval architects,
problem of spilling water from the hatches of the bait tanks builders, owners and, probably most important of all, under-
as having considerable effect on the stability of the vessel, writers need only to collaborate and most of the losses would
[3661
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
disappear in a very short time. If the industry cannot col- does not come up to Rahola's standard of dynamical stability.
laborate and reach agreement on the voluntary basis, the The Netherlands authorities have studied the subject of
inevitable consequence will be Government regulations, the stability standards and have chosen Rahola's standard
inspection, and more laws. as the best one for the time being as it is mainly based on
An example of a loss in the U.S. tuna fleet is that of an smaller ships, fishing vessels included.
owner of a new 80 ft. (24.4 m.) craft who requested stability
approval. A survey of the craft disclosed it was very unstable,
Mr. S. A. Hodges (U.K.): Statistics show that British trawlers
and the owner was instructed to remove a large part of the
have been lost mainly by stranding and other navigational
bait tank on deck, place freeing ports in the aft bulwarks, and
risks, and few have been lost solely because of insufficient
take on board 6 tons of permanent ballast. He and the
stability and freeboard.
underwriters were told that if this was not done he would lose
his boat. He refused to do the work, and within a week the
Adequate stability in any ship is of the highest importance,
and changes in the design of trawlers may call for a very
vessel was lost along with a member of the crew. In this case
careful analysis of stability. For example, a comparison
the underwriters were entirely to blame for not enforcing the
between diesel and coal burning steamer trawlers shows that
advice as they were fully informed in writing of the facts, and
a diesel trawler may still have a large amount of fuel at the
they had to pay about $100,000 (36,000). This is a com-
fishing grounds and when a large catch is taken on board
paratively small sum in relation to that involved in the loss
there may be little freeboard left and the curve of statical
of some 75 vessels in a three-year period. In some cases
stability may be very poor.
underwriters have had to pay as much as $600,000 (215,000).
A Recently a small vessel carrying herrings in bulk took a
combination fishing vessel correctly designed would
serious list in bad weather because the cargo shifted. This
need no ballast, but to ensure stability under the worst
case illustrates how changes in the design of fishing vessels
possible conditions and taking into account the human
and in the method of stowing fish may have an adverse effect
element, fixed ballast should be placed in sufficient quantities
on stability.
to offset the turntable and weights of the nets. Each owner
Owners of United Kingdom fishing vessels, under recent
has to adapt himself to his own vessel, and where one person
regulations issued by the Ministry of Transport, are not
is satisfied with a vessel, another may require more or fewer
" required to have stability information placed on board for
weights. This may be called tuning the vessel and owner
the use of the skippers, but builders of fishing vessels should
to each other ". It is particularly necessary where a boat goes
to sea for extended periods.
investigate both GM and curves of statical stability under
different conditions of loading. Corrections will have to be
It is important that the inexperienced designer understands
made, of course, for the liquids in the ships. If this is done, it
what is being brought out here, because great numbers of
should be possible to indicate to skippers the conditions of
these vessels were built and many of them capsized and were
loading which they should avoid. Elaborate stability infor-
lost with members of their crews.
mation is not necessary but simple instructions should be
The suggestion that multiple inclinations should be made,
prepared for every vessel and given to the skipper concerned.
merits consideration. Possibly, they should be carried to the
next capsizing point. One must bear in mind that all stability
tests are made in placid waters, turbulence not being con- Mr. . R. Gueroult (France): It has been said that a fishing
sidered in such tests, yet at the capsizing point in the open sea boat can be very rapidly overloaded when fishing, and if she
this is a very important factor. is caught in bad weather and water floods the deck, the
situation can quickly become serious. The safety rests on the
water-tight superstructures, and this is normally not suf-
Professor H. . Jaeger (Netherlands): For big ships, Mr. ficiently taken into account in connection with the safety of
Nick urn's method of determining GM
would give values the boat. For example, in the flooding incident described
that would be too great. Professor Jaeger perferred his own by Mr. Mockel in his paper, if there had been an open fore-
looser methods. Mr. de Wit seems to uphold Rahola's castle on the trawler concerned it would not have been
conclusions without critical observation. Fishing vessels possible to congratulate Mr. Mockel on a very fine paper.
work in special conditions and it is not possible to come up When the ship has a full deck-load of water, the first thing is
always to the Rahola standard. to get rid of it, and the scuppers, which are normally fitted
on French trawlers (complying with the merchant practice)
are not big enough. In any case, on fishing boats they are
Mr. G. de Wit (Netherlands): The freeboard of fishing-
J. usually obstructed by a board or something else. The classi-
vessels presents a difficult problem. As Mr.
Fernandez has fication societies should provide rules for the minimum area
stated in his paper, and Professor Schnadel
has confirmed, of scuppers.
there should be freeboard regulations for fishing vessels. Safety does not allow any compromise and it is from this
Much progress would be made if the subject was studied point of view that stability must be examined. For many
thoroughly and Governments were advised by FAO Fisheries experts GMis not a sufficient criterion even if agreement
Division of the conclusions reached. Although the stability
"
has been reached on a GM of 2 ft. (0.6 m.). The value of
" A
data for motor trawler A in fig. 432 meet Rahola's stan- 2.76 (0.84 m.) given by Mr. Mockel for ship
ft. is necessary
dard fairly well, this trawler, with empty double bottom, shows for a steamship to ensure a sufficient GM
on the return trip.
a lack of stability, according to Rahola. The trawler foun- Big steam trawlers catching cod have an even bigger GM
dered in the North Sea, during a gale, while sailing with an when leaving port and on return have less than 1.64 ft.
empty double bottom. The crew was lost and so it is very (0.50 m.) but they have a freeboard which ensures safety.
difficult to determine the cause of this disaster with certainty. French experience confirms the values given by Mr. Mockel
All indications, however, point to capsizing. This case confirms concerning steam trawlers of 124 ft. (38 m.) length. The
that a fishing vessel must also be judged as dangerous if it rolling period on the return trip with half a load is double
[367]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
the rolling period on departure, and there is a similar varia- check by means of the rolling period, which is subject to
tion between the calculated stability on departure and return. variations up to 30 per cent.
An increasing righting arm up to about 30 inclination A standard of minimum righting arm established in relation
seems to be essential for safety, and a of about 2 GM ft. to the definite angle of heel does have some value for making
(0.6 m.) is needed for stable working conditions on deck. a quick check of the righting arm but such a rigid standard
As Professor Jaeger has said, the GM
varies appreciably should not be established because the preparation of the
during a voyage by a motor trawler. Small boats must have statical stability curve and the analysis of it is the last and
a considerable GMand big boats a low GM
to behave well in highest step in estimating stability. As such it should b? the
a seaway. As this stability cannot be acquired by heavy subject of the naval architect's analytical judgment. He
ballast and small beam in smaller boats there will be excessive should be allowed to take every factor into consideration -
beam or rolling angle and that will make working conditions and there may be many factors after he has analysed stability
on deck impossible. This is confirmed by the data on the from the righting arm which would allow him to accept
type C of the German trawlers described by Mr. Mockel. standards lower than those RahoJa and others have set forth.
As sea-kindliness is a function of hull shape and distribution Factors such as Mr. Gueroult has stated, that the righting
of weights, Mr. Mockel's paper could have been greatly arms are increasing again when the \syperstructures dip into
improved by showing the lines and the exact situation of the the water, are normally not considered in connection with
centre of gravity, vertically and longitudinally. He has righting arm curves and still they have saved many ships.
mentioned a margin of 8 in. (.2 m.) in his paper for the posi- He was primarily interested in the GM by making multiple
tion of the CG. This assumes the fishing gear is in its normal inclining experiments in the different loading conditions.
place and not piled up on oil barrels. Ropes and other heavy This was easily made for tuna clippers which essentially are
weights are usually stowed as high as possible on the super- tankers.
structure and because of this it is advisable to use light alloys A
thorough investigation of a new type of vessel should
for the superstructure. include calculations of dynamic stability. Normally, it should
In the different cases of stability reviewed, cargo is taken as not be necessary to prepare a curve of righting arms. The
homogeneous, but this is not always the case in fish-holds. fishermen cannot afford to pay for a naval architect who has
Herring and far lines, for example, can be compared with a the equipment and experience necessary for the calculations.
liquid cargo if the hold is not sufficiently sub-divided. There If a fisherman is pressed, he will probably resist to a point of
is insufficient sub-division in the holds of French trawlers. having no stability check at all. Therefore the routine check
In this respect Spanish trawlers are much better. should be done quickly and inexpensively on the average
He would like to ask Mr. Llanos whether his calculations fishing boat. The detailed technical analysis of stability
have allowed for the floodable length to be adjusted so as to should be restricted in special or marginal cases where the
keep the ship floating with one compartment flooded. In standards cannot be met. For example, if every 50 ft. ( 1 5.3 m. )
dealing with stern seas in bad weather it is necessary to rely Gulf shrimp trawler was to be subjected to an inclining
on careful navigation more than on naval architecture test and the preparation of a curve for righting arms and a
because sufficient protection cannot be given either by sheer curve of static stability, the cost would make the operation
or by superstructure aft. There are cases of ships of 92 and impractical.
157 ft. (28 and 48 m.) which have reached port in a heavily
damaged condition after riding out a storm. They have Mr. James F. Petrich (U.S.A.): Mr. Nickum has the right ideas
owed their survival only to the engine stopping by accident.
about stability, especially in relation to the tuna clipper,
where there should be a check at different loadings of the
Professor J. M. Gonzalez-Llanos (Spain): In answering Mr. vessel. This brings home to the skipper more than anything
Gueroult, Professor Gonzalez- Llanos emphasized that the else certainly more than a series of calculations how safe
fish-holds of Spanish long distance fishing vessels were his vessel is. The skipper is usually at the check tests because
divided principally to take better care of the catch. Security they are conducted shortly before the vessel is delivered.
against flooding was only a secondary consideration. When she is loaded down to different displacements by filling
her tanks with water and she is inclined, he can see exactly
how she appears and behaves. Such multiple stability tests
Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): obvious, after reading
It is
add weight to the recommendations of the naval architect.
other papers, that the criterion for the ratio of to beam inGM
his paper is too high for European trawlers. Existing successful
boats do not reach this standard and, from comments made, Commander L. . Penso (U.S.A.): Mr. de Wit was anxious
it seems that vessels designed with such a high ratio would be that the Congress should establish some stability criterion.
too stiff to be sea-kindly. Boats on the west coast of the There is one which is used by the U.S. Coast Guard for
U.S.A. can be stiffer than those on the east coast or elsewhere, passenger vessels. It is called the wind-heel criterion
probably because the Pacific waves are longer and not as steep (A x GM x tan O A x h x wpc).
-= In this criterion, GM times
f^ \A
the displacement times the tangent of the angle of heel is
or as quick. The main reason for using a D ratio of over .10
D equal to the heeling moment which in turn, equals the
was primarily to give an adequate margin of safety, but he projected area the wind can blow on, times an arm, times a
\A
/"**
wind pressure coefficient. The arm is from the centre of gravity
would be willing to accept a ratio of .06 and probably .05
fi of the area above the waterline to the mid-draught, which is
"
him. For years .05 has been used as a
in vessels familiar to called h ". The criterion established in merchant vessels
rule of thumb formula for determining the adequate stability is that the heel shall not exceed 14 or half the freeboard,
of transport or passenger vessels when dynamic stability is whichever is less. The theory is that the dynamic effects will
not investigated. But to accept such a value, an inclining roll theship to a value just about double that under steady
experiment to determine GM
is essential rather than a simple wind-heel conditions. It provides a very convenient way of
[368]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
analysing the various loading conditions. The standard SEA-KINDLINESS
may be too high for fishing vessels but it does provide a
guide. Professor G. SchnadeJ (Germany): Investigations into sea-
sickness show that acceleration is the dominant cause. In a
liner it is found that the passengers in the bow of the ship are
Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.) He had investigated wind
: heel
the first affected by seasickness, then those in the stern and
by formula in working out the standard proposed in his
this
finally those in the first-class midships. In 90 per cent of the
paper. The values by the wind heel formulae were about half
cases acceleration, and in 10 per cent, rolling, is the cause,
of what would be considered a minimum for fishing boats.
but the crew and passengers always believe that it is rolling
This is primarily due to relatively low freeboard in relation
that makes them sick, which shows that feeling in the matter
to the length. A specific case was a wooden ATR of 165 ft.
is not to be trusted. It is time that masters of ships were given
(50.3 m.) length, converted for processing and brine freezing
some physical means of judging stability. As the difference
in Alaska. The wind heel requirement on the vessel, speaking
in rolling and in acceleration may be
very great in different
from memory, was in the neighbourhood of a GM
of 0.6 ft.
ships, the master cannot judge by
" "
the stability of
feeling
(0.183 m.). The minimum stability of the vessel occurred
the ship.
when she was anchored and was about to take fish aboard.
She had a large freezing tank on her upper deck. A heavy gust
of wind could come up and her 1J ft. (0.38 m.) was GM Dr. J. F. Allan (U.K.): The GM is one of the major factors
necessary and in excess of wind heel requirements. Out in the concerned in rolling and certain minimum
values of are GM
sea a 1 ft. (0.3 m.) GM
would have been much too small to considered necessary for safety reasons. The GM
is the lever
take the action of the sea. by which the sea rolls the ship, and the shorter this lever is,
the better the ship from a comfort point of view. It is true
that the linear acceleration in heave and pitch at many points
Mr. Francis Minot (U.S.A.): Does the GM
required by the on the ship is much greater than the acceleration in roll,
wind heel formula take account of any damage requirements?
but also true that the rolling of the ship makes moving
it is
about the deck much more difficult and inconvenient than
Commander L. . Penso (U.S.A.) No. A series of six or seven
: does pitching and heaving, ft is not possible to control the
curves for different conditions is used in the case of passenger general shape of the ship from the point of view of increasing
vessels. There is a passenger heel requirement which usually its resistance to rolling but it is important to provide adequate
does not affect the normal transatlantic liner but can affect deadwood forward and aft and adequate bilge keels, all of
an excursion vessel with 2,000 to 4,000 people on board. which contribute powerfully to roll damping.
it is assumed in that case that all the people on one side of the In the paper by Dr. van Lammeren there is an interesting
vessel, in conjunction with the distance of their centre of statement of the variety of tests which can be carried out in a
gravity of the load is, perhaps, from the centre line, results ship testing tank, and it is well known that similar facilities
in an upsetting moment. A curve is produced which looks have been available at the National Physical Laboratory,
similar to the wind heel curve. Then, of course, there are Teddington, England, for many years. It is important to
damage stability curves which are all plotted and have turn attention to rough water tests and to the study of steering
different slopes. Finally there is a series of loading lines and and course stability. There are limitations to what can be
any theoretically dangerous loading condition is shown clearly. done in this direction in the tank, but at Teddington methods
The deep tanl s or bottom tanks are then ballasted to bring have been developed to study both these aspects of the design
stability above the theoretical danger line. of ships.
Damage stability could be considered in fishing boats. If It has proved difficult to obtain satisfactory records of the
it necessary to operate at a very low freeboard, made lower
is performance of fishing vessels, either in calm water or in service
at times by working conditions, then it is necessary to con- conditions, and the paper by Mockel, which gives his observa-
sider that a hold may become half-full of water due to a sea tions on trips to the Arctic, is very valuable from this point
coming on board. This is a condition for which damage of view. To
obtain information of this sort is is important
stability calculations can provide data, but it is doubtful if a to find the correct personnel who can continue to function
fishing vessel owner would pay for the information as the satisfactorily and make their observations under the difficult
calculations take a Long time and are costly. conditions on board a trawler at sea.
Mr. Arthur de Fever (U.S.A.): Waterlogging increases weight Prof. H. E. Jaeger (Netherlands): Mr. Mockel deals with
of the wooden hulls and decreases the freeboard of tuna behaviour of trawlers in a rough sea and he is right about the
clippers. It can decrease the freeboard up to 3 or 4 in. question of freeboard in this matter. Professor Jaeger
(75 to 100 mm.) which means that the main decks are under expressed the hope that Mr. Mockel would accept the
water in heavy seas, and that affects the stability. minimum freeboards he had given in his paper, which are
Fantails have been the most practical stern design for higher than those prescribed by the International Load-Line
clippers. Vessels with cruiser-type sterns generally have less Committee.
stability. Mockers value of metacentric height of 2.8 ft. (0.85 m.) is
Atuna boat often changes her trim and/or conditions of very high, certainly for motorships. Even if the rolling
load at sea because of fishing conditions, and the skipper acceleration is limited, which means a diminution of the
should be instructed about the stability so that he is fully metacentric height, it is to be hoped there will be agreement
aware of the dangers involved. Many vessels have got into that in each case the maximum metacentric height should be
difficulty and some have been lost because the skipper was not reconsidered. He believed that if Mr. Mockel did the same
sufficiently versed about stability and more particularly of his work for motorships the conclusions would be much the same
own vessel. as his own.
[369]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
Captain W. Mitekel (Germany) There is an impression that a
: from a ship in dire peril. She had sailed from a Russian
mctacentric height of 2.8 ft. (0.85 m.) is proposed for coal- port with a cargo of timber, some of it on deck. In the gale
burning trawlers. This is not so. It is merely a record of the the cargo shifted and the ship turned turtle.
fact that in all the trawlers investigated mctaccntric height The Boston Fury was designed for a speed of 13 knots,
was 2.8 ft. (0.85 m.) and that experienced skippers con- but in such a gale as was blowing the skipper would have been
sidered it
good. He agreed with Professor Jaeger and prudent to proceed at 5 or 6 knots. But he took a chance. He
pointed out that 2 ft. (0.6 rh.) would be sufficient for a motor headed at 12 knots into the gale. Happily, she came through
trawler. But for coal-burners the GM is 1 .5 to 1 .65 ft. (0.45 to and he was able to save 27 of the crew of 29, picking them
0.50 m.) when they arrive in port. up from the sea where they were clinging to the timber floating
around. In many cases men jumped overboard without a
Commander C. Harcourt-Smith (U.K.): Tank-testing is lifebelt, despite the skipper's orders, to rescue the shipwrecked
undoubtedly an essential operation to determine the required crew. As a result, six of the crew, including the skipper,
power. Although the seaman is, to a certain extent, interested received Lloyd's Silver Medal, which is only given in cases
in the economy and lines angle, his primary consideration is where a man risks his own life to save others. Later the
seaworthiness and buoyancy. Any reasonably designed skipper was awarded the M.B.E.
vessel will ride out a head sea if she is kept steaming gently The fact that the Boston Fury had been designed so care-
into it, or even hove to, but this is only a small factor and fully after tank testing at Teddington and was able to go
covers a course of approximately 45 either side of the through that gale at 12 knots, speaks well for the data which
direction of the wind and sea. It is essential that a ship should was used in designing her. It also shows, of course, the
be able to continue steaming without excessive roll if the wind enormous value of seamanship. In the case of the Boston
is on the beam, and more particularly when the wind and sea Hornet the ship was lost by an inexperienced skipper, but
come astern. In tank testing little or no attention is paid to in the case of the Boston Fury the skilful seamanship of the
this condition. skipper enabled him to take chances and make the fullest
He referred to a ship he had commanded which had gone use of his ship.
through exhaustive tank tests, but when she got into a Mr. Simpson has talked about a trawler doing 15 knots.
following or quartering sea she became completely un- It may be possible to get 15 knots, but at a most uneconomic-
manageable. In fact, she was dangerous even at very reduced cost. In his experience trawlers are not long enough to attain
speeds, and if she had been allowed to yaw she would have such a speed. A
tank test would probably enlighten Mr.
ended up by broaching to. Simpson on this point.
This factor of seaworthiness, which is so often ignored in
tank testing, hot only concerns the crew of the ship but also Mr. J. G. de Wit (Netherlands): Mr. Frederick Parkes has
the owner, because when she is hove to or must have her speed said that tank testing pays dividends, so would it not pay to
so reduced that she is literally hove to by the stern, she is extend research more in the direction of sea-kindliness?
costing time and money. Sea-kindliness is of great importance for all types of fishing
vessels. For small ships in coastal waters it is more important
Mr. Frederick Parkes (U.K.): He expressed himself as being than speed. For long distance trawlers it is equally important
100 per cent, for tank testing, and there was no point in as speed, because wild movements of a ship may make fishing
blaming tank testing if things go wrong when' the ship is at impossible in bad weather. The question arises as to whether
sea. For example, he had a vessel called the Boston Hornet the basins are able to conduct the model research in the
which he transferred to some Newfoundland friends. The direction of sea-kindliness and behaviour of the ships at sea.
skipper put in command was not used to a vessel of such size
but he had a tremendous success on his first voyage and Mr. Frederick Parkes (U.K.): A sensible suggestion has been
would have done an equally quick trip on the second voyage made of having practical tests on sea-going vessels, similar to
if things had not gone wrong. He made a very large haul those made by Mr. Mockcl on German trawlers; to compare
of but instead of dividing it into two, three or four bags
fish,
data with tank testing results. As an owner of distant, middle
and bringing it inboard a bag at a time as a practical fisher- and near water ships, he would be very happy for any or-
man used to that size of vessel would do he had tried to ganization to send scientists to sea in his ships to check on the
bring the whole catch inboard at once. He rigged up his results of tank tests.
fish tackles at the top of the mast and left all the hatches OTCI,
and any landlubber would know what would happen from Commander E. C. Goldsworthy (U.K.): Mr. Parkes' offer to
doing such a stupid thing. As he brought the heavy weight place his fleet at the disposal of scientists to carry out tests
of fish inboard, the ship, of course, turned on her side and the on seaworthiness and scakindlincss is of the greatest import-
water began to flood into the fishroom through the open ance, provided the scientists who are sent to sea are capable
hatches. Had the hatches been covered the situation would of standing up to conditions in a trawler and to determine
not have been so serious, but he should never have had the what their instruments are measuring and what they feel.
fish tackle on the upper part of his mast. Even so, had he The men to undertake this work should have had considerable
cut away the net most likely he would have saved the ship. experience at sea and knowledge of testing technique.
However, the water ran in and a brand-new ship was lost He had taken two of the Boston Hornet class of trawlers
although, happily, another ship was close by and all the men from England to Newfoundland. When one of them was
were rescued. Nobody could blame the results of the tank within four hours of St. Johns, Newfoundland, a very heavy
tests for the sinking of the ship. It was sheer bad seamanship. gale blew up. The ship was almost exhausted of fuel and
Another example is again of a brand-new ship, the Boston water and had only about 20 tons of stores and spares in the
fish room, but the vessel rode out the fierce gale satisfactorily
Fury (commanded by Skipper John Hobbs) a 185 ft. (56.5 m.)
vessel fishing up in the Arctic Circle. A gale blew up and the and, according to the master, he had never been in such a
skipper had to stop fishing. Then, suddently, came an S.O.S. good ship.
[370]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
Dr. W. A. P. van Lammeren (Netherlands): Sea-kindliness is in length, particularly if they have to carry large quantities
part of the correlation between tank tests and actual ship tests. of fish, such as herring in bulk.
He agreed with Dr. Allan that the major pan of research in Experience had led his firm to adopt a basic hull type which
the future should be into sea-kindliness. At the Netherlands differs considerably from that in which reduction of resistance
Ship Model Basin they intended to make a big steering pond is sought as the first requirement. The type has a fairly full
in which to guide complex waves as well as winds in various bow, moderate midsection, and a well drawn out midship
directions so that sea-kindliness can be studied on a model section with the prismatic coefficient varying from .63 to
scale. .65. The fullness of the bow varies, being more emphasized
He had given a paper before the Institution of Naval in the smaller vessels. The half angle of entrance ranges from
Architects in which he dealt with this particular problem and about 28 in a 50 ft. (15.2 m.) vessel to 23 in a 60 ft. (18.3 m.)
mentioned that fundamental research has been divided into vessel.
two pans at the Netherlands Ship Model Basin. The first Over the past few years the bow has been made sharper
part deals with the problem of improvement of hull and below the L.W.L., while giving a correspondingly greater
propellers. That is the oldest part of research and it does not flare and reserve buoyancy above water. This alteration
present a problem any more as every model basin can now has been made chiefly to give easier motion in a short head
design a hull and a propeller near to the optimum. sea.
The second part of the research deals with the correlation Irish harbours and sea conditions make it essential that
problem which can be divided into three sections: (1) the the fishing vessel should steer with certainty before a heavy
scale effect; (2) the allowance for roughness; (3) sea-kindliness following sea in shoaling water, so that a stern has been
of the ship. adopted in which the L.W.L. is fairly sharp. There is no
Several speakers have pointed to the necessity of carrying pronounced fullness of the quarters which might drag a
out extensive tests on actual ships. For the normal merchant sternwave. For the same reason the rudder is placed as
ship this is done and owners give the opportunity to make far aft as is practicable and its trailing edge is only slightly
extensive tests on the measured mile as well as to carry out inside the stern overhang.
testswhile cruising. It is a good suggestion to make tests on
fishing vessels during a voyage, but it will be difficult to find Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): Mr. Mockels data on
the right personnel for this work. In the Netherlands work angles of heel is very interesting. A short while ago he was
of this kindis being carried out under the guidance of Pro- asked for the degree of roll of the average fishing boat. He
fessor Bonebakker of the Technical University of Delft. had found no published data, and, as far as he recollected,
These people have been trained to carry out tests on actual the first time he had ever seen a tabulation of maximum
ships and they have discovered important data. amplitude of roll of operating trawlers was in Mr. Mockers
paper. He was much surprised that the amplitude is so great
but gratified that the information is now part of technical
Captain W. Mockel (Germany): Owners and builders who data available to the architect. Mr. Mockers resolution of
order resistance and propulsion tests in the Hamburg model
rolling and pitching in terms of acceleration is a new and
tank often want to extend them to the behaviour of the ship in
interesting concept and he sets forth some minimum values
a seaway. This has been done on large vessels since 1936, with
for maximum rates of acceleration both in fore and aft
the help of officers and captains interested in such investiga-
transverse direction, and endeavours to relate these rates of
tions and trained for the job. Since World War II similar
acceleration to human comfort. This is a problem which
investigations have been made in trawlers and it is hoped should be further examined. Periods of roll, amplitude of
to make on a bigger scale. The chief
further investigations
roll, and periods and amplitude of pitch only cannot be used
difficulty is to find the right personnel who have nautical
by the architect to make an accurate determination of whether
and technical training, being seamen as well as naval architects. a vessel will be comfortable or not, except, perhaps, in the
Experiments with models only in the tank cannot provide
particular class of ship he is familiar with. If it is possible
thorough and efficient results so that investigations must be to establish minimum rates of acceleration which will be
made at sea if the quality of ships is to be improved. Such comfortable, that rate should be related to all classes of
tests should be carried out on a very big scale, preferably by
boats.
an international organization such as FAO. If FAO organized
Mr. Gueroult's method of establishing a sheer line by means
this work they could call on the personnel at various tank-
of transposition of the vessel on a wave equal to the length
testing establishments to co-operate in a programme for of the vessel is again a new concept. It has considerable
investigating ships at sea. merits in the case of new types of vessels where there is no
tradition of sheer. The method gives a guide as to what the
Mr. John Tyrrell (Ireland): In craft .under 80 ft. (25 m.) in sheer should be.
length the reduction of the resistance is not the most important
factor to be considered in the design. Most fishing vessels, Mr. Olin J. Stephens II (U.S.A.): Asked by Mr. Gould as to
especially those which operate by towing, such as trawlers whether anyone had experience of retractable hydrofoils
and seiners, are relatively high powered and commonly to reduce rolling movements, Mr. Stephens said he had no
achieve a high speed-length ratio without running the engine actual experience to draw on but thought the device would be
at full power. The large engine is for towing power regardless restricted to passenger ships where the comfort of the public
of what the cruising speed may be and quite frequently small was important relative to the expense. Such devices would be
vessels obtain their maximum speed before the engine reaches very expensive.
its full revolutions.
Seaworthiness and trim are the first points to be considered Mr. James F. Petrich (U.S.A.): The device mentioned for
and provided for in a satisfactory design. Trimming becomes reducing rolling movements may relate to a type of paravane
of the utmost importance in vessels under 60 ft. (18 m.) being used on some trollers on the west coast of the U.S.A.
[371]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
This is a fairly successful type of paravane which hangs from Pitching is another aspect of the same matter and it should
each side of the vessel and cuts down the rolling movement always be borne in mind that very small fishing or other
considerably. As the troiler heels one way, one door vessels are liable to find themselves in conditions of wave
feathers and drops down deep in the water, while the other on length and height which have never appeared in any text-
the other side drags against the upward pull, so there is always books.
a pull to the side away from which the boat is heeling. The transom may be open to criticism for fishing boats
that it is liable to cause seas to break on board if the vessel
is more or less stationary and/or held down by fishing gear -
Mr. R. T. Whiteleather (U.S.A.): The type of paravane men-
but if the vessel is free, the transom is as good a sea-going
tioned by Mr. Petrich is a kind of otter door arrangement
stern as any other. Mr. Giles went on to quote the example
used on small trollers of 35 to 60 ft. (10.7 to 18 m.). The
of a small boat of his design, 21 4- ft. (6.5 m.), with a transom
otter door on the horizontal plane and trolling poles
is set
stern, which sailed from Singapore to England, 3,600 miles,
1
are extended from each rail, port and starboard side of the
in 140 days, sailing 100 miles a day at 4 knots. She never
vessel. From the trolling poles there are a series of lines which
are principally used for catching albacore or salmon. In gave a moment's trouble. In fact, of the many boats designed,
there has never been any suggestion that the transom stern,
addition, the fishermen take a door-like arrangement and put
properly allied to the appropriate bow, caused anybody any
it on the horizontal plane attached to the end of the trolling
trouble. The running and it does come into the transom
poles. It is allowed to ride at the proper angle of the hori-
zontal plane as the boat moves along at very slow trolling question too is above all oth?r points a question of balance
of the form of the bow and of the stern. A geometrical system
speed. This gives the effect of some additional resistance to
of matching the bow and the stern, incorporating a diagonal
roll on each side of the ship. The fishermen have found that
of exactly equal shape fore and aft, is used for sailing yachts.
this device is quite effective in stabilizing very small vessels.
That involves a raking midship section, but it does seem to
make a very big difference. These little things count. Sailing
Mr. J. Laurent Giles (U.K.): In the case of fishing craft the yachts are often very much the same in displacement-length
vessels can be divided into large, medium, small, very small and ratio as fishing boats and it is usual to run two sets of lines
minute. A division of this kind is necessary because of the of sailing yachts up to about A/.01 L* =450(L y J =* 5.56). It is
/
very different incidence of numbers and also because of the often a matter of very minute differences between the boat
possibilities of research which have existed for a considerable which is a charmer and the boat which is a pig. A
flat transom
time for large, medium and even small vessels, if small is form, such as that shown in the Bedi boat in the Pakistan
taken to mean 50 to 90 ft. (15 to 28 m.), but as far as fishing paper and the Cape Island boat in Mr. Chapelle's paper,
boats under this size are concerned, there has been hardly is likely to be disastrous because of broaching to. In the case
any research done at all. of very small boats the tank tests must be treated on the
The question of sea-kindliness, stability, safety, and understanding that these boats will never operate for more
movements at sea, are inextricably bound up with the size than a few hours at a time in smooth water.
of the boat. Dr. Allan said the naval vessel provided a gun
platform and the fishing vessel provided a fishing platform.
In this connection, he had been concerned during World War Mr. Olin J. Stephens II (U.S.A.): There is a distinct division
II with the British
"
B " Fairmiles, round-bottom boats. between large and small craft in the question of sea-keeping
He was responsible for their rearmament and other altera- qualities and safety. With the small craft it is possible to have
tions. They were much liked by their crews because they were a very stiff body which periodically will have a quick roll but
sea-kindly boats and they were built strictly to naval prin- that roll will conform to the period of encounter of the sea
ciples of minimum possible GM, which was 1.75 ft. (0.535 m.). when it is less than the period of encounter. When it becomes
" "
Fairmiles produced then a D
type designed with a high greater than the period of encounter, then it will establish
chine forward and a semi-displacement bow which had itself on its own independent frequency. When that frequency
great stability. The B.M.L.'s, although so sea-kindly, were comes close to the period of encounter there will be a con-
useless as fighting boats in any son of sea because nobody dition where it will build up heavily, but where it is le;s than
could keep a gun anywhere near a target due to their rolling. the period of encounter the vessel will conform to the surface
" "
But the D Fairmiles, which were entirely contrary to of the water. For these reasons it is possible to have a very
naval tradition in the matter of stability, were able to fight stiff small boat that will not be too uncomfortable and which
the whole time because they were so stiff and remained more gives a margin of safety to take advantage of. There is no
or less upright. need to cut down metacentric height to get reasonable comfort,
Another example of what extreme conditions of stability but with larger trawlers, of course, it is essential. In this
are capable of producing was shown in a 48 ft. (14.6 m.) respect Mr. Mockers paper is an extremely valuable contri-
lighter built to carry aircraft from ship to shore or shore to bution to knowledge. To some extent an analysis of that
ship. This boat had a beam of 1 6 ft. (4.9 m.) and had pontoons paper indicates that the pitching periods more or less conform
extending some 4 ft. (1.22 m.) outside the hull proper. The to the periods of encounter, but the rolling periods are inde-
pontoons carried the deck on which the aircraft was placed. pendent, having their frequency regardless of sea conditions.
Thi boat seemed to be most unseakindly yet, when it went This bears out the point in connection with smaller vessels.
out on its first trials in reasonably bad conditions, it just He did not agree with Mr. Giles about the importance of
ploughed its way, never more than 5 off the vertical, through minute differences. People became almost superstitious
considerable short seas in the English Channel. about these small differences, but, of course, these do become
These examples are worth keeping in mind in considering cumulative. An accumulation of good or bad differences in
the stability of small craft. The relation between ship and sea any combination affects a boat, but if that boat is good to
seems to change radically when a boat is as small as 15 to start with, to make minute changes in it will not stop it from
30 ft. (4.5 to 9 m.). remaining a good boat.
[372]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
Mr. Howard I. Chbpelle (U.S.A.): Vessels of over 150 tons going tug-boats and it is important that the run is very well
represent about 8 per cent, of the fishing fleet on the north- designed and that the water reaches the propeller with a
east coast of the United States. Changes in the fisheries in minimum amount of disturbance.
the north-east have required increased speed in the vessels There has been much trouble because the centre of buoy-
and changes in location of the fish have increased the distances ancy has moved gradually aft and the bow has tended to
the boats have to travel. As Mr. Mclnnis has pointed out the sharpen in an effort to reduce the trim of the stern. Mclnnis*
holds on these vessels are larger than they need to be and suggestions for shortening the fish-hold are desirable, although
fishermen do not bring in full loads usually. it isdoubtful whether this can be accomplished because of
Most of these vessels are subject to overcrowding and have the desire to keep the fish-hold large. The solution of the
too much power in proportion to the size of the boat, and trim problem is to increase the drag and obtain the maximum
there is an inherent difficulty in the design of a wooden vessel amount of displacement without causing excessive disturbance
in that it is almost impossible to calculate the hull weight. in the run.
Most of the trawlers on the New England coast and in Nova These trawlers are now being designed for a speed in the
Scotia and East Canadian waters have their engine-rooms neighbourhood of 10i knots. This seems to be as good a
aft, their crew's quarters forward and fish-holds about speed as can be reached with the power put in the vessels,
amidships. The cabins and engineers' quarters are aft. The and with the poor form accepted. It should be noted that
popular size of the small trawler seems to be in the range of some of the best vessels for cruising and towing efficiency
60 to 65 ft. (18.3 to 20 m.), a size that was imposed by eco- were not designed by naval architects. For example, Mr.
nomic factors such as the cost of the vessel, licensing laws in Simpson shows in his paper a trawler called the Golden Eagle
Canada and financial requirements. Trawlers of this size which was built from a model. She happens to be a very
need 175 to 200 h.p. engines to be really efficient. As a result efficient vessel and is marked not only by a good run for a
of the power on board, fuel consumption becomes an import- boat of her capacity but also by a very marked drag to the
ant factor and it is normal to find that a small trawler has a keel. It seems that a combination of her run form with drag
very large capacity. The water tank must be placed forward is one of the reasons why her efficiency has been so high.
to help balance here. She carries the main engine, generating In recent years icing up has not been a serious problem on
plant, batteries and fuel and air tanks in her engine-room. these trawlers because of the warming up of the North
As a result almost every small trawler has excessive trim by Atlantic, but it is a problem that will occur from time to time
the stern, which has a marked effect on running speed. The and in the past it has been a very serious matter, as small and
genera] practice is to use a very full run to float this weight large trawlers have been lost at sea, with all hands, through
aft, as shown in Mr. Simpson's paper. Actually, on these icing.
vessels the general movement of the centre of gravity aft is A great designers have cut away the forefoot of
many
to carry much weight in light condition. When these vessels fishing craft,approaching the Maierform hull. A vessel
"
load their great fish-holds, many of them trim by the head so designed has a tendency to tramp ". When she lifts out
and in that condition become unseaworthy. They lose speed of the sea her forefoot comes up, and when she goes down
and steer very badly. Most of the owners and skippers of she does so with a slam that throws up spray. Anyone who
small trawlers in North America seem therefore to prefer has been to sea in winter in the North Atlantic will know
the round stern, and in wood construction it is very heavy. that spray will ice up more rapidly than solid water. To cut
The stern has been changed in profile in recent vessels in away the forefoot on the schooner type of bow, driven at the
order to lower the centre line of the stern at the waterline. speeds obtained in these small trawlers, is to invite rapid icing.
In some vessels it approaches a rather full sharp stern, called It seems that the trawlers would benefit from a very angular
"
a canoe stern ". It is a practical stern which gives room aft forefoot which is deep enough and fine enough to prevent
and is good in a following sea. It has an effect upon the trim slamming in a head sea. There have been various suggestions
of the vessel because there is not enough bearing aft, and when about using heat to reduce icing, but it would take an enor-
the weight is concentrated there almost every vessel with a mous amount of heat to be of any practical use. The best
round stern shows excessive stern trim. Another type of solution seems to be to design the fore end of the vessel so
stern which has come into use, particularly in Nova Scotia, that she throws the minimum amount of spray.
is a wooden adaptation of the cruiser stern. This is a more has been the experience of many fishermen that excessive
It
desirable structure and is lighter and stronger than a round flare forward can be harmful. He had designed vessels of
stern. The transom stern has not been particularly popular the small trawler class with very little flare. The sides and
except in the very small inshore trawlers. Mr. Mclnnis has a shoulders of the bow come out straight, V-shaped. With a
number of 60 ft. (18.3 m.) trawlers with this type of stern deep forefoot and a rather angular turn it is possible to get
building in Canada. Their trim is superior in light condition very fine lines forward, and the lower water-lines may be even
to any of the other types of small trawlers. What would slightly hollow at the forefoot. But if the lower water-lines
happen if additional weight were put in those vessels is an become almost straight for some distance aft it will move,
open question, but it is apparent that there is a definite of course, the buoyancy centre aft, and it has the disadvantage
advantage in using a transom stern. This stern is likely to be of making the forecastle rather confined.
necessary if an effort is to be made to maintain the present Mr. Mclnnis dealt at some length with ballast. Becaui > of
trend in power in these boats. Those who design small trim, particularly excessive trim aft, a great number of small
" "
trawlers have approached the question of drag or trimmed trawlers carry 4 to 10 tons ballast forward to keep the stern
keel with a remarkable amount of caution. The larger Euro- high and make them safe. If they do not have much drag
pean trawlers, such as those designed by Mr. Gueroult, have when they fill their fish-holds they become down by the head
a great amount of drag. If the small American trawlers had and steer very badly. For this reason it seems rather remark-
this drag they would have more bearing aft, without having able that there has been so much caution in the United States
to fill up the run excessively. The run is very important in in putting drag into vessels. He had moved slowly in that
these small vessels. They are obviously no more than sea- direction but found that in Europe they had moved much more
[373]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
rapidly in the large trawlers. It had many advantages because, so that they have a short period of roll and are uncomfortable.
when the vessel is trimmed by the head she still steers well, A GM of 4.5 ft. (1.37 m.) and a rolling period of 3 seconds
regardless of an angular forefoot, because she does not draw are common in boats of 80 ft. (24.4 m.) length and 20 to
more water forward than aft. In some areas of the United 22 ft. (6 to 6.7 m.) breadth. Such a boat will have more than
States the old problem of the combination fishing boat has 20 tons of concrete ballast and the more the boats rolls and
come up. So far very little has been done to produce a rocks, the more ballast the fishermen put into it.
combination trawler and long-liner. A few boats have been He had come upon a similar problem of ballast when
built and tested but in each case difficulties have arisen which visiting New Bedford, Mass., U.S.A. Two boats of exactly
affected their economic desirability. It is a problem that the same type, built from the same drawing and in the same
" "
designers of small trawlers must face. His own idea is to fit yard, behaved very differently. One was a charmer and
"
one side of the vessel for trawling and the other side for long- the other a pig ". He inspected the boats and saw that one
lining. This will add to the initial cost as, for instance, com- was rolling much faster than the other. The one with the
pared with a long-liner, but will make the vessel cheaper than a shorter rolling period had 16 tons of ballast on board but
trawler of equal size. It is doubtful that money-making small the other boat had none.
trawlers can be built under 60 ft. (18.3 m.) length because if In another instance, at St. Johns, Newfoundland, a
such a trawler is built, it will be so low-powered as to be unable Norwegian type of boat had been built but it rocked badly.
to trawl in deep water, and deep-water traveling is a necessity. It had 10 tons of ballast on board and the rolling period was
Speed is controlled in these vessels by the hull form. There about 4 seconds. He advised the Director of Fisheries, who
"
is ample power available to drive such a vessel at a higher was present, to remove the ballast. The Director said You
"
speed, but the hull forms are not suitable. The capacity of are crazy but agreed to take it out. When 5 tons had been
a trawler is an important consideration and it is not possible removed the rolling period increased to 4.75.
to reduce the depth of the small trawlers very much. In fact, In certain areas there are boats with too little stability, as
the trend is towards deeper vessels in order to shorten the isthe case of many boats on the U.S.A. West Coast, but there
fish-hold and carry extra weight. The solution does not lie are also many areas where boats have too much stability,
entirely in using a very full mid-section. The general experi- such as 3 to 4 ft. (OJ9 to 1.2 m.) GM
and nobody knows about
ence seems to be that designs show a good deal of deadrise, the relation between stability and sea-kindliness, so they put
beam and some longitudinal distribution of the displacement. ballast on board and increased the discomfort of the boat.
As a matter of fact, the hull lines of the small trawlers are To get a sea-kindly boat it is much more important to look
really distorted. In some way a hull form has developed which into the ballast and the position of the GM
than to look at the
approaches that objected to in an inshore vessel, but because lines.
the trawlers are deeper they do not have the same failure and The first essential is to get the GM giving good motions,,
are more seaworthy. The centre of buoyancy often approaches then a start can be made in the refining or altering of the
the after bulkhead of the fish-hold, about 57 per cent, of the hull shape. Dr. Allan is right in saying it is necessary to get a
length of the hull. good flare in the foreship. The plans in Mr. Gueroult's
If towing requirements are allowd to control the design, paper show a good flare and also that the bulwark is faired
the result will be a vessel that will sail faster, which is very along the ship's sides. It might be better if those bulwarks
easy to obtain in running light condition or even in load were given a knuckle at the deck to provide some kind of
condition, in a vessel from 65 to 75 ft. (20 to 23 m.) length, compromise flare. That would give the same buoyancy which
without adding extra power. It is possible to obtain 10 isobtainable with a good flare, and, at the same time, give a
knots without excessive disturbance and without too much much more practical bulwark, not likely to be damaged at a
danger of the vessel losing seaworthiness. quayside. It would also provide a waterbreak, which would
enable the water to leave at the deck and not at the rail from
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): Referring to the statement that a where it can sweep more easily into the boat.
deep forefoot makes a vessel that handled better, Mr. Hanson
said he could not agree to this, however he did not realize I. Bromfield (U.S.A.): Talk about ballast reminded him
Mr.
how bad the ice conditions were on the U.S.A. East Coast. of the attitude of fishermen. If they come in with a good
The .deep forefoot section he believed made* for Wd handling catch everything on board ship, including the machinery, is
from the steering point of view but he could see that the spray excellent, but if they come in with a poor catch, then the
cast by a long-running forefoot could be harmful if it iced up owner must be ready to face a long list of repairs stretching
the ship. from stem to stern.
In 1938 he had a vessel of about 1281 ft. (39 m.) length,
Mr. Arthur de Fever (U.S.A.): He was in agreement with 24 ft. (7.3 m.) beam and about 12 ft. (3.8 m.) draft. She was
Hanson on the forefoot design, particularly as applied to the first all-welded ship in the Boston, U.S.A., fishing fleet.
U.S.A. West Coast vessels. He had found better success She was supposed to carry 30 tons of ballast but, by oversight,
with the rounded forefoot than with the deep forefoot, again it was left out. It was decided, however, to see how she
due to the trimming of the vessel. In some cases clippers behaved without ballast and she turned out to be one of the
had been designed on an even keel without drag and on their best fishing vessels in the fleet.
return voyage from the fishing grounds they had become head
down because their brine wells were dried and they had used Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): He liked to keep every bit of
the fuel in the double bottoms. The steering then became excess weight out of the vessel, so much so that he used only
a problem, but this situation had not arisen when the rounded very lightweight filling instead of ballast between the floors
forefoot design had been used. for hold drainage only. Provision must be made for the fact
that a wooden vessel will absorb moisture and in a few years
Mr. Jan-Olof Trmung (FAO): The problem in a country she may have 3 or 4 in. (0.075 to 0.1 m.) more draft than when
such as Sweden is that fishing boats have too much stability, she was built.
[374]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DJSCUSS1ON
Mr. Olin J. Stephens U (U.S.A.): As one with little experience Although acceleration is very interesting to naval architects,
of fishing vessels he had never been able to understand the the fisherman is more concerned with amplitude. Accelera-
need for ballast except, perhaps, where many small trawlers tion is related to comfort and is important for passengers,
are constructed from models designed by builders under the but fishermen are concerned with the angle of roll. When it is
erroneous impression that by keeping down the beam they too big they must stop fishing. The stability value obtained
can improve the speed. Ballast is then put into the vessel from an inclining experiment of a ship in service which is not
to make her stable but stability should come from the beam really dry, is not of much use. Alot of ships have been so
which could probably help the resistance characteristics inclined and the experiments have yielded very unreliable
rather than harm them. results. Data must be worked out from a dry ship. Measure-
ments at sea of rolling periods have been made but the men in
Mr. E. R. Gueroult (France): The answer to Mr. Traung's charge, unlike Mr. Mockel, were not specialists. It is very
question about continuous flare in the bulwarks of the new interesting to know that Mockers measurements coincide
French trawlers is that French designers and owners do not with stability data calculated by the builders of the trawlers
like the look of knuckles and do not like the idea of losing in which he made his measurements.
any buoyancy in the ends. The problem has been discussed
with the owners and they all decided that it was better to have Dr. H. K. Kloess (Germany): The only way to examine the
the boat damaged against a quayside at rail level rather than qualities of a vessel in a seaway is to carry out observations
at deck level. and measurements on board the ship. This was done in 1928
Stability in light condition is very difficult to achieve when a comparison of two different performances of hull
because of the big and small inertia of the water
rise of floor was made in actual service condition. Fig. 453 and 454 show
"
lines down to the keel. If good stability is attained in that
*4
the two different forms which are named conventional lines
"
condition, it is Likely to be lost in a loaded condition. That is and old Maierform lines ".
one of the reasons why some ballast has been put into the Fig. 455 shows the tank results and main dimensions of both
new French trawlers. The storing of ballast has followed ships. A maximum improvement of 20 per cent, in calm
the English practice. British steam trawlers used to feed the condition was shown in the model in the tests but this
boiler on salt water. They rilledthe bottom of the ship up to advantage was considerably increased in the full sized ship
the floors with cement or sand and the bottom of the fish-hold when she sailed in bad weather conditions.
was simply a layer of cement over this ballast. In designing In assessing the differences in behaviour of two different
the new French steam trawlers it was decided to stop the designs of a ship, the following conditions are essential:
habit of feeding the boiler on salt water and to carry fresh (1) equal main dimensions; (2) equal ratios of dimensions;
water in double-bottom tanks, so that there was no more (3) equal block coefficients and centres of buoyancy; (4)
room for permanent ballast. equal loading as to draft, displacement and trim condition;
Conventional lines
*
(Form N )
Trawler Munchen
Old Maierform lines (Form M )
Trawler Weiftenfels
. 453 and 454
[375]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
shows the Admiralty coefficients for both, plotted to knots.
The Maierform more speed for the same power than
hull gave
her designed on the conventional lines.
sister trawler
MOD 457 MOD.438 Fig. 457 shows the difference in Admiralty coefficients of
LIN4TM Iff IB7.T FT. 4I.O M. IB7.7 FT 4t.O M. the two trawlers plotted on windforce to Beaufort's scale.
"
LIMTH IWL
SEAM 15.04 '
7J4 7.94
AFT AFT. 11A -
IT It48 !-
MIAN 10.11 - B.W IO.M B.IB
160
FWO. JB . t. t.M
tO OO OFT 541.4 M
. t.7 j Form M
I OltPLACMT. It 400 FT BBO M o Farm n
30 % 1tfO
IflL too
90
ZHf>
to.
300
9 to
TO BPflUFDRT
Fig. 457. Difference in Admiralty coefficients of two trawlers of
different form of hull plotted on windforce
The diagram shows the increasing efficiency of the wedge-
shaped Maierform as the weather becomes worse.
Fig. 458 is plotted on windforce at the highest speed the
MODE trawlers could attain. In calm condition the difference
457 between them is about .75 of a knot but this is increased to
100 nearly 3.5 knots when the wind reaches force No. 6 a
moderate gale.
50 H
Sptd i Knots
?
10 12 z
Q 6
Fig. 455. Maierfornt trawler comparison with a trawler of con-
ventional lines. Results based on tests at the model tank, Hamburg. *,.
%
(5) equal engines as to type of machinery, output and revo-
lutions; (6) equal fuel and fuel coefficients; (7) equal type of a v 6
rudder (stream lined or not); (8) equal condition of hull as WINDFOHCE TO
to shellplating, riveting, welding and last docking; (9) equal
routes in similar seasons, and (10) equal conditions of wind Fig. 458. Highest speed reached by two trawlers of different form oj
and sea. hull plotted on windforce
The two ships concerned fulfilled these conditions. Fig. 456
Fig. 459 shows the loss of speed and the increase of power.
300 At windforce 6 the Maierform trawler required 95 per cent,
190 more power but the trawler with conventional lines needed
1HP
160 nearly 500 per cent, more power.
Similar measurements were repeated in 1935 with another
trawler designed on similar lines but improved. Fig. 460
shows in the dotted lines the results obtained.
Captain W. Mitekel (Germany) : Dr. Kloess' contribution is of
w r^r /iI &t principal interest as it shows the magnitude of additional
O r&nn /V
resistance of the two extreme shapes of hull in a seaway.
However, in consequence of the development of both shapes"
9 9 " and
1O of hull since 1928, the so-called conventional lines
ED IN KttOTB "
Maierform
"
as well as their service results differ con-
Fig. 456. Service results of two trawlers of different form of hull siderably less as shown in the example cited by Dr. Kloess.
[376]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
but, said Mr. Hanson, he used a deadrise by means of which
he obtained a, faster vessel. The only way to get speed is to
h^ve long body section lines which were produced by a good
deadrise. Wooden vessels have a tendency to hog and a good
deadrise gives a stronger vessel which eliminates the ten-
dency to hog even if the boat is small. He could not agree to
make hard bilge sections and then having to place ballast to
compensate.
Mr. Robert F. Allan (Canada): Mr. Hanson has contributed
a valuable paper on the combination fishing vessel of the
Pacific and as a pioneer effort, it is largely descriptive and
there are some points of technical interest which merit
further discussion.
In figs. 149 and 261 he draws attention to a trend away from
WIND FORCE TO MflUFOWT narrow boats of full mid-section form towards the wider
type with increased deadrise. This has been dictated largely
Fig. 459. Loss in speed and increased power of two trawlers of dif-
ferent form of hull in comparison to calm weather condition by the tendency to raise the centre of gravity and increase
(windforce 0) the total weight by adding equipment and tankage.
There is no intrinsic merit in the finer section form nor has.
it appreciable bearing on resistance. The type having slack
Because of the superior seagoing qualities of V-shaped bilges and deep draft, as illustrated by dotted lines on the
section ships this type of frames is commonly employed for sketch in fig. 261, has several faults. It compels a full pris-
many years already in the construction of trawlers. To this matic, has poor range of stability because of the reduction
development in design the Maierform undoubtedly con- in the width of the immersed wedge and, because of flatness
tributed to a remarkable degree. In consequence of the features of the righting lever curve the vessel has a long and unpleasant
of design the sea-going qualities of Maierform-ships also rolling motion.
differ as those of trawlers designed by other naval architects.
Fig. 418 e.g. shows the loss of speed of two Maierform-ships.
Mr. Arthur de Fever (U.S.A.): Mr. Hanson is right about a
The difference in loss of speed of the two ships may be
vessel slacking if the deadrise is too small. It causes an undue
explained by the difference of the block-coefficients. As
strain on the boat. But this can be offset in the case of the
proved by many service data, the loss of speed in a seaway
Pacific coast clippers by using shaft alley bulkheads for
increases with the block coefficient.
If the aim of service investigation is to find out the effect stiffening.
of the design features such as block coefficient, distribution of
displacement and weights, stability, horse-power, etc., on the Mr. Olin J. Stephens II (U.S.A.): In the case of the midship
behaviour of ships in a seaway, the uniform conditions cited section he was not altogether in agreement with Mr. Hanson
by Dr. KJoess are not wanted in all cases. In fact they are that the shape of the section has very much to do with speed.
scarcely to be met on account of variations in the design of the It is a very important consideration but, assuming satis-
ships. factory stability for the fore and aft lines and the right pris-
It is still to be said that the measurements in ship A men- matic coefficient, it is doubtful whether the shape of the section
tioned in Mr. Mockel's paper were executed in 1946 and not has anything to do with the resistance of the hull.
as Dr. Kloess assumes in 1935.
Mr. Jan-Olof Traung (FAO): In the Norwegian tank they
MIDSHIP SECTION have tested models with exactly the same dimensions and
coefficientsbut with different types of midship sections and
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): There is a tendency in Europe
they confirm what Mr. Stephens said, that the type of midship
and on the U.S.A. east coast to make full deep mid-sections
section has no influence on the resistance whatsoever. The
area influencing the prismatic coefficient has, however,
great importance.
So far as sea-kindliness and stability are concerned, it is
clear that if the midship section is made fuller, the centre of
buoyancy of the hull is lowered. It is also clear that a fine
water-line fore and aft means less moment of inerita of the
waterplane and the position of the metacentre is thereby
lowered. If the gravity remains at the same position there
will be a smaller GM
and a longer period of roll. Hanson
has said that with a beamier midship section he gets more
sea-kindliness and more comfortable (slower) roll or, in
fact, less stability. On tht contrary, Hanson with his section
gets less sea-kindliness but more stability.
a 4 ff 6
WINOFORCP TO BERUTOPT
Mr. James F. Pctrich (U.S. A.) The shape of the midship sec-
:
Fig. 460. Loss in speed for trawlers form M and N tion does not have anything particularly to do with the speed
[377]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
It is possible to get a good speed with a full midship section as rail under water. The general form of the trawlers is such
with a good deadrise. There are other factors that influence that there is very limited application of the full midship
the design of smaller boats, especially with the restrictions section because of the combination of size, weight and depth
imposed on them. Mr. Hanson said he can get better speed involved. The trawlers are very deep in proportion to their
with a boat of greater deadrise by adding more beam and length, which can be seen if the drawings are compared with
that changes the lines fore and aft considerably. In larger those of the U.S.A. Pacific coast vessels, but it is really not
tuna clippers it is possible to use a full midship section and get feasible to compare the vessels because the tuna clippers are
a better design throughout. He was in favour of that design of great size in length and beam and have relatively small
as the draught must be restricted because the clippers have to depth.
go into shallow waters to catch their bait. He had designed
a clipper with a great beam and increased stability, but
the beam had not reduced the speed. In fact the vessel BOATS
concerned, the Mary E. Petrich, has turned out to be one of
the fastest in the tuna fleet and has very good resistance Professor G. Schnadel (Germany) The new Dutch regulations
:
qualities. In such a full midship section vessel with such a call for one lifeboat for a ship not exceeding 200 gross tons,
large beam it is possible to distribute weights so that there a lifeboat with air tanks for ships of 200 to 400 tons, and 2
is no need to make full lines fore and aft. The vessel has lifeboats with air tanks, for ships exceeding 400 tons. In
fine ends and can travel at full speed in weather that slows
Germany two lifeboats are required for all ships over 200 tons
down a tuna clipper of normal hull design. because experience has shown that, in some cases, it has been
The dimensions of the Mary E. Petrich are: too difficult to launch a lifeboat stowed amidship. When two
lifeboats are carried, one will have to be stowed on the side
Wood construction of the ship. Small lifeboats have been capsized by launching
L.O.A. 150ft. (43.7m.) and therefore Mr. Fernandez proposed the use of life rafts
L.B;P. 146 ft*. (42:7 itic) instead of -boats. A short twne- ago 7 most of the crew -of- a
1
Beam 34 ft. (10.4 m.) German trawler were able to take to the lifeboat but it cap-
Draft sized three times and only two men were saved. Had a life raft
(full load, dry
14 been used probably all the men would have been saved.
fish) . ft. (4.27 m.)
Displacement 946 tons Another proposal by Mr. Fernandez is that fishing boats
Prismatic coefficient 0.5975 should be equipped with radar, but this is not likely to be
L.CB. . 0.0081 L aft amidships possible at present because men will have to be trained to
Trial speed .
13J knots at l,600h.p. operate radar efficiently.
Mr. J. G. de Wit (Netherlands): Foam plastic may take the
Mr. Howard I. Chapelle (U.S.A.): It is not safe to look at the
place of present-day air tanks in lifeboats.
midship section only as it is an isolated factor of design. In Lifeboat launching equipment needs to be improved.
discussing a specific type, whether tuna clipper or North East Davits should not have faulty gear. They should be able to
be faced. Por example,
trawler, there are certain conditions to
make a greater swing to launch lifeboats stowed in the super-
a shallow draught considered an advantage in the tuna
is
structure. The launching of boats placed in the centre line
clipper. The exact contrary is the case in the North East of the ship is unsatisfactory and needs further improvement.
coast trawlers where for working reasons a sharp-bottom
The Netherlands Research Centre for shipbuilding and
and great draught, relatively speaking, are desired because
" " navigation recently carried out stability experiments with
the trawlers need to hold on (not make leeway) when
Dutch and French standardized lifeboats. One result of the
they are sailing across the wind. tests showed that the 10 per cent, air tank capacity of the
More power than can ever be used economically has been
standardized Dutch boat No. 1, with a complement of
installed in small fishing vessels in the
U.S.A. But as it has
13 persons, is insufficient. This means that bigger tanks
been installed some attempt should be made to use it, which must be used, taking up passenger space.
suggests refinement in hull form. This might be made by
modifying the mid-section, but the scope is limited by the
type of boat.
Mr. Philip Thiel, Jr. (U.S.A.): A
solution to the lifeboat
In discussing a full midship section, Mr. Chapelle said he storage and launching problem is to suspend the boat from
was confining himself to the New England and Nova Scotia the apex of an A-frame of welded pipe: the lower ends of the
trawlers of small size. Due to the unusual and unfortunate frame are pivoted on brackets stepped on the deck beside the
distribution of weight in these vessels, an attempt to lower the deck house (or on the side of the deck-house itself). Half-
brackets support the boat at a suitable height above the deck,
bilges rapidly creates a run problem, and there is a very short
length in the vessel to form the run. But there is no stability
and it is lowered by means of a tackle stretched from the
problem of any great consequence as far as these trawlers apex of the frame to the opposite side of the deck-house top
are concerned. In the main the dimensions of the trawlers (see fig. 461).
are about 65 ft. (20 m.) of deck length and 17} to 19$ ft.
(5.3 to 6 m.) beam. With the high bilges, the straight rise of Commander E. C. GoWsworthy (U.K.): It has always been a
floor, the marked deadrise, and the low weights placed in the problem to launch lifeboats. He had the experience of being
vessels, the heavy engine, tanks and auxiliaries, the stability in a wrecked ship when lifeboats were launched on one side
of the trawlers is generally excellent. They can operate at to act as fenders to the destroyer which came alongside to
sharp angles of heel, as, for example, when they occasionally take off the crew. Those lifeboats could not have been lowered
hook their trawl and run in circles until they break it free. to get anyone away, but in this case they did make excellent
At these times the vessels are often run at full speed with one fenders. More concentrated thought should be given to the
[378]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
problem of launching lifeboats, especially in small fishing dinghies and is fully aware of their advantages. But there is
vessels which carry only one boat. difficulty in adopting them because life-saving appliances
which must be inflated before they can be used are prohibited
Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.): In view of the possibilities by the 1948 Safety Convention. The proper maintenance of
of air-sea rescue and the development of inflatable rubber them is also an important consideration.
and the complicated heavy
dinghies, the retention of lifeboats
gear which goes with them seems to be merely a carry-over Commander C. Harcourt-Smith (U.K.): As Commander
from the old sailing ship days, when lifeboats were used not Hardy has said, the old-fashioned lifeboat is virtually obsolete
only for life-saving but also for communication with the and has come down from the old sailing ship days when one
shore. Like so many things in ship design, they have gone on of its functions was to tow the sailing ship out of danger of
from generation to generation without anyone really ques- shoals or rocks in a calm, or the last mile or so into harbour.
tioning why they should still be there and why they should It has been frequently found impossible to launch life-
still retain the same design. boats from a sinking ship. For example, in the Princess
It is undeniable that lifeboats have done magnificent work Victoria disaster, not a single lifeboat could be launched by
in saving life, but the facts show them to be most dangerous the designed methods, nor was it possible for the rescuing
and more people are killed because of them than are saved ships to launch their lifeboats. If the Princess Victoria and
the other ships had been equipped with rubber dinghies,
designed and adapted for life-saving at sea, most of the
passengers and crew would have been saved.
The modern rubber dinghy is very difficult to capsize and
has an inflatable canopy which completely protects its
passengers. It can be handled by one man and put over the
side. It has been said that a rubber dinghy is very difficult
to get into. This is incorrect. Every rubber dinghy has a
rope ladder hanging from the side which makes it easy to
board, whereas with lifeboats the assistance of people in the
boat is needed to get on board.
Rubber dinghies can be stowed in boxes on the main deck
and it is not a difficult design problem to make the dinghies
strong enough to be inflated on board and, if necessary,
lowered complete with personnel and emergency equipment.
Many lifeboats launched in heavy weather are smashed
against the side of the ship, but the inflatable rubber dinghy
can be bashed in this way without being damaged. The
dinghies could be stowed in boxes on both sides of the ship
and, if it is convenient only to launch from one side, they
can easily be carried to that side.
Rubber dinghies could be launched by attaching to the
deck head a light girder carrying a sliding member, from which
can be suspended a frame platform containing the inflated
raft with its crew and equipment. Launching would require
only one man on a light winch, using a brake, to lower the
raft. The same man could wind up the frame again ready
Fig. 461
for the next lift.
Rubber rafts or dinghies are not capable of being navigated
by them. The time has come to scrap the conventional life- in a conventional sense, but almost every vessel in distress is
boat and use the inflatable rubber dinghy which can be able to send out an SOS, giving its position, before the crew
thrown overboard where it automatically inflates complete leave the ship.
with food, radio equipment, etc. Rubber dinghies can be Each raft is fitted with a small hand transmitter to send out
moored in groups so that, by use of the radio, rescuing air- an SOS. Rescuing vessels could locate them even in thick
craft can be guided to the spot where they are. Another weather by using a direction finder. Meanwhile the occupants
advantage in using rubber dinghies is that valuable deck would be safely protected from the weather by the canopy.
space is saved and tons of top weight is eliminated. There is little difficulty so far as maintenance is concerned
and the responsible authority in each country could very
Captain H. Bertram (Germany): The question of replacing quickly provide the necessary instructions to skippers on this
wooden lifeboats by rubber dinghies is being studied in point.
Germany, and fishery* protect ion vessels are all equipped with
rubber boats. *Tbe dfclppers of the vessels think, however, Mr. A. P. Schat (France): Great care is taken of the safety
that wooden lifeboats should still be carried because the crew factor in the construction of a ship, but so far as gear for
needs special training to handle rubber boats. If these boats launching lifeboats is concerned, the law requires it to operate
are not properly handled they cannot, at the critical moment, only at a 15 list on merchant ships. This puts the master of
be inflated and then they are useless. the ship in a difficult position. He should abandon ship
before it takes a list of 15 but, of course, no master will
Mr. S. A. Hodges (U.K.): The Ministry of Transport in the ever issue the order until he is forced to. So far as fishing boats
United Kingdom has been conducting tests with rubber are concerned there is no compulsion to launch lifeboats
[379]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
when the vessel is listing 15. That is only a moderate list boats are built of wood so that the danger of fire in them is
and, in the case of fishing boats, the lifeboats should be able greater.
to be launched at a 30 list. Very often they cannot be safely
launched and when Mr. Jan-Olof Traung (FAO):
they^are they have very little freeboard In recent years many tuna
so that water breaks over them. Furthermore, the occupants clippers have been lost by The reason seems to be found
fire.
are exposed to the wind which acts like a fan. The normal in the large quantities of ammonia carried in the clippers for
temperature of the human body is 98.6 deg. F. (37 deg. C) their refrigeration plants. When there is a certain mixture of
and that temperature drops to 95 deg. F. (35 deg. C.) for
if air with the ammonia it reaches an explosive condition. The
several hours the person is bound to die. One way to protect danger is increased because of the extensive use of electrical
the occupants of a lifeboat would be to place the air tanks equipment in tuna clippers (they have 30/40 pumps driven
in a different position so that all the people could sit down by electric motors). This is the reason why Miller has stressed
and remain under the boat cover. That would dispense with the need for good fire-fighting equipment and not so much
the need for a weather hood and give the same sort of protec- because the boats are built of wood.
tion which rubber dinghies give.
Mr. Schat referred to a crossing of the Channel by two Mr. . R. Gueroult (France): France has made it a rule to
young men in a 10 ft. (3 m.) rubber dinghy in a 50 miles/hr. include carbon dioxide (both foam and gas) fire protection
(26 m./sec.) gale. The dinghy was equipped with a 4-cycle in the engine room. This protection seems to have been very
outboard motor. successful.
One of the young men concerned was Dr. Nui Bombard
who recently crossed the Atlantic on his own. He carried no Commander L. . Penso (U.S.A.): The improperly installed
food but lived from the sea. He proved that there is no CO 8system described by Miller does not seem possible in
reason why people in lifeboats should perish. There is this day and age. But it has happened and it illustrates the
plenty of fish and water to live on. The Dutch research need for proper technical supervision in all such matters.
organization T.N.O. has made a report on the possibilities
of catching fish from lifeboats by using electricity. People Mr. Arthur de Fever (U.S.A.): Although Miller's idea for a
in a lifeboat need to have exercise to keep them in good separate fire protection system could be adapted to some
condition and they can get that by generating a 1 h.p. hand- boats in the fishing fleet, it would not be right for the majority
operated motor, which not only can provide the electricity of them because, particularly in small vessels, the forepeak
for fishing but can make drinking water from seawater. is not fully enclosed. Many of the smaller vessels have been
One man can produce 1.5 imp. gal. (7 1.) of drinking water designed with an opening in the forepeak bulkheads while
per hour by the electricity he generates himself, so that, others have no bulkheads at all or only a passage way between
provided the lifeboat is equipped with a generator, there is ships' stores boxes and dry stores. This opens the area
no longer a probem of carrying fresh water in special tanks. to the upper engine room and a separate fire protection
The electricity generated can also be used for sending out system provided in that area would not work satisfactorily
strong wireless signals. because the gas would be dispersed rapidly. This is the reason
The cost of life-saving appliances is heavy and the authori- why CO a protection has failed in the clippers because only the
ties concerned with safety at sea should recognize that fact. lower engine-room has been protected. There is a large hatch
Many fishing boat owners cannot afford to fit expensive over the main engine varying from 4x 16 ft. (1.2x4.9 m.)
equipment. to 6 x 20 ft. (1.8 * 6.1 m.). The gas in the lower engine-room
is dispersed through these openings so that the rest of the deck
Dr. Gian Guido Bordoli (Italy): Much has been said about area and the upper engine-room are added to the protection.
rubber dinghies but they are not always efficient because it is About 50 per cent, or more of the clippers do not have a fully
necessary to inflate them before putting them into the water. closed bulkhead in the forepeak and of the remainder only a
Little has been said of small rafts. They cannot, of course, part have middle doors providing ventilation up to the fore-
be used in the Arctic Ocean because of the cold and wind, peak. In these cases the dispersion of gas would not be
but they can be used in the Mediterranean and along the affected. In the remaining ships, if a fire occurred in the
European and American coasts. He thought the rafts would forepeak where paints and other inflammables are stored,
be most useful if carried on vessels of 100 to 150 tons, and the crew could close the door but in many cases the doors
recollected that during World War 1 torpedo boats found the are secured on hooks and are not quick closing. In the
rafts were very satisfactory. During World War II many turmoil the door is likely to be left open so that, again, the
sailorswere saved by the rafts. system would not be very effective.
The London Convention asks for rafts in addition to life-
boats. He would suggest that fishing vessels should carry, Mr. A. M. Doxey (U.S.A.): It is difficult to believe that
in addition to regulation lifeboats, small wooden boats built safety and fire protection standards have been kept because
of cork or some similar substance. there has been no trouble in obtaining insurance, but under-
writers are not, of course, versed in the technical details
of fire protection equipment. Marine engineers and surveyors
FIRE have pressed for more positive safety equipment and the chief
engineer in a vessel seems to be the logical person to deal with
Professor G. Sdmadel (Germany): The use of carbon dioxide the equipment. Contrary to Miller's proposal, there seems
for fire protection, proposed by Mr. Miller, is not thought to be no necessity for a rigorous training programme. It is
necessary in Europe for fishing boats but only for big vessels. probable that the reasonableness of underwriters has made
Water pumps and chemical apparatus are considered ade- owners feel secure as regards safety but, in the end, a balance
quate. The reason may be that jfe Europe enly boats of 100 is established by experience and whoever is losing will, in due
tons or so are built of wood but in the United States big course, stiffen his demands. The fact that underwriters have
13801
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
not been strong in pressing for better safety explains to some and that is correct. In some instances there is nothing more
extent the use of poorly engineered systems. The statements than a framed opening through the bulkhead or an opening
made by Miller, which are derogatory to the CO t systems, with an expanded metal lathe-type door fitted between the
would not be possible if there were a set of good regulations forepeak and engine room. Rather than maintain this con-
which had to be observed when installing them. The U.S. dition it would be better to alter the bulkhead or fit a tight
Coast Guard have adequate rules and regulations to assure closing door, to make separate compartments of the forepeak
the owner and underwriter of safety, particularly against and engine room. Two separate inert gas systems could then
engine-room fires. One control near the main exit from the be used, giving greater efficiency and greater fire protection
engine-room appears to be adequate. If the flooding system than that of a single system. Actually portable fire extin-
is to be used the presumption must be that portable extin- guishers are considered best if the crews would stand a
guishers have failed to control the fire and in such circum- continuous watch thereby being on hand at the start of any
stances nobody will be in the engine-room. If the system is fire.
in accordance with Coast Guard specifications there should In the southern California fleet double acting manually
be no need to secure the compartment. operated portable hand pumps are being installed and repre-
Regarding the danger to lives of men in the engine-room, sented to produce adequate pressure to furnish fog to cool
an experience on a large diesel vessel is illuminating. A crank- the internal atmosphere of compartments in which a fire
case explosion led quickly to an extensive fire going up the exists. By trial, the pressure produced has proved inadequate
engine-room casing And three men came out badly burned. to furnish other than a heavy spray. Mechanically-driven
The chief engineer was at the controls of the total flooding pumps capable of developing constant pressure at the nozzles
CO a system. Athird engineer was still in the engine-room. will produce a good heat-quenching fog.
What was to be done ?
was obvious that the engineer could
It
not get out alive so the gas was discharged and volunteers,
fitted with suitable breathing apparatus, went into the engine- TRAINING
room as soon as the fire was extinguished. They brought out
three men, all unconscious. Two of these men are alive to-day. Mr. William C. Miller (U.S.A.): Naval architects can con-
The protection of engine-room and/or forepeak space tribute towards safety at sea by designing strong ships with
together or separately depends upon the tightness of the good stability, plenty of freeboard, and with engines of the
" "
bulkhead between the spaces and the contents of the forepeak. right power for the hull. The quality of good design
Experience shows that simplicity in operation is important includes crew accommodation as well as the actual hull design.
and a system protecting both spaces simultaneously is the In the southern California fishing fleet there has been rela-
safest. The loss of gas in an area not on fire is compensated tively little loss of life as the result of fishing operations. Even
by possible success in extinguishing the fire. in launching lifeboats and using small boats the crews seem
If a fire in the engine-room is not extinguished quickly there to be accomplished. The factors involving safety at sea are
will be no chance to use water pumps or other equipment. both physical and human, and they are important in the
In this respect the value of the CO 8 flooding system was mechanical operation of fishing boats.
illustrated some time ago on a large diesel vessel. A fire Many people have expressed the opinion that the crews of
starting from a donkey boiler caused a short circuit in the fishing boats cannot be taught the proper use of their ships
main electric cables so that all the water supply was cut off and equipment through a safety training programme. Such
and the fire spread rapidly until it was put out by CO,. The is the attitude of a defeatist. A training programme can be
electricpower was then re-established and water hoses were formulated and carried out if the people behind it have faith,
used to extinguish the accommodation fires. will, and the determination to work. In devising such a
It is possible, of course, to carry a spare set of CO
8 cylinders, programme FAO might contribute much.
but experience and economics are against it on all sizes of The need to instruct fishermen in safety at sea seems to be
vessels. The possibility of a second fire on the same voyage is an international problem, although it is more acute in some
remote. areas than in others. The huge financial investment in the
The need to change fire protection systems because of southern California fleet where the boats range in size from
unsound engineering is unfortunate and is due to lack of 45 to 165 ft. (14 to 50 m.) and where one boat rhay cost up-
enforceable regulations and specifications. This has led to the wards of $750,000 (270,000) is in itself an incentive to
use of unreliable war surplus equipment, installed by persons owners to promote safety at sea. Many vessels have been lost
without adequate technical skill. Although such an installa- because the crew failed to pay attention to a particular item
tion is cheap in the first cost, it is ultimately very expensive at the proper time. They have sometimes abandoned ship
because of its unreliability. It would seem desirable to foster too soon without taking available measures to forestall the
practical regulations to ensure installation of adequate fire ship sinking or, in the case of fire, have not fought it with the
protection systems. means at their disposal.
About 32 per cent, of the losses in the southern California
Mr. William C. Miller (U.S.A.): Inert gas systems should be fleet arises from stranding, and the major cause of stranding
primarily designed to protect a compartment in which they has been lack of applied seamanship.
are installed, and a single system is good in a compartment Mechanical failures have little to do with these losses.
which can be completely closed. In tuna boats the main Mostly the reason has been navigational error. For instance,
deck divides the engine room into an upper and lower area in catching bait tuna clippers work in shallow coastal waters
but the cubic atmospheric content is undivided due to a large where, because of their great draft, the danger of stranding
is always present and can only be offset by the crew taking
open hatchway centrally located in the deck generally above
the vessel's propulsion engine. There is a bulkhead across the accurate depth soundings and maintaining the vessel in
area between the engine-room and the forepeak. Mr. de condition to operate clear of obstructions at all times.
Fever mentioned that the bulkhead is not tight in all cases Strandings often occur when skippers, devoting their attention
[381]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
to catching bait, take their vessels beyond the limits of their The whole point of training crews to do their duties properly
draft. and take the necessary safety precautions is excellently illus-
About 29 per cent, of the losses in the tuna fleet have been trated by the record of clippers operated by Mr. Petrich and
caused by fire, probably as the result of poor seamanship or his family. The ships are kept in first-class condition and the
mechanical failure, or a combination of both. Clipper crews crews are trained to carry out their duties properly. As a
>
are notoriously lax in their watches during voyages, conse- result the loss ratio of their clippers is about 80 per cent,
quently fires gain headway before they are detected, and then lower than that of the average.
it is often too late to extinguish them. From reports by the Mr. Frederick Parkes has asked for complete dependa-
crews and from general experience with these boats, it is bility and reliability of vessel, engines and equipment. Gener-
estimated that 90 per cent, of all total losses by fire could have ally speaking, these factors exist as he wants them. For
been prevented had the man on duty watch in the particular instance, engineers have developed machinery over long years
area been there and used available fire extinguishing equip- of experience and usually the engine itself will stand up to the
ment at the start of the fire. service demanded of it, but often it is in the care of inade-
About 25 per cent, of losses are due to the clippers sinking. quately trained personnel. If all the crews of fishing vessels
Here again lack of seamanship and mechanical failures both throughout the world were properly trained, particularly those
contribute to the disasters. The equipment which should be in very expensive vessels in which is installed complicated
used in some circumstances to prevent sinking is often lacking, machinery, the cost of maintenance would be very much lower
or if it is available on board, the fishermen lack the knowledge and so would be the expense of losses from various causes.
of how to use it. For example, it has been said that as much If a good boat is not properly operated it can become an
water runs through a clipper as around her when she is at unsound vessel in a very few years.
sea and loaded with bait, because the bait wells are supplied
with water through two through-hull fittings of 10 in. to Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.): Mr. Miller clearly makes
14 in. (250 to 350 mm.) diameter each and this water is one point, that the machine is tending to become the master
always under pressure from electrically driven centrifugal of the man. Scientists, naval architects and marine engineers
pumps. If the pipes are allowed to deteriorate, a break may produce devices which make a ship work almost automatically,
occur and, unless it is quickly detected, the vessel may be very but that calls for human beings with trained mental and
rapidly flooded. physical qualities to operate such a ship successfully.
Due to the construction of the boat the water runs forward
and she begins to go down by the head. Because of the size Mr. Francis Mlnot (U.S.A.): There is always some question
of the through-hull openings and the potential volume of regarding who 'are to be trained and what they are to be.
inrushing water, it is dangerous for the crew to go into the trained in. The New England trawling industry provides
engine-room area or the shaft alley to close the hull valves an example of the problems involved. Most of the New
when a break occurs, or to combat the situation inside the England trawlers are individually owned or owned by small
ship. This condition again stresses the need for attention-to- groups. In most of these bodies the crews get good wages and
duty watches. However, if crash mats and hogging lines were the skipper is well paid but the owner, who has made the
provided and used it would often be possible to save the boat. initialinvestment and who meets the cost for maintenance
There have been a number of occasions when a crash mat and repairs, is lucky to make any money. As ships become
placed over the entrance suction would have saved the ship. more and more expensive to build and operate it has become
Collisions cause about 7 per cent, of losses, and while increasingly difficult for an owner to make a profit. If a
there reluctance to ascribe them to wilful neglect there is
is trawler's engine does not develop the power the skipper thinks
no doubt that on many occasions they could be avoided. For necessary, the owner will be asked to put in a new engine,
example, reports from skippers on such collisions frequently probably with 50 per cent, more horsepower. Jf such an
ascribe the cause of the accident to the fact that two or more engine is put into a vessel which is, perhaps, 10 years old and
boats head for the same school of fish and a collision occurs never intended to have that amount of power, there are going
because neither skipper will give way until the last moment. to be difficulties with the hull. That would cost a lot of money
The skippers seem to ignore the International Rules. so the owner, because his profit is small, skimps on mainten-
Capsizing counts for another 7 per cent, of losses, and that ance and repairs. As a result, the trawler probably will not
is concerned with stability. Skippers should have proper operate efficiently during the following year so the skipper,
knowledge of loading and the use of the boat as well as the if he is a good one, will leave to take over a better ship.
use of bait systems, piping systems and brine systems. Tuna The whole tendency in these circumstances is a downward
boats have been lost, possibly because a bulkhead, subject to spiral of performance which may be aggravated if a trawler
pressure of water or brine, had given way, rapidly flooding has a bad catching season or the market price of fish drops.
adjacent, compartments and causing the vessel to roll over. In any case, owners are unlikely to have money available to
There is no definite proof that this has happened as these start training schemes. Of all the trawlers sailing from New
vessels have usually been lost in deep water, but the crew's England docks there are, probably, only about 400, com-
reports on the facts tend to indicate that a shifting of internal manded by the best skippers and fitted with the best equip-
weights due to structural failure has been responsible. ment, which yield reasonable profits for their owners.
In all these cases of loss of ships the lack of ability on the
part of the crews had some influence, so that it seems a very Mr. A. J. Wegmann (U.S.A.) As an operator of small vessels
:
sound proposal to draw up a training programme regardless in the Gulf of Mexico he had built a carefully planned boat
of how difficult and how long it may take to obtain results and had installed modern equipment such as an automatic
from it. The programme is certainly worth while because light plant, automatic steering gear and expensive shore-to-
when a ship is lost everybody concerned economically loses shore radio. The skipper of this vessel was an honest but
in one way or another apart from the possible disaster of loss inefficient operator and, in an effort to extend the night range
of life. of the very expensive radio equipment, he used a screwdriver
[382]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
to tinker with it. Then the automatic equipment on the light measures was carried to an international basis, it is something
plant went wrong. He removed some of it, and then found FAO could take up. A film certainly could be used to instruct
the equipment would not work efficiently, so he decided to fishermen in the use of new machinery and new methods.
operate it manually. ^He dealt in a similar fashion with the
othdr equipment and' the result was that not only did the Mr. Howard 1. Chapelle (U.S.A.): The question of
training
efficiency of the trawler suffer but a very expensive bill for crews has long bfcen a problem in the fishing industry on the
repairs had to be met. It would, of course, have been easy U.S.A. North East Coast. It is not a simple matter to solve.
to dismiss the skipper, but the chances were that the next man For example, in certain parts of New England the unions
would have been even more inefficient. require that an engineer be a full-fledged fisherman and only
This case provides an example of the need to instruct a part-time engineer. It must be kept in mind that a fishing
skippers and crews in the use of modern equipment. It would vessel goes to sea to do one thing as long as it can, and that is
surely be common sense to spend money on such an educa- to fish. The fishing industry does not exist for the purpose of
tional programme rather than constantly to be faced with creating boats. Boats are developed for the practical purpose
heavy for repairs as much as $5,000 or $6,000 (1,800
bills of fishing. It is unreasonable to expect to change the whole
or 2,100) at a time. In addition, there is the fact that each industry to provide a better boat, although it is quite right
time the vessel is brought into port she must be laid up for to look for a change. But how many people or firms in the
repairs, so that not only must a lot of money be spent fishing industry have the time or money to spend in helping
unnecessarily but operating time is lost. Further, misuse of to set up training programmes in North America? There is
the equipment may mean a breakdown at sea so that no catch room, of course, for training programmes in fisheries,
is made, which leads to a complete loss of income. sponsored by government agencies. But that is very different
Would it not be an advantage if crews were trained pri- from organizing a privately-sponsored programme and while
marily as to operation duties and the necessity to perform such a programme may be desirable it is not likely to be
these duties? developed by the North American fishing industry.
Mr. G. O. Huet (U.S.A.): Training of personnel can be very Mr. Olin J. Stephens II (U.S.A.): Fishing boats are very much
difficult. For example a new 50 h.p. engine was installed in a like other small craft; they are getting more and more com-
50 ft. (15.2 m.) tug-boat, and a propeller designed for it plicated all the time with the introduction of high-speed
to give a towing speed of 5 or 6 knots an hour. After the engines, electronic equipment, etc. With all this specializa-
" tion going on there is less and less contact between designers,
first trip the skipper reported Thflt propeller is all wrong ".
The skipper thought that he should use the full power of the builders and fishermen when in fact there should be an increase
engine but, if he did that while towing, he would overload in co-operation. An
effort should be made to get naval
it and the exhaust temperatures would go up. That would architects to go out in fishing boats so that they will produce
lead to trouble with valves and burned pistons and so on. designs andspecify equipment in the light of working know-
This was explained to the skipper, but for about 4 months ledge. no use putting in equipment which crews cannot
It is
he was continually urging that the propeller should be understand or work. Development must be gradual. Crews
replaced until one day experience during a heavy tow, must be introduced to new equipment and machinery and
while working with a bigger vessel, having a larger but trained in its use, step by step, and that calls for co-operation
improperly designed propeller, suddenly convinced him of the between all concerned.
efficiency of his own engine and propeller.
Mr. William S. Mines (Canada): Ownership seems to have
Mr. William C. Miller (U.S.A.): A training programme of some bearing on how much training and education can be
the type seconded by Mr. Wegmann should be put into opera- promoted. Fishermen who do not own their boats tend to be
tion among fishermen of all countries. Naval architects, careless in looking after and operating them. The Depart-
engineers, boat builders and other people seem generally to ment of Fisheries in Halifax, Nova Scotia, has therefore
favour such a programme. Motion pictures could be used promoted a programme for fishermen to own their own boats
ashore and afloat to educate fishermen. Tuna clippers on the and be more interested in taking care of them.
U.S.A. West Coast carry some motion picture equipment
with them which they use to entertain crews during their Mr. R. T. Whiteleathcr (U.S.A.): Although the U.S.A.
leisure hours. Such equipment would lend itself naturally fishermen are generally good seamen they are not sufficiently
to educating crews, especially as they have very little diversion trained to cope with all emergencies. Efforts to instruct
at sea other than watching motion pictures. The value of such and educate the fishermen have not produced encouraging
a method was proved in World War II when the military results. Demonstrations and exhibitions are not well attended.
services used films for instruction, and it would certainly pay There seems to be no real incentive among fishermen to seek
the fishing industry to make this use of motion pictures. the information which is available and some better procedure
To this end he has studied the needs to produce such films needs to be established.
and has developed plots and characters to create interest.
He has discussed this idea with the United States motion Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): There is no doubt about
picture industry and also with certain vessel owners, insur- the incompetence of some of the crews of fishing vessels so
ance and underwriters and suppliers of vessel equipment and far as seamanship is concerned. For example, about 1938
commodities, but has not found any willingness to provide he took a delivery trip on a tuna vessel which, at present-day
the money for such a programme although all of these people prices, would probably cost $400,000 (140,000). He woke up
recognize the need for and the merits of the plan. at 2 o'clock in the morning as the vessel was sailing down the
Pacific Coast and went to the bridge. The vessel was off the
Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.): If the idea of using motion Columbia River and he chatted with the captain. In the course
pictures to instruct the fishermen in seamanship and safety of the conversation he asked what light was shining from the
[383]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
coast. The captain told him but he felt the information was new boat whose owner asked him to test it for stability
inaccurate, so he pointed out several other lights and then Intuitive sense is needed in stability assessment and a man
" who
said to the captain You are heading right smack for Peacock has the technical qualifications is still not the right
all
Spit. That is the lightship over there and we should head that person to assess stability if he lacks this intuitive sense. In
" this case, when he stepped on the boat the water came half
way ". The captain replied quite casually Oh yes, maybe
you are right. Let's go that way ". So the vessel was turned way up the bulwarks. There was no need for any stability
about and fortunately his advice to the captain had been test. He told the owner that it would be necessary to take off
right and they headed towards the ocean. Such was the some of the deck tanks and put ballast in the hold. The owner
navigation skill of the captain of a $400,000 vessel. refused to do so although warned that he might lose his boat
He did not like the Government regulations but if such and probably drown himself and his crew. The facts con-
regulations for licensing a crew would ensure the employ- cerning the boat were sent to the insurance company but
ment of people who could navigate and keep the vessel off they still insured the vessel which a few weeks later was lost
the shore, then it seems there is a lot to be said for them. at sea. The mate was drowned.
These two examples show very clearly why insurance
Mr. Poul A. Christensen (U.S.A.): Safety at sea is not only companies are to be criticized. They could and should insist
a question of life and death for the individual but also for the on adequate standards. It is a matter of importance and
industry. If, for example, a man owns an inshore trawler urgency that the American Bureau of Shipping or some other
in the New England area, he must pay from $5,000 to $8,000 classification society should set up standards of construction
(1,700 to 2,900) a year for insurance premiums. This is a for wooden fishing vessels.
lot of money to be taken out of the boat's share of income
every year, and if these insurance rates could be lowered by Mr. William C. Miller (U.S.A.): What Mr. Hanson has said
having better-trained crews, the saving effected could be used about insurance underwriters is true. They have not paid
by owners to keep their boats in a better state of repair. attention to anything other than the dollar premiums and.
The New York Journal of Commerce gives lists of marine consequently, they have lost much financially.
casualties and it seems that almost every day an East Coast He had done many general condition, value and damage
trawler is disabled and is towed in by the U.S. Coast Guard. surveys for underwriters and his experience has been the same
There are about 2,000 trawlers actively engaged in fishing in as that of Mr. Hanson, particularly when a risk is not recom-
the area, which means that one out of six is towed in every mended. The undesired information is shelved and the under-
year. This is a very poor record. writers then get a report from another surveyor which enables
Certain Coast Guard regulations do apply to skippers of them to insure a vessel. In fact, there are many instances
inshore trawlers, but none apply to the engineers. While it is of underwriters sending out a surveyor who knows nothing
true that people generally want as little interference from the about the boat and is not qualified to survey it.
Government as possible, nobody objects to the fact that every
person must face a driving test before he is licensed to take out Mr. Arthur de Fever (U.S.A.) The facts stated by Mr. Hanson
:
a car. It seems reasonable that engineers in fishing boats and Mr. Miller are true. The 103 ft. (31.4 m.) boat mentioned
should pass some qualification tests. The common procedure by Mr. Hanson no longer exists. There seems to be an
at present is that, when a vessel is ready to sail, the skipper unlimited number of underwriters so that if one refuses to
goes to the nearest bar and employs the first man who says insure a bad boat, there is always another who will. He spoke
he is an engineer. from experience as he did much survey work for under-
Similarly, it seems reasonable that members of the crew writers.
should possess some qualification as seamen. He, personally, Many owners do not want to listen to surveyors mostly
would prefer to go fishing with an excellent crew and a bad because the recommendations made involve extra cost in
boat instead of an excellent boat and a bad crew. construction. There is also the fact that underwriters in
some cases do not insist on such recommendations beiag
Mr. William C. Miller (U.S.A.): Manufacturers of engines complied with by owners and many unsound vessels are
and other equipment ought to give more help than they have covered by insurance despite the most strenuous objections
in the past in teaching fishermen the correct way to operate of surveyors. One of the problems involved is that some
and handle engines and equipment. agencies handle 30 boats or more which represents, perhaps
$500,000 (180,000) in premiums. The agencies in some cases
can bring pressure on underwriters to insure poor risks by
INSURANCE COMPANY'S FAULT threatening to take away the entire account. In fact, these
poor risks may be considered by some underwriters as an
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): The insurance companies are overhead factor in their business but if enforceable regulations
largely to blame for the bad situation in the fishing fleets on were issued to cover standards of construction it would put
the U.S.A. West Coast. They insure vessels without insisting an end to this practice.
on an agreed standard of safety. For example, he had sur-
veyed a 103 ft. (31.4 m.) wooden vessel and in his opinion Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): There is a great number of
she was not fit to go to sea. She was built of very light sawn design defects in many of the larger wooden vessels. For
frames, and the floor timbers and keelson were made for small instance, there was a case of a tuna clipper in which the
boat instead of large boat construction. Frames were spiked difference between loading conditions caused the vessel to
into the keelson and there was only a 4 in. (10 cm.) ceiling. hog about 4 in. (100 mm.) between emptying and loading
The only bolts in the vessel were used in the shelf. The boat tanks. Obviously she was weak and this was reported to the
was badly constructed but, despite the adverse report, the underwriters. They should not have let her go to sea but they
insurance company issued a cover for it. issued a cover for her.
Another instance of bad construction was that of a brand However, he was opposed to Government regulations for
[3841
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
the construction of vessels because they would tend to be in the form of Notices to the Industry. For instance, when
inflexible, add to the cost of construction and would be difficulties were found in clearing bilge water from certain
difficult to enforce. Private enterprises should be able to fishing vessels the Ministry issued a Notice pointing out the
agree on suitable standards and it is to be hoped that the great value of the bilge injection in dealing with such leakage
losses sustained by the underwriters will make them keep a and of the necessity for keeping the bilge injection in good
close watch on construction and other features of fishing boat condition. The same Notice also pointed out the advantage
design. of carrying a flexible suction hose in the engine room and
provision for its attachment to one of the pumps. The use
Mr. R. T. Whiteleather (U.S.A.): Underwriters should set up a of such a hose would make it possible to keep the bilges, in
system whereby the owner who operates his boats with a high the machinery space, clear of water if the permanent bilge
degree of safety gets cheaper insurance. This would provide suctions were choked with din or ashes.
a dollar and cents incentive to observe good standards of
construction and to train crews to guard the safety of vessels. Dr. Gian Guido Bordoli (Italy): In Italy all boats, including
fishing boats, must be constructed according to the regula-
Mr. G. O. Huet (U.S.A.): When a concern is placing a great tions of Rina (Registro Italiano Navali), but there is no special
deal of insurance on boats and they have a vessel which a section for wood or steel fishing boats. The result is that the
surveyor will not pass, they bring pressure to bear on under- boats are often too heavy in construction, as a comparison
writers to cover the unsound ship. Naturally, the under- between Italian wooden fishing boats and those of other
writers are not going to lose the total business for the sake of countries will show.
one unseaworthy ship so they insure it. If regulations are to be
set up and enforced, there must be an enforcement body. Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): It is a constructive move to set
Merely to study the problem and make recommendations is up regulations or standards covering fishing vessels. In
not going to do any good. Canada the Steamship Inspection Service have rules con-
cerning all types of vessels, including fishing craft, and many
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): If underwriters are happy to take of these rules are good and practical and have led to improve-
bad risks in order to get business, it must be evident that the ments in construction.
serious operators have to subsidize the careless ones. It Onthe U.S.A. Pacific Coast there are practically no regula-
penalizes the good operator or increases the price of fish tions so far as fishing vessels are concerned, except in the
unnecessarily. case of lights and lifesaving appliances. Small wooden
vessels in the U.S.A., particularly tuna clippers, are mostly
1
Mr. William C. Miller (U.S.A.): As Mr. de Fever pointed constructed to builders own specifications and in many cases
out in agreeing with several speakers, some of the general that construction is not sound. It is for this reason that he
agents acting between the underwriters, the brokers and the had up a good standard of construction for such
tried to set
owners, have not only allowed a situation detrimental to the vessels. Steel vessels are generally built to the American
financial interests of underwriters and owners to develop, Bureau of Shipping Rules so that no great difficulty is en-
but have actually aided the development of the situation. The countered with them. In the case of tuna clippers the free-
desire on the part of some of the general agents to collect board is usually non-existent aft and, unfortunately, owners
their commission seems to override their moral obligation to will do all they can to eliminate whatever freeboard is pro-
the underwriters who have placed confidence in them. vided by the designer. If there were regulations governing such
a factor, then designers would have the right sort of backing
to produce tetter vessels. Marine underwriters form the only
RULES force that could back up designers in the U.S.A. at the present
time but they in many cases will insure a vessel in the full
Professor G. Schnadel (Germany): Mr. Miller, in discussing knowledge that its construction and stability are unsound.
the losses of tuna clippers on the U.S.A. Pacific Coast pointed
out that there are no rules laid down by classification societies Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): Government regulations
for the construction of wooden vessels in U.S.A. This was a stem from the desire of people to see that no individual can
Germany and it was ended by Germanische
state that existed in hurt the public, economically or physically. In his opinion
Lloyd laying down rules for fishing boat construction in no harm has been done in the U.S.A. by lack of Government
1939. There was some opposition to the rules at the start but regulations, but he felt that improvements in standards of
now they are used by boat builders and are accepted by construction should be made by the U.S.A. fishing industry
fishermen themselves. if it is to avoid a situation where the Government and people
believe regulations should be set up. The underwriters, the
Mr. S. A. Hodges (U.K.): In the United Kingdom the Ministry technical societies, and the fishing vessel owners, should take
of Transport and Civil Aviation is responsible for regulations an active interest in establishing standards Of construction
regarding the safety of life at sea. It has safety regulations for so that the need should not arise for Government regulations.
fishing vessels in respect of lifesaving appliances, fire extin-
guishing appliances, navigation lights and distress signals. Mr. L. Fernandez Muftoz (Spain) There should be regulations
:
In addition, of course, there are the general powers which the making it necessary to have two watertight bulkheads in
Ministry's surveyors have for detaining any ship they con- wooden boats, one in the forward end of the engine room
sider to be unseaworthy and the powers of the Minister to and another as a collision bulkhead. It may be said that in the
order a formal inquiry in open court into the loss of any ship. ordinary way boats have these bulkheads, but in practice they
All reports of casualties to British ships, including fishing have two holes in the bottom of the two bulkheads, so that
vessels, are also carefully examined and if the Ministry the water comes into the engine-room and must be dealt with
considers there is useful information in reports, it is published by a Lewis pump. When fish are put into the hold the boat
[385]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
trims forward and the water cannot get into the engine-room. be sealed. But, on inspection, he noticed that the crew had all
There is then no means of removing the water and in the past the hatch cleats off, and there was loose canvas laying around.
year he had seen five boats lost because of this fact. There They had taken the cleats off to make work easier, so he had
should be a regulation making it necessary to install a small informed the insurance company that he would accept no
hand pump for emptying the water. if the vessels were submerged for lack of proper
responsibility
hatch covers.
L. E. Penso (U.S.A.): The U.S. Coast Guard In another instance he had seen a 65 ft. (18.3 m.) boat being
does not wish to regulate the fishing industry. The Service built with 1 in. (2.5 cm.) planking. He would
never have
is faced with cuts in its budget and will find difficulty enough passed her as fit to go to sea.
in coping with its present responsibilities without adding These are two more examples of the reason why there should
fishing vessels to its list. The Service would prefer the fishing be an authority to issue and enforce regulations governing
industry to regulate itself. If regulations were introduced construction and safety at sea.
by the Government for the fishing industry the situation
might be parallel to that existing in small pleasure boat Mr. Arthur de Fever (U.S.A.): The American Bureau of
building. Coast Guard motor boat regulations are so loose Shipping will co-operate in the design and construction of a
that it is possible to operate a boat which is actually unsafe wooden vessel if they are requested to do so.
and there is not much the Coast Guard can do about that fact
without recommending that the U.S. Congress promulgate Mr. Jan-Olof Traung (FAO): They were invited to contribute
a new law. Rather than do that the Coast Guard has been a paper on safety at sea but they declined as they were
working closely with the Yacht Safety Bureau, the National apparently not interested in fishing boats.
Association of Engine and Boat Manufacturers and the under-
writers. An organization, known as the American Boat and Mr. G. O. Huet (U.S.A.): Who wants rules to be established
Yacht Council, is now being planned by these bodies. Its in the fishing industry? Is it the owner or the builder or the
purpose will be to formulate a set of standards for safe con- naval architect? An owner who wants to feel reasonably
struction and equipage of boats. The fishing industry could sure that his boat will be properly constructed- goes to a
join in that organization or set up a similar body on its own. competent naval architect who has had experience with the
Once such an organization is functioning, it will have a type of vessel concerned. The owner will get a good vessel,
technical board which will be divided into a number of and no rules adopted by any society, unless they could be
committees, one on equipage, one on construction, and so on. enforced, would be of any value.
It took a tremendous amount of work to start this new His experience with insurance surveyors in the south of
organization. It will have a president, a vice president and a the U.S.A. shows that they had been severe in their appraisals.
board of directors, but the technical board, composed of Most of them are competent men who have had many years of
24 technicians, will be the real working group. It will deal experience in marine work. He had seen cases where surveyors,
with the practical problems of yacht design and construction. not thoroughly familiar with small boats, have called in
somebody with such experience to give an opinion and make
Mr. Olin J. Stephens II (U.S.A.) :It might be a good thing for an appraisal.
the U.S.A. fishing industry if it became associated with the The Bureau Veritas have rules for small wooden boat
American Bureau of Shipping. At present the Bureau's rules construction and at one time Lloyds also had rules for build-
do not cover wooden boat construction in a practical way but ing small boats and yachts. Rules have also been made in
there is evidence that the Bureau would be interested in the the U.S.A. and they can be used if anyone wishes to use them.
problem if they were invited to consider it. With the help and A technical section can be established in an organization
co-operation of fishing vessel designers and builders they to study rules, whether it is an association of naval architects,
would be able to set up standards and rules as a guide for or of people interested in boating. The function of tech-
boat builders and underwriters. nicians in the group concerned would be to find out where
failures occur and try to avoid them in future boats. It is all
Mr. William C. Miller (U.S.A.): The problem has been a matter of organization. Establishing codes in any industry
discussed with the American Bureau of Shipping but they calls for the co-operation of the various members of that
do not want to become involved in the fishing boat business industry. is the only way in which progress is made and
That
if it would mean they would have to argue all the time with it is continually being done in every profession or industry.
owners about the cost of construction at specified standards. That applies to progressive naval architects or to mechanical
If a fishing boat is to be built according to the specification engineers.
of any classification society there will be extra expense so that Mr. Huet asked what was being attempted in the discussion,
the first need is to convince owners that the standards involving what was the object of setting up the rules and what were
the extra expense are essential. they trying to protect ?
He, personally, did not want Government regulations for
the fishing boat industry. It would be far better for the Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): Boats are defective.
industry to set up its own standards for construction and
safety. Mr. Huet: Who builds these defective boats? The boat
builder or the naval architect?
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): There are many practices current
in boat building and in boat handling which call for some sort Mr. Hanson: The insurance companies, the boat builders and
of regulation either by an authority set up by the industry or owners are all involved. The attempt to set up rules and
by the Government. For example, he had provided on certain regulations is an effort to make progress. Apparently the
vessels low hatches for use in handling salmon. The hatches American Bureau and many naval architects and boat
were secured by cleats and covered with canvas, which was to builders think it is logical to set up standards. Mr. Huet was
[386]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
the first person who had said there was something wrong to design boats that are seaworthy, and no boat builders
with forming a better set of regulations. Mr. Hanson added, wanted to construct a boat to go to sea, knowing that they
that, as a boat builder, he would not be afraid of any are building a wreck.
regulation. Mr. Eddy said he appreciated the point.
Mr. R. L. Eddy (U.S.A.): Mr. Huet brought up a pertinent Mr. Howard I. ChapeUe (U.S.A.): Regulations and safety at
point when he asked who wants regulations, the builder, sea concerned connected with the fishing industry. There
all
the owner or the Coast Guard? Nobody suggested the are two distinct points of view involved, and naval architects
fisherman and the fisherman is certainly the man mostly in and those interested in safety want fundamental and sensible
need of regulations. rules to be adhered to. In many places the livelihood of a
The fisherman depends on people with knowledge to build number of people are involved in small boat operation. Much
him a vessel with good sea-keeping qualities. He depends of that operation is close to the shore where safety regulations
on engineers for power plants that will require a minimum of are not really required, and where, if accidents occur, the
technical know-how to prevent breakdowns and blow-ups. fishermen can usually walk ashore.
Regulations would be excellent for the fisherman if he was There is one group of people involved in both safety at sea
helped economically. For example, the State of Louisiana and the economic problem the owners. If they are not
have some 6,500 vessels that often fish at a distance of more interested enough to put pressure on the unions, the under-
than 15 miles at sea. Four attempts to introduce regulations, writers, and the classification societies, then there seems little
allegedly sponsored by unions, failed to consider that in effect hope that much can be accomplished by proposing rules
those regulations would have prevented the fishing popula- or standards. It is in their interest to do so although, of course,
tion in Louisiana in participating in any off-shore industry there are many difficulties in the way of establishing a set of
that might later be developed. A fishing vessel was defined regulations. As pointed out by Mr. Huet, there is no restric-
as any vessel over 5 gross tons operating offshore, in excess
1 tion on the owner and designer co-operating with the builder
of 15 miles at sea, engaged in commercial fishing. In effect to construct a vessel according to the standards of the
that definition would have prevented some of the 6,500 American Bureau, the Bureau Veritas or Lloyds rules. There
vessels from operating in Louisiana. Other Bills introduced is no rule that prevents architects and builders from
adopting
had the same effect and no consideration was given to the the U.S. Coast Guard regulations so far as they are applicable
way in which a shallow draft vessel operated. They would to small vessels in such matters as the insulation of fuel tanks,
have been required to have licensed mates and pilots. Who fuel lines, fire extinguishing equipment, etc. All the informa-
can get lost in the Gulf of Mexico? There are only two tion is available, ready to be taken. If the owners will not
ways of sailing there in and out. It is only necessary to take it and do not want to take it, or if they would rather
drift along to land on a safe shore. build cheap and take risks, what can be done about it ? There
Regulations would also have required all kinds of engineer- seems to be little more possible than to express an opinion.
ing equipment which was not necessary and would have Mr. Hanson has mentioned cases of bad construction such
increased the draft of a boat to a point where it would not as occur all through the U.S.A.
have been able to pass round marsh and tide lands. Due There are two things that to some extent nullify the state-
consideration has not been given to the fact that the fisher- ment made. InCanada, for example, a great number of
men vary around the coast. They are not all deep water smaller boats are built under the rules of their Steamship
sailors and they do not all sail big ships which have to catch Inspection Service. The Service must approve the plans
90 tons of fish on each trip to pay their way. Some of the before long voyage vessels are constructed and this is a very
vessels need only 5 tons of fish and they make money on that healthy situation in many ways. It does add to the cost of the
small catch. vessels, and it is very difficult to depart from certain standard
forms laid down, but the scheme has worked well. The men
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): Regulations of some kind will be concerned with the regulations are sensible and competent.
established, perhaps not by the Government but by the There are differences of opinion between designers and the
industry setting up a standard as a guide. The discussion Inspection Service, but this happens also in dealing with the
has been relative to larger vessels and they certainly need U.S. Coast Guard. He had dealt with the Coast Guard
regulations. There are boats being built which he certainly while in the Army and they were reasonable, but their
would not pass as seaworthy. For that reason some regula- requirements added to the cost. The matter goes back con-
tions should be set up. This does not mean that laws have sistently and constantly to cost. If the owner is not willing
to be passed. What is needed is a set of regulations and a to spend the money to have a safe vessel there is nothing the
standard of construction that can act as a guide. designer can do, or the boat builder or others connected with
the vessel. Designers and other people can only enforce
Mr. R. L. Eddy (U.S.A.): There is no question but that is standards of construction when those standards are supported
true. But a letter of recommendation to owners signed by by Law. So the problem resolves itself into a choice of two
important naval architects, must have weight and some day conditions: (1) that in which owners of vessels want sound
might have the effect of a law. Consideration must be given construction and will support naval architects and boat
to all phases and consequences of setting up standards or a builders in building safe craft; (2) enforcement of standards
greater injury may result to the fishing industry. by Government regulations. One or the other will come
about in the U.S.A. and when this happens the standards
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): Referring to the examples he will have to be enforced either by the Government or by an
had given of loss of life through bad construction, he said organized group within the fishing industry.
that he would be glad to be instrumental in setting up stan-
dards which insisted on vessels being so built that the loss Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): Mr. ChapeUe seems to think that
of life could be avoided. All naval architects certainly wish no more than a letter to the American Bureau and to the
[387]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
underwriters is necessary. That is not a question of law but was introduced, the people behind that Bill were the widows
something for the betterment of the fishing industry. It of men lost at sea and the wives of fishermen who did not
provides a guide and that is what he (Hanson) is striving want their husbands to be drowned. They did not have a
for, not to make laws but to introduce standards of good union or pressure group, so they did not get very far. If
construction throughout the fishing industry. more pressure were exercised through such groups, some day
a law might be passed. This is the sort of situation which the
Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): There has been some fishing industry might wish to avoid, therefore it must set its
confusion about what is proposed and what is not proposed. own house in order.
He had suggested means of meeting these problems by form-
ing a committee, an international committee. Hanson had Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): The failure of ships can be
suggested writing a letter and that action be taken immediately. classified under four headings: (1) stability and freeboard;
(2) life-saving equipment; (3) fire fighting and bilge pumping
Mr. William C. Miller (U.S.A.): Wherever one goes there is equipment; (4) structural strength.
certain to be some degree of laxness in building, surveying There have been international conferences dealing with all
and engineering. He recalled an incident concerning several four of these categories, and international regulations have
tuna clippers sailing from New Orleans to San Diego, where been issued for larger ships. It would be a good plan if the
they were given a rigid inspection because they had en- . U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service sponsored four committees,
countered great mechanical difficulties on the way to San with members drawn from the underwriters, fishing vessel
Diego. The boats had been given a clean bill by a surveyor owners, skippers, architects and the Coast Guards, to draft
at New Orleans although they had been fitted with war recommendations in these four categories. If this was done
surplus gear. In fact the surveyor's report went into detail the data presented in Mr. Hanson's paper would be immensely
about how the gear had been taken out and examined and valuable in providing a framework. On this data strength
passed as being perfectly all right. But when the clippers standards could be set up. The four committees could make
got to San Diego the bearings on the shafts were revolving tentative recommendations and then FAO could do an
in the case bore and the gear teeth had been galled and excellent job in sponsoring international co-operation in
broken. The machinery broke down so badly that one of the developing such standards. Such a scheme as this would take
boats had to be towed the last several hundred miles. In all years to become effective but, if properly carried out, it would
probability the gear installed had been used during the war eventually ensure two things: (i) it would show that the
and had been, presumably, repaired on the battlefield. Shim industry did not need Government regulations; (ii) if public
brass had been used and the shims had been placed round the opinion insisted on Government regulations, the recom-
outer circumference of the bearing race and between the case. mendations of the committees would provide acceptable
Once in operation they began to rattle and loosen and fall into standards.
the gear. Putting that ship back into operation was a very
expensive job because of the laxness and inefficiency of a Mr. Arthur de Fever (U.S.A.): The proposal to set up an
surveyor in New Orleans. industrial or safety committee is excellent and is in line with
proposals he had made to underwriters. He had suggested
Mr. G. O. Huet (U.S.A.): The Bureau Veritas and Lloyds a committee of naval architects, and surveyors from various
have rules and regulations for the construction of fishing areas, to get more knowledge of how the vessels in these
vessels and small craft, but the American Bureau have no such areas were built and operated. So far there had been little
rules. The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers response from the underwriters and no doubt the rivalry in
are concerned naturally with larger vessels but they have the insurance business stands in the way of forming such a
taken an interest in the last few years in trying to establish committee.
information regarding small vessels. Such boats, and the Surveying a vessel should start from the time when the keel
construction of them, had been discussed at local sections of is laid. After the vessel is completed and fitted out a multitude
the Society and several papers have been written on the of faults can be hidden. For example, he had seen vessels
subject. under construction where the ceiling was not doubled, par-
Mr. Huet said that, as an architect, he is very much inter- ticularly in thicker dimensions of 3 to 4i in. (75 to 115 mm.).
ested in progress towards establishing correct methods, and is In some vessels edge fastening and shoe boltings of bilge
a member of the Society of Small Boat Designers, formed to strakes are very important for stiffness but they would be of
study and correct failures in small boat construction. no value without doubling the ceiling.
Recently it was discovered in a 96 ft. (29.3 m.) vessel that
Commander I* Penso (U.S.A.): People talk about laws
. the bait tank was made of } in. (3.2 mm.) metal. That is
and regulations and recommended standards but there is a criminal. The boat was built on speculation and no inspection
great difference between the three. The organization pre- services, no engineers and no naval architects were concerned
viously suggested for the fishing industry, composed of in its construction. It is a type of vessel that is dangerous.
operators, builders, naval architects, underwriters and other
interested parties, would be concerned with producing a set Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): Referring to the question of
of minimum standards and an owner would not have to standards he said his object was to introduce better construction
build to these standards if he did not wish to do so. However, methods into the U.S.A. fishing industry.
insurance companies would use it as a basis for insuring boats,
and surveyors would use it as a standard for recommending Mr. William C. Miller (U.S.A.): In the original draft of his
"
insurance to underwriters. In that way a man who did not paper, Safety at Sea ", was included a full set of actual
meet at least the minimum standards would have to pay more specifications for the construction of a west coast tuna clipper
for his insurance, which would be a fair thing. as prepared by the naval architect and owners concerned.
With respect to Mr. Eddy's remarks, when the Lane Bill The specifications stated that a 600 h.p. 6-cylinder diesei
[388]
HULL SHAPE AND SAFETY AT SEA DISCUSSION
engine, two six-cylinder auxiliary engines, two 10 in. (254m.) the lightness of her construction and the inadequacy of her
vertical bait pumps, one 3 in. (75 mm.) fire pump, one 3 in. fastenings. Regardless of these facts and conditions this
bilge pump, and many other items of necessary equipment vessel was insured on the strength of other survey reports.
were to be installed, but actually neglected to specify whether
these things were to be marine or stationary equipment, etc. Professor G. Schnadel (Germany): There are great differences
The only reference to the construction of the hull was dimen- concerning safety regulations governing ships of different
sions to be 104 to 105 ft. x 25 ft. x 12 ft. 8 in. (31.7 to 32 m. countries, but the aim must be to get acceptable rules for all
x 7.64 x 3.86 m.), raised deck type tuna clipper, and it wa; countries and to guard the safety of life at sea. This can best
also stated that the deck-house was to be of tear-drop design be done through an international organization, such as the
All in all, the specifications for the construction of this clippei United Nations, although it is difficult to change the laws and
at a cost of $320,000 (115,000) appeared highly inadequate the rules and regulations in the various countries. It is
to lay down the details from which to build any satisfactory apparent, however, that naval architects and others competent
vessel. The naval architect's drawings were also incomplete to judge the safety of ships are of much the same opinion on
and unsatisfactory from a detail point of view. From his the subject, and so it should be possible to improve the safety
survey and examination of the vessel after her construction of fishing craft in a manner similar to that brought about in
and the reports he issued to interested underwriters it could merchant shipping by the International Convention for the
be the same vessel Mr. Hanson spoke of when he referred to Safety of Life at Sea.
[389
OIL ENGINES FOR TRAWLERS
by
G. S. HEPTON
a small percentage of home and middle
LXV
ONLY water, and none of the long distance, trawlers
in the British white fishing fleet were propelled
TABLE
by diesels before 1939. This was mainly due to adequate
supplies of good quality cheap coal and the uneconomic
initial costs of new construction incorporating diesels.
Since the war, the high cost of running steam engines
and boilers with inferior coal, and the unstable price of
boiler oil, has caused the owner to look to the diesel
as a more economic form of power. There are con- due mostly to overheating caused by engines running
siderations in selecting the best type of machinery for overloaded.
arduous fishing duties. Manning, economy, easy main- Four-cycle engines: The lighter and fast running
tenance and initial cost all have bearings on the ultimate engine has proved very successful and gives a high
decision. standard of performance, both in the two- and four-cycle
It can be appreciated, therefore, that the change from types. The future unit for the drifter trawler may well
steam to diesel has created great difficulties for the be a high-speed engine, driven through a reduction
engine-room personnel, and training ashore has had to gear box, having an isolating clutch for the engine to
be organized for the various types of machinery which operate the winch drive unit at the forward end.
have been installed. Winch: In this class of vessel, the winch, belt-driven
Diesel manufacturers sell their products on the brake from an extension of the forward end of the main engine
horse power output. The post-war designs submitted shaft, has drawbacks, namely: (1) slipping of the belt
by the majority of them have been, for production under load; (2) limited power; (3) non-reversibility.
reasons, engines which are principally used in industry, To overcomethe slipping of the belt, an Airflex clutch
with only a small percentage going into vessels. As land has been tried with a chain and sprocket drive and,
engines are not successfully adaptable for marine use, although this is a great improvement, the use of a
difficulties have often arisen. hydraulic drive from the main engine is really the
All diesel engines selected for use in fishing vessels efficient method. This principle now
being adapted
is
must be derated by 15 per cent, to 20 per cent, for con- in new construction. The power required is 100 b.h.p.
tinuous running to insure against overloading and the For 100 ft. (30.5 m.) vessels, where drifting is not
inevitable breakdowns which can occur at sea. usually part of their duties, similar propelling machinery
The home and near water fleets are now gradually has been adapted and no major difficulties have been
being replaced with diesel-driven vessels and the steam encountered. With good lines, these vessels can obtain
engine will no longer have a place in new construction. 10 knots steaming at 350 b.h.p.
DRIFTER TRAWLERS MIDDLE WATER AND FAROE CRAFT
Types of machinery fitted for the drifter trawler class of More powerful vessels have always been used for hake
vessel, with a length of between 80 to 90 ft. (24.4 to fishing, as well as for Faroe and Iceland fishing in the
27.4 m.), are listed in Table LXV. finer seasons.
No major defects have arisen with this varied class of In selecting the machinery, it must always be remem-
power drive, but the chief cause of mechanical troubles bered that it is common to use more power when
has been as follows: trawling than when steaming. This is because of the
Two-cycle engines: Piston and liner wear is excessive, heavy iron bobbins and the extra large trawl doors that
[390]
ENGINES OIL ENGINES FOR TRAWLERS
have lo be towed in 200 to 250 fm. (366 to 457 m.), instance, such an engine using marine fuel and running
usually at full speed. In these conditions, propellers for three years on arduous duties, showed little cylinder
should be designed to absorb 25 per cent, less power wear and required only piston ring renewals.
when steaming. By doing this, exhaust temperatures For these larger vessels, the electric winch power
will not be excessive when trawling. should be at least 250 h.p., to have sufficient reserve
Table LXVI shows a typical example of a four-cycle for all conditions.
turbo-charged engine:
GENERAL
FRESH WATER COOLING
TABLE LXVI
imperative that all diesel machinery should be fresh-
It is
Brake horse- Exhaust
water cooled so that temperatures can be fully controlled
power r.p.m. temperature
Trawling . 600 200 650F. (343C.) at all times. Much trouble has arisen through the crude
Steaming . 500 230 500F. (260C.) method of using sea water, which has led to cracking and
Test bed . 723 250 TOOT. (371 C.)
corrosion of liners and cylinder heads, and to other
breakdowns.
If the propeller has been designed to absorb all the AUXILIARIES
power when steaming, the engine would be overloaded Auxiliary machinery must be derated to reasonable
when towing the gear, with the inevitable result of revolutions and adequate reserve of electric power
trouble.
supplied, which is usually on the low side. When the
The engine should not be than 700 h.p. for this
less demands of radar, echo sounder, winches, direction
class of fishing and the length of the vessels is usually electric electric
finders, searchlights, pumps, heating,
120 to 130 ft. (36.6 to 39.6 m.). are considered, it is clear that a reserve of
windlass, etc.,
Best results have been obtained without reduction a necessary asset.
power is
gears for this higher and slower-running
power,
machinery, about 230 r.p.m., is recommended. ELECTRICAL POWER
Due to the deep-water work and the need for manoeu-
In diesel trawlers the electrical power is supplied by the
vrability of the vessel, electric winches are recommended.
" " auxiliary engine generators. Some are also fitted with a
The Ward-Leonard system is the usual type in
belt-driven generator off the main engine, having a
service and is very reliable and efficient. A diesel of
a great value on
voltage control regulator. This is
175 b.h.p., to drive the electric generator, is required to
long runs and is strongly recommended as a standard
give a winch output of 150 h.p. and it should not be
fitting.
any less. Extraordinary loads and overloads often
Where an electric winch generator is fitted it is
occur but diesel-driven trawlers in this class have been
good
practice to increase the field generator exciter so that
remarkably successful from all points of view.
in an emergency, or a breakdown of the supply from the
auxiliary machines, fishing can be continued by using
DEEP SEA TRAWLERS current from this source, the winch diesel becoming the
power drive.
Diesel machinery recommended for large trawlers should
again be well derated: it must stand up to continuous LUBRICATION
running without trouble. Initial costs are increased Correct lubrication through filters and separators is
by this method of selection but they are repaid by the the keynote to efficiency in the engine room and to the
engine being adequate for the job. life of the engine.
FUELS
TABLE LXVI I
The grades of fuel, generally made specifically for diesel
Derated use, available in Britain are gas oil, which is a distillatcd
Length of vessel b.h.p.
between perpendiculars recommended fuel, and a marine diesel fuel, which may be either a
150ft. (45.7m.) 850 or a blended fuel. The be said to
160ft. (48.8m.) 950
distillate fuels may
170ft. (51.8m.) 1,000 be covered by British Standard Specification No. 209/
180ft. (54.9m.) 1,200 1947 which is subdivided into Class and Class "A"
"
B ", embracing in both cases limits for tests such as
ash, Conradson carbon and sulphur. In marine circles,
" "
Reduction gears have not generally been used, and gas oils would approximate to Class stipulation, A
the straight drive is to be preferred. although not necessarily so in respect of ignition quality.
" "
The well-known opposed piston engine is very suitable Those within Class B arc more familiarly known as
and has been used with great success and only the present marine diesel fuels. All fuels within Class
"
A " in
initial cost prevents much more liberal use of it. In one British Standard Specification No. 209/1947 also meet
[391]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
" "
Class fi stipulation. The specification does not, the lubricating oil and quicker cylinder and piston ring
therefore, attempt to describe two completely different wear.
"
grades, but lays down outer limits for Class B" PROPELLERS
" "
grades with closer ones for Class A fuels, so that The common four-bladed cast-iron propeller has been
users may have a choice according to the type of
generally used in the smaller vessels, but this practice
equipment.
is changing gradually. Many diesel vessels are still fitted
In high speed main and auxiliary machinery, with
with inefficient propellers, mostly due to high initial cost
revolutions from 300 to 1,000, gas oil should always be
and the fear of possible damage from trawl doors and
used, because of the trumpeting of injectors and stoppages
for cleaning that happen when marine diesel oil is warps.
The controllable pitch propeller, tested out in one
used.
British trawler, has shown its advantages over all other
Marine diesel oil is quite a satisfactory and economical
types, but it is expensive and there is danger of a long
fuel forslow-running main engines, providing it is pre-
heated and centrifuged. Little liner wear has been found delay in repairs after damage, causing loss in days at
sea.
under these. ideal conditions but care should be taken to
avoid water and sulphur deposits, which leave a small Correctly designed bronze propellers should be a
standard fitting on all diesel trawlers, to ensure perfect
percentage of sulphuric acid in the crank case and lead
to shaft corrosion. balancing of the machinery and again it must be stressed
that the present rating of diesels should be taken into
careful consideration when the propeller is designed.
INJECTION EQUIPMENT
Experience has been very costly to the trawler owner in
It is of the utmost importance that the injection equip- this field, and instances can be shown where propellers
ment is properly maintained, to ensure that nozzle designed to absorb the power output of diesels have
deposits, which are also influenced by sprayer per- caused overloading of the engine.
formance, are kept to a minimum under all working A very bold step was taken by B. A. Parkes in intro-
conditions. Faulty combustion arising from these ducing the diesel-engined trawler into all classes of
deposits can result in troublesome operating difficulties, fishing, and the diesel builders have gained a lot of
such as excessive combustion chamber deposits, ring experience at his expense. But the ideal marine diesel
sticking and port blocking, increased contamination of engine is still to be produced for the fishing industry.
(392]
MOTORIZATION IN CHILE
by
PAUL ZIENER
'TPHERE are about 20,000 small fishing craft in use Other reasons are strictly technical and, therefore,
in South America. Motorization presents different controllable.
J[
problems in the different countries. One problem
is common : the present fleet is made up largely of small
sail and rowboats, generally so small and primitive THE COMMERCIAL ASPECTS
that their motorization is not at all advisable from an The dominating factor of Chilean fisheries is its low
economical point of view. Proper mechanization of the economic level. Importers therefore import the cheaper
boats demands modified, larger hulls. motors such as lightweight gasoline and diesel motors,
** "
More than 2,000 motorized fishing boats of different generally called high-speed engines (1,800 to
types and sizes are in use in Latin American countries, 3,600 r.p.m.). Conditions in Chile are unfavourable for
some of them having been introduced as early as 20 their functioning and durability.
years ago. In certain zones of Argentine, Peru and Importers very often do not
have the technical
Northern Chile, fishing boats have been developed knowledge to judge the suitability of an engine for
which are admirably suited to the work they have to do. fishing, and fishermen generally have only vague ideas
But, generally speaking, these boats including modern about engines and rely on the salesman's arguments
imported vessels have not reached the same standard more than a buyer would in technically advanced
of efficiency in South America as in other parts of the countries. Another reason for the extensive use of such
world. This is due to several factors, some of which are engines in the Chilean fishing fleet is that during and
not purely technical and, therefore, change from country after World War II they were the only ones available.
to country. The unsuitability of the motors for Chilean fishing is
Although small steamships and motorboats have becoming more and more obvious, especially with the
been used in Chile since 1912 (nine steamships and three gradual increase of the tonnage of the boats. The
motor launches in 1915), the real motorization of the principal reasons are economic in the case of the gasoline
:
fishing fleet started about 1935, and it has progressed engine, the high cost of fuel consumption, and for the
very slowly. Of a total of approximately 4,500 fishing high-speed diesel, its high maintenance cost.
boats U952), about 1,200 have motors, some 330 being Canadian motors of heavier design and burning
small outboard engines. The number of motorized gasoline/kerosene were introduced during the war years
deep-sea fishing boats, not counting foreign vessels but, due to the characteristics of the Chilean motor fuels
actually fishing on the coast, may be about 70, and and other factors, these motors did not give the result
there may be about 400 powered coastal fishing boats of hoped for.
more than 3 tons displacement. The rest is made up of After the war, when the European motor manufac-
small craft. turers again could offer their products to Chile, there
The slow progress is due to economic factors, and the was a rising demand for engines of solid and simple
poor results of the motorization is due to difficulties construction and of lower cost of operation. Light
the origin of which nobody has bothered to discover. semi-diesels* and heavier gasoline and kerosene engines
In general and mistakenly they are ascribed to the have been introduced, the great majority of them small,
individuality of Chilean fishermen and to their inadequate of 5 to 16 h.p. and 800 to 1,000 r.p.m. They offer great
technical training, but a closer study reveals that they economic advantages to the fishery, despite their higher
are caused by factors far beyond the fishermen's influence. purchase price, and are used increasingly in coastal
Complexities are found in the Chilean marine engine fishing.
"
and fuel oil trades, in which commercial interests The heavy, slow-running semi-diesels, the real fishery
sometimes prevail in such a way that they hamper * " "
The term semi-dicscl is used for low-compression diescls (up
the satisfactory development of the mechanization. to 260-290 Ib./sq. in. ; 18-20cg./cm s compression).
[393]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
"
motors of other countries, have been known in Chile pulsive efficiency. The average for the whole fleet may
for years, because the coastal freight companies quickly be estimated at 30 per cent., but several boats work with
recognized their excellent qualities. They have not been no more than 5 to 18 per cent. Considering 50 to 55 per
1
installed generally in fishing boats because of their high cent, efficiency as obtainable, it is evident that such boats
price per h.p. Custom duties, up to 1950, were about consume fuel in a very unprofitable way, wasting up to
1 10 per cent, higher for these motors than for high-speed three-quarters of it.
diesels, and about 300 per cent, higher than for gasoline The highest efficiencyobtained with a slow-running
is
engines, partly because of the higher weight per h.p. propeller on a normal fishing boat. The motors with
A new law from 1950 excludes all marine engines high revolutions, directly coupled, or with insufficient
intended for professional fishing activities from import reduction ratio, give the lowest efficiency, and generally
duties. This measure favours the use of heavy motors burn the most expensive fuel, gasoline. Amazing results
and there is a trend towards them. are often obtained when these motors are replaced by
Full diesels with low revolution numbers are not used engines working on heavy fuel oil, because the advantage
due to their high initial cost and the maintenance of the cheaper fuel is added to that of the more efficient
problem. propeller.
The four types of motors available (with the exception For example, a boat with a 25 h.p. gasoline motor,
of the outboard engine which cover a transitory necessity) 3,600 r.p.m., which obtained a speed of 1\ knots at a
are as follows : fuel cost of CH&76. per hour, changed to a small
semi-diesel of 10 h.p., 800 r.p.m. and adequate propeller.
the gasoline motor;
It obtained the same speed at a fuel cost of CH$ 14.40
the high-speed diesel;
the small, light semi-diesel; per hour, a reduction to one-fifth.
The consumption of lubricating oil is generally lower
the heavy-duty semi-diesel.
with slower revolutions of the motors and a fleet com-
The price of these engines per h.p. is an almost constant posed of larger units will use both fuel and lubricant
ratio of approximately 1 2.2 2.6 :3.4. This is to say
: : more efficiently.
a heavy-duty semi-diesel costs 3.4 times as much as a The maintenance cost of the motors used in Chile is
gasoline motor. These figures are free from import high, the high-speed diesels being the most expensive.
duties. The frequency of serious breakdowns in these motors
An important difference in quotations ought to be in Chile is really remarkable. The loss of a vital part
pointed out: American engines are generally quoted such as a crankshaft is, in itself, an economic disaster.
without (or with very little) installation material; Euro- A replacement shaft for a 60 h.p. engine cost (1952)
pean ones with most of the necessary elements, and approximately CH$40,000 (130; U.SJ365) and up to
Scandinavian ones generally with complete installation, CH$150,000 (485; U.S.$1,360), for the larger engines
equipment and some spare parts. in use.
Such expensive spare parts are rarely kept in stock and
COST OF OPERATION delivery takes normally three to four months. If this
occurs in the best fishing or lobster season, economic
Based on the characteristics of the motor fuels obtainable
losses may be great, and there have been cases in
on the Chilean market and the fuel consumption of the
which such replacements broke again a short time after
common types of motors along the coast, the fuel cost
installation.
for one brake horsepower (b.h.p.) per hour has been
It is very difficult to arrive at even approximate figures
calculated as follows (prices April, 1953)*:
to show the maintenance cost of the Chilean fishing fleet.
Relation In some parts of the country, where facilities for efficient
Slow-running semi-diesel CHS 14 per b.h.p./hr. 1.00
repairs are scarce, there is a tendency among the fisher-
. . 1,
(20-100 h.p.)
Lightweight semi-diesel . .
1,43 1.26 men to leave the motors unrepaired and out of use when
(8-20 h.p.) severe breakdowns occur. Motors that have become
High-speed diesel 1,32 1.16
unserviceable shortly after purchase are sometimes found
(20-100 h.p.)
High-speed gasoline engine .
3,70 3.24 removed from the vessels and abandoned, even when
(8-60 h.p.)
repair is wholly justified. If such losses are considered
Slow-running gasoline engine . 3.86 3.40
(8-20 h.p.) within the general maintenance cost of the fleet as
they should the resulting figures must be high.
While the above figures vary little and can be con- About 330 outboard motors are used in the Chilean
sidered as constant (with a constant price), the efficiency
deep sea fishery. Although there are well-founded
of the propeller varies considerably from boat to boat
reasons for avoiding the use of such motors under severe
and is an important factor in establishing the true
conditions, the best makes of them have, in certain
economy. circumstances, given good service. But they are high
There are boats that work with an extremely low pro-
consumption engines and they suffer rapid wear and,
All the prices in tropical waters, extreme corrosion. The result is a
in this paper are given in Chilean Pesos
(1=CHS308; USS I=CH$ 110) high maintenance cost.
[394]
ENGINES MOTORIZATION IN CHILE
The use of an outboard motor, generally of 10 to 12h.p., Torsional vibrations in the shaft itself may be the cause
inthe small sea skiffs in Central Chile, is found to increase as breaks are invariably located close to the flywheel.
the catch by two or three times. To the individual Torsional vibrations may be accentuated, for instance,
fisherman this represents a slight economic advantage by unsatisfactorily selected diameter of propeller shafts,
and to the Chilean fishery as a whole the advantage is choice of the number of propeller blades, or a com-
more apparent than real. The fuel and maintenance bination of both. Deficient reverse gears, bad timing of
cost of the skiff and gear is approximately CH$1,800 injection with severe fuel knocks and, on wooden
(5.85; U.SJ16.50) per ton offish caught, which is very boats, over-heavy propeller ppsts, may bring vibrations
expensive compared to that of the modern motor- up to a dangerous point. Starting and combustion
trawlers operating on the same grounds, for which it is troubles, accompanied by severe fuel knocks, have been
only $260 (0.85; U.S.$2.35) per ton offish (a reduction noted during periods prior to the breakdown. Fractures
of one seventh). The trawlers obtain the same price for of the reverse gear and of the crankshaft have occurred
their catch as the skiffs and it is felt that the outboard simultaneously, which seems to indicate the direct
motor fishery will soon disappear. influence of badly-selected characteristics of propeller
In the lobster fishery, in the Juan
Fernandez Islands, shafts and propellers or a severe misalignment of these
outboard motors have been used for 30 years. There are parts. Misalignment of the propeller shaft (which may
57 specially designed dories operating around the islands develop in wooden boats after launching) is a common
with their outboard engines placed inboard. In this case fault in Chilean boats. Faulty bolting of engines is
the high consumption cost is of less importance because stillmore frequent.
of the high value of the catch. Certain technical features Fractures of connecting rods, camshafts, etc., on the
and facilities for sending the motors to the continent diesels are also troublesome where repair facilities are
for periodical overhaul, justify their use in this case. scarce, but they do not occur with unusual frequency.
Common on both outboard and inboard
repairs Fractures of vital parts are rarely seen in gasoline
motors are sometimes made difficult by commercial motors and troubles of importance are limited to the
rigorism. One trouble caused by the American com- reverse gears. The general cause is incorrect lubrication.
mercial pattern is that certain spares cannot be bought The fishermen do not distinguish between the reverse
from the same factory as the engines (parts manufactured gears working in an oil bath and those working dry with
by contractors). There have been instances of foreign grease lubrication.
contractors not delivering orders because they were too Outboard motors are very little affected by fractures
small or a needed spare part cannot be obtained without or unforeseen stops. They are, however, subject to very
buying a whole assembly, of which the spare is only a rapid wear, nearly all on replaceable bushings. They are
minute part. exposed to intense corrosion in Chilean waters which,
Experience in Chile has shown that motor designs with the extreme wear, has successively eliminated all
based on cheap replacement parts of short lifetime makes of inferior quality. Indeed, one Swedish factory
should be avoided. The expenses and inconveniences of now supplies 93 per cent, of all outboards used and this
importing such parts into Chile completely annul the has led to a sort of standardization. Bronze propellers
advantages of the system. Marine motors often arrive and bronze underwater parts are used and maintenance
damaged. While European motors arrive in boxes so is limited to frequent change of shaft bushings and
carefully packed that damage is held below per cent.,
I
cylinder heads. With this upkeep and minor repairs,
the North American motors arrive frequently in partially several outboard engines of this make have been used
broken boxes and damage runs to 5 to 20 per cent. for more than 20 years and are still working.
The life of cylinder heads is three months, even if they
are flushed with fresh water after each trip. Bushings
THE TECHNICAL ASPECTS lasttwo to four months and experience indicates that
Some technical problems are common to all parts of the they must be of white metal for protection of the steel
long Chilean coast. Perhaps the most important are the shafts, bronze bushings being liable to attack the Shafts.
breakdowns of vital motor parts, which should not occur Reversing mechanisms are rejected. On a few such
on engines working under favourable conditions. No engines the mechanisms are purposely set out of func-
thorough investigation has been made, but the causes tion, as they cause excessive wear and trouble. The
are known in part. Breaks on crankshafts are the most gasoline and lubricating oil obtainable in Chile are
serious. They occur mostly on high-speed diesels and excellent for outboard motors and there is no record of
they are more frequent in vessels constructed locally. combustion and lubrication troubles.
Breakage of crankshafts has also occurred on the heavy The semi-diesels which work to perfection in other
semi-diesels, because of faulty installation on curved countries show, in Chile, abnormalities. A carbon residue
foundation beds in locally built vessels. accumulates in the combustion chambers and on the
The causes of breakages in high-speed diesels are not pistons to such an extent that motors have to be dis-
so easily discovered. The main bearings of the motor mantled and cleaned every 24 to 48 hours of running.
can hardly be brought to misalignment; they are per- The motors are delivered from the factory adjusted for
fectly aligned even with a very careless installation. a different fuel to that found in Chile, but an adjustment
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
(o the proper injection point does not alter the combustion kerosene when the motor is heated up. Difficulties have
process to any extent. It is evident that these abnor- been encountered in the use of kerosene because of
malities in combustion, found on diesels and semi- abundant deposit of carbon residue on the spark plugs,
diesels and observed all along the coast, must hold some pistons and cylinder walls. This may occur if the motors
relation to the fuel oil used. are worked too cold (they should be kept hot), but even
on engines with automatic temperature control, there
is trouble. Research shows that available kerosene is
THE MOTOR FUELS not as suitable as that used in the countries where the
Diesel oil is imported from Aruba in the West Indies, motors come from. In Norway, a mixture of such low
or from Talara, Peru. The oil from the Aruba refinery grade kerosene with 25 per cent, of gasoline gives
(called 115) shows a slight advantage with regard to excellent results.
flash point and cleanness over that from the refinery of The facts are that Chile is importing diesels and semi-
Talara (called 116), but one can not select the first one diesels in increasing numbers but is not importing the
as both oils are sold under the same label. right fuel for their operation. But it is worth mentioning
Analyses show that both fuel oils are quite satisfactory that Chile possesses potential oil fields and is planning
for large diesel power plants with slow running motors a petroleum fuel refinery.
used extensively in Chile for mining, manufacturing,
electric power, etc. But for engines of the type and size GALVANIC ACTION AND ELECTROLYSIS
common in fishing, the oil is inadequate. Its deficiency
Galvanic action is exceptionally rapid in Chilean waters.
is not in heating value, nor in excessive water content
It is believed, but not confirmed, that the action is more
and impurities, as is often believed. It is in the poor
intense in ports where the Chilean nitrate is shipped.
ignition and burningqualities (not completely defined A European motor factory is actually testing new designs
by physical characteristics only), and most of all, in its with regard to corrosion on the Chilean coast, before
tendency to form residues in the smaller motors.
including them in continuous production.
An American manufacturer of diesels used extensively
Most motor factories have given little thought to the
in Chilean fishing boats, states that the maximum content
of residue (gum) tolerated by their engines is 75 milli- importance of this problem in tropical and sub-tropical
waters. There are, however, some engines, mostly North
grams per litre of fuel. After that there is excessive
American post-war designs, which are profusely provided
sticking of the rings. Tests made with oil available in
with zinc plugs and bars for protection. The bars are
Chile show a residue average of 188 milligrams per litre.
sometimes provided with special threads not used in
Another firm supplying semi-diesels states that with
Chile (or in South America) which is impractical.
Chilean fuel the injection of their motors must be
The usual metallic packings (copper-asbestos) are
advanced 18 to 20 deg. from normal on smaller sizes
found to accelerate corrosion under certain circumstances
(under 10 h.p.) and 6 to 10 deg. from normal on the
and have to be replaced by non-metallic ones. Rubber
bigger engines. Semi-diesels with hand-operated regula-
tion of the injection for different loads, should obviously spacers and ebonite incrustations prevent corrosion on
certain parts.
be the easiest to work on different fuels. In Chile,
Motor installations made without due consideration
however, there is considerable trouble, because the
" " to galvanic action are sometimes found. For instance,
fishermen are not engine minded enough to care there are records of iron fittings, in brass cooling water
about the regulation.
tubes, being eaten away in less than two weeks. The
Although the analyses of Chilean fuel give characteris- motors and boats were flooded. And there are instances
tics close to the qualities of A.S.T.M. grade No. 1-D,
recommended for the engines, some high-speed
of bilge water pumps delivering the water inboard in
generally
for 2,600 to 3,000 r.p.m., frequently
emergency cases. Imported boats are liable to have such
diesels, designed
accidents because generally they are not adequately
show defective combustion with abundant smoke when
at above 2,200. This has mis-
revolutions
protected against corrosion.
working
takenly been blamed on water and excessive impurities
and a few boats have installed strainers in their fuel lines, PROPELLER EFFICIENCY
without convincing results. When, on occasions, a Mistakes in establishing the correct relation between
Mexican fuel has been obtained (all other conditions propeller and boat are increasingly frequent in Chile.
being unaltered) the motors have run smoothly up to When the motorization of the fleet had just begun there
their maximum revolutions. was no such problem. Marine motors were almost
Peruvian diesel 41.0 A.P.I., Flash 165deg.F.
oil (gravity identical in design and standard propellers gave a
(74 deg. C), End point 580 deg. F. (304 deg. C), density reasonably good result in most cases.
0*818) shows the same effect as the Mexican oil. Now the motors are offered in special designs for a great
Mixing the fuel oil with 20 to 25 per cent, of kerosene, variety of hull shapes and speed ranges. And each motor
to improve the starting, has met with some success. A is commonly offered with different propellers cor re-'
certain number of motors are provided with double sponding to direct drive or different reduction ratios.
carburettor for starting on gasoline and working on Fixed or controllable pitch propellers are available.
[396]
ENGINES MOTORIZATION IN CHILE
The motor and propeller for a
selection of the right because several Chilean fishing methods require
fishing boat requires knowledge and experience in naval controllable pitch propellers for best performance.
architecture and fishing. It is not enough that the Cases of wrong motorization are seen. For example
propeller corresponds to the engine; it must also corre- a new-built boat of 40 ft. (12.20 m.) length, 10 gross
spond to the shape, speed, range and use of the boat. register tons, should, for a speed of 9 knots, have had a
The same motor of boats may
in three different types motor of about 60 h.p. at 600 r.p.m. and a propeller
require three different of propellers. In fact,
types with 28 cm.) diameter and 24 in. (61 cm.) pitch.
in. (71
propellers should be selected in each special case, a Instead, on recommendation of the motor-importing
standard propeller will not suit every boat. firm, a motor of 90 h.p., 3,600 r.p.m., direct drive, with
The Chilean fishing fleet operates with an estimated a propeller of 13 in. (33 cm.) diameter and 13 in. (33 cm.)
average propeller efficiency of 30 per cent., while 50 to pitch, was installed. In sheltered water the boat did not
55 per cent, should be obtainable. Trial and error during exceed 5 knots and outside the breakwater, under average
several years have established a fairly good propeller weather conditions, less than 4 knots. The manoeuvra-
efficiency in boats up to 3 tons, especially in the northern bility was dangerously bad even in sheltered water. The
zone. It is on the medium size boats, from 5 to 15 tons, small propeller of 13 in. (33 cm.) hidden behind a stern-
that the trouble is alarming, and these boats are being post of 7 in. (17.6 cm.) width, worked with an efficiency
used in increasing numbers. estimated at 3 per cent. The lack of slipstream impaired
1
Six semi-diesels of a well-known European make, the rudder action. The boat was useless for its purpose
with their standard propellers, were installed in tuna and the motorization proved a complete failure. Gener-
launches of the Northern Chile type and gave excellent ally, such cases can be remedied by the installation of a
results. Six more motors were ordered. In the meantime, reduction gear and a bigger propeller, but it was not
the factory had changed their propeller type, which was possible in this instance because the stern was built too
of an old design, for one incorporating all modern small to accommodate a normal propeller.
scientific improvements. The new propellers were fitted
to the second lot of motors and there was a considerable
decrease in speed. The fishermen put the old propellers GENERAL ASPECTS
on the new launches and obtained results as good as The Chilean fishermen do not resist the idea of
with the first lot. mechanization. Apart from the logical desire of the
An investigation gave the following result: These small boat fishermen to keep trawlers away from their
boats of fine lines and narrow beam, of light construction special fishing grounds, no serious antagonism between
necessary for the speed required by tuna fishing, should new and ancient methods isfound and the fishermen
have propellers of approximately 800 to 1,000 r.p.m., are quick to take advantage of technical improvements
narrow blade width and positive blade rake (because within the limit of their resources. In fact, it can be said
of the stern lines) and approximately in. (28 cm.)
1 1 that whatever technical progress is being made is due
pitch. The propellers of the old design fulfilled these to the individual fishermen and to private fishing com-
requirements, while the new propellers, with wide panies, Government institutions taking care principally
blades without rake and with 9 in. (23 cm.) pitch, were of social problems.
less efficient. Motor representatives are doing very little to promote
Based on this experience, there is a
reason to question sound mechanization. A certain lack of technical
the propulsive efficiency of the other tuna launches emphasis in the nation's fishery development programme
(about 200) in Chile and Peru. They are equipped with may be the cause. The technical improvements in Chile
similar motors of other makes, and with modern standard may be characterized as isolated experiments, and errors
propellers. No investigation has been made, but another committed and corrected in one locality are repeated
propeller design may improve their efficiency. in another, which indicates a need to co-ordinate plans
Controllable pitch propellers are not used in Chile, and efforts to promote mechanization of Chilean fishing
being rejected without reason. This is astonishing, vessels.
[397]
REMARKS ON FRENCH TRAWLER DIESELS
by
JEAN FAURE
following comments apply to four-cycle, single- normally at speeds which are very far from this overload
THE acting, slow-running, reversible, six-cylinder diesels,
fitted in the French standard post-war trawlers.
test and even from what is considered the normal running
condition, they have therefore a safety margin.
ENGINES FOR 42 m. (138 ft.) TRAWLERS ENGINES FOR 32 m. (105 ft.) TRAWLERS
Power 800 h.p. at 200 r.p.m. After five years in service, Power 450 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. These motors have been
or 30,000 hours of running and continuous operation working satisfactorily and do not call for special remarks.
during 11 months a year, these motors are in good
condition. Periodical checks have shown that the
ENGINES FOR 28 m. (92 ft.) TRAWLERS
cylinder liners have worn, not inside, in the region of
Power 400 h.p. at 375 r.p.m. The winch is driven off the
piston ring friction, as expected, but on the external side
main engine as inmost small fishing boats and the engine
in contact with the circulating cooling water. Among
the
factors which probably caused this wear are corrosion
has therefore to be non-reversible. The owners very often
use the power take-off for driving pumps, dynamos and
due to electrolytic action, chemical and biological
corrosion, and friction by the circulating water con- heavy pulleys without any consideration for the main
engine. This should not be done without approval by
taining residues of zinc, sediments and sand. One can
the engine builder, who can advise about critical speeds
take effective action against these corrosions by cleaning
the circulation chambers at regular intervals, giving the and the means to avoid them. The motor foundations
are very often lacking in strength and rigidity, and strong
liners and the frame a coat of protective paint, cleaning
the filters, renewing the zinc plates and, best of all, vibrations can then occur which are very detrimental
to bedplates and cast iron frames. Some trouble is also
by replacing sea water cooling by fresh water cooling.
experienced by owners who are using fuels with a high
ENGINES FOR 38 m. (125 ft.) TRAWLERS sulphur content. This leads to undue wear of the
cylinder liners and fuel injectors.
Power 600 h.p. at 200 r.p.m. The motors are super-
charged with turbo chargers running on exhaust gas.
Some criticism has been directed against supercharging, DEVELOPMENTS
which is not generally accepted in the French fishing Future developments anticipated are: (a) Motors with
industry. The author is of the opinion, however, that interchangeable elements either in line or V. (b) Change-
supercharging cannot be questioned for modern diesels over from slow-running to medium-speed engines,
when it increases the power by 30 or even 50 per cent. 400 to 500 r.p.m., with reduction gear in order to gain
It seems that the trouble experienced so far is due to a weight and space, (r) Cast steel or welded steel bedplates
bad correlation between propeller and motor torque. and frames instead of cast iron (lightweight, safety and
Supercharging should be designed for trawling conditions reduced cost), (d) Improvements of supercharging in
with a by-pass for excess air when the boat is steaming. order to achieve more power per unit weight, (e) Fresh
The turbo blowers are built for the overload condition water cooling. (/) Injectors and piston rings suitable for
imposed by the classification societies, but they are run burning heavy fuels of lower price.
1398]
CONSIDERATIONS ON DIESELS
by
A. DUSSARDIER
problem faced by marine engineers is how to change of speed, appears to be the ideal solution although
THE adapt the diesel with a maximum efficiency to two
widely different but equally important running
there are objections to
Another solution, which
itsuse.
expected to meet with great
is
conditions : success in the near future, to have the diesel super-
is
charged by means of a blower working on exhaust gas.
(a) cruising; By such supercharging the air supply to the engine can
(b) trawling, which requires the motor to develop be adjusted to the load required. Additional advantages
high torque at reduced revolutions. of great importance for small boats are:
The two conditions were solved by the steam engine less weight and less floor space are required for a
through Since the diesel has been adopted,
its flexibility. total given power, which all other things being equal
the propeller has been designed in most of the cases increases fish-hold capacity;
for the cruising condition, and this has resulted in the maintenance costs are lower due to the smaller
motor being highly overloaded for long periods when number of cylinders in the main engine, or to the
trawling. smaller bore of the cylinders, in which case all
parts are smaller, and more easily handled and
cheaper.
SMALL TRAWLERS At the present time, motors with 50 per cent, or 60 per
Trawlers of 60 to 90 (18 to 27 m.) are mostly built of
ft. cent, supercharging are running continuously with great
wood and are normally at sea from 10 to 15 days at a safety and less thermal stresses.
time. They trawl at a depth of 27 to 55 fm. (50 to 100 m.) Supercharging meets to-day with the fisherman's
in the English Channel or the North Sea or from 1 10 to distrust of comparatively new devices. Trawling with
140 fm. (200 to 250 m.) along the Atlantic coast. The small boats in fishing grounds hundreds of miles away is
main engine drives all auxiliaries by belt and pulleys hard and dangerous work, especially in bad weather.
from the fore end. This suggests the choice of a non- It requires the absolute confidence of the crew in the
reversible engine with reverse gear. During the short boat's equipment, particularly in the engine, on which
stay in port, and owing to a small crew, the maintenance the safety of the ship and the size of the catch depend.
of the engine is usually neglected and the following con- So, fishermen have good reason to trust only engines
clusions have been drawn from the study of boats in that have stood the test of long service under very special
service since 1945, which are equipped with both two- conditions.
and four-cycle engines. But thishas not prevented fishermen from adopting
technical advances as soon as their value is proved. For
(1) To obtain a good service it is recommended to
trawlers now have
example, echo-sounders, radar, radio
installa power equal to three and three-and-a-
and radio telephone. And endurance tests that have
half times the gross tonnage of the vessel.
been made with some boats fitted with supercharged
(2) For this operation, and especially if, as often
diesels will certainly convince them of the value of the
happens, the power is on the small side, the four- turbo-blower run by exhaust gases. This automatic
cycle has shown definite superiority for powers
apparatus is not connected with the engine mechanically
up to 400 b.h.p. and it is less delicate than the rudder or even a simple
With a multiple reduction gear, the motor is always generator. It does not require more upkeep than a
used nearer its normal load and the advantage of the wrist watch and does not expose the fishermen to the
four-cycle over the two-cycle is correspondingly less. risks of engine stalling. On the other hand, it greatly
The controllable-pitch propeller, with its progressive improves the ship's manoeuvrability, increases the trawling
[399]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
power and lowers operation costs. Even a total break- and other auxiliary equipment. The main engine is
down of the turbo-blower would not prevent the engine usually a diesel of 600 to 1,000 h.p.
from running satisfactorily, at a lower power, but ade- The weight and power of these ships make them less
quately for safe navigation. Two small Breton wooden liable than the smaller boats to sudden stalling while
trawlers have tried out four-cycle 250 h.p. engines with trawling. As systematic tank tests have been made on the
supercharging and have experienced no trouble. The pull when trawling, and of the necessary torque depend-
Joli 2 from Concarneau has used the engine for four ing on speed and depth of trawling, it is possible to
years, and the Kercadic from Hennebont has used the know in advance what power has to be installed without
engine for two years. leaving too wide a margin for safety. However, it is
To get better performance, both in cruising and still true that continual shifting in clutch resistance
trawling, the machinery of small trawlers should be during trawling, requires a combination of engine and
selected with the following rules in mind :
propeller line with enough inertia to ensure smooth
operation despite such shifting. This is a consideration
(1) Installed power should be about 3 h.p. per gross that favours comparatively heavy, slow-speed engines.
ton.
Experience seems to prove that in this power range
(2) The engine should be a non-reversible, preferably the two-cycle diesel is the more advantageous because of
four-cycle, diesel with reverse and reducing gear, its smaller weight and floor space and the extreme
and a propeller running 200 to 250 r.p.m.
simplicity of its mechanical construction.
(3) The reduction gear could very well have multiple
The shipowners, the only judges of actual results,
gears, allowing the installed power to be reduced
agree that, within the range of the various types of boats
by at least 10 per cent. built in France since 1945, the 138 ft. (42 m.) trawlers
(4) With or without such gear, a good solution would
are among the best, with excellent speed, seaworthiness
be to have an engine supercharged by a turbo-
and trawling qualities. They have directly reversible,
blower on exhaust gases.
750 h.p., 210 r.p.m. diesels, directly connected to the
propeller shaft. While most of them have two-cycle
DEEP SEA TRAWLERS
engines, six have a four-cycle engine of the same power
In this class are included steel trawlers of 90 ft. (27 m.) and working at the same r.p.m.
or more in length between perpendiculars operating on The identical features provide a rather rare oppor-
fishing grounds as deep as 270 to 330 fm. (500 or 600 m.). tunity to make a comparison of the respective advantages
The 114 to 147 ft. (35 to 45 m.) trawlers have an and disadvantages of the two- and four-cycle and settle
auxiliarymotor for driving the powerful trawl winch the controversy, at least temporarily, that has been
TABLE LXVIII
42 M. (138 FT.) TYPE TRAWLER
COMPARISON OF OPERATING COST ACCOUNT FIGURES
Power equipment: directly reversible 750 h.p., 210 r.p.m. diesel
SHIPOWNER A SHIPOWNER D
Averages 1951/52/53 Averages
1951/52
Ship A A 3 A
Cycle of operation .. 4 2 2 2
(a) Gross catch per day at sea 1,135 1,105 973 1,040 1,290
(6) Direct expenses for fuel, oil, repairs
* The above figure* are averages for two, three or four and
years of service. Because of price fluctuations, these figures which pertain to different times different ship-
owners are not directly comparable. Only the figures in italics, which ire for the same periods for each boat, are truly comparable.
[400]
ENGINES CONSIDERATIONS ON DIESELS
raging for years between the advocates of each cycle. ships, with the two-cycle engine having a slight advantage
What counts in the final analysis is the practical operating In fact, analyzing the significant factors it is found:
results, and only the users know them. Ownetrs of this
type of boat have kindly given figures from their book-
TABLE LXIX
keeping accounts, but, unfortunately, a strict statistical Two-cycle Four-cycle
analysis is hard to make because of the different break- 1 . Coefficientd (corrected earnings) average
8 two-cycle engine ships and 2 four-
downs used by the shipowners for various expense items.
cycle engine ships . . . 0.8316 0.832
Furthermore, comparable data could only be obtained 2. Coefficient (practical earnings), ditto . 0,633 0.619
for a few ships.
In Table LXVII1, figures for a few of the boats have
been assembled and can be compared because they deal If this sampling covering only two four-cycle engines is
with comparable factors. They cover, in the main, of rather low statistical value, it is nevertheless com-
statistical averages for three or four consecutive financial pensated by the fact that these were two very good boats
years of operating costs limited to consumable materials with excellent skippers. The conclusions drawn from
(fuel, oiland grease), and maintenance and repair costs, these figures agree with the appraisals of most users.
as compared with the gross return from the catch on It is surprising to learn that the two-cycle engine uses
these trips. All figures have, of course, been reduced to less fuel in service per day at sea than the four-cycle
the same basic unit. type. has the additional advantage of being very simple
It
Actually, the figures supplied include main-
some of to assemble or to take apart and is easy to overhaul.
tenance and repair costs for the entire ship and not for This considerably reduces labour costs.
the propulsion machinery alone. If a fixed annual sum These facts show why, after half a century of experi-
deducted from those figures for each boat, representing ence, the greatest specialized engine builders are tending
a reasonable estimate of the cost of maintenance of the to use the two-cycle beyond a certain power limit. The
hull and auxiliary equipment, the factor d is arrived at, limit is still not absolute butis apparently around 100
"
called corrected earnings." to 150 h.p. per cylinder, depending on the cylinder bore
Another possible criticism is that the figures do not and the number of r.p.m.
for this study, the 42 m. (138 ft.)
The case chosen
apply to the same periods for all shipowners. For that
reason, the figures in italics are the only ones that are trawler zone of uncertainty where both types of
is in the
of real value for comparative purposes. engines ought to give nearly equivalent results. For
Lastly, an interesting appraisal item called the "in larger sizes it seems logical that preference should be
" This to the two-cycle main engine.
action factor was added to the table. is the ratio, given Improvements
for each ship, of the number of days at sea to its total can increase its performance, with possible economies
still
"
operating time. The product of d and e gives a practical on parts that wear out. Maintenance costs can be
" reduced by various processes such as nitriding, chromium
earnings which shows whether or not the ship in use
is a paying proposition. plating,and sulphuration. Experiments are being made
There are factors which are independent of either the with these processes and should lead to a great reduction
ship or its engine, such as the skipper's competence and wear and tear on the parts subjected to friction.
in the
ability, the proficiency of the crew, perils at sea, accidents
Such developments should give the two-cycle engine
and, above all, the impossibility of laying down a law top place for economy in service.
for analyzing certain isolated cases. In view of this, The growing practice of supercharging may, of course,
the conclusion from the inquiry is that the practical alter to a certain extent the conclusions reached in this
"
returns, called earnings ", are very close for all these paper.
[401]
HEAVY DUTY FISHING ENGINES
by
R. G. ANDERSEN
so-called semi-diesels (sometimes also named For example, Tuxham A/S, Copenhagen, produces a
THE prude oil engines) are overwhelmingly preferred
in Scandinavia. But neither semi-diesels nor crude-
1-cylinder engine at 275 r.p.m. developing 115/130 h.p.
The bore is 16.35 in. (415 mm.) and the stroke 18.5 in.
oil engines are satisfactory names and they often provoke (470 mm.).
" "
misunderstanding. The name crude oil is directly
misleading as the modern Scandinavian heavy-duty HISTORY
engine is constructed for the use of gas oil of ordinary
commercial quality with a thermal value of about The step towards the development of the semi-
first
dieselwas Capitaine's paraffin engine constructed about
40,000 B.Th.U. (10,000 kcal.) the same fuel oil as is
1884. This was a four-cycle engine which followed the
employed in diesels of corresponding sizes.
The engine had its origin in the old hot-bulb engine usual Otto system. On the cylinder head was fixed a
and has been developed independently of the diesel. small vaporizer which, while the engine was running,
The designers of diesels primarily concentrated their was kept red-hot by means of a blow-torch. The paraffin
was injected into this vaporizer and ignition took place
efforts upon creating an engine which, as closely as
when the mixture of air and paraffin met the glowing
possible, approached the theoretical ideal of thermal
wall of the vaporizer.
efficiency, but the designers of the Scandinavian heavy-
At about the same time another four-cycle paraffin
duty engine concentrated primarily upon attaining
simplicity in construction and a minimum of working engine, based on the Otto system, was developed by
Priestman. Like Capitaine's engine, it was fitted with a
parts. They have also striven to attain the greatest
vaporizer. The injection was continuous and the
possible fuel oil economy, within the limits principally
vaporizer was kept at the right temperature by the
imposed.
It is this principal variation from the diesel which makes exhaust gases. Ignition was obtained by means of a
the name semi-diesel misleading, but it is internationally glowing plug. The use of two blow torches was necessary
the most common name for these engines. to start the engine.
In 1892 the Hornsby-Akroyd engine made its appear-
ance and it differed from the other four-cycle engines in
PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS that almost the whole of the combustion chamber was
The principal characteristics of the semi-diesel may be not cooled and was only connected with the cylinder
expressed in this way: it is a combustion engine in which through a narrow passage. The fuel oil was injected
the end pressure in the combustion chamber is not into this separate combustion chamber by a fuel pump,
sufficiently high to ignite the fuel oil by the compression and the walls of the chamber were red-hot, while the
temperature. When starting, the injected fuel must engine was running, the whole thus acting as vaporizer.
hit a pre-heated surface which vapourizes and ignites it. The intake of air was direct into the cylinder through a
This pre-heated surface may be part of the walls of the guided valve and did not first pass the vaporizer. During
combustion chamber or a cartridge or glowing plug compression it was forced through the narrow passage
inserted into the chamber. into the vaporizer where it mingled with the vaporized
The engines are made from about 5 h.p. to about oil. Combustion commenced in the vaporizer during
125 h.p. per cylinder with one or more cylinders. They compression, but owing to the narrowness of the pas-
are used in freighters, tugboats, etc., as well as in fishing sage between the vaporizer and cylinder, the velocity of
boats. Owing to the demand for simplicity and dependa- the air which was pressed into the vaporizer was greater
bility (as few working parts as possible) the 1 -cylinder than the velocity of the combustion products in the
engine is usually preferred, and the factories have for vaporizer, and therefore the gases from the vaporizer
many years steadily increased the size of the cylinder. did not press down into the cylinder until the piston
[402]
ENGINES HEAVY DUTY FISHING ENGINES
had reached its top dead centre. The vaporizer was in principle, and partly also in construction, the semi-
heated by a blow-torch which was put out once the diesels produced to-day, essential developments have
engine started, and while the engine was running ignition taken place. The first engines had the disadvantage that
was attained entirely through contact with the hot walls it was necessary to inject water into the combustion
of the vaporizer. The engine could be run on paraffin chamber. The aim of water injection was partly to keep
as well as on heavier and cheaper oil products. the ignition bulb of the engine at a suitably low tempera-
In 1893 Dr. Rudolf Diesel presented his well-known ture (a too high temperature of the ignition bulb caused
"
treatise Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen carbonization) and partly to add vaporized water to the
Warmemotors zum Ersatz der Dampfmaschine und der combustible mixture. The vaporized water acted as a
"
heute bekannten Warmemotoren (Theory and Design catalyst and improved combustion. Water injection was
of a rational Heat Motor as a substitute for the Steam undesirable, especially in the case of marine engines,
Engine and the Heat Motors of to-day), and Krupp which were compelled to keep a storage of fresh water
and Mas:hinenfabrik Augsburg undertook the practical because sea water could not be used. The injected water
testing of the theories. This resulted in 1897 in the also had a tendency to wash away the lubricant from the
first serviceable diesel. In practice it deviated con- cylinder, which resulted in increased wear, and it called
siderably from the theoretical ideal but it worked. for increased supervision of the engine, because the
Its fuel oil consumption was only about 0.497 Ib./h.p./ quantity of water had to be regulated according to the
hr. (0.225 kg.) and it could be run on inferior oils, load.
which was a great step forward. Its major disadvantages All the leading firms interested themselves in con-
were the high pressure and the necessity for compressed structing an engine which could be run without water
air of about 1,150 Ib./sq. in. (80 kg./sq. cm.) for the injection but, until 1922, it could not be dispensed with
fuel oil injection. It was, therefore, necessary to fit the at loads higher than 65 to 76 per cent, of the theoretically
engine with a compressor to supply the air demanded. possible. Tuxham solved the problem in 1922, after
This was an undesirable complication and necessitated years of systematic experimenting and research, by
constant supervision of the engine when it was subjected adjusting the proportions of the combustion chamber
to greater variations in load. In such cases the com- and bulb and by correct forming and dimensioning of
pressor had to be regulated by hand, otherwise the the elements deciding and guiding the air streams in the
i.ijection pressure would be too low at minor loads of combustion chamber, and the quantity of fuel injected.
the engine. It was 25 years until compressorless diesels All important makes of semi-diesels now work without
were constructed. water injection. Their mean effective pressure is 40 to
Despite these drawbacks of the diesel, its advantages, 43 Ib./sq. in. (2.8 to 3.0 kg./sq. cm.) at normal load
especially in fuel oil consumption, were such that the and their consumption of gas oil is, for instance, for
paraffin engines then on the market could hardly compete engines of about 75 h.p./cylinder, about 0.485 Ib./h.p./
with it and they were faced with the necessity of improving hour (0.22 kg.), corresponding to a thermal efficiency
their fuel oil
consumption considerably. of 28.5 per cent, in relation to b.h.p.
A major cause of the poor economy of the paraffin It is possible, through exact tuning of the length of
engines was that the fuel oil had to be injected well the exhaust pipe, to obtain greater mean efficiency pres-
before ignition took place. This made the exact moment sure and lower oil consumption, (less than 0.44 Ib./h.p./
of ignition uncertain and an optimum blend of air and hour (or 0.20 kg.) has been measured on testing benches)
fuel impossible. Low compression had to be accepted but such tuning is difficult to obtain in vessels.
to avoid pre-ignition. By changing to the two-cycle
system and introducing a delayed fuel ignition it would DESIGN
be possible to increase the compression without the risk
of pre-ignition, and several firms worked along these Fig. 475 shows a section of a typical modern one-
lines. cylinder semi-diesel. It is characteristic of Scandinavian
About the year 1900 there appeared almost simul- semi-diesels of all recognized makes, that they appear,
taneously the Swedish engine Avance and the American from a technical point of^ view, over-proportioned.
engine Mietz and Weiss, both of them two-cycle, using Dimensions of working parts, walls, etc., are, in many
the underside of the piston and a closed crankhouse instances, determined by the practical fact that engines
casing as scavenging pump, a design which was intro- are specially built for fishing craft and other small-work
duced by Daimler in 1883. These two-cycle engines boats and will be subject to careless treatment by people
immediately proved to be more economical than the with no special knowledge of machinery.
four-cycle and, what was of great importance, they Fine mechanism of any kind must be banned and the
could be run on inferior oils. They were also con- dimensions of minor parts, even screws and nuts, must
siderably simpler in construction and they met with be sturdy enough to resist rough treatment and to be
great success in Scandinavia, especially in fishing vessels suitable for dismantling or assembly by unskilled
and smaller commercial craft, the mechanization of persons even under the most difficult conditions. The
which had just begun. engines are designed with these considerations in mind
Even though the semi-diesel then produced resembled and the result is great durability.
[403]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
to the specially trying conditions to which the
"
Owing exhaust gases escape through b ", the fresh air from
fishing boat engine is subjected, Scandinavians place the crank-case being blown at the same time into the
d ", " e ", and " c ", where it is
"
considerations of dependability and durability above cylinder through
everything else; all others are of secondary importance. used for scavenging by helping to expel the exhaust gases.
This of reasoning makes itself evident in many ways
line When the piston, during its following upward movement
"
in meapparent over-proportioning of the engines. again closes b ", the next compression starts.
The engine works in two cycles and uses the crank-case The form of the piston top shown is such that it forces
as scavenging pump. The upward stroke of the piston the fresh air in a curve of half a circle so that it is com-
pelled to scavenge the entire combustion chamber. The
technical problems of combustion with this type of
engine are but little explored theoretically and, instead
of being based upon investigations in laboratories, the
solutions are almost entirely derived from experience
accumulated by the individual factories.
When injected through the nozzle " f ", part of the
'*
fuel will hit the wall g ". This upper part of the com-
bustion chamber, the bulb, is not water-cooled, and its
surface of contact with the cylinder head is carefully
designed to a size which permits transmission of heat
sufficient for the bulb to ignite the fuel injected under all
working conditions from idling to full load. Before the
engine is started, the bulb isheated to a suitable tempera-
ture. Amodern semi-diesel requires two to five minutes
to heat, a matter of no practical importance when a ship
is getting ready to sail.
There are semi-diesels in which the ignition proper,
or the spray-angle of the injected fuel, must be regulated
to maintain a suitable temperature of the bulb under
varying loads. Either solution makes the machinery
more complicated and demands increased supervision.
With regard to the type of engine illustrated in fig. 475,
this problem has been solved effectively by means of an
automatic regulation of the ignition. The governor is
driven through skew-gears and a vertical shaft directly
from the crank-shaft, and activates the cam dial which,
in turn, sets in motion the piston of the fuel pump.
The eccentricity of the cam dial increases in a vertical
direction and the quantity of fuel injected is decided
by this vertical position. Further, the cam is formed as a
screw line, which causes the quantity of fuel, as well as
the time of injection, to be automatically regulated with
varying load, and no extra adjustment of ignition or of
time of injection is required.
"
Cooling and bilge pumps are shown at h ". They are
Fig. 475
identicaland interchangeable piston pumps directly
driven from the crank-shaft through an eccentric. In
sucks fresh air into the crjink-case through the non-return this way the cooling puiftp can, in an emergency, be
" "
clack valves a placed in the side doors. This design replaced by the bilge pump.
is advantageous because the ordinary inlet and exhaust As a result of the comparatively low compression and
valves, which traditionally result in interruptions of work the principle of combustion which does not require
in ordinary combustion engines, are entirely done away specially fine atomizing of the fuel, the nozzle pressure
with. When the piston is at top dead centre, the crank- is only about 710 Ib./sq. in. (50 kg./sq.cm.) as compared
case will be filled air, and as the piston is
with fresh with an approximate 5,700 Ib./sq. in. (400 kg./sq.cm.)
pressed downwards, the air in the crank-case is com- for a modern diesel with solid injection.
pressed. When the piston has almost reached bottom The piston in the crank-case acts as a scavenging
" "
dead centre it first frees the exhaust exit b and pump, and the main bearings (roller type of ample dimen-
"
immediately afterwards the entrance c ". At the same sions) of the crank-shaft are fitted with sealing rings, held
" " in place by springs. The use of roller-bearings was made
time the aperture in the piston d corresponds with
" "
the aperture e in the cylinder. In this position the possible by the lower maximum combustion pressure
[404]
ENGINES HEAVY DUTY FISHING ENGINES
and has great advantages in lubrication and mainten- " "
it shaft o is moved ahead or astern. This system
ance. Under normal conditions it is 20 to 30 years before replaces the
ordinary reverse gear. Rotation of the
the bearings have to be replaced. " " % * "
propeller blades from position p to position q
To aid dismantling and inspection the crank-case is involves the propeller being switched from full speed
usually divided in half. The cylinders are, even where ahead to full speed astern, but neither engine nor pro-
there are several, separate units, which saves time when peller shaft changes direction of rotation. Movement
it is necessary to
replace a cylinder. The cylinder head of the propeller shaft is controlled by a hand-wheel from
"j" is often open at the top and closed by a cover the pilot house.
"
k ". This design is used in order to avoid internal Fixed propellers have to be selected individually for
stresses in the material and
allows easy access for
it vessels, the pitch being decided by consideration of the
cleaning the cooling jacket, a point of special importance lines, the h.p. of the engi le, and the estimated speed of
in marine engines which are cooled by sea water. the vessel. Often, however, it is difficult, if not impossible,
In spite of its ample dimensions the weight per b.h.p. to obtain exact advance information of the lines of the
of a semi-diesel is less than the weight of a diesel of the vessel, especially when changing the engine in an existing
same r.p.m., because of the lower maximum combustion vessel or when exporting the engines through agents.
pressure as compared to the mean effective pressure. A fixed propeller must, therefore, in most cases be
A
semi-diesel with a mean effective pressure of approxi- chosen from a pre-determined standard set of propellers.
mately 43 Ib./sq. in. (3 kg./sq. cm.) will have a maximum If it isspecially constructed, design must often be based
combustion pressure of approximately 340 Ib./sq. in. upon certain presumptions which cannot beforehand be
(24 kg./sq. cm.), whereas a four-cycle diesel, not super- verified. If the pitch is too high, the engine will be
87 overloaded and must be run at reduced speed; if it is
charged, with a mean pressure of y^-43.5 Ib./sq. in. too low, the engine will not be fully loaded even at the
maximum speed. In both cases it will prove impossible
U ---3 kg./sq. cm.) will have a maximum combustion
to obtain a speed which the engine power and propeller
pressure of approximately 710 Ib./sq. in. (50 kg./sq. cm.). speed should justify.
Thus, the maximum combustion pressure is about eight All difficulties originating from incorrect ratios between
times the brake mean effective pressure for the semi- vessel, engine power, engine speed and propeller are
diesel against a maximum combustion pressure for the eliminated by the controllable pitch system because the
diesel of approximately 17 times the brake mean effective pitch of the propeller may be adjusted until the optimum
pressure, more than twice as high as the ratio for the pitch has been reached. This adjustment may be made
semi-diesel. without disengagement of the engine, simply by turning
It is characteristic of the semi-diesel that all manoeuv- the wheel in the pilot house, and it enables the engine to
ring components, etc., are designed according to the be run with maximum torque in any vessel. In this way
simplest mechanical principles, and the more vulnerable the propeller blades may be adjusted to any intermediate
electric or hydraulic systems are not used. Fig. 477 position, including neutral, in which position the screw
and 478 show a one-cylinder and a two-cylinder semi- propels the vessel neither ahead nor astern. By adjusting
diesel. the propeller to slow ahead or slow astern, the vessel
can be kept at a standstill, in spite of wind or sea, while
THE CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLER the engine works at full or any other speed on the
More than 95 per cent, of all engines in Scandinavian winch during the handling of fishing g?ar.
fishing craft from 10 h.p. to 200 h.p. are to-day fitted Experience in Scandinavia shows that the controllable
with mechanical controllable pitch propellers. Fig. 476 pitch system, with the possibilities of variation which ii
" "
shows a typical design. The propeller blades 1
presents, is indispensable, especially for Danish seining
" "
are rotated in the propeller boss m
by the double or for any kind of fishing with lines or net, because it
*' "
rack-and-pinion mechanism n when the propeller makes available the maximum hauling power at any
Fig. 476
[405]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
speed of the vessel, whether high, low or stationary. advantageous to be able to adjust the propeller to a lower
When fishing is finished, the pitch of the propeller is pitchwhen sailing against the wind and to a higher pitch
make use of the full engine power to obtain
increased to when sailing with the wind.
maximum speed of the vessel. It is the only system to The alternative to the controllable pitch propeller
provide full engine power for trawling as well as for is either a fixed propeller combined with a reverse gear
speed. or a fixed propeller combined with a reversible engine.
Another great advantage of the controllable pitch Either system requires a considerable number of working
system is to make it possible to combine wind power and parts, even for the least-complicated design, compared
engine power on all occasions. When a vessel carries with the controllable pitch system, which does not
sails, the pitch of propeller is increased to obtain a reverse the propeller shaft but simply reverses the posi-
Fig. 477
higher speed by the interaction of the two forces. In don of the propeller blades. It is, therefore, justifiable
other words, the controllable pitch propeller acts as an to state that the controllable pitch system, under
over-drive in a motor vehicle. comparable circumstances, will give less trouble in use.
This not the case when a fixed propeller is used. If
is When a controllable pitch propeller is damaged,
the sails alone give the vessel a certain speed lower than repair or replacement of the blade is quickly and easily
that obtained by the engine, the added engine power is carried out.
only partially used. If wind power alone gives the vessel The controllable pitch system as well as the engine
a speed considerably higher than that given by the shown in the figures may be considered prototypes.
engine pbwer, the propeller acts as a brake. Even for a Various firms employ varying designs, and for bigger
vessel not carrying sails it is, for the same reason, engines the controllable pitch propeller may be supplied
[406 1
ENGINES HEAVY DUTY FISHING ENGINES
with three or four blades. There are types in which the than 90 per cent, of the vessels above 5 tons in the Danish
solid shaft, as illustrated, is not moved when manoeuvr- fishing fleet are supplied with semi-diesels. And it is
ing the propeller blades. The rack-and-pinion mechanism probable that the fishing fleets of Norway, Sweden and
is fixed to a special rod, which is moved ahead or astern Iceland are powered in much the same way except that
inside the hollow propeller shaft. In this case the thrust- there may be more diesels in Icelandbecause the country
was cut off from its traditional suppliers in Scandinavia
bearing will usually be placed in the astern part of the
engine proper, but the thrust-bearing of the illustrated during World War II.
" The picture in non-Scandinavian countries essen-
design, s ", is placed on the aft side of the stern is
tially the opposite. It is true that Scandinavian
builders
post, so communicating the pressure of propulsion
directly to the hull from this point. of semi-diesels have, in the course of the years, created
NUMERICAL SURVEY satisfactory export markets in several countries, especi-
ally in the Mediterranean area, Poland, South America,
The Danish fishing fleet consisted in 1950 of 7,635
motorized vessels 4,024 below 5 tons, 2,899 from 5 to Thailand, and a few other parts of the world, but the
trade has not grown in relation to the size of the world
20 tons, and 712 above 20 tons. It is unlikely that there
market.
are diesels in Danish fishing vessels under 5 tons. They
use petrol, paraffin and semi-diesel engines only. There
are no exact figures for vessels between 5 and 20 tons,
SEMI-DIESELS VERSUS DIESELS
but it is certain that the number of diesels installed in Scandinavian fishing methods have, in several instances,
these vessels is so small as to be of no importance. set the pattern for the development of fisheries in other
Perhaps 5 per cent, have diesels, the rest being equipped countries and an endeavour to analyse the reasons why
with semi-diesels. For the vessels above 20 tons the the semi-diesels in the Scandinavian fishing fleets are so
numerical survey shows that 189 vessels are fitted with predominant should presumably be of interest.
diesels and 523 with semi-diesels. This means that more Semi-diesels of good quality have extremely long life
[407]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
and low costs of maintenance. It is reckoned that an daily treats the engine has a most decisive effect on its
average life for pistons iseight to ten years and 20 years dependability and life. The fisherman usually commences
for the cylinders. It is common to find engines 25 to without any special qualifications in operating and
30 years old still giving satisfactory service. And, repairing his engine, and the efforts of engine builders
because of the way a semi-diesel is designed and built, in Scandinavia have, for the past 50 years, been concen-
it may be kept in service even with a considerable cylinder trated on designing an engine which can meet the most
wear. For example, two two-cylinder engines were exacting demands for dependability even under the most
installed in a freighter and a cylinder wear of about trying and from a technical point of view unsatis-
I in. (6.35 mm.) in all four cylinders was found. The factory conditions of servicing.
diameter was 14.2 in. (360 mm.). The reason for this In countries such as the U.S.A., replacement of parts
fantastic wear, which appeared after only two crossings is relied upon in preference to re-conditioning the parts
of the North Sea, proved to be very bad fuel oil, with a through repairs. The U.S.A. have a highly-developed
high content of sulphur, on which the engines had been industry with wide distribution, and it is possible, in
forced to run because of the war. Of course, the pistons these circumstances, that it may be advantageous to
made quite a lot of noise, but the engines still worked. use, in fishing vessels, high-speed engines of types also
The low combustion pressure and the working principle used for many other purposes, because spares can be
of the semi-diesels enable repairs to be done in small quickly supplied from local stores. But this does not
local workshops. alter the fact that a fishing cutter, often at sea for a
Without giving the vessel too much weight to carry, month or more and perhaps hundreds of miles from the
the semi-diesels may be built to a suitably low speed nearest harbour, cannot apply to the nearest repair-shop
to ensure good propeller efficiency, and the low number when trouble occurs. The crew and vessel are entirely
of revolutions helps to increase the longevity of the at the mercy of the engine, and the foremost task of the
engine. In making a practical comparison between engine builder is, therefore, to concentrate upon the
various engines, the number of revolutions plays an dependability of the engine, all other considerations
important but, unfortunately, often disregarded part. being secondary.
The higher number of revolutions is a cause of inferior The less exacting demands on local repair shops made
propeller efficiency and requires a propeller diameter by semi-diesels should be a deciding factor in planning
which is often too small in comparison to the heavy and carrying out mechanization of the fishing fleets in
stern timber common in fishing vessels. undeveloped areas. The simple operation and mainten-
A single instance will illustrate this. In a Danish ance of the semi-diesel, which justify its predominant
fishing vessel of approximately 35 tons a diesel was position in countries as highly-developed technologically
installed developing 180 b.h.p. at 1,000 r.p.m., through as those of Scandinavia, must be of still greater import-
gear reduced to 500 r.p.m. on the propeller shaft. It ance in countries such as India and those of South
was re-engined with a semi-diesel of 120. b.h.p. at 275 America.
r.p.m. The efficiency of the two propellers theoretically Scandinavian firms make slow-running and com-
obtainable is 48.5 per cent, and 57 per cent, respectively, paratively fast-running marine diesels with reduction
in other words, of the diesel engine's 180 b.h.p., 0.485 * gear, so they have experience of all types of engines
18087 b.h.p. were made effective and of the semi- But as more than 90 per cent, of the Danish fishing fleet
diesel's 120 b.h.p., 0.57x12069 b.h.p. were made use semi-diesels, it is evident that they are the most
3 ,'g-
economical.
effective. The speed proportion is thus Y 1 .08,
When
,g evaluating the economy of an engine, the figures
meaning that the speed obtained from the diesels should for fuel and lubricant consumption are not enough
have been 8 per cent, higher than that from the semi- The total expense of an engine comprises the cost of oil,
diesel. The however, was exactly the same,
result, repairs and maintenance, and depreciation and interest.
namely 8.25 knots in each instance. Undoubtedly the Practice has shown that the lower costs of repairs and
reason for this must be found in a poorer hull efficiency maintenance of the semi-diesel more than offset any
for the propeller of the diesel which, being selected for saving in fuel by the diesels. And, in addition, with the
500 r.p.m. maximum, naturally had a smaller diameter. semi-diesel less time is lost in carrying out repairs,
The care and interest with which the owner or user while its longer life is, itself, another hidden saving.
[408]
MEDIUM SPEED DIESELS
by
D. E. BROWN LOW
selection of the most
suitable type of diesel, for speeds from 200 to 450 r.p.m. Up to the present time,
THE dutyof
the
variety
very important and there are a
required, is
engines from which a choice can be made,
the preference has been largely for engines running at
speeds of 230 to 300 r.p.m. directly coupled to the
e.g. four-cycle normally-aspirated, four-cycle turbo- propeller shafting. When the engines are required to
charged and two-cycle. They may be low, medium or operate at higher speeds and powers, it is necessary to
high-speed engines. fit a reduction gear between the engine and propeller,
Consider a fishing vessel having approximate dimen- to maintain propeller efficiency.
sions, 120 x 25 x 12 J ft. (36.6 x 7.6 x 3.8 m.), and a tonnage The Mirrlees KS type is a four-cycle, turbo-charged
of about 320 gross and 115 nett. Such a vessel has a engine, having a bore of 15 in. (381 mm.) and a stroke of
fish-hold capacity of 7,000 cu. ft. (200 cu. m.), bunkers 18 in. (457 mm.). It is fitted with a Buchi-type of turbo-
70 tons of fuel, and requires an engine having 600 to charger and built with six, seven and eight cylinders.
700 s.h.p. For many years, such a vessel was powered It is direct-reversing, or may be uni-directional, when
by a steam engine, coupled directly to the propeller coupled to a reverse-reduction gear, for the higher engine
shafting and running at a slow speed. Such engines speeds of 300 to 450 r.p.m.
gave reliable service, but the modern diesel, which is more All engines are arranged for air starting, each fuel pump
economical to operate, can claim to give equal reliability. tappet being designed as a control valve which allows
A fishing vessel is required to be continually in service starting air to pass to the starting air valve fitted in the
and the engine is only shut down for a day or two between cylinder head.
trips. While at sea heavy weather and storms are often The cylinder block, engine column and bed-plate are
encountered, which demand the utmost reliability from secured by through bolts, four of which can comfortably
engine and vessel. The following points, therefore, must take the maximum firing pressure of one cylinder. It
he considered in choosing an engine: will be appreciated that, with this construction, the
combustion load is taken by the through bolts and the
1. Reliability: a foremost requirement. main framing is relieved of tensile stresses.
2. Simplicity: the men employed to run the machinery The crank-shaft has crankwebs of generous propor-
are not highly skilled diesel engineers and they tions and large diameter overlapping pins and journals.
want an engine needing the minimum of attention. This design gives an exceedingly stiff crankshaft and
3. Maintenance: the engine must be able to run for results in the engine having a high natural frequency ol
long periods between overhauls and, when main- torsional vibration and helps to provide a running range
tenance work is done, the design should allow clear of troublesome critical speeds. At the same time,
pistons and cylinder heads to be removed easily the large diameter journals and crank pins provide ample
and there should be easy access to all parts for bearing areas, with consequent low-bearing pressures,
inspection. which ensure long periods of trouble-free operation.
4. Size of engine: space taken up by the engine should Fig. 479 shows the torsional vibration spectrum for a
be kept to a minimum. six-cylinder engine coupled directly to the propeller
shafting. Up to 300 r.p.m., there are no critical speeds
5. Economy: the fuel and lubricating-oil consumption
of any importance and the engine can be run at the most
must be considered when assessing the merits of
convenient speed for trawling or any other duty required.
diesels for installation in fishing vessels.
For an installation having an engine speed above
300 r.p.m., where a reduction is required to give a low
DESCRIPTION
propeller speed, a small damper is fitted to eliminate
To meet the requirements of the fishing industry, the critical engine speeds up to 450 r.p.m. Some form of
Mirrlees KS type engine was designed and developed for elastic coupling between the engine and gearbox is
[409]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
necessary to prevent gear hammer and to eliminate well supported. No oil pressure is allowed to reach the
speeds in the propeller shafting.
critical piston end plates so there is no danger of oil escaping
The connecting rod is machined from an H-section at these points. The camshaft is situated in the engine
steelstamping, having a palm end with four bolts for the column. In this position, it is well lubricated with oil
white-metal-lined marine-type big end bearing. The small mist and splash and there is no possibility of oil leakages
end of the rod is fitted with a phosphor bronze bush. to the outside of the engine.
The piston is of cast iron and oil cooled. Oil is The cast iron cylinder liners have a continuous uninter-
delivered to the big end bearing from the crankshaft and rupted bore and are free to expand downwards through
water-tight joints. There are no cut-aways for valve
heads or connecting-rod clearance.
There are two air and two exhaust valves, in addition
to the starting air valve, relief valve and fuel injector,
and a fitting for the maximum pressure indicator. There
are many advantages with the four-valve head 40 per
cent, greater valve area can be obtained with four small
valves than by fitting two large ones. Higher volumetric
efficiency and improved scavenging are achieved, result-
ing in a greater output per unit swept volume. The four-
valve design also has the advantage of making a much
better structure, as the combustion plate, at the bottom,
is connected to the top plate at four places instead of
two.
Attention is particularly directed to the water spaces
of the cylinder head. There is a horizontal division plate
cast inside the head, which forms two chambers. The
water enters the lower chamber at the front of the head,
479 ahd circulates round all the valves and injector, before
Fig.
being allowed to enter the upper chamber. This method
flows through a drilled hole in the connecting rod, ensures that the hottest part of the cylinder head, which
passing up to the piston pin and into an oil chamber is the combustion plate particularly around the fuel
formed inside the pin. It is then fed through the pin to nozzle is adequately cooled. The exhaust valves are
lubricate the small end bearing, and to the crown of the provided with cages, while the air valves are seated
piston, at points, for cooling it. The return oil
two directly in the cylinder head, and there are large cleaning
from the piston flows down through a pipe, to a collecting doors for access to the water spaces.
tray at the bottom of the liner and is piped away to a The engine operates normally on the dry-sump system
box, outside the engine. The box has sight glasses at and has two gear-type lubricating oil pumps, one being
each side and from it the oil drains back into the bed- the scavenge pump which takes the oil from the bedplate
plate. Thus the hot oil from the pistons is not discharged and delivers it to a tank, and the other, the pressure pump,
on to the big end bearings and crank webs and is, there- which takes the oil from the tank and delivers it to the
fore, prevented from being thrown up into the liner. engine system under pressure of approximately 25 Ib./sq.
Five piston rings are each fitted with three pressure in. (1.76 kg./sq. cm.). These two pumps are located in
rings and two scraper rings. The bottom scraper ring an accessible position at the forward end of the engine.
is of deeper section than the gas rings and, at the bottom They are interconnected with cocks so that, in the event
of its stroke, reaches the chamber at the bottom of the of the failure of either pump, the engine can be run on a
liner. The face of the ring is parallel with the liner for half wet sump system, which requires only one pump. Such
its width and is then tapered 2deg. to a ^
in. (1.6 mm.) an arrangement meets with Lloyds and other classifica-
radius at the top edge. This radius and taper allows the tion societies' requirements for a stand-by pump.
ring to ride over the oil on the upward stroke and the Two double-acting plunger water pumps are driven
bottom edge gives an effective scraping action on the by eccentrics at the forward end of the engine. A closed-
downward stroke. The bottom of the piston is turned circuit fresh-water cooling system, incorporating a heat
to a smaller diameter than the skirt, allowing the ring exchanger, is employed for engine cooling and the sea
to be passed into position without undue strain. This water, which is used as a coolant, is also used for cooling
smaller diameter also leaves a space for the oil which is the oil.
scraped away. Many experiments and tests have been The engine is under the control of the governor from
carried out to find the best type of scraper ring and, for full to idling speed. The governor is of the centrifugal
a number of years, this form has proved to be the most type, fitted with an oil operated servo-piston, and the
effective. It ensures very economical consumption of speed of the engine is varied by movement of the engine
lubricating oil. control wheel.
The piston pin is fully floating, of large diameter and Controls are at the forward end of the engine, a single
[410]
ENGINES MEDIUM-SPEED DIESELS
control wheel being provided for stopping, starting and joint faces to fret and no bolts to break. The oil
running of the engine, and a small lever for reversing. chamber is freefrom ribs and can be thoroughly
This lever cannot be moved until the control wheel is cleaned out. Such a simple piston can be relied
in the stop position and requires no manual effort to upon for years of satisfactory service.
operate as the manoeuvring shaft is worked by air. The 3. Maintenance. The engine can be run continually in
camshaft provided with a double set of cams, ahead
is service for a year without having to withdraw the
and astern, which operate the valve push rods and fuel pistons. The turbo-charger supplies air for
pumps. The reversing gear consists of a manoeuvring scavenging and cooling down the top of the piston
shaft, with cam followers, which is operated by air and valves, and the generous oil cooling of the
cylinders. On moving the reversing lever, the cam piston ensures that the piston rings are kept free
followers are withdrawn from the cams and are moved, in their grooves.
with the manoeuvring shaft, to the appropriate ahead The exhaust valves are provided with cages and
or astern cams and brought into the running position. can be removed for cleaning without disturbing
The engine is then ready for working in the opposite the cylinder head. Large inspection doors are
direction. fitted to the crankcase, through which the big ends
These engines are designed and built as pressure- and main bearings can be inspected and through
charged units. A Buchi-type of pressure charger is which the pistons can be removed during the
incorporated, without increasing the length of the annual overhaul.
engine. There are great advantages in a turbo-charged As the water and lubricating oil pumps are
engine for fishing duty and the following are of particular accessible and can be removed from the engine
importance: without difficulty, their inspection and maintenance
is easily undertaken.
1. The h.p. is increased by 50 per cent, without any
increase in the size of the engine, and recent All engine parts are jigged and machined to
close limits and are carefully inspected. There is,
developments in turbo-charging are making avail-
able increased powers up to 100 per cent. The therefore, complete interchangeability and, if it is
space taken for a given power is used economically, necessary to replace a part, it can be done quickly.
which allows a maximum space for the catch. 4. Size of engine. It is to be expected that a medium -
2. The turbo-charger isdriven by the exhaust gases, speed engine, for a given power, may take a little
thus eliminating gears or chain drives and couplings. more space than a high-speed engine but, bearing
3. As no fuel is required to drive the turbo-charger, in mind that there is less wear, tear and mainten-
the fuel consumption of a modern turbo-charged ance, and that the turbo-charged engine give att
least 50 per cent, more power than the normally
engine is economical.
aspirated engine, the space is economically used.
Mirrlees are also producing a higher speed
CONCLUSION turbo-charged engine, running up to 900 r.p.m.
with powers up to 2,000 h.p. It takes up less space
How does such an engine measure up to the five main for a given power but fishermen show a marked
points laid down ?
preference for the medium-speed engine.
1. Reliability. During development, the prototype 5. Economy. The fuel consumption of these turbo-
engine was run satisfactorily for many thousands charged engines is of the order of .345 Ib. (0.156 kg.)
of hours, at much higher powers than offered to per s.h.p. per hour,- as compared with the fuel
users to ensure that components had factors of consumption of .37 to .4 Ib. (0.168 to 0.181 kg.)
safety to meet any emergency, that there were per s.h.p. per hour of normally aspirated and two-
margins in the capacities of lubricating oil and cycle engines. The engines can run satisfactorily
water pumps, and reserve power in the governor. on marine diesel fuel and even heavier grades
2. Simplicity. All control operations are carried out when necessary heating and centrifuging equip-
by the movement of a single wheel and small ment is provided. The oil scraping arrangements
reversing lever. There is simplicity in the design already referred to under piston design, combined
of all engine parts. For example, although the with a cylinder liner having an unbroken surface
piston is oil-cooled, it is in one piece and there are without ports, ensure a lubricating oil consumption
no joints which could give rise to leakage, no of .003 lb./s.h.p./hour (0.0014 kg.).
[411]
HIGH-SPEED DIESELS
by
WILLIAM C. GOULD
diesels were first accepted, they had to be diesel cycle.During the '20s the motor truck industn
WHEN built in the slow speed range (75 to 500 r.p.m.).
The injection systems then available, combustion
grew by leaps and bounds, and it brought to the diesel
engine industry vast new engineering skills, much larger
chamber design and metallurgical and engineering know- testing and development facilitiesand, most important,
ledge, were not advanced enough to permit the considera- huge financial resources. Ricardo of England and
tion of higher r.p.m. It was also felt that a long stroke Mercedes-Benz of Germany were pioneers and were
was essential to gain highest efficiency, and that required rapidly followed by the major automotive engine manu-
low r.p.m. to keep piston speeds down to limits then facturers throughout the world.
thought satisfactory. At this time the diesels developed from 50 to 100
The engines were very large and heavy, necessitating air b.h.p. at 1,400 to 1,800 r.p.m. Some were adapted to
starting, direct reversing, and drip-type lubrication that marine propulsion and auxiliary units, and were used in
used much oil. They were expensive in initial cost, but smaller fishing vessels because no other diesel would fit
still more compact and much more economical to run them.
than the steam engines. World War 11 probably did more than anything to
For use in small fishing craft, smaller versions were change the minds of fishermen about high-speed diesels.
developed by reducing the number of cylinders to one or They were widely used on small landing craft and many a
two. While these engines were reliable, they vibrated fisherman's son operated them. His experience convinced
violently to the detriment of the hull structure. Their him of their reliability and he was most influential in
advantages were: (a) reliability; (b) economy of fuel, selling the idea to his father. Then, at the end of the war,
about .38 Ib. (0.173 kg.)/b.h.p. per hour; (c) reduction thousands of such engines came on the market at ridi-
in engine room force. Their disadvantages were: (a) high culously low prices so that fishermen could not afford
initial cost; (b) need for an oiler or engineer to be on to ignore them. To their surprise, they found them
duty at all times; (c) high cost of overhaul because all generally to be as reliable as the older types of engines
parts had to be hand fitted; (d) high lubricating oil con- they had used.
sumption; (e) heavy vibration. Most of the surplus engines were of the high-speed
Four advances permitted the introduction of medium two-cycle type which had been adopted by several manu-
speed diesels in the 1920s. They were: (a) better fuel facturers to obtain still more horsepower from smaller
injection systems (pioneered by Bosch); (b) better engines. This cycle was successfully used by introducing
materials, particularly for wearing surfaces; (c) better a positive displacement type of scavenging blower.
lubricating oils that could stand higher temperature; An analysis of fishing craft of the United States shows
and (d) better reduction gears, which permitted the that their main propulsion engines are used from 2,500
medium speed diesels to turn the propellers at low r.p.m. to 5,000 hours a year, with an average probably around
The manufacturers had a difficult time introducing 3,500 hours. There are 8,760 hours in a year so that the
their engines to the fishing industry. It was true then, as engines are actually operating about 40 per cent, of the
it isto-day, that this industry is most reluctant to adopt total available time. For the vast majority of American
any change without having its value proved to them over fishing vessels, trips last from 4 to 15 days, with a good
several years of operation. average of around 10 days or 240 hours of continuous
With the introduction of medium speed diesels came operation per trip. These hours provide some guidance
other notable changes: the use of forced feed lubrication for designers trying to produce an engine to meet the
to the bearing surfaces, reverse gears, and mechanical fishing industry's requirements. High-speed diesels.
fuel injection. The increased use of motor trucks, and properly installed and with good propellers, to-day do
the constantly increasing cost of gasoline, inevitably meet these requirements, as proved by the thousands of
forced automotive engineers seriously to consider the fishing vessels using them.
[412]
ENGINES HIGH-SPEED DIESELS
PISTON SPEEDS travel before being removed by the cooling medium, the
One old engineering term has been propagated through- more severe the problem is from a metallurgical and
out the world that engines should not have piston speeds
: operating point of view. High-speed diesels, with their
in excess of 1,500 ft. (454 m.) per minute in order to give smaller diameter cylinders, therefore have an advantage
over the medium- and slow-speed diesels because of the
long, reliable service. Such a limitation completely dis-
smaller distance the heat has to travel before reaching the
regards development and engineering work on the
design, finish and materials used in cylinder sleeves, cooling medium.
While true that this materially assisted on
pistons and piston rings. It is now known that piston
it is is all
diesels, regardless of their speed, by oil coiling of the
speeds have very little to do with the actual wear pattern
pistons, oilis not nearly as efficient as water as a
on the cylinder walls and piston rings. Despite this, cooling
most high-speed diesels, at the ratings given to them for medium. Virtually all high-speed diesels to-day are fresh
water cooled, either through the use of a heat exchanger
fishing boat use, still do not exceed 1,500 ft. "
In connection with piston speed, it is interesting to or through so-called keel cooling ", which permits the
note that service records of later models of high-speed engines to be run at much higher temperatures than if
sea water were used, as salt would be precipitated. It is
diesels, running at an average piston speed of 1,750 ft.
of real advantage to run the engines at these higher tem-
(534 m.) a minute, are giving approximately 32 per cent,
longer life between overhauls than the older, slower peratures as all internal working surfaces are closer to
the same temperature and the wear is much reduced.
models. It seems to be forgotten that smaller cylinder
diameters mean shorter strokes, consequently the engine And when operating in climates that reach freezing or
can turn faster and still have the same piston speed as a below, an anti-freeze solution can be added to the fresh
slower turning engine with a much longer stroke. In water system which reduces the chance of serious damage
many cases the actual piston speed of high-speed diesels by freezing. Furthermore, engineers are able to put in a
is even less than those of the medium- and slow-speed
better system of thermostatic control on the cooling
medium to ensure the engine running at a more even
engines. It is also interesting to note that present-day
high-speed diesels have a frictional horsepower loss, in temperature regardless of outside temperatures and most
relation to the maximum b.h.p. rating of the engine, less high-speed diesels now are run at 165 to 195 deg. F.
than the percentage of frictional horsepower loss on the (73.5 to 90.5 deg. C.).
medium- and slower-speed engines. Fresh water also permits use of a so-called pressurized
cooling system of about 12 Ib./sq. in. (0.84 kg./sq. cm.)
which means that the water will not boil until it has
INJECTION SYSTEM reached 225 deg. F. (107 deg. C.). There
every indica-
is
Engineers have been able to develop high-speed diesels tion that in the future this temperature will be increased.
because of the improvements made in the past twenty In addition to reducing the wear on the rotating parts,
years in the design and construction of mechanically- the increased temperature will allow use of fuels of
operated fuel injection systems. Not only have the injec- higher sulphur content. At the present time there are
tion and cut-off characteristics been improved, but the if engines were run at 212 deg. F. (100
indications that
injector now permits smaller amounts of fuel to be deg. C.) or higher, the sulphur in the fuel would not
injected at higher pressures. Furthermore, the hydraulics form sulphuric acid as a product of combustion. This,
involved have been studied most carefully and are much however, has not been definitely established.
more thoroughly understood to-day than they were at
that time. The National Advisory Committee for Aero-
VIBRATIONS
nautics in 1932 published a report on some tests which
they had made concerning fuel injection. This indicated
The smaller means of rotating weight in a high-speed
that pressures beyond certain limits did not increase the diesel are, of course, much more easily balanced than
fineness of the spyay. But practical considerations have they are on the medium- or slower-speed engines, and
since indicated that higher pressures are necessary for the power impulses are of smaller force and much more
high-speed diesels because the time available for injecting frequent. All of this results in a virtually vibration-free
the fuels is much smaller. Most modern high-speed diesels engine.
now inject at 10,000 to 17,000 Ib. per sq. in. (700 to
1 ,200 kg./sq. cm.) pressure. REVERSE GEARS
The development of reliable reverse gears was an essen-
COOLING SYSTEMS tialstep towards building high-speed engines. The older
The a heat engine but certain tem-
diesel is essentially gears required constant adjustment on the clutch plates,
peratures cannot be exceeded without deteriorating the as well as frequent greasing. Modern engines generally
material very rapidly. For this reason it is necessary to have hydraulically operated gears that require no adjust-
cool the engines. The hottest spot, of course, is in the ments to be made on them between overhauls. They
combustion chamber of which one side is formed by the have their own complete and independent oiling system
piston itself. The greater the distance the heat has to with forced feed lubrication to all bearings and gears,
[413]
FISHJNG BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
and are practically trouble-free. They do away with all satisfactorilyon ASTM No. 1 or No. 2 diesel fuel.
the mechanism that once was necessary to reverse the While some of the very slow-speed large diesels can
engine, and operate much more quickly than the old burn No. 6 fuel oil, this requires a lot of very expensive
directly reversible motors ever did. auxiliary equipment, such as centrifuges and pre-heaters,
Due to advanced techniques in gear design and to prepare the fuel for injection purposes. On a fishing
building, they are now compact units instead of being boat of 150 ft. (45.7 m.) or less, the use of such fuel,
almost the same size as the engine itself. The horsepower even in this type of engine, is therefore not practicable.
lossthrough these gears including the reduction gears And because of the large use of No. 1 and No. 2 fuel
in order to get the slow propeller speeds, is very small, oil throughout the world it is the most readily available
seldom exceeding 2 per cent, of the h.p. put through it. of all diesel fuels. Its higher price is more than offset
But this advance has not been made without some addi- in high-speed diesels by the reduction in cost of parts at
tional cost to high-speed diesels. The gears, built in overhauls.
relatively small quantities, are still expensive and repre- High-speed with their small diameter pistons,
diesels,
sent a good percentage of the total cost. make it more complete atomizaticn c f the
difficult to get
fuel injected. For this reason -they generally burn slightly
more fuel than engines having larger diameter pktDns,
BEARING SURFACES although all of the fuel is burnt cleanly. The specific
Another adage that still seems to be accepted, is that the fuel consumption for high-speed diesels is in the neigh-
hand-made article is better than one made by machinery. bourhood of 0.43 Ib. (0.195 kg.) per b.h.p. per hour,
While it is true that expert machinists could build a hand- but research which is being carried on indicates that this
made engine with as close tolerances as are required on specific fuel consumption will be reduced.
present-day high-speed diesels, it is doubtful if they could
build one diesel after another on this basis and still
INTERCHANGEABILITY OF PARTS
maintain the same tolerances. Because of their many
uses, high-speed diesels are built in large numbers, which High-speed diesels are manufactured on a large produc-
permits the introduction of specialized machines and
tion basis as they sell in many markets. The marine
heavy duty tooling. These tools are capable of turning industry, incidentally, is one of. the smallest users in
out pieces with very little variation. For example, all numbers and seldom takes more than 10 per cent, of the
of the main and connecting rod bearings on high-speed production of the factories.
diesels are of the pre-fitted type. No hand scraping is The engine parts are SD nearly alike that they are com-
pletely interchangeable without This means
hand
required in order to fit them even for replacement pur- fitting.
that a part can be bought anywhere in the world and will
poses. The advantage of this can be appreciated by any
fit the engine concerned. When improvements are made
fisherman who has recently tried to find someone to
in the parts they are still interchangeable on the older
scrape in bearings for him. Furthermore, .because of the
models so that, when overhauls are made, the engines
large quantities involved, a better basic type of bearing
can be fabricated than is generally found on the slow- are not merely repaired but are also modernized.
speed diesels. All of these things contribute to reducing
Mass production brings about many other advan-
the frictional horsepower in the engine and to making it tages. Not only are parts readily available in different
areas of the world, but they are much cheaper than the
very easy to repair.
comparable parts on medium- and slow-speed engines.
And it is not unusual for a complete overhaul to be
LUBRICATION carried out in four or five days. Such an overhaul will
No one can overestimate the importance of properly require 100 to 190 man-hours of labour and from $300
lubricating any internal combustion engine. On high- to (800 worth of parts. In contrast to this, there are
instances where owners of medium- and slow-speed
speed engines this is taken care of by a forced feed lubri-
cation system to every part on the engine, which assures diesels have had to wait 30 days to obtain piston
the supply of the correct amount of oil at all times to rings.
every bearing surface. High-speed diesels, as a group, The fact that high-speed diesels are generally over-
generally use less lubricating oil than the other types of
hauled every one or two years means that the fisherman
diesels. Most of the high-speed class have a guaranteed knows his engine is in first-class shape and even though
lubricating oil consumption of .0025 Ib. (.0016 kg.) per the overhauls are more frequent than in the case of slow-
b.h.p. per hour. This saving in lubricating oil consump- and medium-speed engines, the total cost of doing them,
tion is considerable over a 3,500-hour period. and the time consumed, is considerably less. The best
operators using medium- and slow-speed diesels still
spend time going over their engines annually when the
FUELS boat is being refitted. This does not approach a complete
It is quite true that the high-speed diesels cannot properly overhaul but to do the job well still requires about the
burn the lower grade fuels that are used in the slow-speed same number of man-hours and, quite frequently, more
and medium-speed diesels. They will, however, run expense in parts.
[414]
ENGINES HIGH-SPEED DIESELS
SIZES OF HIGH-SPEED DIESELS AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
At the presenttime, for marine propulsion purposes, the High-speed diesels have long been used on larger fishing
heavy duty ratings on high-speed diesels are limited to vessels as auxiliaries for generating and pumping pur-
approximately 250 s.h.p. for individual units. This means poses. It is not unusual to find marine generating sets
that all sizes of fishing boats up to 65 ft. (19.8 m.) can be running as long as 15,000 hours between major over-
supplied with engines as single units. The high-speed hauls. On many boats they drive the winch generator
dieselmanufacturers have introduced, however, multiple when an electrically driven trawl winch is employed.
units where two or more engines are geared together to Their great flexibility is of material assistance in operating
turn a single propeller. This is one of the more recent this equipment. With the further advancement of torque
innovations in the application of these engines to fishing converters and fluid couplings, the wide operating range
craftand the advantages to be gained are being more of high-speed diesels may be used for direct drive of
and more recognized by fishermen as it gives them the larger winches. By means of a proper oil cooler on the
reliability of a twin screw boat with the advantages, torque converter, it is possible to adjust the speed of the
from a fishing point of view, of still having only one diesel so that it, with the torque converter, becomes a
propeller. Such units are now available with continuous brake and the hand-brake does not have to be set. This
duty ratings up to 520 s.h.p. In these cases individual is a great advantage in heavy seas where surging on the
diesels are clutched into heavy duty herringbone gear wire occurs and also when the trawl is caught on the
boxes and can operate with one or more of the engines bottom. When this equipment or a separate diesel-
disengaged. When the engines are clutched in together, driven electric winch drive possible to
is installed, it is
they are locked into the gear box and all turn the same incorporate an A.C. electrical system throughout the
r.p.m. By means of a simple pyrometer set-up, recording vessel. The result is a material reduction in the initial
the temperature of the exhaust gasses from each engine, cost of such equipment, and in maintenance of the elec-
it is a simple matter to adjust the governors so that each tricalsystem. And it also eliminates the need for expen-
engine is carrying its fair share of the load. Equalizing sive, large, heavy duty storage batteries, which must be
mechanism is also incorporated to assist in this operation. replaced every four to six years, a saving in space, time,
The thing that surprises most new owners is the small money and labour.
drop in speed, when running free, they experience when
cutting out one engine. It seems to be forgotten that a
propeller is nothing but a pump and the horsepower
SUMMARY
required to turn it at 75 per cent, of its normal r.p.m. Compared with slow- and medium-speed diesels, the
requires less than 50 per cent, of the s.h.p. As a result, high-speed engine has the following disadvantages:
without overloading the individual engine, it is possible
(a) Slightly higher fuel consumption;
to cut off one engine in a multiple unit and still obtain
(b) Noisier;
70 to 75 per cent, of normal speed.
(c) Must be overhauled more frequently.
This is a most important economic factor in the
operation of fishing craft; and it is felt that the tendency
Against these, however, from the fisherman's point of
to higher and higher horsepowers, particularly in the
view, there are the following advantages:
trawlers, is a very expensive move and not entirely neces-
sary. Since trawling speeds are slow and the trawler (a) Lower initial cost, running from 50 to 75 per cent,
becomes, ineffect, a towboat, material increases in of the cost of the larger engines installed;
thrust at this time can be obtained by the use of Kort (b) Lower lubricating oil consumption;
nozzles and contra-guide rudders. This efficiency can be (c) More compact, requiring much smaller engine
further improved by the use of controllable pitch propel- rooms;
lers. At 4 knots, these combinations can increase the (d) Lighter weight, permitting better balance of the
thrust by as much as 30 per cent. That means a saving ship when the engines are either in the stern or
in the initial cost and in the maintenance and fuel bills, in the bow;
and the ability to get the same results as with an engine (e) Less down time;
of 30 per cent, more horsepower. (/) Much lower overhaul cost, both in man-hours and
The multiple engine units come with much larger reduc- in cost of parts;
tion gear ratios than on the single units and are available (g) Much more flexible in its power application;
with up to 6 1 reduction. At an average cruising r.p.m. of,
: (h) Spare parts easily obtainable;
say, 1,600 r.p.m., this means that the propeller shaft is (/) Larger number of experienced mechanics available
only turning 267 r.p.m. In the 400 to 550 h.p. class of
multiple units, it is not unusual to have propellers with These advantages show why, in the small and medium
72 in. (1,830 mm.) diameter and 38 in. to 52 in. (965 to sized fishing vessels of the world, more and more high-
1,320 mm.) pitch. speed diesels are being installed.
[415]
SEMI-DIESELS VERSUS DIESELS
by
IVAR STOKKE
first hot-bulb engines for fishing boats were on the under side of the piston, requires little power and
THE four-cycle and a great improvement was the change
into a two-cycle engine with crankcase scavenging.
the mechanical efficiency is, therefore, high up to
90 per cent. which ensures low specific fuel consump-
This gave simpler, stronger and more reliable engines, tion at all loads. Semi-diesels work at lower combustion
having up to four-cylinders with 6 to 100 b.h.p. output pressures than diesels and the wear on bearings and
each. The lower outputs were generally used for single- cylinders, under equal conditions, is less. The fuel
cylinder engines, and the higher for multi-cylinder ones. injection pressures from ca. 1,140 to 2,130 Ib./sq. in.
Fig. 480 shows weights per b.h.p. and overall lengths (80 to 150 kg./sq. cm.) allow very robust fuel injection
of modern ssmi-diesels. Aone-cylinder 100 b.h.p. semi- systems, which means minimum wear of fuel pumps and
diesel weighs about 176 Ib. (80 kg.) per h.p., while a fuel nozzles. The result is that their guaranteed fuel
two-cylinder 100 b.h.p. engine weighs about 110 Ib. oil consumption is retained long after the running-in
One cylinder semi-diesels of a higher
(50 kg.) per h.p. period. The maintenance cost of a good semi-diesel is
output than about 75 b.h.p. should not be built. The
length of a two-cylinder engine is not much more than
that of a 100 b.h.p. one-cylinder engine.
Modern semi-diesels have compression pressure of
213 Ib./sq. in. (15 kg./sq. cm.) and combustion pressures
200.
of 355 to 426 Ib./sq. in. (25 to 30 kg./sq. cm.). Contrary
to the old hot-bulb engines, modern semi-diesels use
an internal hot-bulb for ignition on starting and lower
190.
loads, while ignition at full load usually is achieved
through compression ignition (variable fuel-spray angle),
similar to diesels.
100.
Diesels with open combustion chambers have com-
20 30 40 50 60 70 SO 90 10O 11 120 130 140 150
pression ignition at all loads (apart from certain types of
precombustion chamber and swirl chamber diesels,
which are seldom used for propulsion of fishing craft).
The fuel consumption of modern one-cylinder 20 b.h.p. lower than for a diesel, and the total operating cost is
semi-diesels is about 0.485 Ib. (0.22 kg.) per b.h.p./hr. at least as favourable. Three cylinders and about
at normal load. Modern semi-diesels with higher com- 250 b.h.p. is usually the maximum size for semi-diesels.
pression and injection pressure, and internal hot-bulbs The mean effective pressure at the most economical load
allowing higher temperatures than the old external hot- is about 45 to 50Ib./sq. in. (3.2 to 3.5 kg./sq. cm.) with a
bulbs, have a flatter fuel consumption curve. The specific fuel consumption of about 0.43 to 0.41 Ib./b.h.p./
specific fuel oil consumption curve for different loads hr. (0.195 to 0.185 kg./b.h.p./hr.).
looks more like that of the diesel's. The idling con- Several firms have begun to build three- to four-
sumption is considerably lower than for the old hot-bulb cylinder engines with a separate scavenging pump, which
engines, which had relatively high consumption compared has a larger scavenging capacity than can be obtained
with the diesels. Fishing boat engines are very often by crankcase scavenging. The separate scavenging pump
idling for long intervals and this consumption is of great volume is about 1.3 to 1.5 times the cylinder volume and
importance for fuel economy. a better scavenging of the cylinder is obtained, as well
Crankcase scavenging is especially well suited to semi- as a higher mean effective pressure at normal load of
of one- and two-cylinders, with cylinder outputs
diesels 57 to about 60 Ib./sq. in. (4 to about 4.2 kg./sq. cm.).
up to 75 b.h.p. The scavenging air, being produced The specific fuel consumption of a fully-scavenged
[416]
ENGINES SEMI-DIESELS VERSUS DIESELS
semi-diesel engine is hardly any better than for a crank- have shorter life and be less reliable. It may, therefore,
case scavenged one because the special pump causes be said that the semi-diesels are easier to manufacture,
mechanical losses which decrease the mechanical efficiency. are more robust and simple, are easy to operate and do
The top-volume cannot be scavenged thoroughly on a not require much attention, as long as they get cooling
semi-diesel even if a special pump is used. This is a draw- water, lubricating oil and fuel.
back compared with fully-scavenged diesels with open Fully-scavenged two-cycle diesels for larger fishing
combustion chambers. One- and two-cylinder semi-diesel craft are usually built with three to eight cylinders and
engines, with a special scavenging pump, are uneconomical 50 to 130 b.h.p. cylinder outputs. For deep sea trawler,
to build. higher cylinder outputs are used.
still
Crankcase scavenged semi-diesels are usually built Crankcase scavenged diesels are seldom used in the
with separate cylinders, but the overall lengths are not fishing fleet, except as small, high-speed auxiliary engines,
much longer than for fully-scavenged two-cycle diesels. generally having a pre-combustion or a swirl combustion
Fig. 480, curves b and c, show the overall lengths of chamber with a fuel injection pressure of about 2,130 lb./
two-cylinder, fully-scavenged 2-cycle diesels with control- sq. in.
(150 kg./sq. cm.). Their optimum specific fuel
lable pitch propellers or reverse gears. In addition, the consumption is about 0.44 to 0.46 lb. b.h.p. (0.20 to
weight per b.h.p. is higher for 2-cylinder, fully-scavenged, 0.21 kg.).
TABLE LXX
DEVELOPMENT OF SEMI-DIESEL
(.'hanu'ieristies External Hot-bulb Internal Hot-bulb
Pest year 1931 1937 1938 1939 1951
Normal output in h h.p. 33.55 51.6 17.5 32 60
Normal r.p.m. 401 390 545 430 375
Fuel consumption kg./b.h.p.;hr. 0.252 0.222 0.241 0.239 0.195
Ib./b.h.p./hr. 0.554 0.490 0.531 0.527 0.430
Effective mean pressure kg./sq. cm. 2.49 2.89 2.33 2.10 2.80
lb. sq. in. 15.4 41.1 33.2 29.8 39.8
Idling r.p.m 163 108 177 170 107
Idling consumption kg./hr. 1.218 1.286 0.642 1.24 0.792
Ib./hr. 2.68 2.83 1.415 2.74 1.75
two-cycle diesels, as is shown by the dotted line marked Four-cycle diesels are also used for propulsion of
b,c. fishing boats but theyhave only about 60 to 65 per cent,
When fully-scavenged two-cycle diesels are built with of the output of two-cycle diesels of corresponding
three or more cylinders, with at least 50 b.h.p. cylinder weight and r.p.m. If they are not to be heavier and
output, they have advantage over semi-diesels in weight. bigger than two-cycle types of corresponding power the
Such diesels, with high pressure fuel injection, have a r.p.m. of four-cycle engines must be increased. Another
consumption of 0.375 to 0.397 Ib./b.h.p./hr. (0.17 to solution is supercharging. Higher r.p.m. can be used,
0.18 kg.). The compression pressures are about 470 because the four-cycle engine has one whole piston
to 510 Ib./sq. in. (33 to 36 kg./sq. cm.) and the maximum stroke of forced air scavenging, while the scavenging
combustion pressures about 710 to 850 Ib./sq. in. (50 to and charging period of the two-cycle engine takes place
60 kg./sq. cm.), i.e. twice the semi-diesel's. Bearings, during a short part of a revolution at the lower deadpoint
piston lengths, etc., must accordingly be bigger. A of the crank. Good propeller efficiency requires low
diesel, with the same reliability and lifetime as a semi- propeller r.p.m. so four-cycle engines are frequently
diesel, must be of first-class construction and materials. equipped with reduction gears.
The lubrication system and the lubricating oil quality Engine frames and cylinder blocks have been built of
must also be top grade. welded steelplates during recent years. With rational
Maintenance and operation must generally be more production and careful welding, they are as cheap as
careful than in the case of semi-diesels otherwise it will cast iron parts because miscastings are avoided. The
[417]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
engines are stiffer and the weight can be decreased by at recorded in fig. 481 with the mean effective pressures
least 15 per cent. More welding will require larger work- relative to the r.p.m. At maximum output the r.p.m.
shops with annealing furnaces to treat the welded parts should not be higher than 400, otherwise the time cross-
to relieve' Welding stresses. section for the exhaustand scavenging ducts will be too
Table LXX shows characteristic test results of Nor- small. Fig. 482 shows mechanical, thermal fuel and
wegian scmi-diescls from 1931 to 1951. The idling con- effective fuel efficiencies, as well as specific fuel consump-
sumption per hour has decreased from 2.68 Ib. (1.218 kg.) tion at maximum output. Fig. 483 shows efficiencies
for a 35 b.h.p. semi-diesel in 1931, to 1.75 Ib. (0.792 kg.) and mean effective pressure at 375 r.p.m. (constant).
for a 60 b.h.p. engine built in 1951. Results obtained in Fig. 484 shows the efficiencies relative to the propeller
1953 are still better. load curve. As with the diesel, fuel efficiency is fairly
The maximum output for a Norwegian semi-diesel constant from 30 to 70 b.h.p. and fuel consumption is
60 h.p. one-cylinder, Wichmann built in 1951, has been also almost constant within a very large load area.
EFFICIENCIES AT CONSTANT 37 B P. p.m.
[MAXIMUM OUTPUT IN h.p. |
70
i
Ho
100 EFFICIENCIES AT PROPELLER LOAD I
90
^ 400
i
5
70 .60
BO
100
40
-3O
EFFECTIVE FUEL EFFICCNCY
100
jjao
1
10 NOMINAL OUTPUT"
BO 60 70
H.P
Figs. 48J and Fig. 482 Figs. 483 and 484
[418]
MODERN PROPULSION PLANTS
by
K. SCHMIDT AND TH. SCHUMACHER
1927 the internal combustion engine was almost get the deserved attention in the reconstruction of the
IN the exclusive means of propulsion in German fishing cutter fleet of Western Germany after World War II,
cutters, and sails began to lose their importance. The but they were widely used in the Eastern Zone. For this
fishermen had to be warned against any hasty decision reason there are excellent fleets of modern cutters in the
to install bigger engines in order to maintain the economy Baltic Sea to-day.
of the operation. On the basis of the wide experience For cutters with directly driven propellers the tests
gained, the Deutscher Seefischereiverein (German Sea- indicated the optimum power and revolutions, given in
fisheries Association) and the Reichsanstalt fur Fischerei Table LXXI.
(Federal Fisheries Institute) decided to study syste- The additional investment and the higher fuel con-
matically the economic power for different sizes of sumption of higher power than recommended would not
cutters. Until then, the construction of wooden cutters result in a correspondingly larger catch of fish because
had been, with little exception, a matter of the crafts- the higher speed and towing performance, achieved with
man's experience. Extensive research was done in the stronger engines, is not proportional to the output.
years 1940-1942 with the financial aid of German engine In certain circumstances, however, more engine power
manufacturers. Messrs. Maierform, naval architects of could be advantageous, i.e. if a reduced propeller speed
Bremen, Germany, analysed the line drawings of the was provided. It is essential to judge engine and pro-
vessels and designed new plans. The Shipbuilding peller separately; each element has its optimum speed
Experimental station in Vienna carried out tank tests. range, and a reduction gear has to be arranged between
These showed that the traditional empirical shapes could engine and propeller.
be improved considerably. Propeller tests were also Asummary of the optimum values is to be seen on
carried out. Unfortunately, the valuable results did not Table LXXII.
TABLE LXXI
TABLE LXXII
Overall length .... ft.
m.
32.8
10
39.3
12
45.8
14
52.4
16
59
18
65.5
20
72
22
78.6
24
Propelling ....
power h.p. 50 70 90 110 130 150 180 210
speed ....
Maximum optimum propeller
r.p.m. 390 375 350 320 290 260 240 220
Maximum propeller diameter suitable
for the Maierform design . in. 39.4 41.7 47.3 51.2 57.1 61 67 72.8
m. 1.0 1.06 1.20 1.30 1.45 1.55 1.70 1.85
[419]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
CONSUMPTION CURVES AND ship encounters wind and waves. Using such an engine
POWER DIAGRAM with different revolutions is by no means disadvan-
tageous, as the specific fuel consumption is about the
same between half and full load, as is evident from fig. 485.
With two-speed reduction gear it is possible to use
the engine power in the best way for both trawling and
cruising, and recently the first three-speed gear was
installed. The entire control of the engine and gearing
isconcentrated in a single operator's stand, by air or
oilhydraulic pressure, which relieves the operator from
heavy work. The operator's stand can be transferred
from the engine room to the bridge. Some captains still
prefer the engine room telegraph. Both systems can also
be connected.
Twoengines of equal output can be combined by a
RPM n multi-state gear which can give different reductions and
reversing. Furthermore, one engine can be cut off from
1) POWER ABSORBED BY CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLER
the propeller shaft for driving the electric generator or
2) M ft BY CONSTANT PITCH PROPELLER TOWING
the trawl winch.
3) '
M BY PROPELLER FREERUN " "
Deutz designed and supplied father and son power
A) 1OO yo ENGINE POWER
plants for three trawlers, making both engines directly
i) no ^ reversible so that all manoeuvres could be performed
Cj 75 9* " "
with the son engine alone. This was smaller in order
o) so y to save weight and the system has proved very satis-
C) 25 $/ factory in fishing. Each of the two engines operates by
way of a clutch on to the common reduction gear."
The
Fig. 485. Consumption diagram of a two-cycle dieset, of 400 h.p. "
electric generator is placed between the son engine
at 625 r.p.m.
and its clutch, because then the rotating masses are on
one side of the crankshaft and the total system is acces-
The authors are concerned with the Deutz diesels, which sible. This arrangement is favourable as regards its
" "
have low weight as compared with the output. If one, oscillations. Disengaging of the electric generator
is effected by switching off the field excitation.
therefore, selects an engine having a higher maximum
output than necessary for continuous cruising, one would
be able to use this engine with reduced output and still V-BUILT TWO-CYCLE ENGINES
not get a too heavy engine. Then one will have a power Short engine length is especially advantageous for fishing
reserve for trawling, which also will be valuable when the craft in order to make room for the fish-hold and
fig. 486. Comparison of a 6 cyl. t four-cycle diesel (shaded), with a 4 cyL, two-cycle, V-built diesel. both driving a reverse reduction gear oj
the same size
[420]
ENGINES MODERN PROPULSION PLANTS
comfortable quarters for the crew. V-built, two-cycle water cooling is recommended in order to combine
engines with four cylinders in the length of a two-cylinder steady cooling with minimum attention. The temperature
unit, have turned out to be very favourable. Such is controlled by an automatic thermostat and the tem-
important elements as the injection pump and the fuel perature of the lubrication oil is kept constant by arrange-
valves can be placed so that they are easily accessible. ment of a by-pass piping at the cooler, fed with sea
The dismantling of the pistons, at general overhauls, water.The heating of the vessel can be combined with
is also facilitated by the V-form and the cooling circuit in a simple way.
requires less height.
Fig. 487. Installation of a V-built 190 h.p. diesel with Reintje's controllable pitch propeller in a 78.7ft. (24 m.) cutter
Fig. 486 shows a comparison of a V-built engine and a AIR COOLED ENGINES
straight engine of about the same effect and number of Water-cooling can, however, be a source of trouble,
revolutions. Fig. 487 shows a V-built engine installed especially in shallow coastal waters, in estuaries, and on
in a fishing boat. shallow lakes. Since 1942, Deutz has developed a series
Table LXXIII lists V-built engines suitable for fish- of air-cooled diesels, thousands of which have already
ing cutters. The older series 425 has a Roots-type proved satisfactory in land traffic, in severest cold as
scavenging blower but the new types 525 and 320 are well as in great heat. Conditions of service are simpler
provided with a simple centrifugal blower, the air delivery on board ship than on land and the same air-cooled
of which is better related to the propeller output. The diesels have proved satisfactory in ships for the last three
new types have low specific weight and short overall years. The working temperatures are reached in one-fifth
length. of the time needed by a water-cooled one and it cannot
For trouble-free operation, cooling of the cylinders and be damaged by frost. Wear and corrosion are excep-
cylinder heads, the circulating lubrication oil, and the tionally low, allowing higher piston speeds. Air-cooled
air compressors, are of particular importance. Fresh diesels have been installed in great numbers in fishing
[4211
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
TABLE LXXffl
WATER-COOLED IN-LINE AND V-BUILT TWO-CYCLE DIESELS FOR FISHING CUTTERS
[422]
ENGINES MODERN PROPULSION PLANTS
vessels and have operated quite successfully, for instance, to personnel. The simplest solution is to lead the hot air
in the warmwaters of Indonesia and Malaya and off to the funnel, together with the engine exhaust. The hot
the African coast. Fig. 488 shows a typical installation. air can also be used for heating if required.
As air has a lower heat capacity than water (referring Air-cooled diesels are now delivered with outputs
to the volume), comparatively large air quantities must from 8 to 150 h.p. Table LXXIV lists some types for
be used for cooling. The hot air evacuation has to be installations in fishing vessels of 16 to 40 ft. (5 to 12 m.)
arranged, therefore, to avoid resistance and inconvenience lengths.
SCALE IN FEET
3
Fig. 488. Installation of an air-cooled die*el m a 39.4 ft. (72m.) cutter
[423]
JAPANESE DIESELS
by
I. TAKAHASHI, M. AKASAKA and K. TANAKA
HT^HERE were 129,048 powered fishing boats in 3. Has very often a home port where transportation
j^ Japan in 1952, of which 45 were steam driven, facilities on land and repair shops are scarcely
9,301 had diesels, 47,426 hot-bulb engines and available.
72,276 electric ignition engines. The average size for the
Even though medium- and high-speed engines are now
steam engines was 915 h.p., for the diesels 66 h.p., for
of fairly good construction, engines of heavy-duty type
the hot-bulb engines 27.2 h.p. and for the electric ignition
are still widely used.
engines 5.4 h.p. The number of steam-powered vessels
mainly large whale catchers, medium trawlers and
refrigerated fish carriers is
decreasing gradually. WHALE CATCHERS
In 1947, diesel boatsnumbered 2,311, with a total The first Japanese catchers used steam because it was.
horse-power of 223,038. In the next five years the believed that diesels were so noisy that they would
number increased by 300 per cent., but the average
frighten whales away. But to meet the general demand
horse power per vessel decreased from 96 in 1947 to to use diesels for whale catchers, continuous research
66 in 1952, because between those years small diesels was made to produce a noiseless diesel. In 1936, a diesel
of less than 25 h.p. became increasingly popular. Maru No.
catcher, Seki 7, 320 gross tons, 1,050 h.p.,
Between 1947 and 1950, semi-diesels or hot-bulb was built. she was not noiseless at slow speeds,
Although
engines increased in number by 49 per cent, and in she made good catches in the Antarctic and her fuel
total horse power by 45 per cent., indicating that many
consumption was only one-third of a steam catcher. It
small fishing vessels had been equipped with hot-bulb more speed and
was clear that better manoeuvring would
engines, but after 1950 the number decreased because mean more whaling, and two 1,200 h.p. diesel
efficient
diesels became more popular.
catchers, of 360 gross tons each, were built.
Electric ignition engines are the most common fishing When Japan returned to Antarctic whaling after
boat engines. There were 52,960 in use at the end of World War II, it was necessary to reconstruct the whaling
1947 totalling 281,646 h.p. and by 1952 they numbered fleet The 1,800 h.p. medium-speed,
in a short time.
72,276 (392,112 h.p.) an increase of 30 per cent, in four-cycle, engines, which had been used by the sub-
number and 39 per cent, in horse power. Their per- marine chasers, were installed in several new catchers
centage of the total powered fleet is almost constant, of 300 gross tons. These boats worked fairly well but
namely 36 to 41 per cent, of the number and 7 to 8 per it was found that heavy-duty main engines were needed.
cent, of the horse power. A Whalers' Equipment Improvement Committee was
The Japanese diesel for fishing was installed in
first established with members from government agencies and
1922 in the Hakuho Maru, a fisheries patrol boat (2 by The Committee concluded that an
private companies.
320 h.p. twin screw), owned by the Japanese Fisheries
engine of 1,800 b.h.p., 200 r.p.m., weighing about 80 tons,
Agency. Since then the modernization of fishing boats was desirable. A
seven-cylinder 2,300 h.p., 200 r.p.m.
has accelerated. At first the manufacturers lacked diesel was installed in a 400 gross tons catcher in 1952.
knowledge of the requirements of the fishing industry, She has made bigger catches than any other boat in the
and the engineers knew little about the function of northern Pacific since the spring of 1953.
diesels, but many difficulties have been overcome. There is not much difference in construction between
The primary requirement for a fishing boat engine is the two-cycle engine for the whale catcher and the
reliability because a fishing boat: trawler diesel as far as scavenging or other fundamental
1. Has to be used as much as possible through the functions are concerned. But as a whale catcher has
year. two different working speeds chasing and towing a
2. Frequently navigates alone on the rough, off-shore two-cycle engine with automatic scavenging valves has.
ocean, and the widest flexibility.
[424]
ENGINES JAPANESE DIESELS
When the first diesel catchers were built, it was found in the East China Sea. They are wooden or steel boats
that an engine brake was essential. When a harpoon of about 70 to 130 gross tons with diesels from 210 h.p.
hits a whale and the engine is stopped with the fuel to 300 h.p. and they operate in pairs.
supply shut off, the propeller shaft continues to revolve Slow speed four-cycle diesels of 380 to 400 r.p.m.
because of the ship's remaining speed. So, the harpoon with reverse gear are mainly used. Direct reversible
rope often gets tangled with the propeller shaft and is engines are not suitable for trawlers because the trawl
cut off. The harpooned whale is sunk and lost. If the winch is driven through a pulley on the fore end of the
engine reversed then the torque is too big and may
is crank shaft.
cause damage to the shaft or engine. Accordingly, an The fly wheel is fitted on the fore end of the cranl*
engine brake method was devised in which the main shaft, and the engine bed, the thrust bed and the reversing
cylinders work like a compressor when the fuel supply is bed are cast in one piece to make up a strong unit. The
shut down. The torque produced by the propeller fore end of the crank shaft has one pulley to transmit
revolving, due to the ship's speed in the water, is absorbed a torque of about 580 to 650 ft.lb. (80 to 90 kgm.) to the
by the cylinders, and within several seconds the propeller trawl winch, and another to drive an auxiliary electric
stops. generator. The strength of the crank shaft and the
Remarkable improvements have been made in whalers bearing is sufficient for such a load. Auxiliary pumps
during the past few years. Catchers have, contrary to and the operating handle of the engine are placed near
expectation, become larger. Norway has now a 2,700 h.p. the reverse gear.
diesel catcher of 900 gross tons. England has completed The Mietz and Weiss type clutch is mainly used because
a 192 ft. (58.5 m.) diesel catcher with 3,200 b.h.p. max. of its simple structure and smooth operation for diesels
output of the two-geared diesels. She is fitted with a from 300 to 350 h.p. transferring a torque of about
controllable pitch propeller. 4,700 ft.lb. (650 kgm.).
OTTER TRAWLERS SMALL TRAWLERS
Trawlers navigate alone in deep seas. The time to dis- Most of the fishing boats operating off the northern pan
cuss whether diesel or steam should be used for large of Japan are wooden trawlers of about 30 to 80 gross
trawlers has passed the question is, what kind of diesel
:
tons with main engines of 120 to 210 h.p. with reverse
gear. A thrust of about 3 tons is needed when trawling,
should be used ?
A six-cylinder 750 h.p. engine was built for the and the boats generally have a speed of 9 knots or more
Kushiro Maru in 1927, on licence from the Nobel Co., while cruising under loaded conditions.
Ltd., Switzerland. Many of the engines were later Medium-speed engines with reduction gears have been
installed in large trawlers, and a seven-cylinder 1,050 h.p. made in Japan but they are not yet very popular for
engine for the Suruga Maru, a 1,000 gross tons trawler, trawlers. On the contrary, many hot-bulb engines are
was manufactured in 1930.
being used because they are not damaged by over-
After World War II, a standard type five-cylinder
loading, and they can be repaired at small iron works.
750 h.p. two-cycle diesel was manufactured. This was The cruising radius of small trawlers is very limited,
followed by a seven-cylinder engine, and now an eight- but the number of diesels being installed is gradually
cylinder 1,200 to 1,300 h.p. engine is being planned. increasing and they reduce running expenses and extend
Four-cycle diesels, of course, are used for trawlers of the navigation range.
about 300 gross tons.
Scavenging methods have not been changed from those
introduced by the licence of the Nobel Co., Ltd. Some LARGE TUNA CLIPPERS
experiments have been made on an automatic scavenging Large- type tuna clippers were not built pre-war because
valve which is very effective because it is capable of base ports in the southern islands were available in those
over-load running. days. Comparatively small boats with diesels from 320
Although the mean piston speed and the mean effec- to 400 h.p. were used.
tive pressure at rated output are 1 5 ft./sec. (4.64 m./sec.) The size of the tuna clipper has increased gradually
and 68 Ib./sq. in. (4.77 kg./sq. cm.) respectively, con- following the expansion of the fishing grounds outside
tinuous operation is possible up to 75 Ib./sq. in. the MacArthur Line. The engines have increased from
(5.3 kg./sq. cm.) of mean effective pressure. The scaveng- 500 to 850 h.p.
ing pump is double acting and fitted on the fore end of Most engines now used are of the four-cycle, single-
the engine. The weight of the engine, including the thrust acting, solid-injection and trunk-piston type. Two-cycle
bearing, is about 10^ Ib./b.h.p. (47 kg./b.h.p.). is seldom used. A few manufacturers have begun to
produce superchargers for the four-cycle engine. Typical
types are listed in Table LXXV.
TWO-BOAT TRAWLERS Large tuna clipper engines operate continuously for
Many trawlers have their ports in the southern part of about 1,200 to 1,300 hours during each voyage with only
Japan, and their fishing grounds stretch out to the south, five days in the harbour between trips. Time for repairs,
1425]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
TABLE LXXV
Four-cycle Two-cycle
Type IV V
Rated b.h.p. 500 650 750 850 750
R.p.m. 330 320 295 280 240
Overload b.h.p. . 600 780 900 1,020 900
Number of cylinders . 6 6 6 6 5
Diameter of cylinder . 13.1 in. 335 mm. 14.6 in. 370mm. 15.8 in. 400mm. 16.5 in. 420mm. 14.2 in. 360 nun.
Stroke 18.5 in. 470mm. 20.5 in. 520mm. 22.5 in. 570mm. 23.5 in. 600mm. 23.0 in. 580mm.
Mean effective pressure 78 5.47 77 5.42 80 5.61 80 5.60 72 5.03
Ib./sq. in. kg./sq. cm. Ib./sq. in. kg./sq. cm. Ib./sq. in. kg./sq. cm. Ib./sq. in. kg./sq. cm. Ib./sq. in. kg./sq. cm.
Mean piston speed 16.9 5.16 18.2 17.4 5.32 17.9 5.46 15.6 4.76
ft./s. m./s. ft./s. m./s. ft./s. m./s. ft./s. m./s. ft./s. rn./s.
Fuel consumption 0.38 172 0.36 164 0.36 162 0.35 160 0.40 180
Ib./h.p./hr. gr./h.p./hr. lb./h.p./hr. gr./h.p./hr. lb./h.p./hr. gr./h.p./hr. lb./h.p./hr. gr./h.p./hr. lb./h.p./hr. gr./h.p./hr.
Lubricating oil con- 0.003 1.2 0.002 1.0 0.002 1.0 0.002 1.0 0.008 3.5
sumption lb./h.p./hr. gr./h.p./hr. lb./h.p./hr. gr./h.p./hr. H>./h.p./hr. gr./h.p./hr. lb./h.p./hr. gr./h.p./hr. lb./h.p./hr. gr./h.p./hr
Weight, tons 20.1 22.8 27.0 30.5 34.0
therefore, is limited. Although fishing boats usually The main engines a few exceptions, four-
are, with
dock twice a year, the docking time is only two days. cycle, single-acting trunk-piston type with four to six
The Japanese law requires owners of fishing boats to cylinders. Those under 300 h.p. are equipped with
have a survey every two years. Mietz and Weiss type reverse gears. Engines over
The four-cycle engines mostly used have wet liners, 300 h.p. are directly reversible.
except for Type 1, which has a block cylinder with a Table LXXVI gives particulars of a typical 400 h.p,
water jacket in it. The engine bed, frame and cylinder main diesel engine.
are made of cast iron and are connected together by Particular attention is given to easy operation, relia-
tension bolts. The crank shaft is solid forged. The fuel bility, durability and economical driving
low speed. in
pump is a spill valve type. The starting valve is an air A is used for the frequent manoeuvres.
friction clutch
control type and a pilot valve is fitted on every cylinder. A pulley is attached to the fore end of the crank shaft.
The friction clutch is fitted between the crank and thrust The generators, bilge pumps and line haulers are driven
shafts, is operated by oil pressure. The clutch of a
and by belts off the main engines.
Japanese tuna clipper is operated 800 to 1,000 times a The weight and overall lengthare comparatively small,
day when fishing. Each trip lasts 25 to 30 days. thereby effectively using the small space of the engine
An all-speed governor is used, the handle being fitted room. One man, without moving his position, can start,
near the operating seat. The main engine is operated reverse, adjust fuel oil consumption (speed adjustment)
at about one-fourth of its maximum output when fishing and use the friction clutch. If especially required, a
and smooth governor running is needed in this condition. servomotor is attached to manoeuvre the friction clutch.
The engine has a gear type lubricating oil pump, a The speed regulator is a centrifugal type and operates
piston or plunger type cooling water pump, and a bilge very sensitively during all stages of output. Even if the
pump. An air charge valve is fitted on one of the cylinders
and compressed air for starting purposes is loaded in an
air reservoir. The pulley for the auxiliary machinery is
TABLE LXXVI
driven through a friction clutch fitted on the fore end
of the crank shaft. Number of cylinders 6
R.p.m. 350
Some tuna clippers have a remote control device to 400
Output .
h.p.
operate engines from the bridge, but it is not very popular Maximum output . 480 h.p.
yet in Japan. In future, the trend will be to supercharge
Diameter of cylinder 12.2 in. 310mm.
four-cycle engines, and develop reliable two-cycle, Stroke . 17.3 in. 440mm.
high speed engines. Piston speed . 17 ft./sec. 5.13 m./sec.
Mean effective pressure 74 Ib./sq in. 5.16 kg./sq. cm.
Length, overall 209 in. 5,301 mm.
Breadth of engine bed 45 in. 1,144 mm.
SMALL OR MEDIUM TUNA CLIPPERS Maximum breadth of engine . 73 in. 1,844 mm.
The small- or medium-size tuna clippers of S3 to 200 Height above centre of shaft . 74.5 in. 1,892 mm.
Height below centre of crank
gross tons have in general 160 to 400 h.p. diesels. shaft 22 in. 560mm.
Japanese tuna clippers in the past were mostly below Height, overall 97 in. mm.
2,452
100 gross tons but recently bigger types have been built,
and now a 300 gross tons type is becoming popular.
Weight .... about 16 tons
[426]
ENGINES JAPANESE DIESELS
propeller is disengaged in low speed, the revolutions are
not changed, and no harm is done in manoeuvring.
The engine can be controlled from the wheel house or
the look-out platform on top of the wheel house. The
advantages of the remote control system were demon-
strated by an American type purse seiner of 120 gross
tons in 1949, and it was installed with the same good
results in a steel tuna clipper of 300 gross tons in 1953.
The engine bed and crank case are made of special cast
iron and a lubricating oil tank is arranged at the bottom
of the bed. The cylinders are made from cast iron and
they are equipped with liners. The engine bed, crank case
and cylinders are connected by tension bolts. The crank
shaft is made of single-block wrought steel.
A spill valve type fuel oil pump is fixed to each cylinder.
The fuel valves have many holes, and the discharging
pressure is 4,000 Ib./sq. in. (280 kg./sq. cm.).
Compressed comes from the two air
air for starting
tanks through pilot and starting valves on the cylinder
covers. The capacity of each air tank is 13.5 cu. ft.
(380 1.) of 430 Ib./sq. in. (30 kg./sq. cm.). The air is
delivered to the air tanks by an independent compressor,
or by one of the cylinders of the main engine and, when
charging is done with the cylinder, fuel oil is not sprayed
into it.
Theself-reversing type of reverse gear used is operated
by a handle which moves a lever with two rollers.
200 eso joo
The fuel oil consumption is less than .375 Ib./b.h.p./hr.
(170 gr.) using heavy oil of 0.92 specific gravity. The Revolution (rp.w.)
exhaust temperature is low, as shown in fig. 489, and Fig. 489. Characteristic Curves of Hanshin Diesel Engine
lhe engine can be overloaded 20 per cent, for an hour (400 B.H.P.).
without danger.
Fishing vessels will reach higher speeds by the further and the low speed engines, which are now in the
development of engines and/or the installation of super- majority, may be developed to give medium speed.
chargers. The performance of the engines is directly The remote control system will certainly gain popu-
connected with safety of life, and they must be reliable larity and by its help the engines will be operated directly
and durable. High revolutions are not necessarily suitable from the wheel house or look-out platform.
[427]
GAS TURBINE PROPULSION
by
A. AUGUSTIN NORMAND Jr.
DESCRIPTION AND PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION of the generator casing; two free pistons, each consisting
A gas turbine propulsion plant may consist of: of a working part towards the centre and with a small,
high-pressure area and a compression part with larger
(a) one or more free piston gas generators;
diameter on the outside, the latter working on an air
(b) one or more gas turbines with several forward
cushion on the outside and as a compressor on the inside ;
wheels and, if required, one or two astern wheels;
two connecting-rods for synchronization of the pistons.
(c) one reduction gear per shaft with or without
When the pistons have reached the inside dead point
reverse gear;
and the injected fuel is ignited, the pistons are pushed
(d) oil and fresh water for the lubricating and
pumps outward again and part of the developed power is.
cooling of the generators, turbines and reduction accumulated in the air cushion.
gears;
During this outward movement, air is sucked into
(e) sea water pumps and heat exchangers for the
the compressor chambers and the exhaust ports and
circulating freph water and oil;
later the scavenging ports (these are communicating
(/) air compressors and air bottles for starting the
with the engine casing filled with air under pressure)
generators;
other auxiliary equipment, such as for
open up, enabling the exhaust gases to escape and
(g) pumps
scavenging air to enter, similar to a two-cycle engine with
oil and fuel transfer, filters, etc.
opposite pistons. When the pistons have reached the
A free piston gas generator, fig. 490, consists of: a outside dead point, the air cushions restore the energy
casing, closed at both ends with back-flow valves, con- that they have accumulated and the pistons return to the
taining a cylinder liner with injectors, scavenging and insidedead point.
exhaust ports, and casings for the two synchronised During this return movement the compression pistons
connecting rods; two compression chambers at the end push the air contained in the compression chambers into
Fig. 490 Section through a free piston gas generator
[428]
ENGINES GAS TURBINE PROPULSION
the inside of the cylinder casing through the valves, and The plant has two free piston gas generators that
the working pistons close the scavenging and exhaust together develop 1,700 h.p. in continuous operation
ports and compress the air to be used for the combustion and 2,100 h.p. when supercharged. These generators
in the next cycle. The mixture of air and gas that escapes feed one turbine which drives the shafting through a
is led to the turbine. Its temperature is between 840 reduction gear.
and 930 deg. F. (450 and 500 deg. C.) and it is under a The following auxiliary equipment is provided for:
pressure of 50 Ib./sq. in. (3.5 kg./sq. cm.). Metallurgic-
Fresh water
ally, the problems raised by these temperatures and
More
Two electric 92 imp. gal. min. (110 gal./min.:
pressures can be readily solved. details on the
25 cu. m./hr.) pumps
operation and output of free piston generators are given
Two fresh water coolers.
by Eichelberg (1948) and Peillon (1949).
Reversing can be done by one or several reverse wheels Piston cooling oil
in the turbine, a reverse gear incorporated in the reduc- Two electric 66 imp. gal./min. (80 gal./min.;
tion gear or a propeller with controllable pitch that, 18 cu. m./hr.) pumps
in the case of a trawler, has the further advantage of Two oil coolers
permitting both cruising and trawling efficiently. One electric 7.3 imp. gal. /min. (6.8 gal./min. ;
2 cu. m./hr.) pump
ADAPTATION TO A TRAWLER One hand pump.
A study has been made on the adaptation of free piston
gas generators and a gas turbine to a trawler with the Turbine and reduction gear lubricating oil
following main dimensions: One electric 92 imp. gal./min. (110 gal./min.; 25 cu.
Overall length 233ft. (71.1 m.) m./hr.) pump
Length between perpendiculars 217ft. (66 m.) One emergency 46 imp. gal./min. (55 gal./min.;
Overall breadth 37 ft. (10.6 m.) 12.5 cu. m./hr.) electric pump
Depth to the main deck 20ft. (6.1 m.) One oil filter
Volume offish-hold 46,200 cu. ft. (1,310 cu. m.) One oil cooler.
Fig. 49J Profile of engine room of a trawler with gas turbine propulsion
[429]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
T^--" < UJJjLliili
SCALE IN FEET
5 10
1. FrM piston fas fenerator 7. Fire fifhtinf pump
2. Turbine with reduction tear 8. Salt water pump
3. Turbine driven generators 9. Fresh water pump
4. Auxiliary electric feneratinf set with compressor 10. Lubricating oil pump
5. Electro-compressor 11. Purifiers
6. Air bottles
Fig. 492 Plan of engine room of a trawler with gas turbine propulsion
Salt Water Compressed air
Two electric 290 imp. gal./min. (350 gal./min.; One diesel 95 imp. gal./min. (115 gal./min. 26 cu. m./
;
80 cu. m./hr.) pumps for the refrigerating com- hr.) compressor
pressor. One emergency 95 imp. gal./min. (115 gal./min.;
26 cu. m./hr.) electric compressor.
Fuel Electric power
One transfer 81 imp. gal./min. (97 gal./min.; Two gas turbine driven generator units of 250 h.p.
22 cu. m./hr.) electric pump Two 45 kw. exciters for the electric generators and
One service 18 imp. gal./min. (22 gal./min. ; 5 cu. m./ other auxiliary equipment.
hr.) electric pump One emergency diesel 40 kw. generator-set that
One hand pump also drives the above-mentioned 95 imp. gal.
One fuel filter. min. (26 cu. m./hr.) air compressor.
[430]
ENGINES GAS TURBINE PROPULSION
Holds ballast and service diesel The arrange-
developing 1,100 h.p. at 195 r.p.m.
One 92 imp. gal./min. (110 gal./min,; 25 cu. m./hr.) ment of the details is shown
493, 494 and 495.
in fig.
electric pump for the holds and ballast A comparison of the design of these two possible
One 280 imp. gal./min. (360 gal./min., 75 cu. m./hr.) arrangements shows that the gain in length when free
electric pump for washing and fire fighting. piston gas generators and gas turbine are used is four
frames or 7.9 ft.(2.40 m.). The weights in either case
areshown in table LXXVII.
Ventilation
The diesel alternative, therefore, weighs 122 tons, and
Two 1 4,700 cu.ft./min. (2,500 cu. m./hr.) ventilators.
the free piston generator one 1 12 tons. The figures should
The arrangement of the details of the engine room of not be compared directly but through the weight per
shown in fig. 491 and 492.
this trawler is horsepower developed. In practice, the use of a gas turbine
The arrangement of the two generators and the turbine makes it possible to produce 1,700 h.p. in continuous
makes it possible to reduce considerably the length of operation while, with the use of the diesel, output is
the engine room to allow for larger fuel bunkers or tanks limited to 1,100 h.p. The total weight per h.p. is 245
or fish holds while allowing ready access to all apparatus Ib. (Ill kg.) and 145 Ib. (65.7 kg.) respectively, which
or auxilian' equipment. shows a distinct advantage in the case of the gas
A study has also been made of an engine room fitted turbine.
with a standard, direct-driven, four-cycle supercharged There is an obvious advantage with generators and
1- DIESEL ENGINE 7- FUEL OIL PUMP
2-ELECTRO COMPRESSOR 8 -PURIFIERS
3 -AUXILIARY GENERATING SET g-AIR BOTTLES
4-FIRE FIGHTING PUMP 1O- REFRIGERATION PUMP
5- BILGE PUMP 11 -LUBRICATING OIL PUMP
6- TRANSFER PUMP 12- REFRIGERANT CONDENSER
Fig. 493 Plan of engine room of a trawler with diesel propulsion
[431}
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
\ 'I
SECTION AT FRAME 16 I
|
1/2 SECTION AT FRAME 25 SECTION AT FRAME 32
Sections ofdiesel engine room Hg. 495
2. Simplicity of reversing in the case of a turbine
with a reversing wheel, as the generator continues
in operation while the change is made and the
reversing gear wheel can instantaneously receive
the full impact of the power load as it is in per-
manent operation at a temperature of about
570 deg. F. (300 deg. C);
3. The added safety of dividing power between two
generators;
4. Ease of dismantling (about half-an-hour is needed
to remove movable equipment) and replacing of a
TOTAL 122.145 111.800 generator, because of its comparative light weight:
5. Elimination of vibration because of perfect
balancing of the parts in motion;
gas turbine as regards required space lengthwise and 6. The ease of finding spares because the generators
power-to- weight ratio. Further advantages are: have no large forged or moulded steel parts;
I. Flexibility of operation due to the fact that the 7. The possibility of feeding the generators with heavy
generators adjust themselves instantaneously to fuel without difficulty because of the excess of air
changes in power output required of them; available.
[432]
VIBRATION IN SMALL SHIPS
by
JAMES WHITAKER
HULL VIBRATIONS very unlikely and their effect can be ignored for practical
THE HULL AS AN ELASTIC STRUCTURE purposes.
The severest mode of vertical and horizontal vibration
A SHIP'S hull is a complicated structure but from
the point of view of vibration it is, nevertheless,
just as susceptible as, for example, a reed or a
and can vibrate in all the different
has already been mentioned, i.e. where there are two
nodes (or stationary points) in the vibrating hull. There
are other forms of vibration, one in which there are three
steel bar, it ways
nodes one amidships and one near each end with four
common to such a member.
sections from stem to stern vibrating up and down alter-
Hogging and sagging describe the bending of a ship
in a vertical plane, due to it being alternately supported, nately. Another in which there are four nodes one for-
ward and one aft of amidships and one close to each
first by one wave in the middle, then by two waves, one
end with five sections from stem to stern vibrating up
at each end. When the ship is vibrating in this way, there
and down alternately.
are two points along its length which are stationary (one
All modes, except the principal one, are of relatively
at about a quarter ship's length from the stern and another
about a third ship's length from the fore end); the two high frequency and are not likely to be excited, unless
ends are vibrating up and down together in phase, and a very high-speed machinery is installed in the ship.
point approximately midships is vibrating up and down
SYMPTOMS
out of phase, with the ends. This is a vertical vibration.
The same thing can happen in a horizontal plane. Rippling in water at the sides of the vessel is an
still
Exact mathematical treatment is impossible. The dif- indication of vibration. This usually shows quite clearly
ferent parts of the hull are loaded differently at different the frequency at which maximum amplitude occurs (i.e.
times and these loads must be included even in an the natural frequency) and the position of the nodes. The
approximate solution to the problem. There are certain points at which there is little or no rippling of water are
the nodes and the points at which there is the most
general rules, however, which determine the probable
natural frequency of vibration of a ship. The longer the violent disturbance are the anti-nodes.
hull and the weaker its vertical section, the lower will be At the nodes we have high structural stresses with no
its vertical frequency. apparent movement. At points of anti-node there is
narrower its beam, and consequently its
Similarly, the
excessive movement and little stressing. In dangerous
cases an indication of vibration is sometimes given by
sideways stiffness, the lower will be its horizontal fre-
quency of vibration. The converse is true in each case damage to the structure typified by loosening of rivets
and it is clear that a trawler will, for example, have a and other fixings.
" "
Working of the structure is a form of damping and
higher natural frequency of vibration than a shallow
it contributes to a reduction in the amplitude of vibra-
draught barge.
tion. As progressive weakening takes place, due to the
POSSIBLE FORMS OF VIBRATION damage caused, so the vibrations increase in severity
Vibration is rarely of one particular form but is a com- because of a corresponding reduction in damping. At
bination of several components, one of which will be the same time the natural frequency is lowered and the
more predominant. The principal types of vibration are: vibrations begin to appear at lower engine speeds.
(a) in a vertical plane, (b) in a horizontal plane, (c) longi-
In addition to the vibrations due to synchronism be-
tudinal (fore and aft movement), (d) twisting. tween engine impulses and hull frequency, there are
Of these, (c)and (d) are much closer to the modes of others which are generally more local in character and
vibration of a simple steel bar than are (a) and (b). Their easier to deal with. Examples of these can be found in
natural frequencies are normally so much higher than engine seatings which are too weak, large areas of unsup-
the frequency of engine impulses that synchronism is ported deck plating and long, slender handrails.
[433]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
FORCES CAUSING VIBRATION tions, have so far proved insurmountable. Further, there
There are many and diverse forces attempting to excite are many critical speeds inherent in a spring system and
vibrations in the hull. These are periodic in character and these make it less satisfactory for a propulsion unit than
the principal ones are: for a constant speed auxiliary set.
The unbalanced force and couple due to the
Propulsion engines are usually bolted firmly to their
(a)
seatings,and it is important to have a seating as rigid as
motion of the reciprocating parts of the engine.
possible and well tied to the hull. The frequency of
These force oscillations in a vertical plane.
natural vibration of the ship depends upon its stiffness.
(b) The unbalanced force and couple from the
The stiffer it is, its natural frequency and the
the higher
revolving parts of the engine. The horizontal and better chance there of keeping it above normal running
is
vertical components of these force vibrations in a
speeds. The question of forced vibrations must also be
horizontal and vertical plane respectively.
remembered. If the seating is not adequately tied to the
(c) The variation of turning moment on the propeller
hull, the forces are not evenly distributed, and high
shaft. This tends to force twisting oscillations.
localized pressures can cause trouble.
Following from this there is a corresponding The engine framing itself, or even the seating, can have
variation of thrust on the propeller, which tends
a natural frequency of its own to coincide with the applied
to excite longitudinal vibrations.
forces. Tall engines with light framing (e.g. welded
(d) Inaccuracy of pitch or shape of propeller blades.
frames) can have a big amplitude of movement at the
All these forces and couples acting simultaneously seek
top and a low natural frequency within themselves. If
to vibrate the ship. Any of them which coincides with a the engine is mounted on a light seating, such as a tank
natural frequency of the hull will intensify vibration at
top, the amplitude is further increased and the natural
that frequency and make the ship uncomfortable to live in.
frequency is still lower. When this frequency coincides
This agreement between frequency of vibration force with engine-exciting forces the engine vibrates badly. A
and hull frequency may take place at relatively low method of overcoming this trouble is to tie the engine
speeds, or at operating speeds, or, as is desired by the to the ship's structure from its top end by means of tie
designer, it may not appear until beyond the maximum bars or steel cables.
operating speed. The limits of uncomfortable speed vary It is regular practice in twin screw installations to tie
with individual cases but they are usually in the region the two engines together by stay bars, in a similar way.
of 5 per cent, to 10 per cent. For instance, a ship so that each lends stiffness to the other and prevents the
may be in violent vibration at three-quarter speed and kind of vibration just mentioned.
quite comfortable at full speed. There is a special kind of vibration which occurs in
The unbalanced forces and couples in the engine are twin screw installations. The two engines cannot be run
the most important factors in producing vibrations and, at precisely the same speed, owing to difficulties of exact
general speaking, vertical vibrations are. the ones most governing, so the speed of one is continually gaining
usually encountered. on that of the other. Each forces a vibration on the hull
The severity of the vibration depends on the magnitude and these two vibrations, which are very nearly equal in
of the forces or couples and on the position of the engine period, combine to give a vibration of varying amplitude.
in the ship. As a rule, forces are more dangerous than At one instant it is equal to the sum of the components
couples; if the engine is situated at anti-node its out-of- and at another it is equal to the difference of the com-
balance forces are more dangerous than couples, but an ponents. The number of surges between maximum and
out-of-balance couple takes full effect when the engine minimum amplitude per minute is equal to the difference
" "
is situated at a node and is relatively unimportant at an in r.p.m. of the two engines. This is termed hunting
L " "
from or beating and it produces a shuddering vibration
anti-node. In a trawler where the engine is about
-^ which comes and goes several times every minute.
the stern, couples must be taken into account. This type of vibration is encountered wherever two
engines are installed in a ship and are independent!}
TRANSMISSION OF FORCES governed for speed, and it is the same when two engines
Attempts have been made to prevent the transmission are geared together, through hydraulic or magnetic slip
of these forces to the hull by using flexible mountings. couplings, to a common output shaft.
These have been quite successful on small lightweight
on some auxiliary sets running at
ESTIMATION OF HULL FREQUENCY
engines, especially
constant speed, but they are not yet favoured as a prac- Formulae have been devised (e.g. by Schlick and Todd)
ticable proposition on heavier propulsion engines. This to give estimates of order vertical and horizontal
first
is due to difficulties encountered at low r.p.m., and high frequencies. These operate on the basis that for a given
amplitude. Cork and rubber will not stand up to exces- type of ship liner, tanker or trawler the frequency
" "
sive fatigue deformation and there is too much give depends principally upon length, breadth, moulded
in a spring system. Suitable spring mountings can be depth and displacement. It also depends upon a co-
designed, theoretically, but the difficulties of lining up to efficient which varies according to the type of ship and
the thrust block, and making satisfactory pipe connec- according to its particular design and scantlings.
[434]
PROPULSION VIBRATION IN SMALL SHIPS
These formulae have to be used with some discretion modern engines. The higher maximum pressures occur
because the choice of coefficient is made arbitrarily from before the piston has moved far on the working stroke;
experience, but it is wise to use them in the early stages the pressures of the expansion curve are proportionally
of design. It is then possible to check approximately less and consequently result in lower maximum torques.
whether the engine forces are likely to synchronise with Other things being equal, the slow-speed engine has a
hull frequency at important operating speeds (e.g. steam- distinct advantage over one of high speed. For a given
ing or trawling). power output, imagine two engines working on the same
cycle, at the same brake mean effective pressure with the
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HULL FREQUENCY same number of cylinders, both having the same bore/
When the stroke ratio, one being \2\ in. (317 mm.) bore and the
ship has been launched it is advisable to check
the natural frequency by experiment. This is not prac- other 10 in. (254 mm.) bore, the speed of the former
tised to any great extent at the moment but is a fairly 300 r.p.m. and the latter 585 r.p.m. The slower speed
simple precaution. The method is to bolt a vibrating engine shows obvious advantages from the point of view
machine in the machinery space and run it at varying of piston speeds and, in the matter of balancing and
means possible to confirm, before vibration, it is very much better. Assuming the same
speeds. By this it is
the engines are installed, whether there is likely to be any materials for piston, connecting rod, etc., the compara-
trouble. tive weights of reciprocating parts are (12J/10)' = 1.95.
The comparative out-of-balance forces are, therefore.
Lloyds have devised and used such a machine for
/300\ * / 1 21 \
investigating troublesome vibrations. L95 X X = -64 thusshowin8 that the
>
METHODS OF STIFFENING TO RAISE NATURAL high-speed engine has vibrating forces 56 per cent.
FREQUENCY greater than the slow-speed engine.
The above considerations apply to engines working
It ispossible to get differences in natural frequency of
on the same cycle (i.e. both two-cycle, or both four-
the order of 20 per cent, between apparently similar ships,
cycle). There are some further noteworthy differences on
due to differences in design and scantlings. The main
this point.
factors in determining these differences are:
For vertical vibrations the resistance to bending in COMPARISON OF Two- AND FOUR-CYCLE ENGINES
a vertical plane, depth of fore and aft girders.
e.g.
The two-cycle engine has smaller cylinder dimensions
For horizontal vibrations the resistance to bending
than the four-cycle engine for the same power, number
in a horizontal plane, e.g. width and stiffness of deck-
of cylinders and piston speed. Average figures for sers
plating and side girders.
vice brake mean effective pressures on modern engine-
If any adjustment is needed to raise the natural fre- are: two-cycle 65 Ib./sq. in. (4.6 kg./sq. cm.), normally
quency it can be effected by additional stiffening on these aspirated four-cycle 80 Ib./sq. in. (5.6 kg./sq. cm.), and
lines. General or local vibration, due to weakness at
supercharged four-cycle about 110 Ib./sq. in. (7.7 kg./sq.
isolated points, can be cured fairly easily by local stiffen-
cm.). For the same power, the ratio of cylinder bore
ing, e.g. wheelhouse floors, large unsupported panels, dimensions is two-cycle 1.0, normal four-cycle 1.275,
handrails, etc. supercharged four-cycle 1.09.
The two-cycle engine, therefore, has an advantage in
COMPARISON OF HIGH- AND LOW-SPEED ENGINES
lighterrunning gear and, as already explained, if the four-
High powers, piston speeds and maximum cylinder pres- cycle cylinder dimensions are reduced by increasing the
sures are all features of modern diesel machinery. From r.p.m., the difference in disturbing forces widens rapidly
the design point of view, considerable improvements in favour of the two-cycle engine.
have been made. Cylinder centre distances have been Asregards torque variation, the two-cycle engine is
reduced and present-day engines are much more rigid inherently better than the four-cycle one. With a power
than formerly. The disturbing forces and moments stroke every revolution, compared with the four-cycle
causing vibration are correspondingly less and a good engine's every alternate revolution, and smaller cylinder
modern engine can now be treated as a rigid whole, dimensions with consequently lower peak torques, the
without fear of vibrations being set up in its own framing. two-cycle torque variation is only about half that of a
Higher maximum pressures mean smaller pistons for corresponding four-cycle engine.
a given power, hence the masses of the working parts are
reduced and out-of-balance forces and couples are also SHAFTING VIBRATIONS
reduced. Internal moments
within the engine framing,
WHIRLING
caused by balancing, are reduced, the stresses in the
framing are comparatively low and the deflection of the When long and comparatively slender shafts are rotated
at high speeds they sometimes suffer from a phenomenon
engine frame is negligible.
" "
important from the point of view termed whirling in which the shaft executes the motion
Torque variation is
of stresses in the crankshaft and of causing possible dis- of a skipping rope. If the speed at which this occurs is
turbance to the hull structure. This has improved on maintained, the deflection becomes large and the shaft
[435]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
will be fractured, but if this speed is quickly run through, of swing it receives an exciting impulse from the firing
the shaft will become straight again and run true pressure on the pistons. If there were no damping, or
until, at another higher speed, the same thing happens resistance to vibration, the amplitude of swing would
again. increase very rapidly and' continue increasing until the
This trouble is met with in turbines but very rarely with shaft fractured. This would happen very quickly.
reciprocating engines because the shafts are relatively In practice there are many factors which offer resis-
stiff and well supported and the speeds comparatively low. tance to vibration. These are called damping factors. In
a marine installation the propeller itself has a big damp-
TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS on one-node vibrations because it has a
ing influence
Torsional vibrations are very common with reciprocating relatively high amplitude of vibration and a capacity
engine installations and they constitute a real danger to for absorbing torque. In the case of two-node vibrations
the shafting if they are allowed to occur in the normal itdoes not have much influence because its amplitude is
range of operating speeds. generally low. Friction of bearings and pistons constitutes
Torsional vibrations are superimposed on the normal a damping factor. So does hysteresis loss in the shafting:
rotation of the shaft. Relative to some fixed point on the this is the term for energy used in twisting a shaft
shaft, certain masses (such as flywheel), are oscillating backwards and forwards without doing any useful
in one direction, while other masses (such as propeller) work.
are oscillating in another direction. In these circum- The damping factors provide the symptoms of a tor-
is an extra periodic twisting in the shaft
stances, there sional vibration. Hysteresis damping causes warming up
over and above that due to the mean torque, which sets of the shaft at, or near, a node; vibration friction at
up excessive stresses. bearings causes heating and lubricating difficulties. Oscil-
The speeds at which this comes about are when engine- lation of running gear at points of maximum amplitude
firingimpulses per minute coincide with, or are a prime causes noise, and if there is a gear drive at the forward
factor of, a natural frequency of the shafting system in end of the engine, this usually causes a great deal of
vibrations per minute. The mose severe vibrations occur noise.
when they coincide exactly.
THE DANGER POINTS
ONE- AND TWO-NODE FREQUENCIES The danger zones from the point of view of shafting
A shafting system in torsional oscillation is similar in stresses are the nodal positions and shafting failure will
conception to a hull in vertical or horizontal vibration. occur at, or near, a node. In one-node vibrations, this is
The one-node (or principal mode of) vibration occurs in usually somewhere in the thrust shaft or intermediate
a normal installation when cylinder masses and flywheel shafting. In two-node vibrations, there are two likely
are vibrating together in phase at one end of the shafting regions for trouble: one in the crankshaft and one near
system and the propeller is vibrating out of phase at the the propeller.
other end. At some point between engine and propeller Bearing troubles may be looked
for at places of maxi-
there is a section of shaft which is not vibrating at all. mum the forward cylinders in one- and
amplitude (i.e.
This point is the node. two-node vibrations and the stern bearing in one-node
The two-node (or second mode of) vibration occurs vibrations).
usually when some, or all, of the cylinder masses and the Froma consideration of the cause and effect of damp-
propeller are vibrating together in phase and the flywheel ing, it be appreciated that the aim of torsional tuning
will
is vibrating in the opposite direction out of phase. In in a marine installation is not merely to prevent fracture
this case there are two nodes, one aft of the flywheel and of shafting. That an installation has never suffered a
one just forward of it. shafting failure does not imply that the system is satis-
The frequency of one node vibration depends largely factory from the torsional aspect. It can suffer many
on the stiffness or flexibility of the shafting and the kinds of excessive wear and tear without showing
moment of inertia of the propeller. A long flexible shaft obvious fatigue. This emphasizes the fact that careful
and heavy propeller have a low natural frequency. torsional tuning should be carried out for every
Two-node vibration frequency is practically unaffected installation.
by propeller and shafting in a normal marine installation.
It depends almost entirely on crankshaft stiffness and
INFLUENCE OF ENGINE DESIGN AND LAYOUT
moment of inertia of cylinder masses and flywheel. Two- Engine design and layout plays an important part in
node frequency can, therefore, be fixed by the engine determining the two-node frequency of vibration, the
designer and remain constant. major orders of vibration (i.e. those which will be serious)
Modes of vibration with more than two nodes can and their amplitudes. They also determine, to a con-
occur but their effect is usually of no importance. siderable extent, the effect which minor orders of vibra-
tion will have on engine components.
SYMPTOMS Close cylinder centres and a stiff crankshaft produce a
When a shaft is operating at a critical speed of vibration high natural frequency and the designer should ensure
it oscillates with a periodic swing and at regular intervals that this is always high enough to prevent the principal
[436]
PROPULSION VIBRATION IN SMALL SHIPS
order of two-node vibration from appearing in the provide such isolation and, to a great extent, so will a
operating speed range of the engines. The number of belt drive.
cylinders plays a big part in this, engines with a small
number of cylinders being better able to avoid trouble CORRECT TUNING
from two-node vibrations.
Every portion of shaft which rotates and every mass
The number of cylinders has an influence also on other which is attached to the shafting contributes in some
forms of vibration and experience suggests that the best
degree to the final characteristics of the system. It
number is from three to eight. follows that the stiffness of every piece of shafting and the
Accessories, such as camshafts and fuel pump shafts, moment of inertia of every revolving mass, has to be
are best if driven from the after end of the engine, near
computed with considerable accuracy.
the flywheel, so that they cannot experience high ampli-
Troubles sometimes occur because sufficient care is not
tudes of vibration. taken in working exactly to the approved design. For
The same applies to such things as the scavenge pump
instance, propellers are sometimes changed, and occa-
on a two-cycle engine, which does not need to have very
sionally bronze shafts substituted for steel ones, without
strong scantlings for the work it has to do. But when any thought being given to their effect on the torsional
driven from the forward end of the engine its position characteristics.To lend emphasis to this point it might
renders it liable to extra stresses from vibration swing. be mentioned that an average of 50 hours work is required
by a skilled investigator to complete the full calculations
IMPORTANCE OF PROPELLER AND SHAFTING required for a normal marine installation. It will be seen,
For any given engine, the propeller and its shafting are therefore, that accurate and reliable data is an absolute
the vital factors in fixing one-node vibrations. They must necessity.
be controlled so that the combination of engine and
propeller produces torsional characteristics which are
COMPARISON OF HIGH- AND LOW-SPEED ENGINES
satisfactory in shafting stresses and engine running There are so many other variables combining to fix the
gear. torsional characteristics of an engine and propeller
There are two general methods of approach to this system, that the question of engine speed is not, in itself,
problem. One is to keep the major order vibration speed a governing factor. Other things being equal, however,
well above all operating speeds of the engine. The other it is easier to keep the major one-node criticals above
is to get the natural frequency so low that the major the operating range, in after end installations, such as is
critical speed is below the normal operating range. With usual in fishing vessels when low-speed engines are
engines placed amidships, the second course is the usual used.
one The shafting is long and reasonably small in One of the main and low-
differences between high-
diameter, consistent with the power it has to transmit, speed because
engines arises the former are usually con-
and there is generally no difficulty in tuning to a low nected to the propeller through a gearbox to get a
frequency. When engines are placed well aft, on the reasonably effective propeller speed. This introduces
other hand, attempts are usually made to get the natural complications into the dynamic system. The mass of the
frequency above operating speeds. This is often the case gears affects the two-node, as well as the one node,
in trawlers. The application of each method depends on characteristics of the system if the gear drive is rigidh
individual cases and each has to be treated on its merits. connected to the engine, and for this reason it is
customary to fit a slip coupling between engine and
DESIRABILITY OF ISOLATION OF FORWARD END DRIVES gearbox.
" The presence of backlash in gearing has the effect of
There are variations and exceptions to normal marine
"
such as geared drives and occasional extra spreading the objectionable speed range of a critical.
installations
Further, if reversal of tooth contact occurs, the gears
duty drives on certain classes of ship. Trawler instal- are noisy and liable to damage through impact.
lations come into this category when they include an
extension shaft to the forward end of the engine crank-
shaft for driving a winch.
COMPARISON OF Two- AND FOUR-CYCLE ENGINES
When this is done it cantwo-node torsional
alter the The task of investigating the torsional vibration charac-
characteristics considerably and bring about serious teristicsof a two-cycle engine is somewhat easier than
vibration troubles in the engine. For this reason such in the case of a four-cycle because the former has no
drives should be thoroughly investigated for their effect half order components and the firing order is the same
and, once the details of design have been fixed, they as the crank sequence.
should be strictly adhered to. A number of possible
four-cycle engine has a greater
The question of a forward end drive to a winch can criticalspeeds in a given range of r.p.m., because of its
be a difficult one from a torsional point of view and it half order components. These criticals are not all serious,
can be taken as a maxim that such a drive should prefer- from the point of view of stressing or wear and tear, but
ably be isolated from the engine system, if that is possible. they are objectionable and can cause unpleasant noise
A slip coupling of the hydraulic or magnetic type will in the gearing.
[437]
FIXED BLADE AND CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
by
J. A. VAN AKEN
FIXED BLADE PROPELLERS assuming
isseldom possible to design a propeller that is
43^-0.000349=^,
IT exactly right and the usual custom is to proceed by
the trial and error method, fitting various propellers i.h.p.-f.'-D'-S-N-Pmi-Z ... (3)
until a satisfactory one is found. For a given engine,
t
The three most important factors in determining the f1 -D -S-Z=fI (a constant);
design of a propeller are:
hence i.h.p.=ft -N-Pmi (4) . . .
Formula (4) is valid for a double-acting two-cycle engine,
1. The speed of the ship; while for a single-acting two-cycle engine,
2. The wake fraction; i.h.p.
= if, -N-Pmi ... (5)
3. The engine power and the r.p.m. of the propeller. and for a four-cycle engine,
In this discussion it is assumed that the speed is known
i.h.p.- }f-,N-Pmi ... (6)
Assuming
but the power and r.p.m. will have to be determined.
s.h.p._
The normal practice is for the engine manufacturer to
tell the propeller designer the power of the machinery
to be the mechanical efficiency, formula (2) is translated
and the r.p.m. The relation between power and r.p.m. into
is obtained from the test bed and is determined by the
formula: s.h.p.=-
4,500
27rM.N while, according to formula (1)
S ' h-p ' ' '
(1) ' 27T-M-N
^4360" s.h.p.=
where s.h.p.=the output at the shafting, shaft 4,500
so that
horsepower, (1 s.h.p. metric
75 kg.m./sec.) 2irM-N
M=the torque in kg.m. and 4,500 4,500
N=the number of revolutions or
per
minute um JD-S-Pmi-Z=M (7)
Supposing
The engine power is directly proportional to the
torque and the r.p.m. Power may be determined by a (8)
brake applied to the engine, but generally the indicated
horsepower (i.h.p.) is calculated from readings of the Formula (8) shows that the torque is directly propor-
pressure in the cylinders. The formula is: tional to the mean pressure and the mechanical efficiency,
so that the torque may be replaced by the mean pressure.
' *
It is assumed that mechanical efficiency is kept constant.
(2),
4366 This is not exactly true but is accepted to avoid
where i.h.p.
= indicated horsepower, complications.
D cylinder diameter in cm., If the power, r.p.m. and ship's speed are given, the
N =number of revolutions per min., propeller can be designed for these conditions:
S piston stroke in m.,
Z number of cylinders, and I: power 100%; revolutions 100%; torque 100%
Pmi=mcan pressure in the cylinders in II: power 90%; revolutions 90%; torque 100%
kg./sq. cm. III: power 90%; revolutions 100%; torque 90%
[438]
CONTROL DEVICES FIXED-BLADE AND CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
For both conditions II and HI, 90 per cent, of power is becomes 109 per cent., torque 106 per cent., and speed
assumed, while 90 per cent, of the revolutions and 90 per 103 per cent., in which case the torque is overloaded
cent, of the torque are assumed for the conditions, by 6 per cent.
alternatively. Condition II: power=90 per cent., revolutions^
Condition power 100 per cent., revolutions 100 per
/: 90 per cent., torque=100 per cent. (fig. 497). If the
cent., torque 100 per cent. (fig. 496). If the propeller is propeller is designed in accordance with these data the
designed for this condition, the ship's speed will be ship's speed will be 96.5 per cent., and if the r.p.m. are
100 per cent. If the revolutions are reduced to 90 per cent, increased to 93 per cent., power will be 100 per cent.,
the power, torque and speed will be reduced, respectively,
torque 107.5 per cent, and speed 100 per cent., a condition
to 73, 81, and 90 per cent., and if the revolutions are
rarely found with internal combustion engines. The pitch
reduced to 96.5 per cent., the respective figures will be 6f the propeller is too large. But in the case of steam
90, 93.3 and 96.5 per cent. This shows that a reduction engines, particularly the old triple-expansion which can
in r.p.m. decreases regularly engine power, torque and no longer attain its full power at 100 per cent, r.p.m.
speed, so that condition I is, therefore, normally used because pressure in the boilers is too low, this condition
for large engines in merchant ships. is often found. The number of revolutions never exceeds
If the number of revolutions is 103 per cent., power 90 per cent,
CONDITION
-
H
HP>.90% -
N-90% M-100%
MARK Nln%
90 90 963 100
93.1 100 100 1075
no 90
80
110 70
90
1 N-MUMKR OF REVOLUTIONS In X
Fig. 496. Relation between horsepower, revolutions and speed for rig. 497. Relation between^fiorsepowert revolutions and speed for
condition condition II
[439]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
Condition III: power=90 per cent., revolutions= Condition III is also recommended for tugs because
100 per cent., torque=90 per cent. (fig. 498). If the the torque during towing will not be excessive while,
propeller is designed for this condition, the ship's speed without tow, the r.p.m. may be raised to 103.5 per cent,
will be 96.5 per cent. If the number of revolutions is to obtain a power of 100 per cent. This is also the reason
increased to 103.5 per cent, the power will be 100 per why Condition III is recommended in the case of fishing
cent., the torque 96.7 per cent, and the speed 100 per vessels. A compromise type of propeller has been
cent., a highly recommendable condition, especially for adopted for trawlers in free-running condition and with
the r.p.m. at 100 per cent., it does not yield the maximum
power and, therefore, does not give the maximum speed.
Further, in the tow condition, the tow-rope pull is not
raised to its maximum. But postwar conditions demand
speed for a vessel going to and from the fishing grounds.
This calls for the maximum power to be attained in the
free-running condition at full r.p.m. but is detrimental
499
POUR BLADED CONTROLLABLE-PITCH
PROPELLER
Fig. 499. Four-bladed controllable-pitch propeller
to the tow-rope pull in the tow condition. The problem
has been solved by the adoption of the controllable-pitch
propeller.
CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
To-day a large number of controllable-pitch propellers
have been patented. Among the principal types in use
on the European continent are :
1. Bretagne, Nantes, France;
2. Voith-Schneider, Heidenheim, Germany;
3. Lips-Schelde, Drunen, Netherlands;
4. Kamewa, Karlstad, Sweden;
5. Escher-Wyss, Zurich, Switzerland.
light engines. When, in the course of service, the rough-
ness of a ship's bottom increases and her machinery can The Voith-Schneider propeller has three to six blades
a flat-
no longer produce full power, a propeller designed to rotating around a vertical axis and it requires
" bottom to the ship. All the other types are similar to
meet Condition I would become too heavy ", that is
to say, would have too large pitch. But
the propeller
if fixed-blade propellers but, of .course, the blades are
is designed in accordance with Condition III, the engine controllable. A
feature of the Lips-Schelde propeller
.
is that the four blades are arranged in pairs on the
may be kept running at full r.p.m. and the torque will it the advantage of a
not increase beyond 100 per cent. For this reason a propeller boss!, fig. 499. This gives
smaller boss than that of the other types.
propeller should be designed to meet Condition
III.
[440]
CONTROL DEVICES FIXED-BLADE AND CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
The advantages in using a controllable-pitch propeller sunken landing craft. She was going at full speed and one
on fishing vessels are: of the blades of the propeller was damaged. But the
reversing mechanism and the propeller shaft were
1 . Non-reversible propulsion machinery; unaffected. A spare blade was fitted in place of the
2. Constant r.p.m. in any condition of loading; damaged one and the ship went straight into service
3. Maximum speed of the ship; again.
4. Maximum pull for trawling;
5. One direction of running the engine ahead and
astern ;
6. Rapid manoeuvrability as the engine need not be
stopped to be reversed and the propeller can be
controlled from the bridge;
7. Low speeds for entering the harbour or dock, and
so on;
s. Reduced over-all cost, and smaller size and weight
of engine;
9. Economy in fuel consumption and engine mainten-
ance;
10. Practical means for avoiding critical torsional-
vibration conditions.
The gear in the propeller boss, fig. 499, is the most
important part of all controllable-pitch propellers.
Fig. 500 shows the arrangement of a controllable-pitch
manoeuvred from the bridge.
propeller
The advantage of using a controllable-pitch propeller
was demonstrated when a ship fitted with one hit a Fig. 500. Schematic arrangement of a controllable-pitch propeller
[441]
CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS FOR TRAWLERS
by
M. ROUCHET
PITCH have been almost the same as when trawling, the most important
^lONTROLLABLE
for a time but
propellers
it is only about 20 years factor is the maximum pull. The pitch must be reduced
y^used long past
ago that the first was used with a big engine. The so that the engine can run up its maximum r.p.m. and
reason for this is that the flexibility and the manoeuvr- deliver its maximum power and thrust.
ability of the reciprocating steam engine enabled good
T P^
use to be made of the fixed blade propeller. But with HEWdTAMCqa
1 TCNft 12OOHP TUG
diesels the fixed blade propeller is much less satisfactory,
COMPARISON OF PROPELLER THRUSTS
as an analysis of the working conditions and mainten- FOR
ance costs shows. The main characteristics of the pro- CONTROLLABLE PITCH AND FIXED BLADE
PROPELLER OF SAME DIAMETER
peller are determined by speed, power and r.p.m. An
estimate must also be made of the ship's maximum
speed and the thrust in the two extreme conditions :
standing pull and maximum speed. If the fixed blade
propeller has been designed for maximum speed and if
the governor is brought into full speed position when \
the boat towing, the engine will not be able to reach
is
full r.p.m. Any attempt to restore the full r.p.m. by
increasing the fuel supply will overload the motor.
Again, if the propeller has been designed for the standing
pull, when in free route condition, the fuel supply will
have to be reduced to avoid racing the motor. In both
these cases only part of the total power of the motor
Fig. 507 Note: The fixed blade propeller 15 designed
will be absorbed by the propeller, therefore the propeller
especially for trawling, the one for steaming.
must be designed to effect a compromise between the
running-free and trawling conditions. Fig. 501 illustrates the differences in speed and thrust
When a fixed blade propeller is used, reversing the between a controllable pitch and two fixed blade
boat implies reversing the main engine or using a reverse propellers. The thrust figures are:
gear. If the main engine is of the reversible type large
Free-running Standing
quantities of compressed air are needed during
to. kg. Ib. kg.
manoeuvres. The engine is subjected to quick changes
Fixed blades . 16,000 7,300 28,600 13.000
of temperature which impose high thermal stresses
Controllable
detrimental to the upkeep of cylinder covers and liners.
pitch . .
20,500 9,300 35,400 16,000
Reverse gears are limited to 500/600 h.p. and have
relatively a short life.
A controllable Gain +27 per cent. +23 percent.
pitch propeller provides a better solu-
tion to these problems. By choosing the right pitch, the A comparison of fig. 502 and 503 for the controllable
total power of
the engine can be used at normal r.p.m. pitch propeller in running-free and standing conditions
when running-free, and the thrust and the speed of the will also show these results. If the pull attainable \\ith a
boat are increased. An economical speed can be found fixed blade propeller is considered to be sufficient the
at an intermediate pitch corresponding to the optimum use of a controllable pitch propeller would enable a less
revolutions recommended by the engine maker. Fuel powerful engine to be installed.
consumption willbe lower than it is with the fixed blade The advantage of the controllable pitch propeller for
propeller. In the case of the standing pull, which is reversing does not need to be stressed. The engine is
[442]
CONTROL DEVICES CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
1200 HP TUG
1200 H P TUG PULL IN STANDING CONDITION
k*n
Fig. 502 Fig. 503
simpler and less expensive and the compressed air ments can be done quickly and carried out without dry
installation is reduced to a minimum. Manoeuvring is docking. The expenses are also less than those incurred
entirely in the hands of the skipper, being controlled by the renewal of a fixed blade propeller.
from the bridge. Because of this, many accidents are Theextra initial cost of fitting a controllable pitch
avoided. propeller is quickly offset by lower running costs
and
Another advantage is that damaged blades can be there is no doubt that it makes a trawler a better fishing
removed without work on the hub, and such replace- vessel.
[443]
FATHER AND SON" AND DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION
by
ROBERT KOLBECK
" FATHER AND SON "
in Germany some large trawlers have end, through a clutch-coupling, to a 162 kw. Leonard
been built with diesels arranged in a gear system,
RECENTLY
the
"
father and son
"
method. This
generator which supplies current to the trawl winch
so-called motor, which develops 190 h.p. at 600 r.p.m.
isthe latest development to solve the dilemma of using A second generator is driven by a belt off the shaft
a diesel to drive a fixed propeller efficiently at both of the smaller engine, which also drives an air-compressor
steaming and trawling taking into consideration the through a clutch.
divergent requirements related to the operation of Manoeuvring the boat ahead or astern is done solely
" "
trawlers, as: with the reversible eight-cylinder father engine.
" "
high engine power for cruising; During this operation the four-cylinder son engine
high propeller torque for trawling; is disengaged from the gear and may be used to drive
good manoeuvrability; the winch generator only. But if the demand for elec-
" "
high power for the trawl winch. tricity is small, then the son engine can remain
The first trawlers so equipped with the " father and connected to the propeller gear. In any case, engaging
" " "
son system were Bahrenfeld and Barmbeck, built in and disengaging of the small son engine is done
1950. without interrupting regular propulsion.
Fig. 504 shows two diesels working through a common When both " father " and " son " are working together
"
propeller gear. The " father is a reversible, super- there is an output of 970 h.p. available for propulsion
" "
but when, for the purpose of manoeuvring, the son
ARRANGEMENT OF THE "FATHER AND SON" SYSTEM engine is disengaged, the output is, of course, 720 h.p.
The energy balance shows that, after subtracting the
losses of 50 h.p. in the gear, and of 10 h.p. in the shafting
and allowing for a power demand of the trawl winch
generator of 40 h.p., there is 870 h.p. available at the
propeller. This gives the ship 11.5 to 12 knots at a
VULKAN COUPLINGS! CLUTCH COUPLING
propeller speed of 115 r.p.m.
I
For trawling at 3.5 to 4 knots, with an assumed pro-
peller speed of 86 r.p.m., the propeller will absorb
640 supplied, of course, by both engines. The
h.p.,
" "
engine will, at trawling speed, deliver 560 h.p.
father
FOUR-CYLINDER WINCH AND PROPULSION " "
|
NON REVERSIBLE ENGINE and the son engine 185 h.p. or in total 745 h.p. to the
gear. The losses in gear, shafting and shaft driven
Fig. 504 generator is 100 h.p. A total of 645 h.p. or slightly more
than the power absorbed, is available at the propeller,
charged eight-cylinder, four-cycle engine, developing therefore the engine will not be overloaded.
" "
720 h.p. at 375 r.p.m., and the son is a non-reversible, The Vulkan coupling of the " son " engine is equipped
four-cycle engine of 250 h.p. at the same r.p.m. The with an automatic shut-off device which is set in motion
engines are connected to the gear through Vulkan by the reversing mechanism of the large engine. This
" "
couplings and both of them can be used to drive the device protects the non-reversible son engine from
propeller. Both engines are of the same type to make being rotated the wrong way when the propeller is
operation easy and to simplify the problem of carrying reversed. If the propeller only runs ahead it allows the
spare parts. trawl winch to be connected to the system. This auto-
The smaller engine is also connected at the forward matic interlocking and shut-off device is shown in fig. 505.
[444]
CONTROL DEVICES "FATHER AND SON" DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION
An individually-driven pump forces oil into the lubri- steam. Two electric motors with an output of 350 h.p.
cation system of the two engines. Oil flows also to the each of 1,000 r.p.m. drive the propeller at 110 r.p.m.
" " " "
servo-motor c and the control piston d through a through a gear. Depending on the operation conditions,
" " " "
cock A
in a side branch. Piston d controls the three generators, or two or one, can be connected to the
engaging and disengaging of the Vulkan coupling of the two propelling motors and any generator can be dis-
small engine. The servo-motor and the control piston connected from the engines and connected to the trawl
work hydraulically through valves " a " and " b ". The winch, which can be done without interrupting propul-
" "
position of valve a depends on the position of the sion. The engines can be controlled from the engine room
" "
camshaft and that of valve b depends on the position as well as from the bridge.
of the control wheel. According to the position of these
" "
valves the servo-motor c and the control piston
** "
d are energized. The hydraulic couplings of both COMPARISONS
engines can be manually controlled. In the case of the Table LXXVIII shows data for steam and motor trawlers
" "
son engine, it is always possible to disengage it with identical fish-hold capacity, namely the steam
manually but it can be manually engaged only if the trawlers Buxta, Sonne and Hans Kunkel, and the diesel
position of the automatic device permits. Should the trawlers Barmbeck and Bahrenfeld. With the same fish-
"
big engine break down, cock A " is then closed and
" " " "
the son engine can take over for ahead propulsion.
** "
The father and son system can be designed for
bigger power requirements and it is, of course, feasible
" "
to use a more powerful son engine if more power is
required for the trawl winch. It should always be kept
in mind :
1. That the same engine type is chosen for both
" " " "
father and son to simplify maintenance
and carrying of spare parts.
" "
2. That the son engine should be non-reversible
to avoid complicated interlocking devices.
The arrangement of the engine room is
over-all
shown Both engines are arranged to permit
in fig. 506.
observation and maintenance from the centre aisle.
The water and lubricating oil pumps are separately
driven by electric motors. The engines are fresh-water
cooled, and there is a separator for purifying the
lubricating oil, and a turbulo oil filter to clean the oil. IERVO~MdTO AMD'A&JUITINGI
PISTON FOR COUPLINGEODSI
An
oil-heated auxiliary boiler is provided for heating
purposes and for cooking liver oil. Additional heat is
rig. 505
" "
recovered from the father engine in an exhaust
boiler.
hold capacity, the motor trawlers have 10 to 13 per cent,
lessgross tonnage and 18 per cent, less displacement, and
DIESEL-ELECTRIC they carry two less in crew. The liver oil tanks have
Two diesel-electric trawlers, Freiburg and Tubingen, 90 cu. ft. (2.5 cu. m.) more capacity.
were built in 1950, and in both vessels the propelling The difference in displacement is caused by the lighter
power of 700 h.p. is supplied by three diesel-generator weight of machinery and the lower fuel consumption of
sets. Each set is powered by a supercharged six-cylinder the diesels. This saves bunker capacity. The length of
four-cycle diesel delivering 330 h.p. at 500 r.p.m. The the motor trawler is much less than that of the steam
direct current Leonard system of electric equipment is trawler. It should be emphasized, however, that the
installed inboth ships. length of ships deserves particular consideration because
Fig. 507 shows the arrangement of machinery. Diesel- the longer ship runs better and needs less power for a
generator sets are located on the intermediate deck which certain speed. In comparing the power installed in steam
allows excellent use of the space. Engine and generator and motor trawlers it is remarkable to note that the steam
are mounted on a common frame which includes the trawler has a lower rated output measured in i.h.p.
circulating lubricating oil tank. Each set is placed on Reduction of the propeller speed during trawling is
elastic mounts to reduce noise. Both engines have probably smaller, therefore the steam engine can supply
lubricating oil and fresh water pumps attached. An oil- the required towing power even with smaller rated output
heated auxiliary boiler and three La Mont boilers heated if the boiler is large enough. In Table LXXVIII also the
by the exhaust of the three diesels supply the required steam trawlers Altelandand Heinrich Coleman are similarly
[445]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
compared with the diesel electric ships Freiburg and trawler's three herring trips or one fresh fish trip. The
Tubingen. figures are based on experience covering several years of
A comparison of fuel consumption and operating fishing. Because of the simplicity with which liquid fuels
range of steam and motor vessels is shown in Table can be stored, the trim problem in the motor trawler
LXXIX. It can be seen that, with the given bunker is easier solved, a fact which appeals particularly to the
"
capacity the motor ship (equipped with father and naval architect. For the shipowner, of course, it mfeans
.
"
son system) can make four herring trips or two fresh a saving in manpower because the ship can be brought
fish trips without refuelling, compared with the steam to the best trim in minimum time.
1 BIG MAIN ENGINE
2 SMALL MAIN ENGINE
3 VULKAN GEAR
4- GENERATOR FOR TRAWL WINCH ENGINE
5'AIR BOTTLES
6 GENERATOR BELT DRIVEN
SECTION LOOKING AFT
7- GENERATOR ON MAIN SHAFT
8- LUBRICATION PUMPS FOR MAIN ENGINES
9 COOLING WATER PUMPS SEA WATER
10'COOLING WATER PUMPS FRESH WATER
11- HEAT EXCHANGER FRESH WATER
12 DIESEL GENERATOR -COMPRESSOR AUXILIARY
13'AIR BOTTLE
14- SWITCH BOARD
15-O L SEPARATOR
I
16-LUBRICATING OIL TANK
17-EXHAUST BOILER
18* FRESH WATER GRAVITY TANK
19-DONKEY BOILER
2O-GEAR OIL GRAVITY TANK
ECTION LOOKING AFT
Y
Fig. 506
[446]
CONTROL DEVICES "FATHER AND SON" DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION
1- DIESEL ENGINE
2- MAIN GENERATOR
3- BOARD NET GENERATOR
4- PROPELLING ENGINE
5- HELICAL GEAR WITH PRESSURE BEARING
6- DIESEL GROUP FOR HARBOUR USE
7- AIR BOTTLES
8-AIR BOTTLE FOR <D
0-AUXILIARY COMPRESSOR
1O-MAIN SWITCHBOARD
11 COOLING WATER PUMP (FRESH WATER)
12- TRAWL WINCH ENGINE
13-TRAWL WINCH
14- HEAT EXCHANGER (f W)
15- LUBRICATION PUMP FOR DIESEL
16-OIL SEPARATOR
17-DONKEY BOILER
1S-LA-MONT EXHAUST BOILER
[447]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
TABLE LXXVIII
Steam trawle npared with motor trawler
(for same fish storage capacity)
Steam trawler Steam trawlers
Buxta Sonne
Hans Kunkel
Fish room capacity, baskets 4,300 4,500
metric tons 215 225
Gross register, tons 522 513
Length ft. 170 162
m. 52.00 49.56
Beam ft. 27.5 28
m. 8.40 8.52
Depth ft. 16 16.3
m. 4.90 4.98
Displacement, metric tons 874 1,170
Fuel capacity (main and auxiliary
tanks, tons) . 295 325
Liver oil tanks, cu, ft. 460
cu. m. 13
Crew 22 22
Power, i.h.p. or b.h.p. 1,000 860
R.p.m. 120 120
115
i ij
Engine Reciprocating Reciprocating G8V42 >er-
supei Reciprocating 3 x G6V33 super-
steam engine steam engine charged, G4V42 steam engine charged with
(triple expansion) (triple expansion) (triple expansion) generators
cu.,.* steam
Exhaust -*-,*-*
Exhaust steam
turbine turbine
Speed, knots 13 12 12 11.3 12
Advantages of motor trawler: Advantages of motor trawler:
For same fish storage capacity (4,500 baskets, 225 tons) For same fish storage capacity (5.400
Gross tonnage, 10 to 13 per cent, less baskets, 270 tons)
2 crew members less Gross tonnage, 18 per cent, less
Displacement, 18 per cent, less (made possible by smaller 4 crew members less
weight of propulsion plant and much smaller fuel tank Fuel tank capacity, 220 tons less
capacity) Liver oil tanks, 70 cu. ft. (2 cu. m.)
Liver oil tank, 90 cu. ft. (2.5 cu. m.) larger larger
TABLE LXXIX
Steam trawler compared with motor trawler
Fuel consumption Operating range
(all tons metric)
Steam Diesel engine
"
(triple expansion engine with exhaust turbine) All values are measured (" father and son arrangement)
Coal Bunker capacity Fuel oil
325 tons 135 tons
9 to 9.5 tons/day Fuel consumption per day ca 3 ton/day during steaming
ca 2.5 ton/day during trawling
Fuel consumption per trip
108 tons Herring trip .
days .12 31.5 tons
215 tons Fresh fish trip 24 days . 65.0 tons
Bunker capacity suffices for Bunker capacity suffices for
3 herring trips, or 4 herring trips, or
1 fresh fish trip 2 fresh fish trips
Lubricating oil consumption
per trip
Herring trip . 12 days . 48 imp. gal. (220 litres)
Fresh fish trip 24 days . 100 imp. gal. (450 litres)
[448]
MULTIPLE REDUCTION GEAR PROPULSION
by
ALEXANDRE CHARDOME
N 1 .
>OW that diesels are replacing steam engines in
trawlers, two problems have become more acute
How to cope with the characteristics of an engine
:
propeller and the diesel electric drive are able to solve
both problems. The advantages claimed for each system
are neither convincing for the shipyard nor for the ship-
owner, as they are mostly sales talk and seldom give
which develops a practically constant torque at all
comparative figures. In technical matters it should be
r.p.m., while driving a propeller requiring
different
possible to check accurately any claim and to estimate
torques at different speeds of advance;
the relative importance and influence of different factors.
2. How to utilize, while cruising, the source of energy
A new system, the multiple reduction gear, has
which drives the trawl winch on the fishing grounds.
recently been installed in the Belgian Skipper, a trawler
Different systems have been tried in seeking a satis- owned by the S. A. Zeevisserij & Handelsmaatschappij
" " "
factory solution. While the father and son system Zeehandel ", Ostend, Belgium, and built by Beliard,
solves the second problem, the controllable pitch Crighton and Co.
Belgian Skipper making 14 knots during trials
[449]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
Main particulars of the trawler are: Fig. 508 shows the trawler during the trials. Loaded
with 90 tons of fuel and fresh water, she made a speed of
Length, over-all 158 ft. (48.25 m.)
14.1 knots, having both motors of 500 h.p. connected
lars ....
Length, between perpendicu-
141 ft. (43.00 m.)
to the propeller. Having made her delivery trials, the
trawler now in full and successful fishing activity.
....
is
Breadth, moulded 26.5ft. (8.10m.)
14.7ft. Fig. 509 indicates the propulsion arrangement. The
Depth (4.50m.)
two diesels A
and B are two-cycle eight-cylinder V-type
Fish-hold 7,000 cu. ft.
and develop 500 continuous h.p. at 500 r.p.m. The
Fuel oil .... 115 tons
(197cu.m.)
multiple reduction gear C was built to the patents of
Dipl. Ing. Frantz Sueberkrueb, of Hamburg. Each
Fresh water
Crew .... 11
14
tons
men
"
motor can be connected to the propeller through three
different ahead gears and one astern. The ratios are
It was proposed at the start to install a father and 3.45, 4.24 and 4.78. Each gear is manoeuvred by oil
"
son system in which a power of 1,000 h.p. would be pressure from a central control stand.
delivered by 2 diesels of approximately 750 h.p. and The electric generators D
and E are connected straight
250 h.p., but, when the problem had been fully studied, to the diesels through the multiple reduction gear and
it was decided to use two diesels of 500 h.p. each, their ratio is always 3.00 to the r.p.m. of the diesels. One
driving a single-propeller through the new type multiple generator delivers current to the electrical trawl winch
" "
reduction gear. motor according to the Kramer system, the other,
*
CHALUTIEP "BELGIAN SKIPPER - o. 316
INSTALLATION DC PROPULSION
<$ MOTMMMML IOOCV/SOOT.
<S> MOriUHMML SOOCV/WOT.
<) oucnu MNmmu* A MMULTM.ICATION VAMAMI
Fig. 509
[4501
CONTROL DEVICES MULTIPLE REDUCTION GEAR PROPULSION
giving constant voltage, is intended for
lighting and small power purposes.
Both generators are easily interchange-
able. A better technical arrangement,
but more expensive, would have been
to provide the generators with double
windings, so as to enable each of them
to serve both purposes.
Fig. 510 is a view taken from the
top of the multiple reduction gear C
when looking forward between the two
diesels. Fig. 511 is a view of the central
control stand situated in the centreline
of the vessel in front of the diesels.
Fig. 512 is a view of the back of the
multiple reduction gear C taken from
above the intermediate shaft and look-
ing forward. Fig. 513 is a view of the
multiple reduction gear C open during
assembly in the workshop.
The speed trials confirmed the Fig. 510. View of the engine-room
calculationsand their results can be found in the trust-
speed diagram (fig. 514). Special attention is drawn to
two of the results as they were decisive factors in
selecting the system :
(a) With the two motors developing 500 h.p. at
500 r.p.m., connected through the reduction gear
to the propeller turning 145.5 r.p.m., the trawler
made a speed of 14.10 knots. This speed was
checked with the greatest care during four runs
at about high-tide level. The tide speed curve
obtained was perfectly regular;
(b) With a single motor of 500 h.p. and the propeller
turning 118 r.p.m., the trawler made a speed of
12.05 knots, which was similarly checked.
Trials were also made to check the calculated static
pulls, but certain difficulties could not be overcome.
Trials were carried out in a dock with different positions
of the trawler, with the propeller at a maximum distance
from the dock walls of about 260 ft. (80 m.) at the rear
and 130 ft. (40 m.) at the sides. The draught aft of the
trawler was 14.1 ft. (4.30 m.) and the dock water depth
about 26 ft. (8 m.). Although the dynamometer had
been carefully checked, the readings were always about
10 per cent, higher than expected, and varied with the
time, until the moment when the rate, direction and
power of the water flow in the dock reached an established
maximum. At the Ostend Congress in 1951, Dr. Dieu-
donn mentioned tests of the French Navy showing
similar difficulties.
It seems one must be sceptical about commercial
claims for static pulls. The common shipyard tests
are apparently not sufficient to check the results of tank
tests on this point. Fig. 511. The central control
[451]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
THE THRUST-SPEED DIAGRAM
The data given by the tank for the
propeller, tested in open water, can be
utilized in the following manner. A
thrust P, easily calculable according to
the usual presentation of the test
results,corresponds to a certain speed
of advance V and a certain number
of revolutions N. It is possible to infer
N=^f (V,P). The speed V being plotted
in the diagram along the x axis and
the thrust P along the y axis, one gets
a set of interrelated curves of the
revolutions N. There is no difficulty to
add a set of curves of efficiency,
torque and power. The thrusts are
shown along the y axis but to simp-
lify the presentation, the advance
speeds have not been drawn along
the x axis. In fact, the diagram
should not be used for the propeller h'ig. 512. The back of the multiple reduction gear looking forward
in open water, but for the propeller
behind a specific hull. If the speeds and corresponding check this point with customary means. The possible
powers are accurately measured during the trials, a resulting error must be very small and is, in any case,
power-wake coefficient can be found which makes it the same for all the different systems considered.
possible to show the curve of hull resistance on the What would the " father and son " system have given
diagram in terms of propeller thrust and water speed according to this diagram? Sea conditions, losses in
through the propeller. This is the L.M.S. curve of the the shafting, reduction gear and Vulcan couplings taken
diagram. Therefore it was possible to replace the speed into consideration, a maximum power of 900 h.p. is
of advance of the propeller by the ship's speed, in knots, assumed to be available at the propeller. From this
on the x axis. The thrust-wake coefficient might be comes the representative point S and the torque of
slightly different from the power-wake coefficient but, 32,000 Ib./ft. (4,440 kg./m.). The "father" motor
as already stated, it seems that shipyards are unable to of 750 h.p. alone would have operated with a torque of
24,000 Ib./ft. (3,330 kg./m.), and the
kt "
son motor of 250 h.p. with a torque
of 8,0001b. /ft. (l,110kg./m.). Assuming
a trawling speed of 3.5 knots, the results
"
would be: Line DS both father and
son": cruising speed 14.1 knots (900
h.p.); propeller thrust when luwling
21,000 Ib. (9,525 kg.) corresponding
" "
to 640 h.p.; Line GQ
father ;ilone.
cruising speed 13.2 knots (610 h.p.);
propeller thrust when ii\i\vling
15,650 (7,100 kg.) corresponding to
Ib.
420 h.p.: Line KL
"son" alone:
cruising speed 8.55 knots (125 h.p.);
propellerthrust when trawling 5, lOOIb.
(2,300 kg.) corresponding to 90 h.p.
From these data emerge two important
points:
" "
1 . The father motor of 750 h.p.
is only capable of developing
420 X 466h.p.when trawling,
g
because of the increased torque
of the propeller;
Fig. 513. The multiple reduction gear during assembly
[452]
CONTROL DEVICES MULTIPLE REDUCTION GEAR PROPULSION
2. Because of the fineness of the hull, the cruising several disconnected gears are permanently rotating in
" "
speed with the son motor alone, although the reduction gear. It may be assumed that one factor
being 8.55 knots (125 h.p.) provides a water flow compensates the other and that 900 h.p. are available
to the rudder which would be insufficient for for the propeller when two motors operate together, and
steering in normal weather conditions. 450 h.p. with one motor alone. The results are: Line BS
two motors of 500 h.p.: cruising speed 14.1 knots
What are the results of a multiple reduction gear (900 h.p.); propeller thrust when trawling 25,500 Ib.
with two motors of 500 h.p. each, or a total output of (11,565 kg.) corresponding to 845 h.p. Line EP one
1,000 h.p.? The Vulcan couplings are eliminated, but motor of 500 h.p. cruising speed 12.35 knots (450 h.p.);
:
21000
DIAMETER OF THE PROPELLER :
9.85 FT.
PITCH OF THE PROPELLER :
IO.65 FT.
iOOO
81 4O 7O 71 to s too 101 no us
SPEED IN KNOTS.
4 S 6 7 6 9 10 II 12 13
THRUST SPEED DIAGRAM
___ RESISTANCE CURVE OF THE HULL IN TERMS OF PROPELLER THRUST
" "
FATHER AND SON SYSTEM DS -GO AND KL
_____ BS EP
__
___
MULTIPLE REDUCTION GEAR PROPULSION
DIESEL ELECTRIC PROPULSION
CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLER
CR
AS
AND
AND
AND
HN
FO
[453]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
propeller thrust when trawling 16,600 Ib. (7,500 kg.) Diesel electric propulsion can also be studied in fig. 514.
corresponding to 450 h.p. With the same propeller and diesels it is necessary, in
The propeller thrust when trawling is thus 20 per cent, order to consider comparable installations, to decrease
" "
higher than in the father and son system when both the power disposable at the propeller by 15 per cent.,
motors are operating together, and each of the two to account for the electrical loss of efficiency through
500 h.p. motors can provide alone a propeller thrust generators and electric motors. With two motors, the
" "
5 per cent, higher than the father motor of 750 h.p. propeller can thus absorb 750 h.p,, or 375 h.p. with one
By choosing the three propeller speeds 145, 120 and motor. The representing lines of the operation are CR
93 r.p.m., 12.35 knots cruising speed can be obtained and HN. In comparison with the multiple reduction gear
DIAMETER OF THE CONTROLLABLE PITCH
PROPELLER 9.5 FT.
ISO R.P.M.
6.K>7
Fig. 515
" "
by one motor only, instead of 13.20 with the father system, each of the propeller thrusts during trawling is
and 8.55 with the " son ". By using propeller speeds of about 2,200 Ib. (1,000 kg.) less, and each of the cruising
145, 115 and 93 r.p.m., the propeller thrust can be speeds is about half a knot slower. These less favourable
increased from 25,500 Ib. (11,565 kg.) to 27,000 Ib. results would require a much more expensive installation.
(12,225 kg.) an increase of 28 per cent, compared to the With a controllable pitch propeller (fig. 514\ the
"
corresponding lines are AS with two motors and FO with
44
father and son system. In this case the bruising speed
with one motor decreases from 12.35 to 12 knots. The one motor. These two are constant power and constant
compromise in reduction ratio, which must be made revolution lines. Here, also, 900 h.p. were assumed to
when the gears are limited to three, does not have to be the propeller with two motors, and 450 h.p. with one
considered when a multiple reduction gear is applied motor, the imperfect radial pitch distribution being
to a single propulsion motor. supposed to be equivalent to mechanical losses, either
[454]
CONTROL DEVICES MULTIPLE REDUCTION GEAR PROPULSION
of the Vulcan couplings or of the disconnected gears. using the controllable pitch propeller. Onthe other hand,
As the risk of cavitation during trawling is smaller with in ships using a single engine with a controllable
pitch
a controllable pitch propeller, a diameter of 9.5 ft. propeller, the cruising speed will best be obtained if the
(2.90 m.) instead of 9.85 ft. (3 m.) was adopted. It must blades are left at their position of maximum speed and
be well understood that the lines AS and FO are really the revolutions of the engine reduced. In other words,
thrust-speed lines, but that the lines of power, torque, the controllable pitch propeller should be treated as a
revolutions, and efficiency of fig. 514 are not valid in the fixed blade propeller.
presentation of this case. The revolutions were fixed at Regarding economical cruising speed, the controllable
150. The pitch/diameter proportion varies from 0.53 at pitch propeller brings disadvantage in some cases, and
point F to 1.1 at point S. Each thrust is calculated no advantage in the other cases.
assuming the radial pitch distribution to be the usual The real advantages of the controllable pitch propeller
distribution at that moment and not the perturbed are to make the thrust perfectly progressive, to absorb
distribution resulting from adjusting the blades in order the complete power when trawling and to
simplify the
to change pitch. problem of torsional vibrations.
The diagram indicates that the results of a controllable These advantages are nevertheless limited:
pitch propeller are practically equivalent to those of an
ordinary propeller connected to a multiple reduction 1. In the Belgian Skipper, although there are several
gear. As a trawler operates in very distinct speed zones, vibration systems, running is perfectly silent and
the progressivity of the curves AS and FO are not, there is no critical speed between 130 and 500
r.p.m.
apparently, more advantageous than the broken lines 2. The ability of the diesels to work, at revolutions
BS and EP. down to one-third of their normal r.p.m., com-
New of power, torque and efficiency for a con-
lines bined with three different reduction ratios, will
trollable pitch propeller with a diameter of 9.5 ft.
meet the requirements of a fishing vessel in a very
(2.90 m.) and 150 r.p.m. are shown in fig. 515. When satisfactory and much less expensive manner than
the controllable pitch propeller.
comparing fig. 514 and 515, it is obvious that for a
propeller with fixed blades the resistance curve of the
hull (in terms of propeller thrust and speed of the ship) CONCLUSION
isrunning similar to the efficiency curves of the propeller. From the comparisons made for the Belgian
Skipper,
For the controllable pitch propeller, however, the itcan be concluded that the controllable pitch propeller
resistance curve of the hull cuts the efficiency curve of with ordinary reduction gear, on the one hand, and the
the propeller nearly at a right angle. The result is that
ordinary fixed blade propeller with multiple reduction
the fixed blade propeller has an efficiency of 0.715 at gear, on the other, give similar results. The diesel
14 knots and 0.733 at 12 knots, while the controllable " "
electric drive and father and son system are definitely
pitch propeller has an efficiency of 0.705 at 14 knots and less efficient.
0.64 at 12 knots. The "father and son" system and the multiple
In all ships where the maximum speed is obtained by reduction gear system would have cost approximately
two engines driving a single propeller, and cruising speed the same, but the controllable pitch propeller and the
by the use of one engine only, the system having a fixed diesel electric drive would both have increased the
blade propeller will be hydrodynamically better than that total cost of the trawler by 10 per cent.
[455]
ENGINES DISCUSSION
Mr. J. Messiez-Poche (France): Although most fishing should two-cycle or four-cycle engines be used ? (2) speed of
boat experts believe that the steam engine is becoming an operationsshould fast or slow engines be used ? (3) method of
obsolete form of propulsion for trawlers, it is coming into operation should diesels or semi-diesels be used ? (4) method
favour with the builders of tankers. There is always the of drive should the direct drive with a direct-coupled, slow-
possibility that some new development in the steam engine turn, direct reversible engine be used? Or a medium-speed
will bring it back into favour with fishing boat owners. engine driving through a reduction reverse gear? Or should
There seems to be agreement among experts that the con- two or more engines be geared to a single shaft? Should
trollable pitch propeller provides the best way of adjusting various combinations of this method be employed, using a
engine and propeller to a vessel. It is to be hoped that great controllable-pitch propeller? Or should the free piston gas
care will be taken to make sure that efficiently-designed generator, in combination with a reciprocating engine or
controllable-pitch propellers are used. turbine, be used ?
Too many engine designers think that their work is com- "
It was not the business of the Congress to reach an omni-
"
pleted when an engine leaves the test bed. This is a mistake. bus conclusion but to exchange views and ideas so that the
An engine designer should make a close study of the vessel problem may be seen from its many angles.
in is installing an engine so that he can avoid critical
which he Mr. Hepton's paper deserved careful study, particularly
speeds, make sure that the engine beds are properly con- where he accuses diesel builders of overrating their engines.
structed, avoid unnecessary, and sometimes dangerous, He suggested that many engines sold for a certain horse-power
auxiliary controls, and see that the propellers are properly have, in practice, not been able to develop that power in
designed. He should also be concerned with safe operation arduous sea conditions.
and maintenance of the engine. He should ensure that spare The paper by Mr. Normand dealt with a matter of import-
parts are available at reasonable prices and that there is no ance in the future the free piston gas generator. A pro-
delay in delivering them. minent British firm of marine engineers, which has only built
It seems that the supercharged four-cycle engine is most steam engines in the past, has entered into agreement to build
suitable for fishing boats, but before it is installed a study free piston gas generators. This system seems to have some
should be made of the particular conditions in which the of the advantages of diesel electric drive and the great
trawler concerned will operate. advantage of flexibility. Jt can also be used for trawl winch
Mr. Gould was most informative about the use of high- propulsion.
speed diesels in fishing boats, but while they may be excellent The papers by Mr. Ziener and Dr. Setna showed some of
for the U.S.A. fishing industry, they may not be so useful if the difficulties experienced by users in Chile and India, where
installed in European fishing boats. Certainly the initial there are special problems in the use of diesels in fishing boats.
cost of such an engine and the expense involved in main- Mr. Ziener stressed the point that good servicing is essential.
tenance and repairs tend to make it uneconomic from a The paper by Mr. Gould on the high-speed engine is again
European point of view. a pointer to the future and to the differences of opinion which
Mr. J. A. van Aken has given some details about a con- exist. In Europe there is a tendency still to regard the high-
trollable-pitch four-bladed propeller with the blades arranged speed engine with suspicion but in America it is regarded with
in two different planes. It would have been helpful if he great favour.
"
could have given figures to show the efficiency of this un- The " father and son and the diesel electric drive methods
common propeller arrangement, especially as other experts have much to recommend them for trawlers provided that :
have said that the results of such an arrangement are disap- (a) they are not too complicated, and (b) that the ordinary
pointing. marine engineer is made to appreciate them.
Mr. Kolbeck dealt with modern diesel engine trawlers built Mr. Dussardier, in his paper, expressed the opinion that a
inGermany and it would have been interesting if he could have good diesel manufacturer should not stick to a rigid form
shown the costs of the different engine arrangements he has but should be willing always to adapt his design to changing
studied. engine requirements.
In the paper on the free piston generator and gas turbine, The papers by Messrs. Stokke and Anderson, dealing with
presented by Mr. A. A. Normand, jr., the advantages of this semi-diesels, indicated that the idea of a hot-bulb engine
system are shown. It would have been instructive, however, being an anachronism is not supported by facts. Numerous
if the author had compared fuel consumption under three fishermen in Scandinavian countries find it reliable and that
headings: (1) cruising; (2) trawling, and (3) homeward voyage is most important. Both papers dealing with semi-diesels
with a full load. supported the belief that there is still need for this type.
How far the controllable-pitch propeller is to be adopted
Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.): The engine papers may be for fishing vessels is bound up with questions of manoeuvra-
grouped under four headings: (1) cycle of operations bility. Many people say the controllable-pitch propeller
[456]
ENGINES DISCUSSION
should not be regarded from the point of view of manoeuvra- has been used. The experiment has already cost several
bility in trawlers but as an instrument in which pitch can be thousand pounds because of broken trips but it is going on.
adapted to the duty which the vessel is carrying out. British trawler owners are handicapped by having to train
It is significant that no papers dealing with steam engines their engineers who usually start as greasers and work up to
were submitted. Although there are still steam trawlers the position of chief engineer. An experiment which has been
being built there is no doubt that the diesel has taken the successful is to send the engineers to the manufacturer's works
place of the steam engine in the fishing fleets. Indeed, Mr. F. for a month or two so that they may see the engine in the
Parkes, a trawler owner of great ability and distinction, course of construction. They come back with a good working
sounded the death knell of steam in the Boat Type discussion knowledge of the machine and they make better engineers
by pointing out the efficiency and economic operation of because of their experience.
diesel as compared with steam trawlers.
Mr. E. G. Bergius (U.K.): The development of the Scottish
Mr. Frederick Parkes (U.K.): Because of the investment fishing fleet provided a good example of how to help the
required, the wages and salaries to be paid, and the increase under-developed fishing fleets of the world. The policy of that
in price of fuel, engines, fishing gear, technical equipment, development could be summed up as helping the fishermen
etc.,the costs are too high to risk mechanical breakdowns on to help themselves.
fishing trips. So the trawler owner puts dependability first and The mechanization of the Scottish fleet has taken place
foremost because without it he cannot operate profitably. during the last 50 years and medium-speed engines of 600
A saving of 10 per cent, on fuel may seem very important to 1,000 r.p.m. have been used. Reliability, simplicity and
to the engine builder but, in one year, that would only repre- accessibility are the main considerations in the choice of
sent in value about one-quarter of the net loss caused by a engine because a fishing boat is of no use while lying idle.
mechanical breakdown which results in a broken voyage or That the engines selected by the Scottish fishermen are simple
a false call at a port. Three days' delay in port would also and reliable is emphasized by the fact that the inshore fleets
largely absorb a year's saving of the 10 per cent, economy in of Scotland, composed of boats up to 80 ft. (24.4 m.) in
fuel consumption. The ship owner wants reliability before length, go to sea without engineers. Simplicity and accessi-
anything else, even before the most modern equipment. In bility of an engine contribute to reliability. For instance, it
studying a ship's balance sheet over several years, he will should always be possible for fishermen to carry out minor
pay greater attention to the number of days lost in carrying repairs. If a piston seizes on a multiple cylinder engine a
out repairs, or in making false calls in foreign or home ports, fisherman should be able to remove that piston within five
than to fuel or oil consumption. If, for example, after five minutes and run on the remaining cylinders. That is the
years he can see that operation of a trawler has con- essence of simplicity, accessibility, reliability and service.
sisted of mechanical breakdowns and sailing has been
delayed because of repairs, he will be all the more ready Mr. T. Leach (U.K.): The United Kingdom Government
S.
to spend money on maintenance and spare parts. This is why instituted in 1946a scheme of financial assistance for fisher-
the ship's owner requires the manufacturer to give him engines men. It is operated by means of grants and loans for new
made to ample and reliable calculations so that there is a boats, insurance and gear, for vessels up to 70 ft. (21.3 m.).
verv large security margin latent in all parts. This is the These are inshore fishing craft and are usually operated by
strength of the steam engine and it should be the strength of skipper-owners whose capital resources are small, so that
the modern diesel. they cannot take the risk of buying an untested engine. For
Mr. Parkes referred to an experience nearly 40 years ago these fishermen the important considerations in the selection
when he installed diesels in two new vessels. One was a single of an engine are: (1) the first essential is that the engine is
cylinder engine and the vibration it caused in the ship was so absolutely reliable and easily accessible; (2) it should be
violent that it nearly shook people off their feet. That ship simple and basically designed for use in a fishing boat; (3)
was an utter failure. In the second vessel he installed a four- it should be a slow-speed engine, capable of operating a small
cylinder engine. It sometimes took a day to get the engine winch or line-hauler. Experience of high-speed engines,
started. The vessel did actually get to sea once or twice but, involving use of reduction gears, has not been good; (4)
after his experience with these two ships, Mr. Parkes decided the lubrication and fuel systems must function under condi-
to have no more to do with diesels. A few years ago, however, tions of slow-running for many hours, particularly in the case
his son pointed out that diesels were being accepted in the of line-fishing vessels; (5) most inshore fishermen operate from
fishing industry so he agreed to experiment again. The first small ports where there are no large engineering facilities.
vessel fitted with diesels spent about six months of her first Perhaps the nearest source of help is the local garage. This is
year in port, but it was decided to persevere and about twelve another reason why the engine must be absolutely reliable
or fourteen different types of diesels from the U.K., U.S.A., and very simple in operation, so that it can be serviced either
Switzerland, France, Holland, Belgium and Germany were by the fisherman himself or by local mechanics; (6) neither
tested. As a result, now
appears that diesel trawlers pay
it skipper-owners nor, indeed, the fishing industry generally
and that the steam trawlerwill be left in the background can afford to be used as guinea-pigs for experiments with
before long. The economy in running a large type trawler untried engines; (7) engine manufacturers should give a
equipped with a diesel is considerable when compared guarantee that the type of engine they are offering has been
with the same type of trawler equipped with a steam subject to tests at sea under normal fishing conditions.
engine.
The National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, London, Mr. William P. Miller (U.K.): The Scottish fishing fleet has
has been of great assistance in advising on the power of the been largely reconstructed since the end of World War II. The
engine needed for vessels and on propeller design. New ideas general result has been good, but some fishermen have suffered
are always being tried in connection with diesels. Recently, because they have installed unsuitable engines. This is
for instance, an American invention, an air controlled clutch, unfortunate, not only from the fisherman's point of view, but
[457]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
also from that of the independent manufacturer. It does not interesting when read in connection with Mr. Ziener's
make very pleasant reading to see that some million-pound dealing with engine problems encountered in Chile. American
engine manufacturing concern is paying a big dividend when manufacturers evidently have not supplied Chileans with
fishermen are in distress because they bought unsuitable properly-crated engines nor with sufficient spare parts.
engines fron that company. This is a vital matter which Mr. Hepton has discussed candidly and honestly the
should receive the careful and serious attention of all engine problems of trawler owners and Mr. Gould has provided a
manufacturers. It is most unfair that fishermen should be good paper on high speed diesels although he could have
penalised for carrying out experiments for large engineering included more technical information and comments on, for
concerns, and it would be a good move if independent manu- example, the b.m.e.p. for two-cycle high-speed engines or
facturers issued some form of insurance policy against whether there is a standard limiting exhaust temperature.
selling unsuitable engines to fishermen. Mr. Normand's paper would have been improved if he
had given factual data on the results the French are getting
Mr. Jan Olof Timing (FAO): It is interesting to note that, in their test programmes for gas turbines, particularly the
so far as guarantees to fishermen are concerned, FAO has free piston generator.
recommended one member nation to stipulate in a fisheries
loan regulation that engine manufacturers should give a Mr. E. R. Gueroult (France): Naval architects usually have to
specific guaranteeof engine performance. The usual sort of work out the pressures, piston speeds, and the quantities of
guarantee givjn with an engine is more in the nature of an heat going through a diesel, to find out for themselves the
exemption from guarantee. It is so written that normally it is best characteristics of the engine. Manufacturers should
not in accordance with the business laws of the country. provide complete and accurate information.
Much of the expense incurred in operating fishing boats has
Mr* John Tyrrell (Ireland) Engine manufacturers should pay
: to do with the diesel. This is usually the result of overloading
mo** attention to the external design of the engine. For stern the engine when running at low speed of advance. Diesel
install ition, the engine base should be narrow to fit in the run manufacturers usually blame the propeller, especially the
of the ship and, if possible, it should be tapered. The flywheel bad habit of designing it on a basis of compromise between
is better on the forward end of the engine, 'which should the trawling and free, route speeds. Most of the difficulty
extend the least possible distance below the shaft centreline. Arises from ignorance of the real torque which can be accepted
The foundation should be as high as possible in order to at reduced revolutions. Diesel manufacturers never provide
allow a reasonable size of bearer aft. this vital information, sometimes because they have not taken
These remarks apply only to engines installed aft. Where the trouble to find out what the torque should be.
engines are installed forward a reverse arrangement is more As far back as 1927, when the first diesel trawlers were being
suitabh. built for fishing off Newfoundland, owners asked for the same
Engine manufacturers should supply all the installation reliability in diesels as they obtained from steam engines. An
material with the engine. To a large extent successful running effort was made to have diesels running at revolutions near
will depend on the quality and suitability of this. Tanks may to those of the normal steam engine. Tank tests to establish
be provided by the shipyard to suit the hull, but the engine the best optimum revolutions for towing showed there was no
manufacturers should give instructions to ensure that they necessity to go as low as, say, 100 r.p.m., which was usual with
are properly fitted with sumps, etc. The stern tube outer steam engines. It was found possible to use 150 to 200 r.p.m.
flange should be of substantial size and have enough fasten- without great loss of efficiency, and since that time diesels
ings to resist propeller vibration. Simple and clear installa- have been running at these revolutions. The direct drive was
tion drawings, showing the necessary foundation details, also adopted. Trawlers with such slow-running main diesels,
should be supplied with the engine. and with medium-speed auxiliary engines, gave satisfactory
results. It is probable that in future the medium-speed engine,
Mr. George CNkkmn (U.S. A.) An analysis and comparison
: in conjunction with an electric drive, will be used in the big
iws made recently of small high-speed light-weight engines trawlers. For small powers it is impossible to avoid using the
ranging from 200 to 300 h.p. and it was discovered that, up high-speed diesel. It lacks flexibility and, in addition, French
to a cruising range of 25 hours, the high-speed diesel, the naval architects are disinclined to drive the propeller direct
high-speed petrol engine and the modem gas turbine were from high-speed diesels. Owners are always asking for very
within about 15 per cent, in total weight of plant and fuel. low revolutions to be able to reduce the speed of the boat in
Over the 25 hours the diesel rapidly drew ahead and the gas bad weather, and even 200 r.p.m. engines are not satisfactory
turbine rapidly dropped behind. But the comparison indi- in this respect. In the more recently designed trawlers,
cated that the time is not far distant when the gas turbine owners have asked for a small electric motor to be coupled
will have to be considered for installation in fishing boats. to the shaft, to give a very slow speed. This is related to the
Many of the papers on engines are excellent, but some are safety of the ship and is, of course, a first step towards the
poor. This is particularly true of papers presented by the diesel electric.
manufacturers themselves, chiefly because they try to sell The French owners are fortunate in having good engineers
engines in the same way as other manufacturers sell bath trained by the Navy and in commercial ships. These men do
tubs and automobiles. This may be the best way to sell much to maintain the engines and, consequently, help to
diesels, but it is not the best way to treat the naval archi- make the boats profitable in operation.
tect. He is an intelligent human being and can digest
a little heavier fare than is usually sent to him by engine Mr. Howard L Chapelle (U.S.A.): Engine manufacturers
manufacturers. Naval architects need more data on engines, should provide naval architects with information in a compact
and there is need for diesel manufacturers and naval architects form. Some engine makers provide only the h.p. and r.p-m.
to work more closely together. curves but not the torque, while others show h.p. curves,
Mr. Andersen's paper on semi-diesels is particularly fuel consumption and torque. No two manufacturers seem
[458]
ENGINES DISCUSSION
to provide fuel consumption curves on the same basis. An Commander R. . Pickett (U.S.A.): The small fishing vessel
instance of the uncertiinty of the information is found in the engine up to about 300 h.p. should be an internal combustion
case cf a small trawit r vhe e the expected fuel consumption oil engine, preferably a port scavenging two-cycle type. The
was calculated on the information provided. The owner requirements are: (1) on long voyages the fishing vessel must
had second thoughts, however, and as a margin of safety he not lose its propulsion or winch power although both may be
added 500 gal. (420 imp. gal., 1900 1.). The vessel trimmed reduced in extreme emergencies. The engine should be so
1
very badly at the stem because of the extra weight. Then, at constructed that a defective cylinder can easily be cut out
the end of the first year, it was discovered there was an excess of without the engine ceasing to operate; or there should be a
tanks. Not only was the extra 500 gal. not required but the multi-engine installation; (2) the starting system should be
original calculations pro /ided for an excess of fi el. Here was so simple that it is proof against breakdown. This is one
an engine consuming less fuel than had been calculated, but reason for the popularity among Gulf of Mexico fishermen
because no accurate information on fuel consumption had of starting diesels with air-cooled petrol motors, an unde-
been provided, a lot of useless weight had been placed on sirable practice. A manually-operated hydraulic starting
board the ship and useful space taken up by unnecessary tanks. system for small and medium-size engines has recently been
There are no trained engineers on board small trawlers, developed, and might be of general interest to fishermen;
which in an engineering protlem, and it is
itself creates (3) a simple and reliable cooling system is necessary. A double
unlikely that a training programme for engineers would bottom tank as a cooling water reservoir and heat exchanger
function very well. The small trawler owner generally wishes combined might be used in steel constructed vessels; (4)
to see the engine sealed up so that nobody can tamper with cooling water and lubricating oil pumps should be installed
it. The time to make an overhaul is when the vessel comes into separately and in duplicate to avoid failure of this important
port and the work can be handled by men who have long auxiliary equipment.
experience of maintenance. It is not a job for a part-time If a ship can retain her winch and propulsion power although
mechanic. That was all right in the days of the old make-and- reduced she can stay safely at sea for fishing and get safely
break petrol engine when a complete overhaul job could be back to port.
done with a monkey wrench and a screwdriver. These are
facts which must be accepted in dealing with engines to-day. Mr. C. H. Bradbury (U.K.): The reference by Mr. Heplon to
The small diesels in U.S.A. trawlers have, by European the derating of engines by 15 to 20 per cent, for continuous
standards, a very high r.p.m., a very high h.p. in relation to operation must not pass unchallenged. Derating from what
that used abroad, and they are of .very light weight. The power? The reputable manufacturer designs his engine to a
engines have been installed for economic reasons. What now specification which he knows he can fulfil and, for continuous
is needed is a more extensive study of maintenance and of running, the rating offered is well below that on which the
maintenance methods to be applied especially to the trawling engine operates on a shore installation. Because less experi-
industry. enced manufacturers do not follow this practice, that is no
reason for condemning the reputable. Exhaust temperature
Mr. Fredrik Dahlldf (Sweden) (1) Eighty per cent, of all fresh
:
quoted by itself means nothing at all Some engines are
fish landed are brought in by small vessels; (2) big fishing perfectly safe at 800 deg. F. (430 deg. C.), while others,
vessels have turned out to be less profitable than anticipated particularly certain blown two-cycles, are unsafe at 750 deg. F.
and fishing companies are now building smaller fishing (400 deg. C.). Exhaust temperature must, therefore, relate
boats. The problem, then, is to find the engine most suitable to test conditions and nothing more.
for small- or medium-size fishing vessels.
Dependability is the factor most stressed by fishermen and, Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): It is unfortunate that manu-
of course, the most dependable engine in the world is the facturers tend to oversell their engines as to horsepower. They
steam engine, but it is being abandoned because of its poor a customer a 300 h.p. engine, and will then insist on the
will sell
fuel economy. The dependability of the steam engine lies use of a propeller absorbing only 200 h.p. For example, in
in the simplicity of its design, and to achieve a similar dependa- 1952 two vessels were built to the same design by the same
engine manufacturer* must also rely on simplicity
bility oil shipyard and were installed with engines of the same power.
of design. In this respect the highest degree of simplicity is A propeller with, say, a 45 in. (1,140 mm.) pitch was specified
achieved in the two-cycle engine with crank-case scavenging by the naval architect, but the engine manufacturer gave an
and low combustion pressure. The low pressure makes it order to the propeller manufacturer for a 42 in. (1,070 mm.)
possible to employ simple and sturdy equipment for the injec- propeller. When it came to the trials the manufacturer's
tion of fuel into the combustion chamber. It has been said representative refused to go at full speed because he said the
that the crank-case scavenging is poor but such a statement normal speed was the high speed.
refers to older types of engines. In the modern engine this The boats made only 9} knots whereas they had been
method of scavenging is now so efficient that the fuel economy designed to make 10. Later, when the two vessels were
is comparable with that of any engine of more complicated fishing together, both started for home at the same time when
design. The only advantage to be obtained from a more one of them hit a log. From that moment the vessel headed
complicated scavenging system is a slight reduction in the rapidly away from her companion because the log had in-
size of the engine. This might be important in some vessels creased the pitch, which proved the point that a 45 in. and
but in small fishing boats the reduction is too small to be of not a 42 in. pitch was needed. The propellers of the two
any importance. boats were then adjusted to the right pitch and the desired
The two-cycle low-pressure oil engine with crank-case speed was achieved. This example should prove to engine
scavenging costs little to maintain and repairs can be made manufacturers that they should allow those with experience
very quickly as its parts can be readily replaced. The engine of vessel design to specify the propellers. But if it is felt that
is, therefore, well suited for installing in vessels up to 150 ft. they do not dare run their engines at full output, diesel
<45.8 m.) in length. manufacturers should specify lower h.p.
[459]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
He believed one revolutionary improvement would be to tug boats on the Hudson, the matter would be simple. But
place diesels in the forepart and an electric propulsion motor the engines are used in various types of boats and areas in
in the stern. This would do away with shaft-alley, inter- which power requirements are different.
mediate bearings and shafts, and all the wiring would be A comparatively simple method has been developed of
placed in the wings. It would be a very practical and useful testing whether or not a propeller is right for the engine. It is
design in his opinion. a rule of thumb method, but it does give a quick check. The
trawler or tug-boat is secured to a wharf to resemble the worst
Mr. W. Zwolsman (Netherlands): Mr. Ziener's account of possible towing condition and the engine is run to its governed
repairing and maintaining engines in Chile shows that manu- speed at maximum injection. If it runs 75 to 100 more r.p.m.
facturers have not properly studied the market and seem than the normal working speed, it is considered free from risks
indifferent to the considerable sales possibilities there. They of overloading. In other words, if it is to run normally at
should establish a service to supply spares and maintain 1,600 r.p.m., in the test it should run at 1,675 to 1,700 r.p.m.
engines in running condition, otherwise they will create an and as the trawler or tug-boat skipper generally uses only
atmosphere of hostility and suspicion towards internal two throttle positions, shut down or wide open, this means
combustion engines. that trawling or towing operations can be carried out without
In the fuel oil specification mentioned by Mr. Ziener the overloading the engine. In the case of other vessels, where
Conradson carbon value is missing. Contrary to Mr. Ziener's higher powers are used, the test is to run about 200 r.p.m.
opinion, this fuel is perfectly suitable for high-speed diesels more than the average cruising r.p.m. would be. Tomalin
but it might be advisable to use a lubricating oil conforming (1953) suggested that engine manufacturers should use, as a
to the American Petroleum Institute specification, such as continuous duty rating, the horse-power obtained at the
Army spec. Mil-0-2104 or 2-104B, supplements and 2. If 1 minimum specific fuel consumption. Generally speaking, it
the gum content is translated into Conradson carbon value, will be achieved in those conditions where engines are putting
188 mgs. per litre gives a figure of roughly 0.22 per cent. out maximum torque.
This acceptable although the British standard specification
is His firm had an amusing experience in producing fuel
No. 209 (1947) gives 0.1 per cent, as maximum. consumption curves based on propeller load curves, and
carefully worked out with regard to r.p.m. and speeds. Fuel
Mr. C. . Dietle (U.S.A.): There is undoubtedly a need for consumption curves crossed the propeller load curves and
better collaboration between engine manufacturers and naval gave the answer in total consumption per hour. But this
architects. But many of the troubles that have arisen cannot diagram had to be scrapped because the customers thought
be blamed entirely on the engines. The human element often that the engine used too much fuel. The reason was that most
plays a very important part. For example, his firm at one customers do not run their engines at the h.p. they were sold
time had made an engine which was greatly favoured by at. For example, they are used to a so-called 130 h.p. engine
fishermen. It was the soul of reliability but it was not very consuming 5 to 6 gal./hr. (4 to 5 imp. gal.; 19 to 23 I.). Then
That engine is not being built to-day, and will not
efficient. when they replace the engine with one of 200 or 225 h.p.,
be, because it has no place in the market due to its great consumption is shown at 10 or 11 gal./hr. (8 to 9 imp. gal.,
weight and high fuel consumption. Probably the reason why 38 to 42 1.). In this case the consumption only went up to
some countries still find semi-diesels successful is because about 8 gal./hr. (6.7 imp. gat.; 30 1.) with the bigger engine
they have not felt the impact of certain economic factors which indicating that it was not used at full output. But as the
have been effective in the United States. When they do feel information meant full output and was misunderstood, the
that impact the fishermen will no longer use the semi-diesel. firm had to revert to specific fuel curves based upon con-
sumption per horsepower per hour.
Mr. Georg Bruce (Sweden): There should be better co- In re-powering a boat it is often necessary to use a reduc-
operation between the boat-builder and the engine manu- tion gear of a ratio which is not suitable from a propeller
facturer to improve the design and construction of seatings for efficiency point of view. This gear has to be put in because of
engines in small- and medium-size fishing boats. A sturdily- the size of the shafting already in the vessel. If a higher
built seating is essential for: (a) the motor, to prevent damage reduction gear ratio was used to give a better propeller
to the crankshaft and the bearings; (b) for the boat, to prevent efficiency, it would be necessary to put in a new shafting block,
vibrations opening up the seams of the hull (r) for the fisher-
;
new stern bearings and new shafting, which is far too costly.
men's comfort, as they have to spend about half their lives In the case of high-speed diesels the average cost of the
aboard boats and do not want to be constantly shaken by the engine installed, complete with controls and exhaust system,
vibration. is from $42 to $55 (15 to 20) per horsepower.
Preventative maintenance is an important factor. Owners
Mr. W. C. Gould (U.S.A.): It would be very useful if the of large fleets can, by careful plotting, find the optimum
naval architects would give engine manufacturers a definitive period for overhauling the engines. That period is not
list of information wanted because there seems to be a necessarily the maximum the engines will run between over-
divergence of opinion among architects as to what is needed. hauls. The cost of overhauling and the use of spare parts
Unfortunately, 75 per cent, of the engines are sold directly over a long period will be less when the optimum period is
to customers who are not technically qualified to make an used. His firm had started a preventive maintenance
analysis. Manufacturers are forced to explain engines in a programme in which engineers meet a boat when she comes
manner that can be understood by fishermen, but it does not in and, for a very small charge, check over the engines.
seem so certain that this effort is 100 per cent, successful. It High-speed engines can now be completely enclosed so as
would be desirable to have one set of literature for the fisher- to sound-proof them, and also prevent the crews from inter-
men and one set of power curves for the naval architects. fering with them. Probably a better measure for determining
ff, in the case of U.S.A. manufacturers, the engines were intervals for overhauls is the quantity of fuel oil to be burned
being installed only in trawlers on the north-east coast or in rather than the number of hours an engine should run. For
[460]
ENGINES DISCUSSION
example, there is an engine that burns between 15,000 and This means he must use a reduction gear. And he must also
20,000 gal. (12,500 to 17,000 imp. gal.; 57 to 76 cu. m.) decide whether to have a fixed blade or controllable-pitch
of fuel before overhaul. How soon that overhaul is needed propeller which, again, will confront him with many problems,
can be determined by how fast the fuel is burned. It is not not only of efficiency but of cost and the owner's preferences.
so much the r.p.m. that wear out modern engines, but the When it comes to steering equipment, the naval architect
heat put through them which is indicated by the fuel con- may prefer the Kort nozzle. It is interesting to note that
sumption. Mr. Zwolsman has reported in his paper on the excellent
His company set up training programmes long ago, includ- results obtained by fitting Kort nozzles n some trawlers built
;
ing mobile schools, but they have not been used extensively in Holland since World War II.
by the fishing industry although any owner could send his men Given a free hand, the naval architect might be tempted to
to a school free of charge. The only cost to him would be the take the initiative and install a turbine fed by free-piston
man's time. The mobile schools had met with better success generators. But in all his work and decisions the architect
by moving into a locality for three days to teach the fishermen must face the preconceived ideas and the usual disinclination
maintenance on engines. But this is a very costly service to of the owner to install new types of engines or systems which
operate and it is not possible to visit each territory as often as may cost more than conventional, established types, and have
is desirable. yet to be proved in actual operation. And even if the architect
is lucky enough to work for an owner who will allow him to
Mr. C. E. Dietle (U.S.A.): Ahigh-speed diesel of 100 to install the most modern engines and equipment, he is faced
175 h.p. that is not perfectly adjusted and maintained will with the all-important problem of service and maintenance
burn as much as 10 gal. (8.3 imp. gal., 38 1.) of fuel an hour on board ship. There seem to be few trained engineers and
while the boat is trawling. The average consumption may be mechanics among fishermen and the architect must bear this
about 8 gal. (6.7 imp. gal., 30 1.). Taking Mr. Gould's figure fact firmly in mind when deciding on any of the machinery to
of burning 15,000 gal. (12,500 imp. gal., 57 cu. m.) of fuel as a be installed.
measure of when the engine should be overhauled that would
a running time of 1,500 to 2,000 hours. That
give, roughly, Mr. L. Varriale (Italy): Experience gained over 15 years,
suggests very frequent overhauls. Is that right? during which more than 5,000 cylinders have been installed
in fishing vessels, has proved that the supercharged engine is
Mr. W. C. Gould (U.S.A.): No. He was not talking about a the most economical type for a trawler.
175 h.p. engine but one having a maximum rating of 130 h.p. In Italy, as in the rest of the world, supercharging is still
burning about 5 or 6 gal. (4.1 to 5 imp. gal., 19 to 23 I.) considered by many to be a bold innovation, although it has
per hour. been known for more than 20 years.
This type of engine certainly works better if supercharged
Mr. C. E. Dietle (U.S.A.): Many would find that this than it does with a natural air flow.A maximum combustion
method would call for too frequent overhauls for many pressure of 870 Ib./sq. in. (61 kg./sq. cm.) is maintained and
engines, and he did not want anyone to conclude that it the exhaust temperature is kept constant at 700 deg. F.
established the maximum period for all engines. Operation (370 deg. C.). The 50 per cent, gain in power is due to an
and maintenance have a great influence on the maximum exhaust turbo-blower. Italian fishermen, despite their
periods between overhauls. traditional conservatism, have been convinced by the per-
formance of these supercharged engines.
Dr. Gian Guide Bordoli (Italy): The naval architect is lucky The big factory ship could be much-improved functionally
to find an intelligent owner like Mr. P. Parkes who has said and economically by the use of a supercharged engine
that he his trust in the experts. While this may be true because any saving in space and weight per h.p. is of special
puts
in deciding the dimensions and form of the hull, Mr. Parkes importance in such a vessel. For example, the Portuguese
has his own ideas about engines and these impose limits on factory ship Allan Villiers, which operates in the New-
the naval architect. foundland waters, is equipped with a six-cylinder, 14.5 in.
The naval architect of experience can quickly decide the (370 mm.) bore engine, direct reversible and supercharged
overall length of the vessel he is designing because he knows by a turbo-blower. With a length of only 19 ft. (5.80 m.) and
the weight and size of the equipment which must be installed. a weight of 35 tons, it develops 900 h.p. at a normal speed of
He can also decide on the length in relation to speed and 275 r.p.m. and 1,100 h.p. at maximum power.
choose the hull form, while from the known results of tank In view of the excellent results obtained, it seems reason-
tests he can calculate the engine power needed. But when he able to install four-cycle supercharged engines of 1,000 h.p.
leaves his own field of activity he meets with difficulties. Even in fishing vessels.
if he is a mechanical engineer he will find trouble in selecting Supercharging the two-cycle engine is not advisable but
a suitable engine and may be carried away by his wish to the supercharged four-cycle engine can replace it up to the
install the most modern design. Weight is an important power limits at which the engines meet.
factor so he will probably choose a medium-speed super-
charged diesel because supercharging increases an engine's Mr. D. Coste (France): The gas turbine resolves the problem
power H times. It also means that he can install a more of adapting the engine to the propeller. In fact, there is no
powerful engine in less space, which makes it possible to problem. The generator is independent of the speed of the
reduce the size of the engine-room yet still retain sufficient propeller, and the turbine has an extremely flat curve of
space to allow easy access to the engine and the auxiliaries, efficiency which adapts itself very easily to the needs of the
an important aid to servicing and maintenance. propeller. In a system with free pistons and gas turbine,
He next runs into difficulties over the choice of propeller. with direct transmission, installed in a train running between
He will probably look for ways and means to increase the Paris and Valenciennes, the turbine is connected and relayed
propeller efficiency having selected an engine, say, of 500 r.p.m. directly to the axle trees. It has now run more than 30,000
[461]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
" "
miles (50,000 km.). The efficiency of the installation is, of partial because it involves reciprocating parts working
course, the product of the efficiency of the generator, the pipe under similar thermal, lubrication and con-
fuel injection
system and the turbine. ditions as in conventional diesel cylinders. Presumably it
The efficiencyof the generator the gas efficiencyis a needs the same maintenance. If the gas turbine advantages
minimum of 43 per cent. In the near future this should reach are to be fully exploited all parts must be rotative. To com-
44 and even 45 per cent. pensate for high fuel consumption there must be longer
The efficiency of the turbine and the reduction gear must be periods between overhauls, and the costs must be low. This
taken into account to find the overall efficiency. The efficiency can only be achieved by a simple machine, preferably having
of the turbine depends, of course, on the unit power. For a not more than two shafts, and having no reciprocating parts.
turbine of 1,000 h.p. there is a different efficiency than with a There is a gas turbine of 1,000/1,250 h.p. in quantity produc-
turbine of 8,000 or 10,000 h.p. Various makes of turbines tion in Britain. It is eminently suitable for a trawler in every
give different performances. One of the best results obtained respect except for its fuel consumption. Related to the power
was that of the Rateau turbine 85 or 86 per cent, output available at the output coupling, fuel consumption is equal
which is remarkable because the average figure for engines to or slightly better than that of the steam turbine of similar
of this power is 84 per cent. For the 8,000 h.p. group the power. Large quantities of steam can be raised from the
figures of 86 or 87 per cent, are quite normal. The reduction residual heat and exhaust gases and more of this must be
gear has an efficiency of 98 per cent, for a simple reduction used to bring the overall plant efficiency up to 70 per cent,
and 96 per cent, in the case of double reduction. (for a diesel with an exhaust gas boiler it is 49 per cent.).
Engines installed in Cuba and in Detroit and Chicago The most highly stressed blades have a maximum life of
have a consumption of 0.404 Ib./h.p./hr. (0.183 kg.) with a 100,000 hours. The engine needs to be inspected every 2,500
turbine of only 80.5 per cent, efficiency. One can conclude hours and dismantled and overhauled every 10,000 hours.
that on taking 43 per cent, efficiency of the generator, 84 per The turbines, compressor, and reduction gear can be inspected
cent, of the gas turbine-reduction gear from 1,000 to 2,000 in two hours without disturbing any ducting. A simple single
h.p. and an efficiency of 98 to 98.5 per cent, for the pipe fuel burner is used and the engine can be started instantly
system, the specific consumption is 0.36 Ib./h.p./hr. (0.175 kg.). so that no warming or attendant standby charges are
This is comparable to that of a relatively fast diesel, with this incurred.
difference: the generator is a machine which- is extremely
well adapted for combustion of heavy fuel. The Renault Mr. Ivar Stokke (Norway): Commander A. C. Hardy is
engine, which is in service, works normally with light fuel, right'in stating that high speed two-cycle diesels may not be
which does not require reheating and is fluid at an ordinary economical engines to install in European fishing boats.
temperature. The 1,000 h.p. engines installed by the Gafsa Co. No doubt the engines Mr. William P. Miller refers to were
in Tunisia has been in service for one year, using fuel No. 1. over-rated (too high b.m.e.p.) and it is a fact that if two-cycle
In big installations the consumption would fall below engines run too fast and with too high mean effective pressure,
0.375 lb./h.p./hr. (0.170 kg.). they wear out too quickly. Mr. Stokke disagreed with Mr.
Chapelle about the need for torque curves of the engines when
Mr. W. C. Gould (U.S.A.): There are two major problems designing a fishing boat. Such curves are only necessary for
connected with gas turbines: (1) the gas temperatures tractorsand automobile engines. Instead, he would like the
are limited at present to about 1,450 deg. F. (790 deg. C.); manufacturers to give curves of b.m.e.p. He agreed with
(2) the compression ratios of the blowers and superchargers Mr. C. H. Bradbury that a blown two-cycle diesel with
are now about 8 to 1. When they are raised to about 10 to 1 750 deg. F. (400 deg. C.) exhaust gas temperature was over-
the blades will be able to run at about 2,100 deg. F. (1,150 loaded.
deg. C.) and it will then be possible to get specific fuel con- Mr. Stokke placed no trust in free piston gas generators
sumption of less than .4 Ib./h.p./hr. (.18 kg.). with gas turbines. Such machinery is too complicated, has
The temperature problem is the most difficult to over- too little reliability and it is too difficult to regulate to make
come. One way of doing it is to use an internal combustion it suitable for the
propulsion of deep sea trawlers. He was of
engine as a burner and then employ the exhaust gases from the opinion that the fully-scavenged two-cycle moderately
that engine in a gas turbine geared to the propeller shaft. slow-running diesel, working with either controllable pitch
He had particular experience of an engine with a volume of propellers or with fixed blade propellers, was the most
1,710 cu. in. (28 1.), a compression ratio of 7 to 1, and a reliable and economical engine for larger fishing boats and
two-stage mechanically-driven air blower. The mercury deep sea trawlers. The super-charged four-cycle diesel directly
pressure was raised to 110 in. (2.8 m.). Working at b.m.e.p. coupled to the propeller shaft is also a very useful engine for
in the neighbourhood of 37.5 Ib./sq. in. (2.6 kg./sq. cm.), such vessels.
the exhaust ran at 50 in. (1.27 m.) of mercury back pressure
into a small turbine, which then put out more than 700 h.p. at
COOLING
2,000 r.p.m. On 90 in. (2.29 m.) of mercury back pressure
the turbine put out 750 h.p. at 2,800 r.p.m., and on a specific Mr. W. Zwolsman (Netherlands): The difficulty, reported
fuel consumption of .35 Ib./h.p./hr. (0.159 kg.). On the test by Dr. Setna, concerning the maintenance of engines in the
bed the actual consumption was .33 Ib. (0.150 kg.). It seems Bombay fishing fleet seems to arise chiefly because they are
that, to make progress with a gas turbine, an internal com- cooled by salt water. This means that there is salt precipita-
bustion engine, such as a free piston generator, should be tion and severe corrosion must occur if the engines are at a
used as a burner. standstill for a considerable time. To overcome this problem
a Dutch firm has been using a simple, fresh-water cooling
Mr. P. H. Hyhon (U.K.): The gas turbine is not ready yet system specially suitable for small fishing vessels. This
for the fishing industry but Mr. Normand's paper on a system (fig. 516) has been used successfully in Indonesia,
" and on African rivers, where vessels operate in dirty water
partial" system is a pointer to the future. The system is
[462]
ENGINES DISCUSSION
which contains much sand. The equipment costs little more a certain extent influenced by the installation of air-cooled
than the normal type because the mudbox, water inlet, and dicsels. Comparatively large quantities of hot cooling air
weed strainer have been omitted. must be abducted; if it is short-circuited the engine will be
overheated.
Mr. C. H. Bradbury (U.K.) The presence of sand in the water
:
Air-cooling can only be applied to cylinders of from 92 to
leads to considerable trouble with water pumps and cylinder 120 cu. in. (1.5 to 2 1.). The engines reach their normal
jackets in water-cooled engines used for inshore fishing in running temperature far quicker than the water-cooled type
England, but the skipper-owners wish to keep their capital and they also have high cylinder wall temperatures at partial
charges to a minimum and are not willing to pay for heat loads. This means that the wear caused by chemical action,
exchangers, etc. They are now turning to air-cooled engines the so-called inner corrosion, is substantially reduced and the
and a number have already been installed in boats. What has overall wear is less than that of a fresh-water cooled engine.
impressed the skipper-owner is that the air-cooled engine in Afirm in Cologne has produced about 250,000 cylinders
the smaller sizes is not only more reliable than the water- since World War II. They have been used satisfactorily for
cooled type, but is cheaper in the first cost and just as cheap marine purposes. The engines have a combustion system
to operate. swirl chamber and single-hole nozzle which is not influenced
Fig. 516
Mr. Pierre Bochet (France): Some of the factors that affect by differences in quality of fuel. For example, they can be
marine engines are: of sea-water used
(1) the galvanic effects run on a mixture of petrol and 5 to 10 per cent, lubricating
for cooling; (2) the effects of condensation of steam in the oil, as well as on lignite, tar oil, crude oil and paraffin. With
crank cases; (3) the effects of corrosion by sprays or even by any of these fuels the rated output is maintained on clean
salt-laden air; (4) the variations of the temperature of the exhaust and without altering the injection timing.
cooling water; (5) the absence of air-cooling around the lower The engines are made with an output up to 150 h.p. In
crank cases; (6) the need to cool all elements of the engine engines of higher power, corrosion by cooling water can be
to avoid excessive heating of the atmosphere nearby and largely reduced by using fresh water cooling in a closed
injuries to the crew by burning. circuit.
Mr. Johann Ertl (Germany): Air-cooled engines are being
built by several European factories. They range from 6 TWO-CYCLE VERSUS FOUR-CYCLE
to about 150 h.p. Their installation is simple; there are no
difficulties from cooling water pumps or from breakage Mr. E. R. Gueroult (France): French experience with two-
of cooling water pipes because of vibration, etc. There is no cycleand four-cycle engines has revealed very little trouble
danger from frost or corrosion. The design of the boat is to with the four-cycle type, but few of the two-cycle dicsels have
[463]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
been satisfactory in big trawlers. However, the slow-running Mr. J. Messiez-Poche (France): Members of the Congress
four-cycle will not be built in future because it is very expen- seem to agree generally that four-cycle engines are able to
sive and there is little demand for it. This means that the cover the whole range of power needed in trawler engines.
two-cycle diesel will have to be adapted to the needs of The simplicity, easier drive and upkeep are in the favour of
trawlers. One trouble is that, when trawling, the two-cycle two-cycle engines, but for low power it seems necessary to
diesel does not get enough scavenging air. Diesel manu- develop fast two-cycle engines, which means that scavenging
facturers should provide a special device, such as a pump or would be restricted. Consequently, there is a minimum
blower, to give sufficient air during trawling. So far, manu- power below which the two-cycle engine does not seem to
facturers have treated the suggestion politely but have done operate efficiently.
nothing about it.
Mr. Bromfteld (U.S.A.):
I. Naval architects are basically HIGH, MEDIUM, LOW SPEEDS
familiar with the theory of diesels but they do not know the
For example, know when, Mr. A. L. Gravenor (U.K.): His firm has been manufacturing
practical side. it is important to
internalcombustion marine engines up to 30 h.p. for more
talking about two-cycle diesels, that there are two types.
than 50 years and it has been a cardinal principle that the
There is the old crankcase scavenging type which has its
limits. It depends on the pressure in the crankcase for the engines should be slow-running, fitted with the minimum
combustion chamber. of accessories, and that all parts should be more than ade-
volume of air delivered to the It is
quate for the maximum load they may be called upon to
important that the pressure in the crankcase is kept at its
carry. The object has been to reduce maintenance to a
maximum, but due to the wear of the piston rings and faulty
minimum. A slow-running engine is less likely to develop
replacement of gaskets after overhauling, much pressure is
trouble or break down and is more likely to keep running
lost. This results in poor performance.
even if defects do develop in it. As a marine engine in opera-
On the other hand, in the two-cycle scavenging pump type
tion is its full output, robust construc-
continuously delivering
of engine a separate pump is used for supplying air to the
tion is to give satisfactory service for many
essential if it is
combustion chamber. This results in a considerably greater
years. The engines are frequently in the hands of unskilled
output which is not affected by loose bearings and worn
engineers and if a high standard of technical knowledge is
gaskets.
necessary to maintain them, then trouble is likely to result.
Many fishermen run their engines in conditions which appal
Mr. L. Varriale (Italy): As M. Dussardier has shown, two- the manufacturer, and that again is a reason why all working
and four-cycle engines are very suitable for trawlers and
parts should be very strong. Such experience shows that a
Italian experience suggests more use could be made of the hand-built robust engine which develops its power at low
four-cycle engine. The following engines are in use on many speeds (650 to 1,100 r.p.m.) may be a little more costly at the
Italian and foreign trawlers of all sizes: trunk piston, four-
start, but is incomparably more economical as years go by.
cycle, bore 8.5 in. (215 mm.), 10.5 in. (265 mm.) and 14.5 in. For example, it is not uncommon for his firm to have engines
(370 mm.) respectively, available as three-, four-, six-, seven- returned for overhaul which are 30 years old, and after the
and ninc-cy'inder engines from 100 to 1,500 h.p. overhaul they will last another 15 years.
About 80 per cent, of the trawlers operating in the Tyrr-
henian and the Adriatic Sea are driven by these engines with Mr. Poul A. Christensen (U.S.A.): If it is assumed that a
reverse gear and direct drive. They usually have three to four fisherman expects his boat to have a life of about 20 years,
cylinders and are of the 100 to 200 h.p. and 375 r.p.m. group. he is faced with the problem of deciding whether to have a
high-speed engine that will need to be replaced two or three
Mr. C. E. Dietle (U.S.A.): Some 25 years ago his firm built times during those 20 years, or to have a slow running heavy-
only four-cycle engines but, after a survey, they had realized duty engine that has the same life as the boat. The answer
that both two- and four-cycle diesels would have a place in would seem to be to install an engine of the simplest design
the world. They decided to concentrate on the two-cycle possible. If this is so then the two-cycle valveless engine is
type because it was felt that this engine would be the most the simplest design available and has no unnecessary moving
reliable and would be lowest in cost. He was glad to know parts. It also takes up minimum space.
that engineers in England were following the U.S.A. lead and has been stated that per horsepower a high-speed engine
It
is very much cheaper than a low-speed engine as well as being
developing a two-cycle opposed piston engine. It seemed to
him that the two-cycle opposed piston diesel was the engine very much lighter. But before determining the actual relation-
that the fishing industry needed reliable, low in cost, and ship it should be made certain that the same ratings are
taking up minimum space in the boat. being discussed. One company quotes one rating that is the
It is noted in connection with four-cycle engines that the amount of horsepower available from the engine to-day, in
exhaust valve cage is beoming a thing of the past now that continuous operation, as well as the horsepower available
triple charging has been introduced. Apparently the valve from it in 20 years' time. On the other hand, a competitor
area no longer permits the use of cages. They were good from recently issued a diagram in which were listed ratings in such
a maintenance point of view because they could be so easily a manner that on top of the chart is given the maximum
removed. The valves could be ground and the new cage put performance of the stripped engine in the laboratory. This is
in with the valves. It seems that in the interests of getting followed by ratings for pleasure boats, light work boats,
higher power into smaller space the designers of four-cycle heavy work boats, fishing boats, and tug boats, with an asterisk
engines have gone a step backward. calling attention to a note at the bottom of the page which
Mr. Brownlow's comment about four-cycle engines shows mentions that the ratings are dependent upon intermittent
them to be a formidable competitor but he still felt the two- heavy duty, or continuous heavy duty.
cycle engine is best. For maintenance and replacement it is always an advantage
[464]
ENGINES DISCUSSION
to have an engine so simple that a person with the most trawlers. It is necessary to blend their ideas with those of the
limited technical knowledge can look after it quickly and progressive engine designer.
easily. In the case of the two-cycle heavy-duty slow-running A
comparison of the fuel consumption given in Mr. Gould's
engine there is no need to send it to a repair shop for over- paper on high-speed engines with that given in his own paper
hauling as the routine maintenance done on board makes this for turbo-charge medium-speed engines, shows a saving of
unnecessary. 25 per cent., not 5 per cent., in favour of medium-speed
It is not uncommon
to find that the expense of the upkeep This lower fuel consumption is another factor leading
diesels.
of reduction gear, which is necessary for high-speed engines, to greater reliability. Perfect combustion means freedom
exceeds the cost of maintaining the engine itself. In the case of from overheating, from piston ring sticking, from cracked
slow-running direct-connected engines such gear does not pistons and from cracked cylinder heads. There is also the
add to the expense of upkeep, and so far as the initial price important fact that for the same h.p. a trawler powered with a
is concerned, the two-cycle valveless engine, complete with medium-speed engine has to carry some 10 to 20 tons less
controllable-pitch propeller, is cheaper than the high-speed weight of fuel.
engine with reverse gear. The medium-speed engine is also just the right weight for
trawlers andmeets the requirements of the ship builder
it
Mr. D. L. Brownlow (U.K.): He had been concerned with for the trim of the vessel. The modern turbo-charged engine
the design and development of high-speed engines for more is neither excessive in weight nor is it bulky. Before turbo-
than 20 years. He knew their behaviour and he thought charging was introduced a nine-cylinder engine was required
very highly of them but for fishing purposes the medium- to do the work a six-cylinder engine can do today.
speed engine is to be preferred.
In making comparisons of high-speed and medium-speed Mr. W. C. Gould (U.S.A.): Naval architects have stressed
engines there a very important point to be appreciated.
is the difficulties in trimming fishing boats, especially when the
The inertia forces of the connecting rod and piston and the engines are in the stern, and of designing the hull so that
rotating forces of the crankpin, large end bearing and there is a good run of water to the propeller. High-speed
unbalanced portion of the crankwebs, which have to be taken engines assist architects in coping with these problems because
by the main bearings, vary as the square of the speed. It of their light-weight and compact design. Multiple engine
is a simple matter to deal with these forces in a medium-speed units make it possible to get twin-propeller reliability in a
engine but they become an increasingly difficult problem as single-propeller vessel.
speed is increased. The horsepower absorbed by a given propeller is a cube
The high-speed engine designer is tempted to reduce curve. A slight reduction materially reduces the
in r.p.m.
reciprocating and rotating parts to a minimum to keep horsepower absorbed by a propeller. One of two engines
bearing loadings from becoming excessive. This is not the connected to a single shaft will turn the propeller, without
case with the medium-speed engine designer. He has more overloading, at 70 to 75 per cent, of the normal r.p.m. for
scope; there is no need to cut things too fine. He can allow both engines.
greater margins for safety and these extra margins mean It is not necessarily true that the hardest service for an
increased reliability for the medium-speed engine and relia- engine is to be found in the fishing industry. Tugboats,
bility is of utmost importance to the fishing industry. often working against current, load their engines as much as
Referring to Mr. Gould's paper, Mr. Brownlow said it any other craft. In an experiment with one tug using a con-
seemed as though Mr. Gould thought the finish of parts in trollable pitch propeller, it was found that to get the same
high-speed diesels was better than that of parts in medium- exhaust gas temperature (e.g. the same horsepower) there
speed engines. This was misleading. The standard of pre- had to be up to 9 in. (225 mm.) change in pitch going up or
cision, finish and interchangeability of parts is up to that of down stream, or in running from shallow into deep water.
high-speed engines. Cylinder heads, pistons, liners and The maximum pitch was 52 in. (1,320 mm.)
hearings are all interchangeable and can be taken from stock The operations of two identical boats, one with three quad
ai 1
put into engines without any fitting. It has been suggested engines and one with two medium-speed engines of 700 r.p.m.,
tru t high piston speeds are as good as low piston speeds. He have been compared over two years. The quad engine boat
had no objection to high piston speeds as long as they were has been in operation 91 .2 per cent, of the available hours and
not too high but, like most engineers, he preferred the lower. she has never been held up because of engine trouble. The
Medium-speed engines can be run 6,000 hours without having figures showed at the end of the period of comparison that
to remove cylinder heads or pistons two or three times the high-speed engines were slightly cheaper to operate,
longer than possible with high-speed diesels. All parts are despite the fact that maintenance had to be done by a
accessible and none is delicate and intricate. As the medium shore crew which had to travel 150 miles. All their travel
speed engine is simple and does not require a skilled engineer time, and often the time for waiting up to 12 hours for the
to run it, less, maintenance is required. boat to arrive, had to be charged against the high-speed
Discussions with trawler owners and skippers on diesel quad diesels.
requirements for trawlers from 100 to 190 ft. (30 to 58 m.) difficult to understand the continued reluctance to
It is
in length and having engines from 300 h.p. to 1,400 h.p. accept reduction gears because it is now possible to build such
turning 230 to 650 r.p.m., made it quite clear that they gears to stand up to any wear and tear. An outstanding
wanted: low maintenance
(1) reliability; (2) simplicity; (3) example is the steam turbine on big ships. There is nothing
and running costs. They believe that these requirements are to prevent installing reduction gears on any engine to give
best met by using a medium-speed engine. It would have been required propeller speed. The present gear boxes are designed
quite easy to install diesels running at 800 to 1,000 r.p.m., to stand up, between overhauls, to at least 25,000 hours. It is
fittedwith suitable reduction gears, but trawler owners are a mistake to make equipment to run for more than certain
not yet ready for really high-speed engines. They have had periods because it is better to inspect it occasionally to ensure
little experience of diesels but much experience in operating that it is in first-class condition. Even in the case of very large
[465]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
engines, it has been found desirable to dismantle them once Any attempt to classify by speeds, and to say that a diesel
a year to make sure that they give continuous service in the of 1,000 r.p.m. is sure to have poor fuel consumption, is not
next twelve months. accurate. While certain engines of 1,200 to 1,400 r.p.m.
might have a fuel consumption of 0.46 Ib./h.p./hr. (0.21 kg.)
Mr. W. Vanaanen (Netherlands): The development in his company has an engine of a similar speed with a fuel
design and engineering, and in materials used for such items consumption of 0.40 Ib. (0.18 kg.). Running at the speeds
as liners, piston rings, etc., the improvement in lubricating mentioned up to its 750 h.p. rating tests have shown its fuel
oils, injector systems, and the development of gear manu- consumption to be 0.38 Ib. (0.172 kg.). It is of the opposed
piston design. Differences in design as well as speed must be
facturing, are all factors which have made the high-speed
diesel a reliable power plant. This continuous all-round considered.
development has also made it possible to produce a two-cycle
valveless diesel for marine use. This new engine runs with a Mr. J. S. Robas (U.S.A.): He operated a 90 ft. (27.4 m.)
maximum of 3,000 r.p.m. or 2,200 r.p.m. for continuous menhaden vessel equipped with a 400 h.p. diesel turning
operation. Its total weight is only 1,500 Ib. (680 kg.) and it has 400 r.p.m. and he had to face a repair bill of upwards of
a 21:1 reverse reduction gear. It develops a maximum of
$10,000 (3,600) because of a scored crank shaft, but during
87 h.p. and about 54 h.p. for continuous operation, which the five years he had been working with the engine he had
gives at the continuous h.p. rating a weight of 28 Ib. (12.5 kg.) not spent $400 (140) on repairs or for maintenance. The
per h.p. The engine is suitable for small fishing boats. engine had given excellent service and dependability but,
having now to overhaul the engine, he had decided to replace
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): Properly used, the light-weight, it with a high-speed diesel. His present engine is over 17 ft.
medium, medium-heavy and heavy-weight diesels have all (5.2 m.) long, direct reversible, and take up space where he
done good work. During World War I the first large heavy could carry fish. For this reason he has chosen a compact
diesel was installed in a 300 ft. (91 .4 m.) freighter. Ten years high-speed engine with reduction gear, for which spare parts
later it was installed in a tug and is still being used to-day, are readily available. This is a very important point. In the
so that in the past 35 years the engine has probably been in case of the old engine, the 17 ft. (5.2 m.) crank shaft had to
operation for 30 years. Nobody can criticize that perfor- be loaded on a semi-trailer and sent far away to be metallised
mance. and turned down.
In 1935 and 1936 high-speed diesels were designed to In addition to the cost of having an engineer fly in to
operate for five years. Two were installed, with reduction inspect the engine, and the transport and cost of sending
it away, such a breakdown would have been more serious if
gears, in 1936 and they are being used to-day 18 years later.
One of the advantages arising from the development of the it had happened during the fishing season. It might well have
light high-speed diesel is that it has forced manufacturers
caused him to lose the whole season because his crew of
of heavy engines to make those engines lighter. 22 men would not be content to wait the five weeks it took to
He had built some hundreds of small steel bulldozer tugs, repair the crankshaft. In that time they would have joined
16 to 22 ft. (4.9 to 6.7 m.) long and from 8 to 9 ft. (2.4 to other vessels or taken other jobs and it would have been
2.7 m.) in beam, for use on the logging riven of the Pacific difficult to replace them. For these reasons he wanted a
North-West of the United States and in Canada. These diesel with a crank shaft that can be replaced in three days.
vessels are powered with 100 to 200 h.p. diesels. Each tug That meant a high-speed diesel.
represents a direct saving in costs of seven man-days of labour
There is another very important reason for this decision.
every day. In such small craft the light diesels are particu- The compact high-speed diesel enables the engine room
larly good because they save space which can be used effec-
bulkhead to be put back about 9 ft. (2.7 m.) and that pro-
vides accommodation for another 35 tons of fish. It also
tively for other purposes.
A 65 ft. (19.8 m.) tug, in which four light-weight diesels meant extra buoyancy as the vessel rose about 18 in. (460 mm.)
were installed to one shaft through a reduction gear, has out of the water. The old engine weighed 44,000 'b.
660 h.p. No auxiliaries are needed as two of the engines are (20,000 kg.) and it paid no fisherman to carry unnecess ry
fitted with power take-offs. In the case of a 100 ft. (30.5 m.) weight.
vessel, the use of two 600 or 800 h.p. engines, fitted on gear
He wanted to see the use of the electricity eliminated on
reduction to a single shaft, has given super performance. One fishing boats. He did not know anyone in the menhaden
engine can be shut down and repaired while the other is in fishing industry who could operate a diesel electric drive. In
his own vessel every piece of auxiliary equipment runs off an
operation.
In his opinion, the introduction of the Light diesel and engine and if it is too much trouble to put up a chain drive,
welded construction represent the greatest step forward in or some such arrangement, a 10 h.p. engine is installed
boat building in the past 20 years. Engine requirements are instead. If such an engine broke down he wanted to be in a
probably different in the U.S.A. from those in Europe. In position to get another one immediately and resume fishing
the next morning. An hydraulic system is best for running
any case, he was grateful to manufacturers who continued
to refine their engines so as to reduce costs. If it were not for auxiliary equipment and the use of hydraulic equipment
is a step towards the ideal of simplicity and dependa-
this, much design work he had done in recent years would generally
not have been done at all. bility of machinery and equipment in fishing vessels.
Mr. C. E. Dictle (U.S.A.): There had been an attempt to put Mr. I. BromfieU (U.S.A.): Vessel owners at the Boston Fish
engines into categories of high-, medium and low-speed: Pier have followed the old custom of overhauling their boats
they could all be classed as light-duty, medium-duty and once a year, preferably during summer when the price of fish
heavy-duty. It does not necessarily follow that the high-speed is low. Up to the time of that overhaul, the maintenance of
diesel is less reliable than other types. the engine and the fishing gear is kept to a minimum, and
[466]
ENGINES DISCUSSION
when an engineer submits a list of minor repairs which should maintenance with those in other industries. For example,
be made, it is generally ignored, and what might have been the tugboat mentioned by Mr. Gould makes severe demands
only minor repairs develop into major repairs and even lead on the light diesel, but the problem of maintenance is not
to breakdowns at sea. If repairs were made after each trip, comparable with that of fishing boats. The river boat has
much expense and time would be saved. relatively regular runs and closely spaced repair facilities.
One cause of serious problems has been the method of It also has skilled diesel engineers available. The small
selecting engineers. There have been no standard require- trawler, working in the North Atlantic, goes great distances
ments for licensed engineers and the practice has been to to sea in proportion to her size and she works under all kinds
appoint as chief engineer a member of the crew who might of weather conditions. Very often she breaks down and has
be mechanically inclined. The second engineer has been to betowed to port by one of the U.S.A. Coast Guard cutters.
chosen by the same procedure. Such "stop and start" That is an expensive item.
engineers have not usually been capable of making minor There is a tendency on the part of U.S.A. trawler owners
adjustments, which have often led to major trouble by the to require more horsepower than they can actually use, and
time the vessel reaches port. However, the Steamboat also to install gear that is heavier than necessary. For
Inspection (a United States Government agency) now requires example, the same gear is carried in a 65 ft. (20 m.) trawler
engineers to take an examination before they receive a as in a 110 ft. (33.5 m.) trawler. This is probably the result
licence although, because of the type of people who usually of salesmanship. Most likely the skipper goes to the supplier
apply for posts as engineers in fishing vessels, only an oral of winches, gallows frames and lead blocks and asks for gear
examination isgiven. This is, however, a step in the right for a 65 ft. (20 m.) boat. The proper gear is shown in the
direction as provides an incentive for applicants to study
it catalogue but most likely the salesman then points out the
diesels and acquire enough knowledge to make minor repairs heavier gear and persuades the skipper that it is much
at sea. superior and is really what he ought to have. The result is
that the 65 ft. (20 m.) trawler goes to sea with gear for a
Mr. Howard I. Chapelle (U.S.A.): The owners, builders and 110 ft. (33.5 m.) trawler. It is carrying unnecessary weight,
designers of small trawlers have accepted light-weight diesels so the boat is overloaded and the light-weight diesel is prob-
with the greatest reluctance. When they were first used there ably subjected to undue strain.
were many breakdowns which cost money and time. Many The sensible thing to do is to realize the inherent restric-
of the early trawlers were converted schooners and they tions and limitations in the use of light-weight diesels. They
carried a great deal of ballast, and the effect of the engine are usually well-designed and seem to be as reliable as can be
weight was not excessive on trim. As a design problem the expected under the trying and extreme conditions in which
selection of engines was not particularly difficult. Since then, they operate.
however, fishing methods and trawling gear have been
improved and there has been a demand for increased horse- Mr. J. Messiez-Poche (France): There are good slow-,
power. The new small trawler is still in the process of develop- medium- and high-speed diesels but the slow engine is safest.
ment and there is a long way to go before a wholly satis- The breakdown of an engine on land or in a train or other
factory vessel is produced. Weight has become an extra- vehicle is of minor importance but it is a catastrophe if it
ordinarily important factor, particularly in the popular 60 to happens in a trawler operating 200 or 300 miles off the coast
65 ft. (18.3 to 20 m.) class. The problem is to deal with the in a storm. People who want to install fast engines in trawlers
effect of weight upon the trim of the vessel in light condition, should think first of the safety of the crew and of the mainten-
and the handling of the excessive change in trim between the ance needed by high-speed engines. This is a serious problem
light and loaded conditions. The only answer to the problem for fishermen with little experience of diesels much more
has been the light-weight diesel. He had complained about serious than in the case of a slow engine. As every engineer
it loudly but there seems to be no escape from using it. Many knows, a fast motor will break down if the connecting rod end
of the engines give surprisingly good performances when they is tightened too much or if the connecting rod has not been
are properly maintained. It might be possible to improve
made of specially treated steel. Fast engines have already
maintenance records of light-weight diesels by some planning. been installed in fishing boats, of course, but there is a need
Unfortunately, there is a good deal of uncertainty in a year's to be particularly careful to ensure safety in operation and
fishing, and to plan ahead on a specific time basis, and make maintenance and there is no doubt that the slow engine is to
the necessary contract arrangements for maintenance, is
be preferred
not economically practical.
There is a tendency to overdo the deckhouses in U.S.A.
boats, and when the necessary winch is added, deck space is
limited. In the older trawlers it was possible to have a hatch
SEMI-DIESEL
so that the engine could be removed without seriously dis-
Mr. John Tyrrell (Ireland): Single cylinder engines create
turbing the deck structure of the vessel. The general trend in
vibration which cannot be eliminated even by the most
recent years, however, has made that almost impossible,
and it is leading to a serious problem of maintenance. expensive construction. On the other hand, the single-cylinder
Certain shortcomings have to be accepted in all engines. Scandinavian semi-diesels are unsurpassed for reliability
The problem is partly financial. A better engine could be
and general economy.
produced if there were unlimited funds available but, in the
fishing industry particularly, the money is restricted and there Mr. Alan GlanviUe (U.K.): As one who had used both semi-
is a limit to how much may be paid for engines. The first diesels and full diesels in various parts of the world, he had
cost of the high-speed diesel is favourable and it has weight found both types of engines satisfactory but the choice of
factors required by the naval architect. engine, especially for use in underdeveloped countries, was as
It is useless to compare fishing industry problems of engine difficult as important. First and foremost a fisherman wants
[467]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
reliability; theengine that runs every day is the one that makes to exempt from tax any petrol used in fishing boats because
money; and there is nothing more harmful to a programme of usually the tax on petrol is imposed to provide funds for
mechanizing a fishing fleet than to see engines constantly out building and maintaining roads.
of order. In such places as, for example, India and the Far Mr. Traung had been in favour of diesels, thinking the hot-
East, where fishermen are unfamiliar with machines, engines bulb engine to be somewhat out-of-date, but experience with
will be frequently overworked. Fuel will often be supplied Swedish fishermen had changed his opinion. He had seen
in dirty barrels containing a few gallons of water so that them start the engine and then leave the engine-room and the
every engine installed should have a separate fuel filter and engine alone, not for a day but for several days. This was the
sediment bowl. If the fisherman considers that the engine reliability that fishermen expected of their engines and is one
" "
drank too much lubricating oil one day he will probably of the reasons why semi-diesels have also often been recom-
try to teach it better manners the next day by not giving it any mended for the fishing fleets of underdeveloped countries
oil. It isonly to be expected, therefore, that breakdowns by the FAO experts.
occur and how long an engine may remain out of order often A semi-dieselnormally more difficult to start than a
is
depends on the availability of spare parts. That may make a diesel or petrol engine because it has to be preheated, and
difference of a day or two or a month or more. that takes time even if done by using cartridges or electricity.
If large numbers of diesels of a certain make have been The smaller, hand-started, semi-diesels sometimes start
operated locally on plantations, as generating units, or for in the wrong direction but, with a little skill, it is easy to
motive power in agriculture and industry, then it is a good reverse them. There may be also some difficulty in getting
plan to select the same type for marine installation because operators to understand immediately the right adjustment of
there will be persons in the neighbourhood with experience the fuel sprayer for the idling and load conditions although
of operating the engines. And there will be spare parts this skill is usually acquired very quickly. A
mechanically-
available. Mr. Glanville cited the case of two villages in minded fisherman would have no difficulty in handling and
Bombay State, India, where 170 diesels had been installed running a semi-diesel but it is a fact that in many under-
in fishing boats during the past five years. These engines had developed countries the fishermen have little or no mechanical
all been kept running because diesels of the same make had skill. In such cases it might be necessary to recommend
been widely used ashore in that area, and there were stocks an engine which requires no preheating, no adjustments during
of spares immediately available at Bombay. running and minimum maintenance while new. A diesel
He also referred to his experience in Ceylon. Two years or petrol engine might then give the best results if the operators
ago there were no engines in local fishing boats; now there were prohibited from touching the engine and all repairs
are 20 and another 30 are on order. At the start he had tried were done by trained mechanics. To avoid breakdowns at
to introduce both semi-diesels and diesels but he found that sea, such engines should be subject to preventive maintenance.
the fishermen preferred the diesels because they were lighter, On the other hand, if the fishermen have acquired sufficient
quieter and started immediately without blowlamps. They mechanical skill, are of average intelligence, and wish to
were also acquainted with the engine as thousands of small maintain the engines themselves to save expense, then Mr.
diesels are used in the plantations on the island, and a good Traung felt that semi-diesels would be, in the long run, the
organization exists for servicing and providing spare parts. most economical.
For these reasons it was soon decided to concentrate entirely Although there was a trend recently in Scandinavia to
on diesels. This did not mean opposition to semi-diesels switch over to diesels for fishing boats, this seems to be
which he considered to be more fool-proof, more robust, and changing and boats being built to-day are often fitted with
better able to stand up to rough treatment. If, in some iso- semi-diesels, principally because they are much cheaper and
lated area of an underdeveloped country there are no engines more dependable, even if fuel consumption is about 10 per
operating and no servicing or spare parts available, then he cent, higher. It is a mistake to think that semi-diesels are
would advocate the use of semi-diesels. Choice of engine only used in Scandinavia. Many are used in the Far East
should be governed by local conditions rather than by the and South America. In Singapore most of the semi-diesels
particular merits of any one type of engine. are of Japanese manufacture and when, during World War II,
new engines were not available, parts of the old engines were
Mr. Jan-Olof Traung (FAO): When the first engine is put used for replacements and the fishing boats were kept in
intoa fishing boat in an underdeveloped country the installa- operation. Engines were also made in local foundries, using
tion is closely watched, not only by the fishermen concerned the parts of old engines as the patterns. In Bangkok there is
but by the whole fishing community, indeed, by all the chief a harbour department with 66 launches equipped with 33
fisheries officials. If the engine does not operate well, then a different makes of engines. An inquiry showed that the
good deal of harm can be done to the programme of mechani- semi-diesels were the most popular.
zation. The choice is not necessarily between semi-diesel or As an example of FAO's approach to the problem of
diesel. It might well be that kerosene or petrol engines mechanizing fishing fleets in underdeveloped countries, Mr.
should be introduced. Almost everywhere in the world there Traung cited the case where 200 high-speed American-made
are cars and lorries and there is more knowledge of, and diesels were used in tractors and other agricultural machinery.
facilities to repair and maintain, engines of the type used in They were regularly overhauled in a Government workshop.
them. Petrol engines are much easier to operate and maintain, In this instance, the problem was to select the best engines
although there is naturally a greater fire hazard. It is true for a research vessel and it was suggested that high-speed
that such engines, especially when there is a tax on petrol, diesels should be installed and that an extra engine should be
are more expensive to run, but they cost so much less in bought so that there was always one of the ship's engines
the first instance. This means that operators can run them being overhauled by the Government's Engine Maintenance
for a considerable number of hours before the effect of higher Department. In this way it was not necessary to have a
running costs is felt. And there is always the possibility that skilled engineer on the research vessel. Even if a semi-diesel
the Government of the country concerned may be persuaded had been used, the arrangement could not have been simpler.
[468]
ENGINES DISCUSSION
Mr. Georg Bruce (Sweden): From the manufacturer's point from 100 to 200 Ib. (45 to 90 kg.) per h.p., as against the
of view the high-speed engine is best for mass production but 22 to 25 Ib. (10 to 11 kg.) per h.p. of the high-speed, light-
v
that does not mean to say a semi-diesel is an antiquated source weight diesels. This means that a lot more power and fuel
of power if the fisherman, who is the customer, wants semi- can be put into the space available. An example of this is
diesels. found in a boat recently repowered with a high-speed diesel.
Manufacturers must be prepared to deliver spare parts The new engine is half the weight of the old and it has double
over a period of many years. For instance, a firm had recently the power. The saving in space allowed the fish-hold to be
to makespares for engines delivered in 1910 and to produce lengthened about 6 ft. (1.8 m.).
them comparable to the cost of modern parts. One
at a price
of the reasons why pans should be simply designed is to help Mr. James Whitaker (U.K.): Reliability, simplicity, slow
fishermen to do makeshift repairs in remote places. This is speed, direct drive, direct reversing and maximum accessibility,
especially desirable in engines up to, perhaps, 300 h.p. are expected from engines of 200 to 1,000 h.p. by fishing boat
owners. The question, therefore, is what type and cycle of
Mr. Olai Mollekleiv (Norway): It is not necessary that semi- engine gives the best answer to these demands ? The answer is :
the two-cycle engine with positive pump scavenging.
diesels should take more space than high-speed diesels. There
is a special two-cylinder type of semi-diesel (150 h.p.) which
There is no doubt that semi-diesels have proved themselves
in Scandinavia as most reliable engines. They are simple,
takes up less space than a high-speed diesel of four to six
robust and work with low cylinder pressures, which are the
cylinders with a reduction gear.
secrets of their success, but they have poor fuel consumption.
That is their weakness. It happens because the scavenging
Mr. Johann Ertl (Germany): The modern trend in engineering of air in the cylinder cannot be made perfect, and combustion
is to develop higher speeds in
lighter and smaller engines. of fuel is, therefore, incomplete. The unburnt products of
For smaller cylinders up to about 183 cu. in. (3 1.) of combustion affect cylinder lubrication and cause wear.
cylinder volume -different types of precombustion chambers The four-cycle engine can obtain perfect combustion
and swirl chambers have been developed satisfactorily. The because it devotes one complete stroke in every four to
injection pressures are comparatively low and do not exceed
drawing a full charge of fresh air into the cylinder. The
2.850 Ib./sq. in. (200 kg./sq. cm.) at the rated output. The
disadvantages of the engine are its complicated cylinder
engine needs only single-hole nozzles, so that differences in head, with attendant valve gear, and the fact that it cannot
the quality of fuel do not matter. Combustion systems of
be made direct-reversing if it has less than six cylinders.
this type have specific consumption figures of 0.41 Ib./h.p./hr.
The engine which combines the advantages of both semi-
(.185 kg.). In the case of air-cooled engines up to 91 cu. in. diesel and four-cycle is the two-cycle pump scavenging engine,
(1.5 1.) volume the consumption is even lower. This means with inlet and exhaust ports. This engine is a development
considerable economy in fuel consumption, as compared with from the semi-diesel and has the same simple cylinder-head,
the lowest consumption figures of semi-diesels of 0.46 to a minimum number of working parts, and maximum access-
0.49 Ib./h.p./hr. (.210 to .220 kg.). Greater economy can be
ibility. But it also has 100 per cent, air supply, with good
obtained if direct injection is used, which is possible with
scavenging, and low fuel and lubricating oil consumption.
present technical skill without impairing the reliability of It is an engine that meets the requirements of fishermen for
engines with, say, a cylinder volume of more than 180 to extreme reliability.
240 cu. in. (3 to 4 1.). In such a case, the specific consumption
is Jess than 0.39 Ib./h.p./hr. (.175 kg.). In modern two-cycle Mr. Bent G. Andersen (Denmark): In Denmark there are no
engines, with centrifugal blowers, fuel consumption may be
big trawlers such as are found in Holland, France and Great
reduced to 0.33 Ib./h.p./hr. (.150 kg.). This means a saving in
Britain, and the reason why more than 90 per cent, of the
fuel of 25 per cent., as compared with the semi-diesel con-
Danish fishing cutters are fitted with semi-diesels, and less
sumption. The specific weight of a two-cycle engine is about than 10 per cent, with full diesel, petrol or paraffin engines,
64 Ib./h.p. (29 kg.) including the reduction gear. A
semi- is that Danish fishermen have found that it pays to use simple,
diesel is about 155 Ib. (70 kg.) at the rated output. This means
robust and reliable engines. This preference for semi-diesels
a saving in space. In addition, a semi-diesel with direct drive is found throughout Scandinavia where fishermen will not
gives, at a propeller speed of 310 r.p.m., a much lower be bothered with the intricate problems of the internal
efficiency than the geared engine with a propeller speed of combustion technique nor with complicated gearings. Experi-
240 r.p.m. The specific fuel consumption of a modern diesel ence has taught them which is the best engine for making
for cruising and trawling is below 0.36 Ib./h.p./hr. (.165 kg.)
their boats pay. This is an important economic fact and on it
from 10 per cent, overload down to 70 per cent, load on
depends whether or not a fisherman is to survive.
cruising or 60 per cent, load in trawling. In view of these It had been shown that, although working conditions may
figures, it seems reasonable to question whether the high differ considerably from country to country and from coast
fuel consumption and weight of the semi-diesel makes it too
to coast, like problems may often be solved in like ways. He
costly to-day. believed that the mechanization of fishing craft, as carried
out in Scandinavia, provided experience and example for
Mr. F. C. Vibrans, Jr. (U.S.A.): The economic factor has other parts of the world. This is especially true of the
largely influenced the popularity of semi-diesels in Scandinavia mechanization of fishing craft in under-developed areas where,
and high-speed diesels in the U.S.A. Scandinavian fishing as a rule, only small engines are needed. The problem differs
grounds are within short distance of fishing ports, but U.S.A. considerably between engines for fishing cutters and for
fishermen have to go considerable distances to reach theirs. bigger trawlers. Semi-diesels are built up to about 400 b.h.p.
For example, the Georges Bank off Gloucester is about but the majority are not above 250 b.h.p.
250 miles away and for a fisherman to get there quickly the Referring to Mr. Brownlow's paper on medium-speed
boat's engine must have high power The semi-diesel weighs diesels, Mr. Andersen endorsed the description of what the
[4691
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
ideal fishingboat engine should be. But he would like to add Mr. Bent G. Andersen (Denmark): If Mr. Zimmer's figure of
two points: easy manoeuvrability and long life. A direct 15 ($42) a year for maintenance of a 50 h.p. semi-diesel
comparison of the descriptions of the medium-speed diesels was accepted it would still compare very favourably with the
and the semi-diesels showed that semi-diesels fulfil the require- maintenance figure for high-speed diesels, quoted by Mr.
ments stated by Mr. Brownlow but, of course, the engines Gould. But, so far as his own semi-diesels are concerned,
described by Mr. Brownlow are meant for bigger vessels. the figure of 5 to 8 ($14 to $22) a year was on the safe side.
Referring to Mr. Gould's statement with regard to high- For other makes of semi-diesels the cost may be higher.
speed diesels that a complete overhaul can be done in four or Regarding Mr. Glanville's remarks, it seems that he is of
five days by 100 to 190 man-hours of labour, at a cost of the opinion that semi-diesels are better suited for operating
110 to 290 ($300 to $800) for spare parts, Mr. Andersen in primitive conditions, give less trouble and require fcvscr
said that if Scandinavian fishermen were asked to pay such spare parts to be stocked. If this is a correct interpretation
expenses, once or twice a year they would discard the engine. of Mr. Glanville's remarks, then semi-diesels should be
The usual cost of maintenance for a semi-diesel of good preferred to diesels in under-developed countries where repair
Scandinavian make is about 5 to 8 ($14 to $22) a year and stocks of spares are scarce.
facilities
for the first eight or ten years. This refers to engines of
"
50 to 150 h.p. and overhauls of such engines are not regular. Mr. Karl Hugo Larsson (Sweden): The name " semi-diesel
"
They are first made when the first piston has to be shifted is not correct. He would prefer to call the type low-pressure
and that usually only happens after 10 years' hard service. oil engines ". They are used in Swedish fishing boats of
Mr. Andersen cited a recent instance in which a semi-diesel 65 to 90 ft. (20 to 27.5 m.) length. The engines develop
had been in use 26 years and during all that time the cylinder 120 to 300 h.p. Nearly all the boats are owned by the
cover had never been lifted. fishermen themselves and with these small craft they fish in
Mr. Stokke's opinion, expressed in his paper on semi-diesels, the Skagerrak, in the North Sea and in the Atlantic, as far up
is that cylinder sizes above 75 h.p. are not recommendab'e as the northern part of Norway. Controllable-pitch pro-
because they are too heavy. But the weight of a Danish semi- pellers are standard and the controls are so arranged that the
diesel is only 145 to 175 Ib./h.p. (65 to 80 kg.). skipper is able to handle the engine from the wheel-house.
Mr. Chapelle (see chapter on Boat Types) warns against These Swedish vessels normally carry a crew of six or seven
over-mechanization in under-developed areas where the skill men, all fishermen. Nobody is employed specially to look
and facilities to maintain engines may be lacking. In this after the engine. They handle their trawling gear and take
case he suggests local sailing craft should be improved. In care of the fish and the engine takes care of itself. It is this
this connection it should be pointed out that in Denmark great confidence which the fishermen have in the reliability
skilled mechanics are not usually employed in fishing boats of their engines which seems to be their main reason for
and often the boy in the crew is put in charge of the engine. preferring semi-diesels. Another important fact is that they
Nor is it necessary to choose between sails and engine because themselves can do much of the maintenance and repair
a combination of sail and engine may be used with a con- work because of the simple design of the engines. As the
trollable-pitch propeller. Mr. Chapelle is right in warning pressures are low there is not much wear on cylinders and, if a
against too much emphasis on speed in fishing boats and gives, bearing is damaged, it can be repaired at any little workshop.
as the best range, 9 to 10 knots. Nearly all Danish fishing No special alloys are needed. A skipper with a single-cylinder
boats operate between these limits. engine found that the crank-shaft bearing had broken down
and there was not a spare one available on board. He was in
Mr. Hans K. Zimmer (Norway): Mr. Leach pointed out that the North Sea, in bad weather. He took the bearing out of
usually skipper-owners of small fishing boats have little the engine, lined it with pieces of the trawl winch belt, and
capital and would only buy an engine which had proved was able to work the engine and bring his boat safely to home
itself to be reliable. Skipper-owners, however, have a ten- port.
dency to buy second-hand engines the most risky experiment Semi-diesels can be run in any direction. In one vessel
of all. the shaft controlling the pitch of the propeller broke and the
Mr. Andersen's statement concerning maintenance of fishermen were able to fasten this shaft by a line put into the
semi-diesels gives a figure that may be possible in insolated stern tube. This meant the propeller was fixed for running
cases, but he wished to stress it is far from average. The astern, so the engine was started in the reverse direction and
maintenance cost for a 50 h.p. semi-diesel is more than double the boat was sailed safely to harbour.
the figure given and somewhere about 15 ($42) a year would During World War II, when fuel was very scarce, semi-
be a better average. He also confessed himself sceptical dieselswere run on ordinary black tar made out of wood.
about the engine in which the cylinder head had not been No could have been operated on such fuel. Swedish
diesel
touched for 26 years and suggested that the engine probably manufacturers have improved design and construction con-
had not been running for the last 20 years. A further investi- siderably during the past 20 years, resulting in much more
gation of the vessel's log book might be desirable. economic fuel consumption.
There are obvious reasons for the popularity of the semi- He did not think semi-diesels would always stay dominant in
diesel, but it has its limitations and drawbacks such as heavy Scandinavian countries as demand for bigger engines would
weight, large dimensions, and fuel and lubricating oil con- make necessary to use diesels. It is probable that semi-
it
sumption. Above all, its vibrations put an unnecessary diesels will never be built for more than, say, 400 b.h.p.
strain on the hull and loosen the fastenings. In this connec- But such a simple, robust, long-life engine should prove a
tion, the usual old type of bearing, which can be ranetalled boon in under-developed areas where fishermen are learning
and adjusted by handscraping, is to-day both expensive and to use engines for the first time in their lives.
uncertain to maintain. The precision type of steel-backed
white metal lining, which can be renewed when worn, is the Mr. J. Mcssiez-Poche (France): The selection of a diesel or
best *nd safest solution in fishing boat engines. semi-diesel depends largely on the conditions in which the
[470]
ENGINES DISCUSSION
engine to be used. In circumstances where fishermen have
is The system has proved a success in practice in a number of
no knowledge of engines and repair facilities are limited, vessels.
the slightly higher fuel consumption of the semi-diesel is of comments on the variation
Referring to Mr. Basil Parkes'
no consequence because it is more than compensated by in power between direct and gear box drives, Mr. Hylton
economy in maintenance and operation. asked if this was because the gear box enables more power
to be efficiently utilized. There is a small mechanical loss
through a reduction gear but this is more than counter-
DRIVE balanced by the larger slow propeller, a fact illustrated by
lower fuel consumption for given vessel speed, better per-
Mr. P. H. Hylton (U.K.) However good an engine may be as
:
formance in head seas and when trawling.
a power producer at the flywheel it may still be inefficient
The propeller speed may be chosen when the diesel electric
unless this power, or as big a proportion as possible, is
drive used (motor size can be reduced by use of reduction
is
transferred to the water.Surprisingly, there had been little
direct reference to this point. Propeller speed and diameter gears) while maximum power is available at reduced trawling
revolutions and simple uni-directional generating units can
are important factors and, as Mr. Paul Ziener had illustrated,
be in numbers best to suit the load factor, such division also
immense wastage may take place when this point is not
understood or is ignored. Boat designers and users would increasing the safety factor. These advantages may be said
to compensate for electrical transmission losses. However,
welcome more co-operation and information from engine
first cost remains high although the price differential com-
manufacturers.
pared with mechanical drive is lessened when auxiliary
Propeller speed is too often governed by engine speed.
loading is high as in a quick-freeze factory ship.
Designers would prefer to make the propeller to suit the
The additional safety factor and the added flexibility that
vessel rather than the engine. This is particularly true of the "
goes with division of units are advantages ot the father and
powerful machinery used in trawlers where low propeller "
son method. To gain full available benefits from this idea
speed is so important for towing efficiency. To obtain this
both engines can be uni-directional and coupled through a
low speed with direct drive the engine must be large, heavy,
" reverse reduction gear.
expensive and tailor made ". The reasons given for pre-
Simplicity and other advantages of the uni-directional
ferring low crank shaft speed are usually long life and longer
time between maintenance work, but how much of this is engine may be exploited with the use of controllable-pitch
tied to the necessity for low propeller speeds?
propellers. British manufacturers of this type of engine would
welcome more experience with controllable-pitch propellers
Piston speed is a better criterion than crankshaft spsed and
but their high cost probably means that they would be used
experience has shown that the best of both worlds can be had
at speeds higher than desirable for maximum efficiency,
by the use of medium-speed 400/600 r.p.m. engines with
so they would suffer by indirect comparison with the per-
reduction gears. Up to 350 h.p., these can be had at standard
formance of fixed-blade propellers. All reputable manu-
ratios which, combined with slight variations of crankshaft
facturers try to design and produce robust simple engines
speed, enable the designer to approach close to his ideal
which can operate efficiently for long periods between over-
propeller speed. Above 350 h.p., the gears are usually made
hauls;and spare parts, machined to fit, are always available.
to order and the ratio can be chosen to match exactly the
Co-operation between manufacturers and trawler owners
engine and propeller.
must eventually provide machinery better suited to the
These reduction gears can be made to reverse, and the oil
industry's requirements, but correct use of existing engines
operated type is robust, light and has a long
Usually a
life.
and equipment can, however, effect immediately an acceptable
uni-directional medium-speed engine of the four-cycle type is
used with such reverse reduction gear. But it is essential that
compromise between the ideals of the user and designer.
the engine and gearbox be designed as a whole. When
Mr. BromfieM (U.S.A.): The impression that it is com-
I.
compared with direct drive direct reversing machinery such a and expensive to install electric drive in a vessel is
plicated
combined unit has the following advantages for a trawler:
untrue. He had installed such equipment on boats twenty
(1) Propeller speed to choice. years ago and no overhaul had been needed since. In 1928
(2) Uni-directional constant running engine: (a) a drive when the first electric drive was used on some large trawlers,
suitable for mechanical, hydraulic or electric trawl winch it had so-called armature control. When a vessel was trawling
operation can be provided at the forward end; (b) such an the net might sometimes be fouled, with the result that the
engine is not dependent on compressed air for manoeuvring, motor, generator and engines would be overloaded. In most
large compressors, air tanks, and complicated reversing cases there would be a circuit-breaker which would then act.
mechanism are eliminated; (c) the refrigerating blast of After it had operated several times it was quite likely that the
manoeuvring air in hot direct reversing cylinders is not engineer would take a bucket of sand and hang it on the
present; (d) the engine can be started, run up, and wanned lever. The net would then be hauled in, but the motor or
up before manoeuvres. grids would bum out, and that would lead to another broken
(3) The combined unit is: (a) simple and positive of opera- trip. This problem had interested him and he developed the
tion in semi-skilled hands; (6) reasonable in size and weight so-called torque control. Instead of using the armature control
and, lending itself admirably to exhaust gas turbo pressure of probably 300 or 400 amperes, he used the control of the
charging, increasing power; (c) easy to install, the differ- fields, which was down to approximately 10 amperes of control.
ence in shaft levels permitting a deep and stiff seating; (d) Since then there has been no trouble because when the load
obtainable from manufacturers who, having outlets for reaches its maximum the motor stalls momentarily but picks
similar engines in other fields, build in large quantities on up its speed directly the load is relieved.
precision machines, jigs, and fittings which cannot be found
in smaller, more specialized plants. This guarantees con- Mr. C. . Dfette (U.S. A.): The diesel electric drive is high in
tinuity of supply of interchangeable spare parts. first cost and high in fuel cost and, in diesel locomotives, more
[471]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
than 75 per cent, of the failures are electrical rather than quite large to contain a very robust inside mechanism. He
mechanical. If a highly complicated diesel electric drive is confirmed Mr. Staffers opinion that even with a large
to be installed in a fishing boat, then there should be a skilled propeller the efficiency is not reduced if the boss is well
engineer on board to look after it. streamlined. The upper limit for manual control is 200 b.h.p.
There are certain advantages which derive from using Boats operating in pack ice for a part of the year should be
multiple engines on single shafts, but there are also disad- fittedwith a thick-bladed propeller which could be replaced
vantages. For example, the quad engine, two-cycle design, by a thin-bladed type in summer time.
rates about 550 h.p. and competes with a certain seven-
cylinder engine. The length of the quad is 144 ft. (4.4 m.), Mr. M. Tusseau (France): It has been said that one of the
the length of its competitor is 6 ft. { in. ( 1 .85 m.). The weight advantages of the controllable-pitch propeller was that it
of the quad is 12,065 Ib. (5,450 kg.); the weight of its com- permitted an extra 20 to 25 per cent, pulling power compared
petitor is 9,800 Ib. (4,450 kg.). The speed of the quad is with a fixed-blade propeller. It would be interesting to see
1,600 r.p.m. against the 1,200 r.p.m. of its competitor. It is how this extra thrust could be put to practical use. The first
obvious that by arranging engines in a quad, space and idea that comes to the mind is to increase the speed of the
weight are sacrificed. trawler. With an increase of thrust of 20 per cent, the trawler's
speed would be increased by about 10 per cent. This would
Professor H. E. Jaeger (Netherlands): He could not agree obviously allow a much larger area to be fished and would
with Mr. Kannt that the triple expansion engine with coal improve the total catch; or the duration of present fishing
burning Scotch boilers is generally to be preferred. In Ger- trips could be shortened. But the resistance of the trawl and
many they had again come back to the ordinary coal burner, preservation of the fish may be factors which set a limit to
although elsewhere in the world the diesel is being more and the speed of the trawling operation.
more used for trawlers. There are great advantages in using
diesels. Mr. E. R. Gueroult (France): French naval architects have
" "
Mr. Kannt refers to the German father-and-son not had much experience of controllable-pitch propellers
system. Although he liked the solution it provided, he in big trawlers. It seems, however, that the propeller is
thought an even better solution was to be found in the system excellent for all fishing boats except the trawler, because
invented by Mr. Barbiot of A.C.E.C., Charleroi, but the there is the danger of the trawl boards getting into it. If this
simplicity of the big non-reversible motor with controllable- happens, say, twice a year, the value to be gained by using
pitch propeller is a better and more economic proposition. the propeller is greatly reduced.
He liked the " father-and-son " system better than diesel- The controllable-pitch propeller must be brought to the
electric, which is heavy and expensive. In view of the name lowest pitch when towing and would have to be brought to the
"
invented for the system, father-and-son ", he liked to think lowest pitch for good efficiency in bad weather. As a trawler
the time would come when shipowners would be able to is towing or going through bad weather about three-quarters
order and get the Holy Ghost. of the time she is at sea, it can be seen that the controllable-
pitch propeller has not a very great advantage over a fixed-
Mr. P. S. Stoffel(Germany): The first controllable-pitch blade propeller with a low pitch. Another point is that when
propeller was put in service in 1934 on a Lake of Zurich the skipper thinks he should have more pull while towing he
vessel. The safety of operation is due to the' great amount will increase the pitch of the propeller, and so overload the
of experience obtained with the Kaplan water turbine. The motor. These are important factors to consider as they
efficiency of the controllable-pitch propeller, when it is well affect safety and reliability.
designed, is the same as for the fixed blade propeller. Two
German trawlers of 400 b.h.p. are equipped with the con- Mr. I. Bromfleld (U.S.A.): A controllable-pitch propeller
trollable-pitch propellers. was used on the U.S.A. Fish and Wild Life Service vessel,
Albatross, and while it was found to have many advantages,
Mr. K. Rosenthal (Denmark): In Scandinavia 95 per cent, the maintenance cost was high, and after a year it was
of the fishing boats are with controllable-pitch pro-
fitted replaced with a conventional propeller.
pellers, and his firm is making such propellers up to 1,000
b.h.p. The rack and pinion solution is suitable for small Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): Controllable-pitch propellers
power within the range of semi-diesels. For high power, his are not new. He had used them since the start of the century
firm uses a crank mechanism with sliding blocks for controlling in small fishing boats to reduce the speed of the vessel to
the propeller blades, thus avoiding back-slash and obtaining 2i knots. They had been of great value in trawlers, and also
well-lubricated parts transmitting the main forces. Such a in vessels sailing in Arctic waters.
mechanism can be made so strong that when the blades are
bent or damaged the inside mechanism remains intact. Up to Mr. F. C. Vibrans, Jr. (U.S.A.):
Controllable-pitch pro-
240 h.p. the propellers are hand-controlled. From 180 h.p. pellers have, admittedly, advantages, especially in the
many
they can be hydraulically operated. It was mentioned that matter of control, but the argument of full power availability
the price of an engine with clutch and controllable-pitch at all speeds seems to be exaggerated in the trawler industry.
propeller was lower than that of the same engine with revers- The general belief is that where trawling speed is only one-
ing gear and propeller with fixed blades. third of steaming speed the engine should slow down similarly
with the constant torque maintained. This is not true. The
Mr* J. Hojsgiard (Denmark): Controllable-pitch propellers reduction in engine speed is only 10 to 15 per cent. This is
made by his firm are quite as strong as fixed propellers. They shown in Professor Troost's new propeller charts, together
have never experienced a blade break at the root and never with the fact that wake fraction varies with speed. With
had a case of a broken shaft or any damage to the internal higher speed, when all power is devoted to propelling the
mechanism (push rod, bearings, etc.). The boss is made boat, there is a higher wake fraction than when the boat is
[472]
ENGINES DISCUSSION
held back by the net.Thus, propeller speed of advance is dependable simple mechanical manoeuvring of the propellers
reduced than in proportion to the change in vessel
less on engines up to about 400 h.p. For higher power, hydraulic
speed when going from steaming to trawling. manoeuvring or some other power operation is necessary.
It is true that badly-made propellers have been put on the
Mr. Poul A. Christensen (U.S.A.): The question of cost of market. In Scandinavia the invariable practice is to use
upkeep of the controllable-pitch propeller is often raised controllable-pitch propellers but when engines are exported
but, for example, an hydraulically-operated unit installed in a difficulties arise if the propellers are not properly introduced
New England boat 26 months ago has so far not cost a penny into a market where they are novel or where unreliable con-
in repairor upkeep. Again, in connection with the danger of trollable-pitch propellers have previously been used.
damaging the propeller so that it cannot be operated, there is It has been pointed out that in some under-developed
the instance of another New England boat in which a trawl countries it is desirable to combine the use of sails and
door damaged one of the propeller blades. About f in. engines, a problem which is faultlessly solved by the use of a
(10 mm.) of the blade was broken off from the leading edge, controllable-pitch propeller. This is the answer to Mr.
over a length of about 7 to 8 in. (175 to 200 mm.), but the Setna's problem. And the propeller, when a boat is under
skipper of the boat had no difficulty in steering nor with sail, allows the use of a smaller engine.
handling the propeller unit, and on his return to harbour a Mr. Andersen knew only one instance where fixed pro-
new blade was installed with small loss of time or money. pellers held any advantage over controllable-pitch propellers
and that is waters filled with seaweed as, for example, on the
Commander R. E. Pickett (U.S.A.): As Mr. Frederick Parkes Amazon river. A propeller will catch the weeds until it can
has said, a vessel must be free of vibration and noise. This is work no longer. A fixed propeller can free itself by reversing
not generally the case with small trawlers in the U.S.A. but this is normally impossible for a controllable-pitch
The controllable pitch propeller has not yet been accepted propeller because an engine fitted with one is seldom made
in the U.S.A., and if it can operate successfully despite debris reversible.
in U.S.A. harbours and rivers it would be of great value to
small fishing boats. Dr. J. F. Allan (U.K.): The controllable-pitch propeller
has been adopted to an appreciable extent on fishing vessels
Mr. Jan-Olof Traung (FAO): There is nothing new about in some European countries but not much in the United
controllable-pitch propellers and 99.9 per cent, of fishing Kingdom.
boats in Scandinavia are fitted with them. There they are The controllable-pitch propeller is ideal from the opera-
much cheaper than reverse gear and fixed-blade propellers tional point of view because it enables full power to be
and more dependable. It is a mistake to think that the absorbed at any speed of advance without material loss of
controllable-pitch propeller calls for fancy designs. In efficiency. It can also be arranged to give reverse thrust,
Scandinavia of two types one is mechanical and is used
it is : which eliminates the need to reverse the propeller by reversing
up to 250 h.p. at 300 r.p.m. and the other is hydraulically the main engine or by providing a suitable gear box.
controlled. The mechanical type is inexpensive but the A change of about 5 deg. in propeller blade angle is required
hydraulically-controlled type is very costly, probably as to absorb full power at the same r.p.m. running free and
expensive as the engine itself. It also costs a lot in mainten- when trawling at 3 to 4 knots, but to provide reverse thrust
ance. It is a wonder, however, that an effort is not made to the blades must be rotated through a large angle. The main
copy the cheap mechanically-controlled type. For example, problem of the controllable pitch propeller is to mount the
in the United Kingdom they have tried to produce con- blades on the boss so that they are adequately supported
trollable-pitch propellers for the mechanical system but have but can be rotated accurately in their mountings. It is not of
made something more complicated than is necessary. There very great importance whether the blades have to be rotated
is a fear that a controllable-pitch propeller will be damaged 5 deg. or 90 deg.
by trawl doors and trawl warps. This does not happen during Acontrollable-pitch propeller is little superior to a fixed
trawling in Scandinavia and if, as can sometimes happen with pitch propeller designed to compromise between the free
any propeller, some damage is done, all the fisherman has running and the trawling condition. The advantage will be
to do is to change the blade. This is a very simple procedure, unimportant in the case of a steam reciprocating engine, and
simpler than to change the whole propeller. Incidentally, of no major importance even in the case of a less flexible
the blade is always designed weaker than the hub. diesel. The widespread use of steam engines in trawlers in
Great Britain accounts to some extent for the comparative
Mr. Bent G. Andersen (Denmark): Most experts agree that lack of interest in controllable-pitch propellers. The advan-
slow-speed engines are to be preferred in small vessels, and the tage gained with a controllable-pitch propeller providing both
general interest expressed in controllable pitch propellers ahead and astern thrust coupled to a diesel running at constant
is surprising to a Scandinavian as nearly all Scandinavian revolutions is that it eliminates the reversing mechanism
vessels are fitted with such propellers. But Scandinavian on the engine and reduces wear and tear.
boat builders often find that their export customers do not The danger of warps fouling the propeller and causing
want controllable-pitch propellers, probably because they damage to the controllable-pitch mechanism is also important,
have had some unfortunate experience with propellers of bad and an over-riding consideration is the extremely high cost of
design and performance. Scandinavians have used control- the propeller compared with one of solid bronze or the much
lable pitch propellers from the beginning of mechanizing cheaper cast iron propeller.
their fishing fleets and have developed a propeller of sim- The case for a controllable-pitch propeller on fishing
plicity and great reliability. They have been used for nearly vessels is not strong but there is more advantage in using one
50 years and the Scandinavians long ago developed a very with a diesel than with a steam-reciprocating engine.
[473]
VESSELS AND GEAR
by
A. VON BRANDT
factors were decisive in the development of Deep sea fishing, which is most essential to North
fishing technique: European fisheries, made necessary to consider the
it
fishing gear when designing new vessels. The first traw-
(1) The transfer of fishing from shallow to deep lers (sailing from North Shields in 1877, from Boulogne
waters, which happened in the large lakes as well as in in 1881 and from Geestemunde in 1885) had no remark-
the littoral areas. The use of fishing vessels encouraged
able fishing equipment. But when the beam trawl was
the development of pelagic fishing in deep sea areas and
replaced by the otter trawl (about 1 892) it was necessary
bottom fishing in large depths. to invent the gallows. At first these consisted of two
(2) The development of bulk fishing which was greatly
slightly tilted wooden poles with a beam operating a roll.
influenced by the production of powerful engines because
Then, as trawling was done at greater depths, the old
they gave the necessary speed. For example, trawling
capstans were replaced (about 1885) by the first large
speed has increased from I knot in 1870 to 5 knots at the
winches for steel wires. The otter trawl, with its greater
present time. resistance, could not be towed by sailing vessels, and the
(3) The development of partly or wholly mechanized
larger size of nets required stronger gallows, more
fishing methods. The use of larger gear for bulk fishing
powerful winches and, as already mentioned, greater
required the installation of auxiliary machinery.
speed.
(4) The detection of fish shoals by means of elec- These few facts reveal the trend of development and
tronic devices. These are of great practical importance
show how comparatively new are the ideas of mechaniza-
to commercial fishing.
tionand the knowledge of the correlation between vessel
A compromise had to be made in the shape of trawlers and fishing gear. And development is still going on.
which are so very important for North European fisheries. Larger gear and higher trawling speed will be used and
German trawlers, for instance, must be capable of high greater depths will be exploited. It is doubtful whether
the present equipment can be improved to meet such new
speeds to reach distant fishing grounds, but they must
also be able to lie-to safely at the grounds even in bad
demands. Perhaps new types of auxiliary machinery will
weather. High speeds call for sharp bow and stern but have to be designed.
when the fishermen have to work on deck, the trawlers Most of the gallows are criticized by trawler fisher-
should have a fuller form. The correct distribution of the men because the trawl lines get untwisted by badly
operating rolls and are left in unequal lengths. This
displacement and the position of the centre of buoyancy
are particularly important and there must, of course, be brings the fishing gear into a wrong position and risks
the catch.
suitable proportions of length to breadth, and breadth to
The design of winches will have to be considered when
draught. Naval architects and fishing gear technologists
have not reached full agreement in their efforts to solve trawling is carried on at greater depths. Most of the
this problem and they have had to compromise. present winches will not take the strain of hauling much
longer trawl wires and, in any case, mechanical hauling
Fishing technique itself calls for special attention by
naval architects, raising questions which can be sum-
of the trawls is still unsatisfactory. Driftnet fishermen
marized:
have invented electrically driven rolls for hauling the nets
but trawling always includes plenty of manual labour
(a) Mechanization of ancient fishing methods and when hauling.
development of new and very specialized methods, If electric fishing develops, be necessary to instal
it will
as, for instance, electric fishing; generators on deck and more auxiliary machinery below
(b) Observation and control of fishing gear in action, deck. There is only one vessel, so far, engaged in electric
particularly from the bridge; trawling. For the purpose of experiment, a generator of
(c) Detecting and horizontal
fish in vertical directions. very large dimensions, producing 10.000 amperes, has
1474]
DECK GEAR VESSELS AND GEAR
been installed and it takes up a space of 6.5 by 13 by the net is impossible because any difference of pull cannot
ft. (2 by 4 by 2 m.). It must be
6.5 large to overcome the immediately be felt by the wires.
500 fold conductivity of seawater and to produce an It should be possible to record continuously on the
adequate catching area. Even though the size of the bridge the height and breadth of a trawl, and the draught
generator might be reduced some day, the safety for the if it is a floating trawl. Extra cable winches would have
people on board must be taken into account. Moreover, to be installed to connect the bridge with electronic depth
electric fishing needs special winches for the electric recorders on the trawl. But electrical cables are difficult
cables, and a suitable type has not yet been developed. to handle in rough seas, so it would be a better idea to
For reasons of safety the stern of the vessel should be watch the behaviour of the trawl by means of optic or
covered. acoustic devices, except that the race of the propeller and
It is of great importance to observe and control a air bubbles under the vessel would prevent this. Here
trawl in action, particularly when the net is being filled. again is a problem which naval architects and fishing gear
This is indicated by a change in speed and, simul- technologists should study together.
taneously, increased thrust and decreased revolutions The firms making echo sounders have varying opinions
because of increase of resistance. The difference can be about attaching the transmitter and receiver to the ship's
recognized particularly if the trawl is overloaded or torn. bottom. The race of the propeller and air bubbles from
Instruments have been invented in Germany which the bow produce most of the trouble in both vertical and
inform the skipper when the trawl is filled. horizontal sounding. It would be desirable to have a well
The equal length of the two trawl wires is essential in in the ship, through which the sounder could be lowered,
trawling. The tension of each wire can be tested by a but, at present, this is only practical for research vessels
comparatively simple device and can be adjusted by and it remains for future study to show how the sounder
slackening one wire or the other as required, so long as can best be attached to the bottom of a fishing vessel.
the warps are not exposed to friction after the measured Improvements of fishing boats are not confined to
spot. Although there are numerous types of slip hooks, and existing fishing gear problems
nautical questions
most of them do not ensure smooth working of the wires, should be considered by naval architects. Up to the
each of which should run over a separate roll. Moreover, present, all fishing equipment has been attached to the
the trawl wires are pressed against the hull even with the exterior hull without altering the vessel herself, but
slightest turn of the vessel and this adds to the differences progress in fishing gear technology will compel the naval
in the pull. A few vessels are so designed that the wires architect to pay more attention to new fishing methods
can run out without trouble. Then an exact control of when designing vessels in the future.
[475J
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN DECK GEAR
by
CARL B. CARLSON
fisheries of the United States are faced with fish by hand, and it may even be necessary to use a
THEencouraging
increasing shortages of skilled
is
manpower and
more mechanization of
this
fishing
powered fall for assistance. Under these conditions, the
seine is likely to tear and most of the catch lost. The
operations and improvement of deck gear. use of pumps greatly reduces the effort required to raise
the fish because they need not be dried to the degree
PUMPS FOR UNLOADING MENHADEN required for conventional brailing. The intake end of the
suction hose can be lowered considerably below the
Pumps have been used for many years in the California
sardine industry for transferring fish from a hopper
surface and beyond depths that can be reached by a
brailer. The time saved can be used for making additional
alongside the vessel to the shore plant or processing ship.
sets.
More recently pumps were introduced into the Maine
sardine and the Atlantic and Gulf menhaden fisheries
The operators at Fernandina, Florida, U.S.A., believe
to transfer fish from the vessel's hold to the plant.
the centrifugal 525) is more practical than the
pump (fig.
reciprocating type because it requires less space. A very
Previously, in the menhaden fishery, the dry fish were
shovelled by hand into a vertical conveyor for delivery compact unit, consisting of an 8 or 10 in. (20.3 to 25.4
to the measuring hopper. This was hard and undesirable cm.) pump and a 2 in. (5.1 cm.) diameter priming pump
mounted on a single frame, is now being manufactured.
work, and the labour shortage often slowed operations.
On days when fish were plentiful, a vessel might wait This same unit, with the addition of a 5 in. (12.7 cm.)
12 hours or more to be unloaded. With centrifugal or
diameter pump for sluicing the fish in the hold, can be
used for a shore installation to unload the vessels. Power
reciprocating pumps, a menhaden vessel can be unloaded
in a matter of minutes.
is supplied to the main pump shaft by high-speed
Menhaden vessels have a rectangular pipe with remov- gasoline or diesel engines rated at 65 to 100 h.p., and the
able manhole plates built fore and aft into the bottom auxiliary pumps are driven from the main shaft by
sprockets and chain. Reinforced suction type hose
for the entire length of the hold. This terminates in a
8 or 10 in. in diameter, and from 20 to 30 ft. (6.1. to 9.1 m.)
vertical pipe through the deck to which is attached an
in length, is used to direct the fish from the net to the
8 to 10 in. (20.3 to 25.4 cm.) diameter suction hose.
The fish in the hold are wetted and sluiced to the manhole pump. The hose is too heavy to manipulate easily so a
where they and the water are removed. When hand tackle, or a powered single fall, is used to govern
plates
itsposition. The intake end is fitted with J in. (13 mm.)
shovelling by hand some fish were usually left in the
hold and the wash down was inadequate. The use of
diameter iron bars in the form of a hemisphere to prevent
the net from clogging.
pumps and large quantities of water have greatly reduced
After leaving the pump, the fish and water are dis-
obnoxious odours and flies and has contributed to general
cleanliness. charged on a screen consisting of J in. diameter bar irons
at an about 30 to drain most of the water and
incline of
to direct the fish to the hold. The separated water may
PUMPS FOR BRAILING MENHADEN either be discharged to the deck or piped overboard on
Drying the menhaden in the fish bag and brailing the the idle side of the vessel. Surplus water carried with the
fish aboard the vessel is also a time consuming and fish is removed by the vessel's bilge pumps.
laborious task. The success of pumps for unloading led
to testing them on the brailing operation. Menhaden are
caught by two boat purse seining and at least 10 men
POWERED SEINE REELS IN THE SALMON
" " FISHERY
per boat are required to harden or dry the fish for
brailing. When the catches are large, or the fish are The purse seine fishery for salmon has long been con-
*'
hard worker ", it is almost impossible to harden the sidered highly efficient from a mechanized viewpoint
[476]
DECK GEAR RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN DECK GEAR
because a crew of eight or nine men can haul a seine, powered skiff. The procedure depends on the type of
over 300 fathoms (550 m.) in length and 25 fm. (46 m.) set most advantageous for the locality and the behaviour
"
in depth, six or seven times per day. In the Alaska fishery, of the fish. When pursing ", or closing the bottom,
twelve or thirteen hauls per day with a seine 200 fm. only the forward purse line is taken to the winch, while
(366 m.) in length and over 15 fm. (27.4 m.) in depth, the after purse line and a portion of the seine are wound
are not uncommon for a crew of seven or eight men. on the drum. The purse line finally becomes taut between
But the recently introduced power reels, or drums, the davit and the reel. The remaining purse rings are
indicate that five men can make up to 20 sets per day picked up on an elongated
"
U " iron, or " clothespin ",
with a 300 fm. seine. suspended in a near horizontal position by a bridle from
" "
Salmon are caught by the one boat method with the boom. As the net continues to be reeled on, suc-
the aid of a powered skiff. In established practice cessive rings slip off the clothespin as the lead and ring
(Carlson 1945) the seine is set and hauled from a turn- lines become tight. A
proportionate length of purse
table mounted on the stern, which can be swung through line is paid through the rings to be reeled on the- drum
a complete circle. The turntable is fitted with a roller with the seine. No effort is made to keep the cork and
which is powered to assist in hauling by friction between lead lines separated as in conventional practice, but one
the net and roller, and a clutch for free-wheeling while of the problems is to reel the seine evenly and tightly so
setting. The seine is set over the stern and hauled over that it will not bind while being set.
Fig. 525
the side. Upon completing the circle, the purse lines, Before being wound on the drum, the seine passes
one from forward and the other from aft, are led through over a horizontal roller 8 to 10 in. (20.3 to 25.4 cm.) in
blocks on a davit amidships to the winch for power diameter and then between a pair of vertical rollers
pursing. When pursing is completed the purse rings mounted on a traveller controlled by hand through a
and lead line are lifted aboard. Meanwhile the cork line level wind gear (fig. 526). The vertical fair leads are
has been bunched on the working side of the vessel by about 8 in. in diameter and 30 in. (76 cm.) high with a
men on the stern and in the skiff attached to the bow. free space of about 10 in. between them. They are
When the turntable is in the hauling position, the cork mounted on a hinge so they can be tipped inboard to
line is piled on one of the tables over the stern; the lead, avoid tearing the net while setting.
purse and ring lines are piled on the forward side; and The power skiff plays an important part in drum
the netting laid between them. This arrangement enables seining because one of its functions is to tow the vessel
the crew to haul various portions of the seine according from the non-working side to maintain proper fair lead
to pre-assignment and keeps the lead and cork lines well of the seine for hauling. The drum system requires close
separated while setting. co-ordination of the entire crew because the chances of
By the new drum system (Drum seining 1953), the net is fouling the gear on the rudder or propeller are increased.
set and hauled from a fixed reel set in a tank in the stern. The drumsare made of steel and have ample capacity
The net is set in a fairly straight line, or an elongated ifthe seines are tightly wound. The dimensions vary
hook, and the circle may be completed by towing on one from 5 to 9 ft. (1.5 to 2.7 m.) in diameter and are of a
or both ends by either or both the fishing vessel and the width to suit the space on the stern of the vessel and the
[477]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
volume of the seine. Reels now in use have a
capacity from 225 to 400 cu. ft. (6.37 to 1 1 .3
cu. m.) but one reel, 9 ft. (2.7 m.) diam. by
10 ft. (3 m.) in width, with a capacity of 625 cu. ft.
(17.7 cu. m.), is to be installed on a Canadian
purse seiner. The reels are set in a tank in the
stern, made watertight from the rest of the vessel
but fitted with a self-bailing device for drainage.
It would not be surprising if some enterprising
fisherman devised a tight top for these tanks to
provide extra fuel capacity for use in other
where longer cruising range is required.
fisheries
Such tanks might also be made suitable for
carrying live bait in the albacore tuna fishery.
The reels must be adequately powered with
variable speeds, forward or in reverse. When
hauling, it may be necessary to reverse the drum
" "
if itbecomes evident that a bind is being
made, which will interfere with a subsequent set,
or to help start the seine when a set is being Fig. 526
made. Furthermore, the pursing strain may
exceed 5,000 Ib. (2,270 kg.) line pull and variable speeds claim smoother and more positive control of the drum
are required, depending on the strain and the need to speed in either direction, while those who prefer the
"
remove gilled fish or those caught in a pocket ". The mechanical drive claim greater pulling power in hauling
drum must be free wheeling so that the seine can be set the seine.
easily, and a good brake must be provided to stop and The present system of locating the drum on a fixed
hold the net in the water. horizontal axis presents certain limitations which did
The reels are powered by a hydraulic motor or a not exist with the turntable system. The turntable roller
mechanical system. In the latter, power is taken from the can be moved from the stern to a fixed position over
main engine and transmitted through a system of either side, depending on how the set is made, and better
sprockets, roller chain, and shafting, to a truck trans- fair lead can be obtained while hauling. Fishermen are
mission short-coupled to a truck differential and brake considering how to mount the horizontal reel on a pivot
drum on the reel. Speed reduction up to 84:1 and to suit best the angle of the seine for hauling. If this is
reversing the reel, are possible by this jnethod. The done, the hydraulic drive system may well gain added
hydraulic drive (fig. 527) functions by oil under pressure popularity because of the flexibility of the oil supply
from a pump, through a reversible and free-wheeling hoses compared with the fixed limitations of a mechanical
hydraulic motor coupled by a chain and sprocket drive drive. Some thought is being given to mounting a drum
to the drum. Fishermen who favour the hydraulic drive on a vertical axis but level winding above and below the
deck line then becomes a serious problem.
A different method of hanging the seine is also
essential for the drum system. Customary prac-
tice is to hang salmon lOfm.
seines in flights of
(18.3 m.) consisting of 10 fm. of cork line, 1 fm.1
(20.1 m.) of stretched measure netting and 9 fm.
(16.5 m.) of lead line. This is known as 10 per
cent, hanging, i.e. 10 per cent, more netting than
cork line, and 10 per cent, less lead line than
cork line. This type of hanging has proved
effective both in shallow water, where it tends
to keep the purse and lead lines clear of the
netting,and in deep water, where it tends to form
a bottom while towing the seine. When hauling
by the drum method, this system is unsuitable
because the lead line is too short for proper
spooling. Distortion of the meshes and loops in
the cork line would take place and they would
bind when setting. However, the lead line can
be hung about 3 ft. (0.9 m.) shorter per flight,
Fig. 527 or 5 per cent, instead of 10 per cent, shorter
[478]
DECK GEAR RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN DECK GEAR
than the cork line, and be spooled evenly because of the work on holding shrimp in this medium and on means of
greater bulk of the cork line. Experience indicates that surmounting some of the technological problems
5 per cent, hanging of the lead line will not hold fish in involved, (Higman and Idyll 1952). The results to date
deep water, but fishermen who favour the drum system have demonstrated that the formation of *" black spot ",
maintain this can be overcome by hanging in an extra 2 a discoloration caused by enzymatic action under the
or 2 fm. (3.7 or 4.6 m.) or 30 to 35 per cent, of extra shell, can be retarded by holding shrimp in refrigerated
netting per flight, thereby creating a great bag in the sea water. An oxidase enzyme seems to be involved.
seine. At temperatures of 30 deg. F. (1.1 deg. C.) or lower,
The use of drums for hauling nets is not a novel idea. spoilage of shrimp can be retarded for a longer period
It has been used in the salmon gill-net fishery for a in sea water than in regular ice. After 18 days in ice,
number of years but, in this fishery, the problems are shrimp have deteriorated to the point of being un-
simpler; the cork and the lead lines are of equal length, marketable but, held in refrigerated sea water, they have
the net is shallow, and only one or two hauls are made been palatable after 24 days. Unfortunately, off-odours
per night. The drum
seining method was developed develop in the raw uncooked shrimp after 14 days and
by Canadian fishermen several years ago and has been it iscausing some buyer resistance.
used by one boat on Puget Sound, Wash., U.S.A., for Apractical use for chill tanks is found aboard freezer
some time. In 1953 1 1 boats were fitted for drum seining. vessels. Several advantages occur because the headed
Fig. 528
Further development and modifications of drum shrimp can be chilled more rapidly and can be packaged
seining may well reduce manpower requirements in the for freezing as time permits. If large catches are made,
menhaden, herring and mackerel fisheries. the whole shrimp can be chilled pending disposition.
Menhaden seines, for example, are always set in a Furthermore, the temperature of the shrimp is reduced
circle and the working of the fish toward the stern of the from the ranges of 85 to 90 deg. F. (29 to 32 deg. C.)
purse boats while the seine is being hauled suggests that to 34 to 40 deg. F. (1 to 4.5 deg. C.), thereby retarding
the reels could advantageously be set at an angle to the deterioration and easing the load on the freezer. The
boats. The use of pumps has lowered the effort required tanks are about 10x3x3 ft. (3x0.9x0.9 m.) in size,
to brail fish and power reels may carry this a step well insulated with 4 in. (10 cm.) of cork, and are
further. refrigerated by the main system for freezing and holding
the catch. With the freon system, the use of | in. (16 mm.)
APPLICATION OF CHILL TANKS IN THE SHRIMP diameter copper tubing on approximately 8 in. (20 cm.)
FISHERY centres is a common practice. One exploratory vessel
Recently several
shrimp trawlers, using equipment now operating from remote Central and South American
designed by a commercial engineering firm, have been ports has a similar tank with a capacity of about 5,000 Ib.
fitted with tanks of refrigerated sea water as a medium (2,270 kg.) headed shrimp. The refrigeration system is
for coolingand holding shrimp. The University of driven by a compressor requiring about 2 h.p., and
Miami Marine Laboratory is doing considerable research temperatures of 30 to 35 deg. F. (1
to 1.6 deg. C.)
[479]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
are maintained, depending on the quantity of shrimp By using a two-way valve with a neutral position, full
put in the tanks. Before departure, and when en route brake or full friction and intermediate degrees of each
to the fishing grounds, the operators try to reduce the can almost immediately be applied by a simple move-
temperature of the sea water to 28 deg. F. (2.2 deg. C), ment of one hand. In the neutral position the drum is
or lower, to form slush ice as a reserve of cold. To in free-wheeling. Air from the vessel's tanks is delivered
reduce contamination, the shrimp are thoroughly through a reducing valve which maintains a working
washed with sea water before immersion in the tank. pressure of 125 Ib./sq. in. (8.8 kg./sq. cm.) at the control
It is reported that shrimp can be held in excellent condi- valve. In one extreme position full air pressure is
tion by this method for at least five days. But operators delivered to a piston attached to the brake hand. An
of freezer vessels maintain that shrimp should not be unloading spring on the non-pressure side, together
held for more than 48 hours in chill tanks because a with a return release line to the valve, completely releases
difference in quality is detectable, through loss of flavour, the brake as the lever is moved to neutral or free-wheeling
compared with those frozen soon after catching. position. At
the opposite extreme position, full air
pressure delivered
is to an oval-shaped, air-flex clutch
tube fixed to the driving side. Air causes the tube to
AIR CONTROLS FOR WINCHES
expand and engage the drum to provide full friction for
Mechanical controls for the brake and friction of trawling hauling. Areturn relief line to the valve, and the desire
and other winches are standard practice, but these have of the air-flex tube to resume its normal moulded form
inherent hazards which can be minimized by air controls. provides free-wheeling of the drum as the control valve
When controlling the brake and friction of trawl winches, reaches the neutral position. By this system one operator
the use of two hands, or one hand and a foot, is required can easily control two drums, one with each hand.
where two men operate the winch. In the southern shrimp Air control systems for trawl and purse seine
fishery, where one man operates the double-drum winch, winches (fig. 528) have been used for several years on the
the use of both hands and both feet are required. Opera- Pacific coast and have proved satisfactory. Operators
tors of shrimp trawling are faced with increasing
fleets believe them to be safer than mechanical controls
difficulties in finding skilled crews and have generally because of more rapid response and greater freedom in
avoided winches with superior brakes and frictions of a rough weather. The disadvantages are the need for an
mechanical control type. They fear that full brake may air supply and the greater cost. The air, after com-
be applied against a full friction, causing undue strain on, pression, is reasonably dry but if the tanks are not
and damage to, the drive mechanism. When the vessel periodically bled of water, in accordance with good
is rolling in a heavy sea, the difficulties in manipulating marine practice, quantities of water could be drawn
mechanical controls are increased. into the system and freeze in cold weather.
[480]
ELECTRIC DRIVE FOR TRAWL WINCHES
by
MAURICE GRAFTIAUX
power at which a trawl winch may operate must be such as to prevent overloading or misuse of the
THE
and
is limited by the normal strength of the warps
the average hauling speed. The best control
circuit breaker.
always apt to
A special danger is overloading, which is
happen at a critical moment and may
system is to have the winch operate with constant disrupt the boat's electrical installation. Conditions
power between the extremes of maximum pull and of fishing are such that maintenance of the winch is
maximum speed. The control must also permit flexibility difficult and only the simplest and most robust type is
and quick manoeuvring, safety and easy maintenance. suitable.
The main operations of the winch are as follows:
ELECTRIC WINCHES
1. Paying out. During this operation the drums are
running loose on the shaft as the trawl, immersed, Electric winches usually get their power from inde-
is run out by the boat moving forward. No power pendent direct-current generators but some get it from
is required from the winch. The warps are kept the general circuit of the boat. The winch motor always
tight all the time by the brakes with which the operates on direct current with separate excitation. The
lengths are also kept equal. speed variation is obtained by variating the voltage in the
2. Trawling. During this operation the drums are armature and sometimes by a variation of the excitating
declutched and the brakes are tight. No power current. In case of independent drive, the motor receives
is absorbed. a variable voltage current from a diesel generator set.
3. Hauling in. Both drums are in clutch and the In the Other cases the motor draws its current from the
winch motor is power. This is the
running in full general circuit through an auxiliary generator operating
real working period for the winch. The power as a reversing booster. The first system has the advantage
required varies because of the friction of the trawl of complete independence, and the disadvantage of a
on the sea bottom and of the behaviour of the boat relatively powerful diesel remaining idle when the ship
in rough sea. isnot fishing. In practice, it is the best solution when the
power of the winch generating set is greater than the
average power supplied for the ship's use. The second
FLEXIBILITY AND MANOEUVRING
system is justified when the winch power is less than the
The principal manoeuvres are:
power of the other auxiliaries.
Low speed when paying out the trawl, the bobbins Independent generating sets have been installed in the
and doors, and high-speed when paying out the warps. French trawlers built after World War II under the
High speed when hauling in the warps, medium reconstruction programme. The winch motor receives
"
its current from a generator with a falling character-
speed when the trawl approaches the boat, and very
slow speed when taking the trawl doors on board. istic ", i.e. with a voltage variable with the load, the
The flexibility of the winch does not depend solely curve being determined by three points:
on the progression of the speed range but also on (a) maximum voltage when running idle;
quick response. A fisherman will think that the winch (b) maximum power for normal current;
is slow when it is slower than his own reactions.
(c) no voltage when stalling.
This automatic regulation is obtained by three different
SAFETY AND EASY MAINTENANCE excitation coils:
The trawl winch is the most important equipment on (a) one separate excitation coil for the control of
board a trawler and if it is damaged or stopped, the speed;
vessel is put out of action. Dependability is, then, more (b) one series anti-compound excitation coil;
important than any other factor. The control system (c) one shunt excitation coil for amplification.
[481]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
Inside this curve different intermediate values can be third position, so that a satisfactory stalling torque can
obtained through controller connected with the winch be kept on the first position without modifying the
control lever and acting on the separate excitation coil. characteristics of the curve at the last position.
All the auxiliary circuits are fed by an exciter driven Another useful addition is the electro magnetic brake
by the generating set, which also supplies direct current on the shaft of the motor. When the winch lever is
Tor the ship's use. brought to zero the brake stops the motor immediately
Control instruments are reduced to a minimum and, and corrects, to a certain extent, the lag of the generator,
in some of the ships, the controller is connected to the especially at slow speed.
exciter through a battery of contactors. These have The magnetic brake is also slow, which is a hindrance
never given any trouble. when the winch is being started. It increases the inertia
The characteristics of the winch have been improved of the motor shaft and in some ships it has been replaced
by a few devices of which the most important is the by a friction brake worked by a foot pedal. Winches
TABLE LXXX
Standardization of French trawl winches
Trawlers size (length)
torque adjuster. The speed and the pull are determined would be improved if given more flexibility and if some
for a variable ratio which depends on the coiling radius partial recuperation of energy by the diesel was admitted,
on the drum. A
maximum stress on the warp being as already achieved in diesel electric locomotives.
imperative for safety, the maximum torque of the motor Trawl winches running on current supplied from the
must correspond to the smaller coiling radius, with ship's general installation have a much quicker response
inevitable reduction of the pull when the warp is coiled in manoeuvring. In this case, the installation must
on the drum at the greatest radius. This happens pre- be more powerful than the winch, otherwise the ex-
cisely when the trawl is near the surface and the heaving changes of energy by the intermediate variable voltage
effect is most
felt. The torque adjuster must auto- generators will start the circuit breakers and stop the
matically modify the separate and shunt excitation winch.
proportionately to the coiling radius and maintain an The variable voltage generator is of the three-coil
almost constant effort. Unfortunately this is difficult to excitation type but with a much shorter time constant
reach and the present system needs some adjustments. (the power is smaller and the speed greater). It is easier
Another addition would be to control the speed by to adjust the characteristics curve but a reversing relay
combining the separated and shunt excitation from the must be installed for reversing the motor.
[482]
HYDRAULIC TRAWL WINCHES
by
PAUL GUINARD
TRAWL WINCH should fulfil the following CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT
L requirements: The most commonly used devices are the " volumetric "
type, for pumps as well as for motors. Typical equip-
Great variation of speed in both rotating directions.
ment, taking into consideration the simplicity of installa-
Increasing torque when
the hauling speed decreases. tion and operation and the best efficiency, is:
Stalling of chosen torque and paying out if the pull
exceeds the limited torque. (1) A pump with a fixed cylinder capacity driven by a
Easy and flexible operation. constant speed diesel and placed in the engine-
Great sturdiness. room. This can be run without any control and
A minimum maintenance repairs to be done on board almost without maintenance. With a constant
without a specialist.
flow at the maximum pressure, controlled by a
All these requirements are fulfilled by the hydraulic by-pass valve, it will deliver constant power and
winch. not overload the diesel.
(2) An hydraulic motor with variable cylinder volume
GENERAL driving the winch. Variation in the cylinder
Basically an hydraulic installation includes: volume is made by turning a wheel. The
easily
1. A pump, generally driven by an internal com- operator able
is to adjust the winch speed, includ-
bustion engine. ing acceleration, slowing down, stopping and
2. An hydraulic motor (fed by the pump). reversing. According to the required speed, the
A motor will transform the power supplied by the
3. regulator for speed and reversing, very often
incorporated in the hydraulic motor. pump into variable torque. If the resistance is
4. A valve controlling the pressure (i.e. the torque). small, the hoisting of the trawl will be possible
at a great speed but if it is great then the speed of
The valve is automatic and adjusts the hoisting speed the hydraulic motor is reduced. In both cases
without manual assistance. The speed depends only the total power of the pump will be used.
on the pull of the trawl.
The oil circuit can be open or closed, open if the pump (3) A by-pass valve limiting the torque^ placed either
on the hydraulic motor or connected to the
operates from an oil tank, closed if it is directly c6n-
nected by piping, without any tank, to the hydraulic piping, is an important item. Calibrated to a
motor. slightly higher than normal working pressure,
it switches off the circuit when the limit is reached,
PRESSURE and keeps the motor charged at its maximum
torque (stalling torque).
285 to 425 30 kg./sq. cm.) pressure
Ib./sq. in. (20 to
allows use of commercially-made pipes and valves and
If the resistance increases over the pre-set maximum
avoids gaskets and high-pressure piping, which are
torque, the winch motor reverses because the pressure
difficult to repair on a trawler. With a high pressure
in the oil pipe remains constant, so that neither the pump
system there would be a small saving in weight, but the nor the diesel is overloaded.
oil cooler would be bigger.
When the resistance of the trawl becomes normal the
hydraulic motor automatically starts again, progressively
DRIVING FLUID and smoothly.
The usual driving fluid is oil, which should be pure Such a by-pass requires the most careful design and
and have a viscosity around 6 deg. Engler. construction.
[483]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
AN EXAMPLE OF AN INSTALLATION FOR A HYDRAULIC CONTROL OF TRAWL WINCH
75 h.p. WINCH ARRANGEMENNT OF HYDRAULIC MOTOR
PUMP
Constant flow pump, (fig. 529) directly coupled to a
120-h.p. dicsel, 575 r.p.m. working capacity 4,450 cu. ft./
hr. (126 cu. m./hr.); working pressure 290 Ib./sq. in.
HYDRAULIC CONTROL OF TRAWL WINCH
PUMP TYPE (06 HR EQUIPPED WITH AUXILIARY
PUMP AND FEED TANK
DISCHARGE
Fig. 530
Same range of power and speed in reverse direction.
By-pass equipped with anti-hammering device.
Closed circuit with an auxiliary pump, feeding the
return circuit (pressure below 14.7 Ib./sq. in. (1 kg./
sq. cm.).
Fig. 531 shows the characteristics for this installation.
(20.5 kg./sq. cm.); at this pressure the output is 85 per HYDRAULIC CONTROL OF TRAWL WINCH
PISTON PUMP WITH CONSTANT OUTPUT
cent, and the absorbed power is 112 h.p. The by-pass HYDRAULIC MOTOR WITH PISTONS AND VKRIA1LC CYLINDER VOLUME
valve limiting the torque is calibrated to 310 Ib./sq. in.
(22 kg./sq. cm.).
HYDRAULIC MOTOR
Variable cylinder volume and reversing arrangement
type, fig. 530, variation of speed by a hand-operated
wheel, maximum speed 500 r.p.m., 74 working h.p. at a
normal pressure.
Speed 250 r.p.m. 76 working h.p. at a normal
pressure. Decreasing pressure from 291.5 Ib./sq. in.
(25 kg./sq. cm.) to nil. At this by-pass pressure the
hydraulic motor develops a power of 81 h.p., corre-
sponding to a maximum stalling torque of 1,663 ft. Ib.
(230 kg.m.). Fig. 53 J
[484]
DECK GEAR HYDRAULIC TRAWL WINCHES
CONSIDERATIONS OF THE HYDRAULIC TRANS- HYDRAULIC TRAWL WINCH CONTROL
MISSION APPLIED TO TRAWL WINCHES CENTRIFUGAL PUMP- HYDRAULIC SCC *t MOTOR
When hauling, it is necessary to adjust the speed according
to the resistance but, at the same time, it is necessary
to take account of the condition of the sea. A trans-
mission which automatically adjusts the speed according
to the resistance torque is desirable.
44 "
Volumetric devices, notably the piston type, need
a particular care in their manufacture. Great accuracy
of machining is required for increased pressure. The
following system is not so difficult to manufacture and
is simpler in operation :
(1) Pump. A centrifugal- type pump is chosen because
it can give high pressure with a low output and,
Fig. 533
inversely, a low pressure with a high output,
according to requirements.
Fig. 532 and 533 show that the curve with the
clearance between impellers and leakage ring
best pump corresponds to the most
efficiency
is only 0.012 to 0.016in. (0.3 to 0.4 mm.).
commonly-used speeds of the hydraulic motor. The shaft rotates on ball-bearings which take
The speed of the hydraulic motor varies auto- hardly any strain in a well-constructed pump
matically from to the maximum, according to where the impeller is axially and radially balanced.
the pull of the trawl. The centrifugal pump eliminates the troubles
The principle of the centrifugal pump permits usually associated with the volumetric pump,
the flow to be reduced, for a given pressure, such as undue friction leading to wear and tear
while still maintaining the same pull. The reduction and lack of mechanical precision. It does not
of the flow is obtained by the simple operation need a by-pass relief valve.
of the slide-valve and the power absorbed by (2) Hydraulic motor. Another simple type of hy-
draulic pump, not so well known because its
the centrifugal pump decreases.
This type of pump has no fragile It is kinetic characteristics are less evident than those
parts.
composed of impellers in series. The periphery of the gear pumps, is remarkable for its sturdiness.
It can operate in both directions and experience
with it has led to the development of some excel-
HYDRAULIC TRAWL WINCH CONTROL
lent hydraulic motors based on the same system.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Numerous types are in service. A
suitable motor
to drive a trawl winch, fig. 534, has two long
soo screws on parallel axes which rotate in corre-
sponding bores. The screws have a large square-
cut thread and they work together, i.e. they are
engaging along their whole length, therefore they
HO ABSORBED must have opposite threads. They rotate in
opposite directions through gears keyed on their
120- shaft, so there is no friction between the two
screws. The opposite pitch of the two pinions
20 assures an absolute axial balance of rotating
parts. thrust bearings have, therefore, no
The
0. action load to support. The ends of the pinions
are sunk in chambers which are connected by the
70- " "
outlet. TheGuinard motors have no mechani-
60.
cal friction either between the threads of the
screws or between the screws and the bores
because of appropriate clearances. No wear can
100-
occur.
(3) Slide-valve for reversing direction and adjusting
speed. To reverse the rotation of the hydraulic
100_ motor, the inlet and outlet of the driving fluid
3
4000 5000 55bo
fr
must also be reversed.
1000 2000 iooo
The statically and hydraulically balanced,
Fif. 532 hollow, slide valve operates in a cylinder fitted with
(485]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
PAYING OUT OF TRAWL HAULING IN TRAWL
Reversing by Slide-Valve. (A) The hauling is done at the most favourable speed which depends on the
resistance of the trawl.
The hydraulic motor fives only low power at low pressure and turns with max.
speed. (B) As soon as the stalling torque is reached, the motor stops. The motor main-
The pump tains a max. permissable tension on the cable.
is fed under pressure, and if the trawl pays out too fast, there is no rick
of cavitation, as it is easy to brake the motor by means of the slide valve and so (C) Ifthe stalling torque is surpassed, the motor pays out. A damping valve
control the paying out speed. prevents overcharging the diesel.
(D) Slow manoeuvres are made by using the slide valve.
To notor
Position
tioa
)8top of
Brafciaj
out Hmliac la cap*
Fig. 534
[486]
DECK GEAR HYDRAULIC TRAWL WINCHES
four vents (fig. 534). It controls the motor fluid HYDRAULIC TRAWL WINCH CONTROL
circuit and regulates the pump for slowing the
CHARACTERISTICS
hydraulic motor. It is used as an hydraulic brake
when there is rapid paying out and makes slow
manoeuvrings possible in both directions. When
stationary it closes the vents of the motor to allow
the pump to rotate at a low but sufficient flow
to avoid abnormal heating of the circuit. The
valve is easily operated by the control lever
(fig. 534).
CONSIDERATIONS OF THE WHOLE
INSTALLATION
The centrifugal pump is usually placed in the engine
room and does not require supervision. A slide valve is Fig. 535
mounted on the motor which can be mechanically or
hydraulically controlled by foot pedal, if necessary, is a low viscosity oil (3 to 4 Engler). Fig. 535 shows
to free the hands of the winch operator. valve pre- A that when the pull increases the speed decreases and, at
vents overloading of the diesel when hauling at full the same time, the power absorbed by the pump
load. decreases.
A small tank (50.1 imp. gal.) keeps the system charged The overall efficiency of the drive is 0.62 to 0.63 at
to prevent air entering and to replace fluid that has normal speeds of the winch. The installation is flexible,
leaked from the stuffing-boxes. The driving fluid used simple and sturdy, and it is easily operated by fishermen.
[487]
HYDRAULIC DECK EQUIPMENT
by
HANS VESTRE HUSE
are various ways of transmitting power from adaptability. Another great advantage is the hydraulic
an internalcombustion engine to the winch, motor's excellent acceleration. Up to 250,000 radians
^
In smaller ships the arrangement often consists per second* are possible, whereas the maximum accelera-
of small auxiliary engines on deck directly connected tion for fractional horse-power electric motors is only
8
to the winches by couplings or gears. Fishing vessels 50,000 radians per second An electric winch has to
.
often use a belt orchain transmission from themainengine. lift a load 26 to 30 ft. (8 to 9 m.) before the full hoisting
Electric winches are so far used only on the bigger speed is reached; an hydraulic winch reaches full speed
trawlers and similar ships, and it is apparent that they almost immediately after the start. Experience shows
can compete very well with steam winches. Ordinary that, because of its quicker acceleration, the maximum
electric winches, without Ward-Leonard couplings and, hoisting speed for an hydraulic winch may be only
Fig. 536 Fig. 537
to a still higher degree, purely mechanical transmissions, 60 per cent, of that of an electric winch to handle a
are too rigid, and the regulating possibilities are often given quantity of cargo in the same time.
limited. The hoisting speed depends mostly on the The high compared with the weight and space
torque,
r.p.m. of the engine and to achieve variations in this required, another feature of the hydraulic system.
is
speed the r.p.m. must be changed. This is especially Fig. 536 shows a comparison between an hydraulic
inconvenient when the main engine is used for driving and an electric motor of the same h.p. and r.p.m. The
the winch, especially if it is connected to a fixed-blade principle of hydraulic drive of winches on board a
propeller, but if a controllable pitch propeller is used, fishing vessel is shown in fig. 537. An hydraulic pump
the pitch can be altered to maintain the same speed of isconnected to the main engine through a claw coupling.
the ship. This dependence between speed of the ship and This pump forces an oil flow through a system of pipes
drive of the winch is naturally very inconvenient. to the winch. There the oil at first goes through a control
The hydraulic system of power transmission is more valve which regulates the quantity of oil to the hydraulic
often used where the demand is for good regulating and motor. The engine rotates at a speed corresponding to
[488]
DECK GEAR HYDRAULIC DECK EQUIPMENT
the oil flow. Then the oil returns through the suction to the main engine. The fixed part of the claw coupling
pipe to the pump. Consequently, the same quantity of is connected with a flange to the belt pulley of the fly-
oil is circulating all the time in the closed system. wheel and inside this is a seat for the guide bearing of
To eliminate variations of the oil volume at different the head shaft. The slide claw runs on sliding keys on the
temperatures, there is an expansion tank connected shaft. A universal coupling between the pump shaft and
to the suction side of the pump, placed above the highest the fixed claw eliminates strains caused by misalignment
part of the system. The air which happens to be in the of the engine and pump shafts. This arrangement is
oil will partly ascend to the tank and be separated there. only used for slow running main engines.
The static pressure from the tank will also prevent air The pump rests on a cast-iron bed plate which, in
leakage into the pump through the packings. A mano- turn, is anchored to cross-planks bolted to the keelson
meter is connected to the pressure side of the pump. This and frame through the ceiling. On steel ships the pump
may be placed in the engine room, wheel house or on the rests on a steel frame.
winch and it enables the operator or the skipper to Fig. 539 shows a cut-away drawing of the pump,
control the oil pressure and the load on the hoisting wire which is of the positive displacement vane type,
delivering oil at a
pressure of 350 to 400
Ib./sq. in. (25 to 28
kg./sq. cm.) at full load
of the winch. Com-
pared with the high
pressure type, the ad-
vantages of this low-
pressure system are the
economies in manu-
facturing and main-
tenance, in spite of
the higher weights and
increased pipe diam-
eters. Everyone familiar
with hydraulic trans-
missions will know that
presence of air in the
system is the main
cause of trouble and
improper operation,
and the ability of oil
to absorb air is heavily
increased by higher
pressure. In the low
pressure system this
Fif. 538
trouble is reduced.
The auxiliary engine
or fishing gear. The oil pressure is always proportional driven be directly connected, if speed and
pump may
to the load of the winch and a safety valve on the pump arrangement in other respects are suitable. An auxiliary
prevents overloading. engine often has many functions to fulfil as it usually
The combination indicated in fig. 537 is much used has to drive generator, water pump, compressor or
in Norway. Besides the main engine-driven pump, more hydraulic pumps. It very often happens, therefore,
another pump connected to an auxiliary engine, and
is that the hydraulic pump must be driven by a V-belt,
the pipes from the two pumps are coupled to the main chain or reduction gear.
pipes to the winch. From fig. 537 it may be seen that A usual type of cargo winch and its parts are shown
in addition to the winch there is a vertical long-line in fig. 540 and 541. The hydraulic motor is a rotating
hauler connected to the same system of pipes. This is vane type and in the casing there is a rotor wheel with
operated by a special control valve inserted in the return radially movable vanes that follow the eccentric guide
pipe from the winch, so that the long-line hauler and curve of the casing. This guide curve is designed in such
the winch are connected in series. The pipes from the a way that, under load, the vanes make no radial
pumps, on the other hand, are connected in parallel, movement.
making it possible to obtain double hoisting speed by The control handle works on the operating valve slide.
running both pumps simultaneously. The position of the slide determines the quantity and
Fig. 538 shows an hydraulic pump and its connection the direction of the oil to the hydraulic motor, and
[489]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
Fit?. 539
Fig.542
Fig. 540
Operating Volv*
/ 0***.
Fif. 541 Fig. 543
[490J
DECK GEAR HYDRAULIC DECK EQUIPMENT
vessel goesdown the next wave and the strain is reduced,
the winch automatically begins to haul again. Nothing like
this can be achieved so simply by mechanical or other
winches.
The first skipper to use this winch for long-line fishing
(off Iceland and Greenland in 1938) found that he
reduced his gear losses almost 50 per cent, compared
with those sustained when using mechanical winches.
How many are pulled off the hooks and lost by use
fish
of a direct mechanically-driven winch, because of the
jerks on the long-line, is not easy to say. Furthermore,
shocks directly transferred from the combustion engine
must adversely influence the result, while the steady
haul of an hydraulic winch must be favourable.
The hydraulic winch allows more independence of
weather conditions in, for example, halibut fishing,
because the long-line may be hauled in considerably
544
higher seas than is possible with mechanical winches,
Fig.
The maximum hoisting speed of the long-line winch,
by normal r.p.m. on the motor, is usually fixed to 230 ft.
thereby the speed and rotation direction of the winch. (70 m.) per minute. The winch is equipped with two
The slide is equipped with a check valve that prevents gypsies for handling nets, one above and one below the
return of the oil. If, whilst lifting, the oil pressure in the line sheaves.
pipe interrupted, the load will remain suspended without
is A number of fishing vessels use wire instead of chain
slipping because of the oil pressure built up in the winch for the anchor. The wire drum, which is usually fitted
motor between the vanes and the check valve. There is in thecabin hatch (placed amidship in front of the mast
no need for mechanical brakes as braking and holding, on Norwegian fishing boats), is often driven by a heavy
as well as manoeuvring, is hydraulically carried out. chain from the cargo winch, placed behind the mast.
The hydraulic motor is directly connected to the shaft A more convenient solution, however, is to let a separate
of the drums and gypsies. This eliminates power losses hydraulic motor, mounted in the cabin hatch (fig. 543),
and noise from gear and chain transmissions. The winch drive the drum directly or through a roller chain in an
may also be used as a windlass, in which case it is oil tight case.
equipped with gypsies for the chains. This winch type During the war ordinary Norwegian fishing craft
is'
normally delivered for 2, 3 and 4 tons test load. took up whale catching to help the food situation.
'Fig. 542 shows a combined net and long-line winch. These vessels were equipped with a whaling winch type,
At the bulwark, in the background, is the manoeuvring as shown in fig. 544.
wheel. Its valve is placed under the deck. During the In 1947, the Norwegian Fishery Department started
hauling of the long-line the control valve is adjusted experiments in trawling with larger vessels. One of them,
for a certain maximum pressure corresponding to a pull the Uran, was equipped with a 12-ton hydraulic trawl
somewhat lower than the strength of the line. When the winch, and another with a smaller hydraulically-driven
vessel rolls or pitches, causing an increased strain on the trawl winch. Based on experiences obtained, the Fishery
line, the winch automatically stops hauling. When the Department ordered complete hydraulic deck machinery
for their new deep-sea research ship, G.O.
Sars, built in 1950. This machinery includes
a 16-ton trawl winch (fig. 545), a 5-ton trawl
winch (fig. 546), a long-line winch, two special
winches for plan k ton nets and water specimens,
and a windlass. All these items are driven from
two pump aggregates, each consisting of two
duplex pumps driven from the main engines
(fig. 547). A similar installation is also
ordered for a new research ship being built
for the Department.
A 4-ton hydraulic trawl winch is installed
on board the research ship Eystrasalt of
the Royal Swedish Fisheries Board, and
fig. 548 shows a winch for water specimen
and plankton nets on this vessel.
Fig. 545 The hydraulic trawl winch arrangement is
[491]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
very suitable for diesel trawlers. Another advantage is Besides the simplex type of cargo winch (fig. 540),
that the hydraulic motors are connected directly to duplex or multiple speed winches are now used to an
the drum shaft and, therefore, no space is required in increased extent in both fishing vessels and cargo ships.
the deck house or under deck. They are equipped with two hydraulic motors and have
Purse seines are important in the Norwegian herring, two ranges of speeds, enabling a light hook and a half
cod, coalfish and tuna fishing. Approximately 90 per load to be hoisted or lowered at higher speeds than for
cent, of the total landings of one million tons of herring full loads. This is made by distributing the oil to one
per annum are caught by purse seines. By this method, or to both of the motors simultaneously In this case
the winch gets a strain which is unusually hard. The the manoeuvring of the winch is also carried out with
herring must be taken out of the net in less than an one handle or handwheel. The control is equipped with
hour or they will die, sink and drag down the net. The a built-in valve that automatically distributes the pressure
quantity loaded into the big purse seine boats may oil to both of the motors when the load is increased.
amount to 400 tons of herring and great quantities of This prevents the winch being overloaded, irrespective
water. As a comparison, the average figure for general of the position of the control handle.
cargo loading for a cargo liner is 14 tons per pair of With multi-speed winches in 3 and 5 ton sizes, light
winches an hour, whereas one winch on a purse seine net hook speeds of six times the full load speed can be
" "
fishing boat has to take 400 to 500 tons an hour. obtained, and the winches are fully dynamic in
As a measure of dependability, it may be mentioned action as the speed is automatically controlled by the
that 300 to 400 vessels with hydraulic winches took part load. The overall efficiency, reckoned from the pump
" "
in the big herring season last winter (1953) without shaft to the load, is 65 to 77 per cent, at full load,
a single mishap during the whole time. The popularity according to the conditions.
of the winches among the fishermen is proved by the fact The demand for dependability, simplicity, increased
that the best net-bosses, for whomthe skippers and efficiencyand lowerrunningcostsisincreasinginthefishing
owners strongly compete, will not take the job unless industry, and the world-wide interest in hydraulic winches
the boat is equipped with hydraulic winches. suggests that this equipment is meeting the demand.
>ra*
!
HK . 546
[492J
DECK GEAR HYDRAULIC DECK EQUIPMENT
ix. 547
Fig. 54K
[493]
LIVE-BAIT EQUIPMENT
by
CARL B. CARLSON
pole-and-line tuna fishery is dependent on must periodically rock the boat to encourage circulation.
THE supplies of live bait,
vessel depends in part
and the range of the tuna
on her ability to carry large
There is a trend toward the installation of power-driven
circulation systems. Both the Hawaiian and the Cuban
quantities of bait. The equipment used to capture bait tuna fisheries were pioneered by Japanese immigrants,
and keep it from the simple net and row-
alive varies and their influence predominates.
boat with a tank of sea water to the very elaborate
system on the Pacific tuna clippers. PACIFIC ALBACORE FISHERY
The system of capturing and holding bait alive in the
CUBA Pacific albacore fishery was derived from the tuna
The method and equipment for catching and holding clippers, but it is less elaborate and the vessels are
live bait in the Cuban fishery, as described by Rawlings smaller. Most of the vessels were designed for other
(1953), consists of a short, shallow fine-mesh net set from
kinds of fishing but they have adequate stability to carry
a row boat, a receiver for transporting the bait from the live-bait tanks on deck. Circulating water is supplied
shoals to the fishing vessel, scoops for transferring the by pumps and the bait is caught in large lampara nets
bait and live wells. The live wells are fitted with plugs set either from a powered boat or from the fishing vessel.
for draining after the bait has been expended but no
provisions are made for the circulation of water. Since
TUNA CLIPPERS
the fishing grounds are near the bait grounds this system The most elaborate system for capturing and holding
is practical, for bait caught in the morning is generally bait alive is found on the Pacific tuna clippers. The
expended the same afternoon. But a circulation system equipment required consists of tanks for a large quantity
would enable the fishermen to hold larger quantities of of bait, a water circulation system to sustain life, boats
bait mostly the majua (Jenkinsia lamprotaenia) for a and gear to catch the bait, and facilities for trans-
longer time. Experiments in 1953 using tanks with ferring the bait from the nets to the tanks.
circulating sea water, showed that majua can be kept alive
for prolonged periods. BAIT TANK DESIGN
The structure of the tanks must be adequate ror the
HAWAII
weight of water and safety factors for service at sea.
More elaborate equipment, as described by June (1951), Hatches at least 18 in. (46 cm.) high are required to
is used in the Hawaiian fishery. The bait is small and is maintain a head of water to eliminate air pockets and
caught in fine-mesh nets, by using lights to
at night to prevent sloshing. Waterproof lights of at least
attract the bait to the nets, or in the day by using large 100 watts should be installed in the accessible sides of
encircling nets. The net boats are powered by outboard the tanks to allow the bait to mill properly at night.
motors and the transfer of bait to the vessel is made with Portable or fixed lights over the hatches are also desir-
buckets to avoid injury through loss of scales. Live able, and it is essential to have smooth surface screens
bait wells are built in the hull and are fitted with screened with adequate openings to reduce the flow rate to limits
holes below the water line to permit the entrance and which will not injure the bait.
exit of seawater. Bait may be kept alive for from one Controversy exists among fishermen as to the amount of
to several weeks in wells of this nature. By plugging the live bait which can be carried in a tank of a given volume.
holes and draining the water into the bilge, the wells The amount of bait is probably dependent on a number
may be converted to carry tuna. When underway or of factors, including oxygen content, temperature, and
rolling in a sea, the circulation is adequate to keep the salinity of the waters; the abuse to which the bait is
bait alive, but when lying in calm waters the fishermen exposed between capture and being put in the tanks;
[494]
on in the hardiness of the bait because of species, CIRCULATION PUMP
>rseason of capture, and the proper design and
ulation of the tanks and circulation system,
more
al practice is to
jcted to survive.
place bait in the tanks than
III I
BOTTOM SCREEN
i
MI the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service vessel PUN (330 Q. 1nch
n was operated in the commercial tuna fishery off
VIEW
1 America in the Pacific Ocean, 300 and 400
scoops
it (each containing about 12 Ib. (5.4 kg.)) were
in deck tanks having a capacity of 3,400 and
mp. gal. (4,100 and 6,130 gal, 15,520 and 23,200 1.) TOP SCREEN
tively, exclusive of baffle and screen areas. When sq. Inchtt)
investigationwork in the Japanese tuna fishery,
>r and Shimada (1950) reported that a sardine
(7 cm.) long required 0.07 cu. ft. (2 1.) of water in
having natural circulation, i.e. screened holes in 13'
ill to admit sea water. The amount of water per
ander forced circulation, could be reduced to
u. ft. (1.4 1.) with a water temperature of 64 to
I. F. (17.7 to 19.9 deg. C). In another instance,
timately 1,000 Ib. (454 kg.) of bait were held in a
1x8x7 ft. (2.4x2.4x2.1 m.) without mechanical
ition. The same authors also report 50 buckets,
ELEVATION
ning from 15 to 20 Ib. (6.8 to 9.1 kg.) of bait per
t,
in a tank 6fx6fx9j{ ft. (2.36x2.36x2.9 m.) (starboard side
it mechanical circulation.
looking aft)
design of the screens in the bait tanks aboard a
r is
very important. They must have a relatively
h surface and openings small enough to hold in
lit but big enough to admit and discharge the
at flow rates that will not injure it. Too rapid
>n the inlet side will affect the milling of the bait
an excessive rate through the discharge side will
or cause dead bait to collect and clog
,he live bait
reen. Typical screens are made of | in. (19 mm.) TUNA CLIPPER BAIT AND BRINE WELL
woof marine plywood with J in. (3 mm.) slots cut (unequal scales, dimensions approximate)
ircular saw on 1 in. (2.5 cm.) centres.
Very little,
550
', reliablepublished data are available on the Fig.
um area of the openings, and fishermen may
provide additional slots if the bait behaves improperly.
One tank, having a volume of 910 cu. ft. (25.75 cu. m.)
was fitted with inlet and outlet screens having areas of
If 338 and 494 sq. in. (2,180 and 3,186 sq. cm.), respec-
tively.
The deck bait tanks, fig. 549, are rectangular to suit
the available space, but the below deck tanks (or wells),
fig. 550, are vertical on three sides while the fourth side
and bottom conform to the shape of the hull. Water
for the deck tanks is introduced at one corner behind the
screen and allowed to overflow through a screen and
baffle in an opposite or adjacent corner, so tending to
create circulation in a horizontal plane. Water for the
ru* viw tanks below is admitted at the bottom on the shaft alley
side and allowed to overflow in the upper outboard side,
which tends to create circulation in a vertical plane.
The flow of water to the tanks is throttled by a valve.
In the deck tanks the overflow governed by the height
is
1WA CUIVfll MIT TIM (wvl .
of baffle boards, which are maintain a constant
set to
Fig. 549 level of water in the hatch. The rate of discharge and
[495]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
the consequent level of water in the hatch in the wells diminish in size to in. (1.3 cm.) stretched measure
below is controlled by a valve behind the discharge mesh in the bag. The lampara nets are lightly floated
screen. and leaded in the wings, about one cork and one lead
every 12 to 18 in. (30 to 40 cm.), but they are heavily
buoyed and leaded in the bags, about three corks alter-
PUMPS AND PIPING nating with a 6-in. (15-cm.) space. The bottom line is
The pumps for supplying seawater to the tanks are of almost solidly leaded at the throat. The lampara nets
the vertical impeller type designed to deliver large are used along the mainland for day fishing in shallow
volumes at low head
pressures. High head pressure water or at night in deep water when the bait can be
types are undesirable because they may churn and located by phosphorescence.
separate dissolved gases from the water. The sea chests A smaller fine-mesh net from 125 to 150 ft. (38.1 to
for the pumps are located near the keel and close to 45.7 m.) in length and 20 to 30 ft. (6.1 to 9.1 m.) in
amidship to allow the least disturbing suction of water depth is used for catching bait in the clear waters near
when cruising. The pumps change the tank water five the rocky shores of the Galapagos Island. The nets
to seven times per hour. To achieve this performance are moderately buoyed and weighted, with about two
a safety factor of at least two must be considered because corks and leads per foot (30 cm.), and a mesh size of
the water can be throttled by the tank supply line valves. from J to 1 in. (1.9 to 2.5 cm.) by stretched measure,
And live bait is so important that dual pumps should be depending on the preference of the fishermen. These are
installed, each able to carry the load for most of the used as a surround net and extend from the surface to
tanks. The pumps dischargeto a header on each side the bottom. Because of obstructions it is necessary to
with a cross-over connection so that one or both pumps send divers to the bottom to free the net and to keep the
may be used for the system. Each take-off to a tank is lead-line together while hauling. The diving equipment
fitted with a valve to govern the flow or to isolate the may be either a helmet or a face mask supplied by
tank. compressed air from the surface or a face mask and air
tank. The face mask
preferred because of the possible
is
loss of air from a helmet when bending to clear the
BAIT FISHING BOATS AND GEAR net.
Most of taken in sheltered and shallow areas
the bait is If the bait is caught in shallow or hazardous areas it is
along the coasts of Mexico and central America. Small transferred to a collapsible receiver, fig. 551, which can
boats are necessary in the shallow water because if the be towed. The receiver consists of a transom stern and
bait pump intakes on the clipper get too close to the midships section, about 10 ft. (3.0 m.) long, 1\ ft.
bottom, mud may be drawn into the tanks and kill a (2.28 m.) wide and 3 ft. (0.9 m.) deep, and a pointed bow
lot of the fish. section about 6 ft. (1.83 m.) long. The bow section is
Three boats are used to find and capture bait: a power solidly planked but the after section is covered on the
boat capable of speeds up to 30 or more knots per hour, sides and bottom with netting to provide circulation.
"
a net skiff, and a dry boat ". The power boat may be In making the set,the dry boat holds one end of the
fitted with an echo sounder to aid in locating the bait, net and the circle is completed by the speed boat towing
and may vary from 16 to 18 ft. (4.9 to 5.5 m.) in length the net skiff. Dumpinga difficult operation.
the bag is
and 4 to 5 ft. (1.22 to 1.52 m.) in beam. The engine is It must be can be set as a unit
specially piled so that it
usually high-speed gasoline type of 100 to 150 h.p. to avoid tearing and if the length of the circle exceeds
Some engines are fitted with reduction gears which allow the length of the net, a running line is paid out so that
the use of larger diameter propellers to reduce slippage both ends may be pulled to the net skiff. It is retrieved
when towing the net and dry boat.
The net boats are from 16 to 18 ft. (4.9 to 5.5 m.)
in length, from 6 to 7 ft. (1.83 to 2.3 m.) in beam, and
from 20 to 30 in. (0.5 to 0.76 m.) in depth. The dry
boats are flat-bottom skiffs about 12 ft. (3.66 m.) in
length and are used to hold the end of the net while
setting, and to support thefish bag.
Two men are required in the speed boat; one serves
|J
as operator while the other searches for bait and directs
the fishing operation. From six to eight men are required
to set and haul the net. When not in use, the boats are
carried in nests aboard the clipper.
Most of the bait is caught in hand-operated lampara
nets varying from 130 to 160 fm. (239 to 293 m.) in
length and from 50 to 75 ft. (15.2 to 22.9 m.) in depth
FLOATING BAIT RECEIVER (dluwntlont approximate)
at the bag. The end meshes in the wings vary from
5 to 8 in. (13 to 20 cm.), stretched measure, and gradually Fig. 55 J
[496]
DECK GEAR LIVE BAIT EQUIPMENT
by hauling from both ends. Until the lead-line is aboard, is described in Pacific Fisherman (" Pumping Live Fish
one man throws a weighted line into the opening to ..." 1953).
scare the fish into and keep them in the bag while the Recently a new type trap lift net for catching tuna bait
dry boat picks up the cork line at the bag for additional fish has been developed by the technical staff of the
support. After drying up, the fish may be transferred exploratory fishing vessel Oregon (Siebenaler, 1953).
directly to the clipper, if the water is deep enough, or This net is operated from the fishing vessel, using lights
transferred to a receiver and towed to the clipper. to attract the schools of bait at night. To date, it has
Transferring is done with scoop nets of in. (1.3 cm.) been very successful in catching anchovies and other
mesh holding from 10 to 15 Ib. (4.5 to 6.8 kg.) of bait. small species in the Gulf of Mexico. It eliminates the
Then follows a " rest period ", the clipper remaining need for special bait boats and large bait seines. It
from one to several days in quiet water to acclimatize differs from ordinary lift nets because it has the advantage
the fish to life in the tanks. of quick lift of the sides, independent of lift of the bottom
A new method of using pumps to transfer the live bait and frame of the net.
[497]
HATCH COVERS AND MAST WITHOUT SHROUDS
by
P. BAIN
WATERTIGHT METAL COVERS FOR FISH-HOLD partly opened, which reduces the volume of air entering
HATCHES the holds. The design makes it possible to have hatches
of 13 to 14 ft. (4 m. to 4.3 m.) long for unloading but
npRAWLERS usually have four or five small hatches
to the fish-holds to the low to reduce them to very small openings when loading.
JL preserve temperatures
inthem but when the hatches are opened air enters Working on the same principle, hatches of smaller size
and starts to melt the ice. The hatches are usually made can also be fitted with covers by using one or two sec-
with insulated inner covers, wood covers and tarpaulins tions instead of three. Both loading and' unloading are
or steel outer-covers, a design which has not been im- easy, whether done by hand or winch.
The British factory ship, Fairtry, is equipped with
proved for a long time.
About one hundred English trawlers have been MacGregor hatch covers. The experience gained by
use of them on British trawlers shows that they retain
equipped with watertight metal hatch covers which have
been found satisfactory after being in service for several all the qualities of the conventional hatch cover.
years. Among the trawlers using these new hatches is the
Kingston Garnet, 184 ft. (56.1 m.) long between perpen-
NEW TYPE OF " BIPOD " MAST
diculars, built by Cook, Welton and Gemmel, Ltd., About 100 ships have now been fitted with the new
" "
Hull. Fig. 552 shows the longitudinal section of the mast developed by the Swedish naval architect,
bipod
vessel and fig. 553 shows one of the MacGregor hatch Eskil H alien. The mast is 15 to 20 per cent, lighter than
covers specially adapted for quick manoeuvrability. the conventional type and is not held by stays. It is
They are also designed so that the hatches need only be made of tubular girders which form an " A " by means
Profile of the British oil-burning steam trawler 'Kingston Garnet*
fig. 552
[498]
DECK GEAR HATCH COVERS AND MAST WITHOUT SHROUDS
of a bracket at the top. The angle is about 20 deg. At the derricks and fig. 554 and 555 show two methods of
top is a crosstree and a small mast. The tubular girders installing it on fishing boats. In fig. 554 the mast is
have a special section, with high inertia in the fore and placed well forward, leaving more room for the fish
aft direction. This makes it possible to do away with ponds. In fig. 555 a horizontal girder is supported on the
stays and standing rigging. The mast can be fitted with mast, which does away with the gallows.
HATOH COVER
IN OPEN POSITION .
HATCH COVER
IN LIFTED POSITION
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
4.5FT.-(137M)
4 4 FT - (1 33 M)
^2.5 FT-fc)76 M)
1 FT-(057 M)^
ELEVATION EXCENTRIC ROLLER
PLAN
13 5 F T.-(* 11 M)
f HANDLE
-JL
Fig. 553
[499]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
PROFILE
STAY FOR SECTION II
CIRC 3 IN. -029,9 MM
BREAKING FORCE 16.6 TONS
r *T f TTt rrf TTTrrrrr rTfCV !- ,-. - -,-
9 6
SCALE
9 12
IN FEET
19 1B 21 34 27 30 01 2 a^S67Q
SCALE METRES
IN
10
SECTION IIAT THE BASE SECTIONI AT THE BASE
(WITH STAY) (NO STAY]
FEET
METRES
Fig. 554
[5001
DECK GEAR HATCH COVERS AND MAST WITHOUT SHROUDS
SCALE IN FEET
'
3 6 12 15 16 24 2730
<f 2^
SCALE
1 2 3 450METRES
IN
76 O 10
PROFILE
SECTION
PLAN
-
(180)-7 IN.
. i
- a SECTION OF MAST LEG
2 FEET
'METRES
[501]
DERRICK ARRANGEMENT OF A TRAWLER
by
MARIO COSTANTINI
the Italian fishery company, Genepesca The arrangement has proved in every respect satis-
WHEN of Leghorn, had two deep sea motor trawlers
built in 1949 they would not have conventional
factory. (For further
trawler see paper
"
particulars about this type of
Liver conveyor system of a trawler
"
derricks for hoisting the cod end of the trawl net on on page 545.)
board. They suggested fitting twin derrick posts, cross-
braced together, and provided with an outrigger extended
to the sides of the ship. The system had plenty of
transverse stability but seriously lacked longitudinal
stiffness. This could be obtained by extending the base
of the derrick posts into the fish-hold or fitting large
brackets on deck, both unsatisfactory makeshifts.
The problem was finally solved by fitting two sheer-
legs to the foremast to form a rigid tripod and installing
a tubular steel double outrigger flush with the bulwark
on the starboard side and somewhat shorter on the port
side (see fig. 556).
The system is rigid and the only obstruction below
deck consists of a solid pillar fitted under the foremast.
The starboard outrigger is used for handling the trawl
net, while the port side supports the upper block of the
topping lift of a small (l^ton) derrick which hoists
the net and provision stores forward.
A portsidc gangway, connecting the midship deck-
house to the forecastle, bridges the obstruction formed
across the deck by the ponds and fish cleaning
installation. Fig. 556
[502]
JAPANESE LONG LINING
by
K. YAGI
line haulerswere used in tuna long-lining,
much labour and
BEFORE time were spent hauling in the
gear. Fishermen would cut their hands doing this
and continuous operation was often impossible. The
length of line that could be used was restricted, which
limited the catch. When development of tuna fishing
was accelerated through the use of the hot-bulb engine,
it was necessary to improve the primitive method of
hand hauling. A mechanical line hauler was conceived
and in 1923, at a base port on Shikoku Island, a
prototype was completed and used successfully.
Fishermen were at first reluctant to try the line hauler,
but were finally persuaded to use it. The demand for the
device continually increased and to date no less than
8,230 have been built and used, not only in Japan, but
also in Taiwan, the United States, Hawaii, Brazil and
other countries.
For the purpose of description, the line hauler shown
in fig. 557 is divided into three parts. In the lower part
is the motor, the gears to change the speed, and the
clutch handle. In the middle is the governor, controlled
by a stop handle, which reacts, even if the motor is at
full power, to the stresses caused by wave resistance or
big catches. This enables the operator to adjust the
stress of the long-line which minimizes wearing, prevents
Fig. 557. Japanese long-line hauler
Large size (standard)
Over 30-ton
Large size (lower)
Over 20-ton
Medium size: .
Over 10-ton . 45 1,150 410 185 230 280 250 75
Small size:
Less than 10-ton 33 840 240 HO 170 200 220 68
[503]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
the lines being cut and keeps the fish on the hooks while THE FISHING TECHNIQUE
hauling. In the upper part is the gurdy proper consisting One long line consists of many short complete main
of three sheaves by which, through friction on the pulleys, lines which are coiled and stacked in baskets when not
the lines are hauled mechanically. Rubber sheave liners in use. For fishing, the hook at the end of each branch
line is baited and is kept at a suitable depth from the
surface of the water by varying lengths of buoy lines
attached at intermediate sections of the main line.
On fishing vessels operating in equatorial waters a
200 fm. (370 m.) main line is usually treated as a unit.
A branch line is usually 15 fm. (27 m.) long and a buoy
line varies in length up to 15 fm. Vessels of 200 gross
tons and over usually operate 300 to 350 units of long line,
the total length of which reaches 60,000 to 70,000 fm.
(110 to 127 km.).
One branch line with a big-size tuna hook is used
between two buoys, 100 fm. (180 m.) apart, when fishing
S<de Roller
Fig. 558. Arrangement of Japanese long-line hauler, driven by
separate motor
are used on the pulleys to give greater friction on the
linesand also to minimize wear.
The line hauler is driven by an electric motor, fig. 558,
or from the main or auxiliary engine through an inter-
mediary shaft leading to the deck, fig. 559. The line
hauler is made of cast steel and the pulleys of gunmetal.
Fig. 560. Hauling a tuna with long-line
hauler
for blue fin tuna. In fishing for albacore, 12 or 13 branch
lines with small tuna hooks are used and the diameter
of the main line is a little smaller. A few big hooks are
used along some sections of the line.
The length of buoy line varies according to the fishing
ground and the main species of tuna it is desired to catch.
In fishing for blue fin tuna, 6 to 20 fm. (11 to 37 m.) are
used and for albacore about 30 fm. (54 m.).
A
tuna fishing vessel usually finds a good fishing ground
Fig. 559. Long-line hauler, driven by main engine by observation and begins to throw out the lines before
sunrise. They are set at a rate of about 100 units per
Usually 3 h.p. is needed to drive the line hauler at hour, the hooks being baited as the lines are paid out.
about 220 to 250 r.p.m. The hauling speed of the lines When the setting is finished, the vessel comes around to
is 500 to 600 ft./min. (150 to 180 m./min.). Under the end of the line which was thrown out first and starts
normal fishing conditions it takes about 12 hours for to haul it in. The time needed to haul the lines depends
a vessel using 300 units or baskets of long lines to haul upon the catch. Normally it takes about 12 hours to
in the 60,000 fm. (110 km.) of line. haul in 300 units. Fig. 560 shows a tuna being hauled in.
[504]
DECK GEAR DISCUSSION
Hilmar Kristjonsson (FAO): Most news about electric salt The hydraulic winches described by Huse can be operated at
water fishing has come from Germany and it is therefore suitable speeds irrespective of the speed of the engine. This
interesting that Dr. A. von Brandt is not optimistic about its is clearly of major importance in long-line and cod-net
prospects in the immediate future. Conventional methods of fishing where the boat must constantly manoeuvre into a
catching fish will still be used for some years to come, and position for hauling. It involves a great deal of speed variation
the use of electrical current to drive or lead fish into the and even reversing if a fixed-blade propeller is used. Guinard
trawls will not yet present design problems to naval architects. described a different type of drive for hydraulic trawl winches,
Devices for detecting fish, and observing and controlling the but in both types there is the problem of speed regulation.
behaviour of nets while fishing, are more urgently needed Some sort of speed governor is needed to regulate the maxi-
to-day than ever before, especially by fishermen using off-the- mum speed. When a long line, or net, is fouled and then is
bottom and mid-water trawls. These will certainly come into suddenly released, the winch inevitably increases its speed
more general use in the next few years. But devices are also considerably until the regulating valve has been readjusted
wanted by fishermen who use submerged purse seines for for a lower torque. While that is happening the line or net
catching fish in very deep water, as is done, for example, in comes in faster than it can be hauled off the sheave. This
the Lofoten cod fishery. disrupts the hauling operation and it seems that some simple
Asdic (sonar) and similar echo-ranging devices will soon limiting speed governor of a fly-ball type might provide a
be considered essential equipment in medium and large size practical solution to this problem.
fishing boats. Their introduction will not involve serious Costantini describes a fixed derrick system for power hand-
design problems as hull attachments for most echo-ranging ling of the trawl. Fishermen have been much too slow in
equipment are now made in a size that can be housed in a eliminating the heavy manual labour of hauling the trawls
cylinder of about 3.3 ft. (1 m.) diameter. Such a device can or getting them into the sea. This is a task which lends itself
be installed in the fish-hold or some other suitable place and easily topower handling. An arrangement similar to the one
can be operated through a retractable transducer extending proposed by Costantini may be more practical than the
through the bottom of the boat. Equipment of this kind is present method of swinging the booms from the mast. But
produced in Norway and the U.S.A. such fixed derricks should give the least possible windage and
C. B. Carlson describes the use of pumps for unloading problems of icing in northern waters should also be con-
fishing boats in the U.S.A. Some experience has been gained sidered.
in loading fish from the seines into the boats and it seems to H. C. Hanson records the increased use of labour-saving
be a promising method. It certainly should be tried in the equipment and methods on board U.S.A. fishing boats, a
herring fisheries of northern Europe. For example, in the development that has been hastened through the demand
winter fishing off Norway the rough sea often makes the con- by American fishermen for more wages and a higher standard
ventional methods of brailing very difficult and pumps might of living. They were the first to realize the need to employ
be effectively used in this case. When pumps are used, the fish mechanical power for handling gear wherever possible and a
do not have to be so closely confined and there is less strain similar development is now taking place in other parts of the
on the net from the roll and heave of the vessel. On the world. If fishermen are to have higher standards of living,
other hand, the use of pumps has not been altogether success- and the fishing industry is to be profitable, then much more
ful in unloading the fat summer
herring caught off Iceland. use must be made of mechanical power for saving manual
The fish are very sensitive to rough handling because they are labour on board the boats.
very fat, and as they are caught during feeding runs their
bellies are quickly weakened by the enzymes they contain.
The power requirements quoted by Carlson are high and TRAWL WINCHES
the suggested use of auxiliary petrol engines poses a problem
of finding the necessary space on board. It also creates a fire Dr. A. von Brandt (Germany): A
big stride forward in fishing
hazard. Some better solution should be found, such as after World War II was the introduction of echo sounders,
driving the pumps off the main engine, which is otherwise and the most recent development in European fishing is the
idle during brailing. The
air pressure controls for winches, study of the behaviour of fishing gear in action. This develop-
described by Carlson, invite remote control from the pilot ment was started by three British underwater films made by
house or some other desirable location. the Lowestoft and Aberdeen research stations The films
Graftiaux analyses the work done by the trawl winch. In dealt with various trawls and seines in action.
connection, mention should be made of the recent develop-
this The skipper on the bridge should be able to check the
ments in British-built dicsel trawlers, in some of which the behaviour of the gear while fishing. He wants especially to
winch generator is driven by the main engine through a clutch. know when the net is full, and the angle between the two
[505]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
warps cannot tell him that with certainty. A
better method of the torque, which it develops. This represents an entirely
is to make
use of the fact that there is a correlation between self-governing system.
the r.p.m. and the speed. The resistance of the net is indicated There is another solution for driving winches from the
by the change in speed and r.p.m. of the engine relative to general circuit of the boat. This solution has been adopted
changing thrust. The French and German fishing industries specially in England on big trawlers where the power available
have gathered much experience in using this method to judge is greater than the power needed for the winch. In this
when the net is full. instance it would be less economical to have an independent
In other countries a dynamometer has been used. This may electro-power system for the winch, which is idle during
be applicable to small or floating trawls but it does not give cruising periods.
reliable figures when trawling on rough ground or against a
current. One advantage is that when the resistance is equal WIIP IN FUC6 AND FLUSH
on the two warps the dynamometers indicate that the fishing
gear is in good working order. If the resistance is different,
the length of one of the trawl-wires must be changed.
The skipper also needs to know the height of the opening
of the trawl, the distance between the otter boards, the depth
of pelagic gear, etc., and instruments to permit such obser-
vations are being developed.
The difficulty is to install them so that the skipper can read
the recordings on the bridge. It is not possible as yet to link
the recording apparatus with the underwater gear by electric
cables to the bridge, but scientists of the Netherlands and
Germany are working together to find suitable methods to
transmit the measured values.
Mr. Philip Thiel, Jr. (U.S.A.): In a wooden ship a serious
problem is to distribute over a sufficient area the stresses and
shock load to the trawl gallows and bollards, and to reduce
the loosening and leakage of through-fastenings. The
difficulties be ameliorated by two means: (1) by com-
may
bining adjacent fittings on a common foundation plate of
steel, and (2) by bedding this steel plate to the deck structure
by studs, welded water-tight at the upper plate, and extending
through inter-beam blocking to a lighter steel plate under the
deck (see fig. 561). Fittings that may be combined (by
welding) on one plate are the two double bollards and the
foremast step, the forward gallows frame and single bollard.
Admittedly this is expensive, but it makes for true economy
by insuring greater safety on deck and less depreciation of the
hull.
Anyone who has been to sea in a trawler, or has noticed
in port the effect of gear chafe on the hull, will realize the
importance of using stiffer, corrosion-resisting plate for the
gallpws,frames, towing block and quarters, and of using only
solid, not tubular, chafing strips on the side of the hull.
Mr. Maurice Graftiaux (France): The electric drive of trawl
winches has taken a long time to develop, chiefly because the
diesel has taken a long time to replace the steam-engine.
Reliability is of prime importance in a winch. If damage to Fig. 561
the main engine is a catastrophe for a trawler, so is damage
to the trawl winch, because if it stops working the trawler
Many developments of the electric drive for trawl winches
cannot fish. It is also necessary to see that the warps do not are likely to take place. For instance, electric propulsion
break. It is preferable to work with constant pull, which can very well be combined with the drive of trawl winches
can be done with a diesel-electric drive. The electric system because most of the work of the winch is done when the
allows an automatic and progressive selection of speed, accord- boat is stopped or moving slowly. The winch uses a maximum
ing to the pull. force when hauling the net, and that is when the general
The simplest and the safest solution seems to be to use D.C., electrical installation is not fully used for other purposes.
which has been widely adopted in nearly all countries. A
French firm has developed the War* Leonard system with Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): The value of electrical deck
special falling characteristics. The speed of the winch motor machinery is immediately apparent, and so also is the effect
is controlled by the voltage of the generator, which is in turn of the climate in which it operates. On the U.S.A. south-west
determined by the current it supplies. By varying the field of coast, for example, a great deal of difficulty has been experi-
the generator, the speed of the winch is varied as a function enced with electrical machinery because of the very high
[506]
DECK GEAR DISCUSSION
humidity of the atmosphere. On the other hand, a vessel mum speed not only at 230 ft. (70 m.) but at other lower values
can operate in Alaska during the summer season, where tem- as well, if fishing conditions so required.
peratures are moderate and the humidity is low, and no
difficulty is experienced with the electrical machinery. Again, Mr. G. O. Huet (U.S.A.) : The efficiency of hydraulic systems
vessels can operate the year round in Puget Sound, the for the transmission of power is very low compared with
Oregon and the Northern Californian waters, and there is electricity, especiallywhen the transmission is carried out
no But if they are sent south, particularly to Central
trouble. over long distances. High-pressure hydraulic systems are
America, where temperatures go up to 100 deg. F. (38 deg. C.) very sensitive and the installation must be perfect. If din
and humidity ranges from 85 to 95 per cent., the maintenance gets into them it gives considerable trouble. It is probably
problem of electrical gear is exacting and -very troublesome. better for small vessels to have mechanical equipment, but
For that reason the machinery chosen for a ship is usually with larger vessels hydraulic equipment may be installed
determined by the area in which she is to operate. because it is less troublesome.
Most people agree that the electrical equipment is the
Mr. Howard Chapelle (U.S.A.): During World War II,
I. most efficient for the transmission of power and for cost of
intensive study was made of the effect of climate on mechanical operation. A
lot of development work has been done to
and electrical equipment, and a great deal of testing and make cables and other electrical equipment suitable for use
research was done on the effect of tropical conditions on in the tropics.
insulated surfaces. This information should be available to He referred to two ships, one of which was installed with
the fishing industry on application to the U.S.A. Department A.C., which was used for the cargo winches. The ship has
of Defence, Washington, D.C. been very successful. About the same time an L.S.T. was
converted and fitted with D.C. but it was unsatisfactory and
Mr. W. C. Gould (U.S.A.): The advantages of A.C. over every time it came into port there was work for an electrician
D.C. current in lower cost and greater safety at sea, even to do on board.
in the case of small vessels, are such that efforts have
been made to develop suitable A.C. equipment. The latest Mr. Olai Molleklciv (Norway): Even owners of small vessels
is a 121 kw. generator set with a permanent magnet bolted can afford to install Norwegian hydraulic deck equipment
directly to the flywheel of the auxiliary diesel so that there because it is inexpensive. It is also simple in design and con-
are no bearings of any kind in the generator, nor any slip- struction so if anything goes wrong, which is seldom, the
rings and brushes to maintain. The equipment gives a per- trouble is easily remedied.
fectlyregulated three-phase current. According to the This equipment was first developed in Norway and many
Bureau of Standards in the United States, the permanent improvements have since been made in it by Norwegian
magnet loses only 1 per cent, of its magnetism every 100 years. manufacturers. For example, it is now possible to have two
changes of speed with one hydraulic motor without affecting
Mr. Hans Vestre Huse (Norway): A type of governor may design or cost. This type of motor works at a much higher
be used to control the increased speed of the hydraulic speed in handling the load, such as hoisting catches. It is
winch when the load is decreased. Mr. Kristjonsson is the especially usefulin the small boats where two hydraulic
first person, however, to object to the increased speed. One motors would be too heavy and expensive. The motor has
firm has installed the hydraulic winch on 900 long-liners, and two working chambers which distribute the oil pressure to
the fishermen have usually found the automatic increase in opposite sides of the shaft. This practically eliminates bearing
speed to be advantageous. The maximum hoisting speed pressure. It also has duplex pumps double-acting in one
for long-line haulers is usually fixed at 230 ft. (70 m.) per rotor house, which is an advantage over duplex pumps in
minute, and as the pump and hydraulic motor are both of two houses with two rotors. When a lower speed is wanted,
the positive displacement type, the speed cannot exceed this one of the chambers may be cut out. The winch retains full
figure even when the light line is hauled in. At that speed, lifting capacity with only half the engine power. This is
experience shows the line may easily be hauled off the sheave. especially advantageous when, for instaoge, the auxiliary
A hydraulic motor now available is still of the positive engine is small. In this case, however, smaller loads may be
displacement vane type, but instead of having one radial lifted at full speed.
pressure chamber it has three. This makes it possible to Another Norwegian development is the magnetic filter or
have three different speeds according to the load, and by mudbox which can be cleaned without taking the oil out of
using two motors coupled to the same shaft, six different the system. In the case of pumps on both main and auxiliary
speeds are obtained. The hand-operated control valve is engines it is possible to drive two hydraulic winch motors,
equipped with an automatic valve system to limit the hoisting when coupled in serie, at full torque by a single pump but,
speed of smaller loads even if the handle is put in the full of course, at a lower speed. Such an arrangement provides
hoisting position. The new motor is especially suitable for an element of safety when one auxiliary engine is out of
trawl winches and a number of Norwegian trawlers are action.
installing it. Nearly all the Norwegian fishing boats now use hydraulic
The three pressure chambers are arranged in such a way machinery. Even the small seine boats have winches of
that the motor is pressure balanced at full load. 1,100 Ib. (500 kg.) capacity. Purse seiners in particular find
the hydraulically operated derrick very useful, especially when
Mr. Hilmar Kristjonsson (FAO): remaps Mr. Vestre Huse the sea is rolling and the catch has to be hoisted tons at a
missed the point about the need for speed control on hydraulic time into the listing vessel.
net and line haulers. The automatic increase in hauling speed
with decreased torque or resistance is, of course, an extremely Commander C. Harcoort-Smith (U.K.) One of the difficulties
:
valuable characteristic of the hydraulic drive, but what Mr. of the closed hydraulic system is that, owing to the very high
Kristjonsson had in mind was the need for setting the maxi- pressure, there is always the risk of a pipe bursting or of a
[507]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
leakage at one of the unions. Even a slight leak of oil might was used, the size of the hydraulic unit would be about
make the decks very slippery and dangerous, and there is, 1/5, and the hydraulic motor would drive the winch direct
of course, the need to carry special fluid for topping up the through a worm gear with a ratio of about 40 to 1 .
system.
An hydraulic system employing water instead of oil uses Mr. Stobinski: The Norwegian system is completely different.
only one pump in the engine-room. This pump can be used It has no worm gear and the motors are connected direct to
to operate an ejector system for clearing the bilges and for the shaft.
hydraulic gear winches, line haulers or windlasses. It can
also supply pressure to connections for deck washing, fish Mr. Bromfield: What you have in mind would not be
washing, etc. The system of drive to the winches and line adaptable for the U.S.A. fishing fleet. To put a large hydraulic
haulers consists of a form of water turbine geared to the motor between the drums would sacrifice a considerable
machines. One great advantage is that the control wheel amount of cable and the length of cable is very important
can be adjusted to regulate the hauling power of the winch because the fish are caught in deep water.
to pay out at any predetermined strain so that there is no
need for broken wires or warps. This function is also useful Mr. Stobinski: That would depend on the size of the ship.
in rough weather as the winch can be set to pay out again
when wave action causes a sudden snatch. Similarly, when Mr. Bromfield: Yes, but we are talking about the type of ship
a trawl catches on the bottom the paying out automatically we are using to-day in fishing.
operates.
Mr. R. T. Whiteleather (U.S.A.): Referring to the hydraulic
Mr. Bromfield (U.S.A.):
I. A
high-pressure hydraulic winch winches on the Norwegian vessel, the G. O. Sars, he said
developed in association with M.I.T. and Vickers, has been that a big hydraulic trawl winch had been installed and
very satisfactory in replacing a mechanical drive in a trawl operated very effectively.
winch. A
special feature of the winch is the means of limiting
the overload condition. In the previous installation with Mr. Bromfield: The ship has a 30 to 35 ft. (9 to 10 m.) beam
mechanical drive from the main engine maintenance and U.S.A. trawlers have, at the most, only a 25 ft. (7.6 m.)
costs were very high because of the wear and overload. beam. The electric drive seems to be the most foolproof and
There was no way of controlling the volume of horsepower least troublesome drive available to-day, although most
transmitted through the winch. The main engine developed people seem to be under the impression that electricity means
about 560 h.p. and when it was operating at trawling speed complications, continual repairs and maintenance. This is
(about 300 h.p.) the clutches and gears wore and the bushings untrue. The type of drive he installed on vessels during the
were actually squeezed out because of the strain on the cable. past 30 years has given no trouble. In some cases not even
The high-pressure hydraulic system which replaced this the brushes in the motor or generator have been changed.
mechanical drive has worked almost five years free of trouble. There are no contactors and no overload relays. The generator
The high pressures were troublesome at the start as leaks is connected direct to the auxiliary diesel. There are two
occurred in the solid pipes because of vibration, but this leads from the armature of the generator to the armature of
difficulty was overcome by using flexible pipes, the motor. One of the leads, instead of going direct' to the
Mr. Bromfield wanted to know what was the difference in motor, has an exciter in the circuit, whereby one shunt coil
size between the pump and motor in a low-pressure hydraulic of the exciter passes through a shunt field attached to the
system and those in the high-pressure system. exciter which is mounted on the generator whereby the
current passes through this shunt field, bucks the field of
Mr. F. R. StoWnski (U.S.A.): The pump and motor in the the exciter, and thereby decreases the voltage of this exciter
low-pressure system are both bigger. which in turn excites the field coils of the generator. This
so-called Bromfield torque control system eliminates over-
Mr. Bromfield: How much bigger? Let us take for example load to the winch motor, generator and diesel engine. The
a 50 h.p. motor. amount of overload on such a winch motor may be pre-
determined at, say, 10 or 15 or 20 per cent. The moment the
Mr. Stobinski: To get 50 h.p. out of a pump in a low-pressure current increases over the point established, it is automatically
system would call for the use of 31 in. (89 mm.) diameter controlled as above.
tubing. On a high-pressure circuit the tubing would be In the system previously used in ships, the winch operator
about 1 to U in. (25 to 32 mm.) in diameter. would not pull his lever back when there was overloading, or
the winch would reach momentarily a stalling condition. The
Mr. Bromfield: How much larger would the motor be, result was that, in the case of an armature control, the grids
physically? were burned out, or the motor or the diesel was overloaded
and would begin to slow down. But in the system described
Mr. Stobinski: Definitely larger but I can give you no exact above it is impossible to overload the motor, the generator
idea. There is a great variety of hydraulic motors. The piston or the diesel. For example, when a vessel is on the crest of a
type, for example, is very compact, while the vane type is wave an extreme load condition at once develops and the
bigger, so very difficult to provide a comparison. Again,
it is motor automatically slows down. As the vessel comes down
sometimes necessary to gear down the drum speed in a
it is from the crest of the wave the motor speeds up, taking in
high-pressure system and the gearing, of course, takes up the slack, which eliminates the chance of the cable snapping
some space. as sometimes happens when a mechanical drive is used.
The control is exercised through the current from the battery.
Mr. Bromfield: That is true of the piston type only, but not Two or three amperes go into the fields of the exciter of the
of the vane type of pump. If a 1 ,000 r.p.m. piston type motor main generator and therefore the current is very small
[508]
DECK GEAR DISCUSSION
passing through the contractor. No contactor has had to trawling. Winch equipment must face a severe shock problem
be replaced on any installation during the past 20 years. and for that reason a torque convenor arrangement was
The resistors are very small and carry a maximum of 2 or chosen for the John Cobb. This has worked very satisfactorily.
3 amperes. Experience shows that the performance and
flexibilityof the electric drive is 100 per cent. Mr. James F. Petrich (U.S.A.): With regard to the auxiliary
The reason for installing the hydraulic system on the engine driving the torque converter, the drive chains and
smaller vessels in place of the electric drive is that it is not shaft went through the hold to the deck winch. Another
satisfactory to run a generator from the main engine because sprocket was put on one of the shafts and also one on the
that engine is not running at constant speed. This causes a main drive shaft of the propeller, so that if the main engine
problem of voltage variation. So, in the case of small vessels, broke down it was still possible to operate by using the
the hydraulic system can replace the mechanical drive and general drive through an hydraulic coupling from the engine.
eliminate problems of overload. What is there to say regarding this arrangement?
Mr. Bromfield concluded by asking if Mr. Huse was correct
in stating in his paper that a hydraulic winch could hoist
Mr. Whiteleather: The drive from the auxiliary engine to
400 tons an hour. the main shaft of the propeller on John Cobb was installed
for two reasons (1) to be able to proceed at very low trawling
:
Mr. Hans Vestre Huse (Norway): The brailing rate for speeds of, say, \ to I knots, for long periods; (2) it was
herring will seem very high compared, for instance, with the thought that the easy way of coping with the problem was to
U.S.A. west coast purse seiners, but the quantities in each use a fixed-blade propeller, which would ensure reliability.
catch, and, therefore, the special practice in Norway, is It did not work out well.
entirely different.The biggest Norwegian purse seiners have
a load capacity of 400 tons of herring and, as this may
full
be taken in a single catch, it is necessary to brail the seine
Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.): A
tug, installed with
hydraulic machinery, has been built for use on the River
in about one hour, or the herring will die, sink and drag down
Thames. It has four high-speed engines athwartships, each
the net and the small seine dories. During the brailing great
driving an hydraulic pump and supplying power to a small
quantities of water follow the herring and have to be lifted
hydraulic motor on the propeller. The vessel has been
by the winch. About 90 per cent, of the vessels are fitted successful.
with hydraulic winches.
Mr. A. Conhagen (U.S.A.): Hydraulics have been used on
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): On the U.S.A. Pacific Coast
board ship for many years. All steering gear is hydraulically
mechanical drive has been used because of the great distances
the fishing boats have to sail. Some of them will go 1,500 operated, so crews are familiar with it, and it must have been
reliable, otherwise they would have objected to further
miles or more from one fishing ground to another. Manufac-
turers of hydraulic equipment are partly to blame for the
installation of such equipment. A variable capacity type
continued preference of the mechanical drive because they pump is generally used and it is doubtful if there is any piece
of machinery made which can be more easily controlled or
have not developed their equipment as they should have
which gives better results. This installation is different from
done. But in British Columbia, Canada, in recent years
the fixed displacement, the fixed vane type of hydraulic motor
almost exclusively hydraulic systems have been used for
and pump, which is usually discussed.
trawl winches and steering gears, even in very small boats.
It has been successful, but these vessels do not range great
The cleanliness of the oil in the hydraulic system is very
distances. important. Use of a filter until the system is run in normally
ensures cleanliness. But before the system is assembled, the
Twin trawl winches are now becoming out of date, and in
future the combination winch will be installed in smaller pipes and the bends are treated and the insides of the tubes
are wire-brushed or sand-blasted. After that, rags are run
vessels built on the U.S.A. Pacific Coast.
Much through and then the filter is put on.
time is lost by not using dynamometers when
trawling.
Mr. I. Bromfield (U.S.A.) Pickling the pipes of the hydraulic
:
Mr. R. T. Whiteleather (U.S.A.): The U.S.A. Fish and system after they have been formed to a shape is very impor-
Wildlife Service research vessel, the John Cobb, which is tant because, no matter how many filters are used, the scale
in exploratory fishing in the Pacific North-West remains on the pipes whether they are made of copper for
engaged
and Alaska, use in low-pressure, or steel for use in high-pressure, systems.
equipped with a good deal of hydraulic
is
machinery. was chosen because of its flexibility and to con-
It
serve space. The variety of operations carried out demand Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): More than pickling is
flexibility in equipment. For example, equipment is some- needed for the pipes in an hydraulic system. For example,
times shifted on the stern deck. Sometimes it is desirable that one shipyard set up an elaborate sand-blasting and pickling
the trolling gurdies be replaced with a net hauler. With equipment, but was surprised some months later when a test
equipment being moved about in this manner, it is un- revealed there was still sand in the pipe. It is very difficult
desirable to have shafts or chain-drive or gear of that kind on to be sure that all the sand has been taken out after pickling,
the deck. A low-pressure hydraulic system is used in the but the internal parts of the hydraulic system can be partly
John Cobb for the windlass, the trolling gurdies, and the cleansed by flushing with hot oil.
drive for the refrigeration compressors. The equipment has It is not customary to put in heat exchangers, but there
been in operation for four years and has given no trouble. are installations where they are necessary. When there is
The hydraulic system in the main winch for vessels operating any doubt in the matter it is certainly worth while including
on the west coast of the United States is under scrutiny by a heat exchanger.
the fishermen because of the heavy conditions met in deep One of the problems to be faced on the U.S.A. Pacific
[509]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
Coast is that of finding shipyards capable of properly instal- drop a little on the outboard side. They are then
while still
ling hydraulic equipment To keep the lines clean and ensure moved by and made to drop into position.
the hanging block
that dirt doesnot get into the system requires highly skilled Many men have lost a hand or arm or foot in some cases
labour. Hydraulic equipment manufacturers should help the a leg because of this awkward manoeuvring. The speed
shipbuilding industry to train personnel for this important of the winch is regulated by slipping the clutch because, as
work. There nothing worse than an improperly installed
is the engine runs at a constant speed, there is no other way of
hydraulic system as it can wear out very quickly. varying the winch speed. Sometimes the clutch sticks, and
In the past ten years manufacturers of hydraulic equipment when that happens the men at the doors are in danger of
have made the same mistakes as all other equipment manu- serious injury. The advantage of the hydraulic drive is that
facturers make they have over-rated their equipment and it eliminates much of the hazard in this work because it is
have ignored the problem of heat. It is essentially true that the possible to go into reverse, a most important safety factor.
oil lines are too small in the vane type of hydraulic prime The mechanical drive is not reversible.
movers.
Mr. W. C. Gould (U.S.A.): There have been two or three
Mr. F. R. Stobinski (U.S.A.): A heat exchanger is not neces- types of direct mechanical drives installed, operating through
sary in a low-pressure hydraulic system where operations are torque converters between the main or auxiliary engine and
intermittent, but if operations are continuous it is worth the winch. Fluid couplings have been used to reduce the
installing one. That will eliminate throttling losses and the shock loads on the drive from the main engine and, in one
heat generated by throttling. The exchanger is generally
sense, to limit the load to be put on the auxiliary drive. The
placed on the return line and cools about 15 per cent, of oil in the system was cooled in a heat exchanger, so that it is
the flow.
possible to operate the winch without breaks. By throttling,
One of the problems concerning hydraulic equipment is the winch can be made to pull as conditions demand. When
that it requires good installation. The reason for the success the vessel surges the winch will pay out the cable and bring
of the Norwegian type of equipment is that it is built for it back in the same way as the electrical drive does. This
average use and is easily understood. system has been used on a U.S.A. Pacific Coast vessel for
about four years with great success. The additional cost is
Mr. J. S. Rotas (U.S.A.): In the menhaden fisheries each about $250 to $300 (90 to 110) for 65 to 70 h.p. torque
vessel carries two 33 ft. (10 m.) launches with small gasoline converters, and $700 to $800 (250 to 290) for 100 to
or diesel engines. The deck equipment of the mother ship 150 h.p.
is mostly petrol-driven because fishing boat crews understand
petrol engines better than they do diesels. In recent years the Mr. William C. Miller (U.S.A.) The consensus of opinion on
:
trend has been to get more h.p. into the launches, rising from
the U.S.A. west coast is that most fires in vessels are started
40 h.p. to more than 90. On the 40 h.p. standard launch, a
from electrical sources. Investigation showed that many were
crank starting system is used, but the 60 and 80 h.p. engines
the result of over-heating certain resistances and some lines
cannot be hand-started so an electric starter is used. This
below deck. This is one reason why there should be more
has led to a host of troublesome problems. Sometimes on
use made of hydraulic equipment.
Monday morning the batteries are dead and the starter will
not work, and on Saturday the crew, with their minds on the
pay-day, spray brine on the engine instead of on the net.
Mr. Arthur de Fever (U.S.A.): Generally speaking, all auxili-
The cost of electrical equipment has risen steeply and is very aries on tuna clippers are A.C. This is especially true of instal-
lations since 1944, and nearly all vessels that still use D.C.
heavy. The result of this experience is to reverse the trend.
Once again 40 h.p. engines are being installed solely to get were built before that time.
away from electrical starting equipment. There should be a On
one purse seiner an hydraulic system was installed.
promising market for hydraulic starters for such small Unfortunately it gave some trouble at the start and the first
engines. One American manufacturer is now equipping trip resulted in very poor catches. This has made owners
tractors with hydraulic starters. and fishermen on the Pacific Coast of the U.S.A. cautious
about using hydraulic machinery. On any complete new and
Mr. W. C. GouW (U.S.A.) : Anurser starter is available to-day different installation there is usually a certain amount of trial
for starting diesels of 20 to 300 h.p. It is hand-operated and and error and it may be that ample trial was not given by
fishermen in this case.
completely enclosed. One machine that has been tested has
done more than 10,000 starts without a single failure. The
machine is being installed in some menhaden fishing boats Commander R. E. Pickett (U.S.A.): Mr. Huse stated that an
powered with diesels. At present it is made only in one size hydraulic motor has about one-third the volume of an
and costs about $520 (190) in the U.S.A. electric motor, rated at the same r.p.m., and is more powerful,
but to compare the two motors fairly it is necessary to have
Mr. I. Bromfield (U.S.A.): Much of the damage and losses the following information: (1) the effective pressure on the
caused to fishing vessels come from the use of mechanical hydraulic motor; (2) the voltage impressed on the electric
drives, particularly by the winch. With a mechanical drive on motor. In either case an increase in hydraulic pressure or in
the winch it is only possible to haul in, not pay out. To pay electrical pressure respectively will cause the machine to
out, two men have to handle the cables, although, once the increase its power rating. A
high-voltage motor of the same
doors are dropped, the weight tends to pull the cables out. size as a low-voltage motor will be of greater power.
In hauling the net the doors go up first and are placed between Ifan engine developing 100 h.p. is driving the hydraulic
the gallows and the rail. In most cases the doors cannot fall motor and is connected to a dynamometer, what is the
into place because the weight is not sufficient to haul the efficiency of the system? The answer is from 68 to 73 per
cables off the winch, so they have to be slackened to let the doors cent. This is interesting because it indicates a safe, convenient.
[510]
DECK GEAR DISCUSSION
dependable and low-cost means of supplying power require- find sufficient quantities of bait.
They usually have to go
ments for the trawl winch and anchor winch, and even main down to Central American waters to catch it. The system
engine starting motors on small vessels. On many vessels of keeping bait on board the clippers is very effective and
this equipment is operated less than 200 hours per year. notmuch of it is lost.
A cheap petrol engine could be placed in a safe and con- Some chemical manufacturers are experimenting with the
venient location above deck, sheltered from the weather and use of chemicals to attract schools of tuna and there are
directly connected to the hydraulic pump. The pump, pipe other companies experimenting with electronics, etc., in the
line and motors could be a fixed installation. There are now hope of replacing live bait. But so far the most economical
available hydraulic systems of this type that are for all way for tuna clippers to operate is still to catch and use live
practical purposes foolproof and repair free. bait.
Mr. I. Bromfleld (U.S.A.): The efficiency of an electric drive Mr. Mogens Jul (FAO): Some of the Latin American
is about 80 to 85 per cent. that is from the generator to the countries feel that U.S.A. tuna clippers are taking too much
motor of the winch. bait from their waters. It might save time and money for the
tuna clippers if local fishermen were encouraged to start
Mr. Howard I. Chapelle (U.S.A.) In small trawlers the mech-
: bait fishing for sale to U.S.A. tuna fishermen. The clippers
anical drive system is installed as a matter of economics and of could then, for example, sail to Puntarenas and pick up
space and weight. To a large extent it controls the position the bait without having the trouble of fishing for it and
of the trawl winch in relation to the main engine. This is endangering the boat by operating in shallow water.
unfortunate because it has prevented the rearrangement of
deck gear to cope with surging and shocks on the winch and Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): The fishermen in the Hawaiian
cable, which have caused a good deal of trouble. For this Islands have a very difficult time in catching bait. They use
reason it is desirable to have a torque converter or hydraulic vessels in which the hulls are divided into six compartments,
coupling on the power take-off. each with water inlets. As the bait is caught it is dropped
There seems to be no chance of putting an electric drive into the compartments. When they go tuna fishing they
in small boats. Mr. Bromfield has explained the very sound empty the bait from each compartment and replace it with
reason for this. There is, however, an opportunity to use the tuna they catch.
some kind of hydraulic drive, providing a design can be
produced which will enable the deck gear to be arranged to Mr. James F. Petrich (U.S.A.): If there was a source that
advantage, without becoming involved in a mass of trouble- could guarantee bait it would be an excellent arrangement
some details. But, of course, the use of such hydraulic for tuna clippers, but probably the chief objection to the
equipment would be controlled by its cost. scheme proposed by Mr. Jul is that the clipper has been
developed as a self-supporting boat. The fishermen like to
have control of every operation, and that includes catching
BAIT bait.
The arrangement for keeping live bait in tuna clippers is
Dr. S. Shapiro (U.S.A.): In Japan, fisheries for bait and tuna well developed. Water is pumped into the fish wells and
are conducted separately. The bait is caught and held in deck boxes, passing through screens which disperse its flow
containers in protected harbours; tuna vessels collect the down to the bottom of the well. From there it moves to the
bait just before leaving for the fishing grounds. Live bait is top and out through another screen, which is of considerable
used in much the same way as American tuna fishermen use area to ensure that the speed of the flow is not so strong
it for pole and line fishing. The bait is thrown into the that it traps the bait against the screen. The flow is enough
water and hides under the boat, and then the tuna come in to change the water once every 12 minutes. Weir boards are
for it. used to control the height of the water in the deck boxes.
Fishing for bait is conducted with many types of gear.
One method of fishing in use in southern Japan is done at Mr. Arthur de Fever (U.S.A.): The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
night, four vessels operating together as follows: four small Service in Honolulu have been experimenting with fluids to
fishing craft one at each corner of the lift net lower the attract tuna and some commercial fishing vessels from San
net in the water and a light is placed above it. As the sardines Diego have used it, but so far without much success.
are caught they are placed in floating containers made of Much depends on the behaviour of the tuna. For example,
bamboo or, sometimes webbing. The water circulates sometimes only a small amount of bait needs to be used for
through the containers and the bait is kept in them for a catching a great quantity of fish. At other times a lot of bait
week. Nothing further is done except to remove the weak must be thrown into the sea to attract the tuna and probably
fish so that the survivors when taken on board the tuna vessels, only a very few of them are caught.
are hardy, and can be kept in good condition merely by The tuna occasionally get into a frenzy and anything
circulation of sea water through holes in the hull of the thrown on the surface will excite them. For example fisher-
vessel. This simple method of catching and keeping bait is men have used spaghetti or rice, when out of bait at the end
most effective. of a voyage and have made big catches proportionately.
It all seems to depend on whether the tuna are hungry and
Mr. William C
Miller (U.S.A.): The Japanese method of excited or are feeling torpid.
keeping bait is the same as that used by the commercial spoit The suggestion of building up bait reservoirs in Central
fishing organizations on the U.S.A. west coast. The only and South American countries, made by Mr. Jul, has often
difference is that in the U.S.A. the bait is not held for any been considered. Four years ago in Panama a man tried to
time to condition it. obtain a concession to set up a bait farm but because of the
One of the problems of the U.S.A. tuna clipper fleets is to political situation the concession was never granted. If a
[511]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD ENGINEERING
bait farm was organized it would probably be successful it probably would be limited in the Pacific Coast sardine
provided the tuna clippers agreed to buy the bait regularly, have to be heavier and deeper. The
fishery because the seines
otherwise they would only buy it when they were unable to first trouble met with the drum seine equipment was the
catch it themselves. bulkincss of the deep net. Fishermen had to re-hang the
Replying to a question by Mr. Traung about the use of netsand re-design them to some extent. They found that the
water-spray as complement to bait in fishing for tuna, Mr. which is quite shallow, was most satisfactory.
five-strip net,
de Fever said that it was quite true that sprays were used, The menhaden fishery, on the other hand, might lend itself
and he had designed an independent water-spray system for to the drum seiner type of fishing. The fish are taken in
three or four boats. It was not a new method, as fishermen shallow water and it is the largest fishery in the U.S.A.
from Honolulu and Japan use it regularly. All the vessels Small boats could be used, and they were fastest in seining
he had seen in Honolulu were equipped with sprays. The operations.
main purpose of the spray system is to ruffle the water when
it is very calm so that the fish are not frightened off by the
Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.): There has been deck gear
reflection of the poles and fishermen. ever since there have been fishing vessels, but two important
Having experimented with aeration of water in the bait developments seem to have been overlooked. They concern
hatches and masts. If the masts described by Bain and
wells, he had found that the principle behind changing the
water every 10 or 12 minutes is not merely to clarify or keep Costantini are as revolutionary as is suggested, why have they
it fresh but also to aerate it. The mere process of changing
not been fitted to more ships? They ought to be more
the water is sufficient to cause aeration. If, however, a closely investigated as both seem to be developments away
device was used to increase the aeration of water in the bait from the traditional type of mast.
wells it should be possible to operate them with smaller pumps.
Mr. Jan-Olof Traung (FAO): In Boston, Massachusetts,
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): He described a U.S.A., about half the trawlers of more than 100 ft. (30.5 m.)
tuna-fishing trip
at Hawaii in a 75 ft. (22.9 m.) boat with a speed of about length are equipped with the tripod masts with no shrouds
and stays. The masts are heavier than the common rigged
6 knots an hour. When the tuna were sighted the bait was
thrown out and the water spray was used. The tuna seemed type and in winter they accumulate an enormous weight of
ice. Perhaps it is because of this that the trend in Boston is
to be travelling at about 9 knots an hour, and appeared to
no longer to install tripod masts.
leap aboard the boat. The seven or eight fishermen caught
115 tunas (about 30 to 35 lb., 14 to 16 kg.) in about nine Mr. P. Bain (France): About 100 modern British trawlers
minutes. have been equipped with a new type of watertight metal
The exploration vessel Baird, operated by the United hatch covers that can be opened or closed or adjusted rapidly
States Bureau of Fisheries, was designed so that a study could and make for safety during loading operations. He did not
be made of bait-keeping. Aeration has been tried but it did
suggest that the new covers were suitable for all ships but
not seem to make much difference. The tanks, with the con- he thought thev could be adapted to meet the particular
tinuous change of water, kept the bait in good condition.
working conditions of fishing vessels.
There are two big advantages in using a bipod mast:
Mr. R. T. Whiteteather (U.S.A.): Some thought has been (1) it abolished the use of shrouds which encumber deck
given by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to aeration in the space and require maintenance; (2) the mast has relatively
bait tanks during experiments in finding bait in the Gulf of a low weight.
Mexico. But if there is the right amount of circulation of Until recently this type of mast has not been used on
clean water in the tanks and enough use and replenishment trawlers. Mr. Kristjonsson had asked about the absence of
of bait, there seems to be no need to spend extra money back stays for steadying the cod-end when hoisting the fish
installing aeration devices. on board. This is a problem which must be studied but it
does not seem to be insoluble.
Mr. E. R. Gueroult (France): Replying to questions asked
by Commander Hardy, Mr. Traung and Mr. Hanson, Mr. Mr. Philip Thiel, Jr. (U.S.A.): The problem of staying the
Gueroult said that French fishermen used live bait sardines foremast has received a good deal of ingenious attention in
both for rod and net fishing for tuna. French trawlers in the U.S.A. One successful solution is to consider the mast
in the North Sea had caught tuna by net, but that was acci- as one leg of a tripod, with the other two legs as struts
dental. The live bait tanks are usually made of aluminium extending from the outboard after end of the forecastle to
alloy and are painted white. Some have water and air cir- the hounds. This leaves the space about the forward gallows
culation as well as electric light, which is kept on all the time. free from stays, and makes a simple sturdy arrangement.
He added that modern French tuna boats are motorized Another approach is to replace the two struts with wire stays
and equipment is up-to-date. The old smack type of sailing and add two other stays leading from the hounds aft to the
boat is disappearing rapidly because it is not now profitable deck, inboard of the after leg of the forward gallows frame.
to operate. This arrangement is lighter. Incidentally, to avoid the
nuisance of seagull droppings a 12 in. (30 cm.) metal spike
at the top of the mast is useful.
MISCELLANEOUS *
The weight and expense of both an anchor windlass and
Mr. R. T. Whiteleather (U.S.A.): In reply to a question chain cable may be avoided by using the trawl winch and
about the use of drum seines in fisheries other than for trawl wires in conjunction with the anchors shackled to a
salmon, Mr. Whiteleather replied that not much could be suitable length of chain. Usually it is necessary to fit some
said about the effectiveness in the Californian sardine fishery, fairlead rollers for the trawl wire at the break of the forecastle.
because of the size of the nets. It might be more effective if This is an arrangement which has been approved by the
used in the menhaden fishery on the U.S.A. east coast, but American Bureau of Shipping.
[512]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
by
GEORGE C. NICKUM
use of vessels on the Pacific Coast of North verted to accommodate the cannery crew. This was
THEbeAmerica which are
to
large enough to allow the fish
actually processed on board is a development
simply a mass berthing and messing space. The hatch
trunk proper was made portable as were the berths and
which has come about within the past 30 years. The tables, and the 'tween deck was used for general cargo
first fish-processing vessel was probably the Santa Flavia, when in freight service. The fishermen's berthing was on
a World War I wooden freighter which was converted the poop deck and the cannery crew toilets and galley
to a floating salmon cannery in the spring of 1922. facilities were in the forecastle head. The main work of
She operated up to 1934 when she was burned and conversion on the Ogontz was the installation of the
abandoned. In 1923 the Mazama entered the same canning machinery, provision of berthing and messing
service. She was also a World War I wood freighter, facilities, revision of the boat deck quarters and galley
powered by steam engines, and she operated until the to take care of the increased complement, increasing the
early thirties. boatage, and installing turbine generators and an
The first steel processing vessel appeared in 1929. She auxiliary condenser to cope with the increased electrical
was the International, a 250 ft. (76 m.) freighter. She was load.
used exclusively for the canning of salmon and operated In the mid-thirties there was a very short period during
up to the start of World War II. She was eventually sold which a number of large floating herring reduction plants
to foreign interests. were operated off the California coast. These vessels were
The Memnon, one of the standard 5,000 ton World later legislated out of business.
War I steel freighters, was converted in 1934 to a salmon The end of World War II brought a resumption of
cannery and operated until the start of World War II. interest in fishprocessing vessels and a number of
After reconversion to a freighter, she became a war interesting craft were converted for use in the salmon
casualty. The La Merced, a three-masted sailing schooner industry and in other fishing. The first was the Pacific
with auxiliary diesel power, was also converted to a Explorer. An experimental vessel, she was designed to
salmon cannery in 1934. She is the only one of this develop the unexplored bottom fish grounds in the Bering
pre-war class of processing vessels still operating. In Sea, and to operate as a mothership invthe tuna trade.
1939 her owners purchased the Ogontz, a Hog Island type Completed in 1946, she operated for several seasons in
freighter of World War I, and converted it to a salmon the Bering Sea and South American waters.
cannery. She was requisitioned for war service and was Fig. 571 gives the arrangement of the upper decks and
eventually torpedoed in the Mediterranean. the outboard profile, and fig. 572 gives the arrangement
All these vessels were used in the salmon canning of the lower decks. The conversion of this vessel from a
industry in Alaska. They were generally similar in their standard three-island type World War I freighter was
arrangement but, as the Ogontz was the latest of her class, an extensive operation. In effect the main machinery
she will be used to illustrate salmon canning vessels. spaces were retained without change and the basic
Fig. 570 gives her deck arrangement and the inboard steel hull was used, but almost everything else was
profile. The salmon cannery on the Ogontz was typical installed new. The wells between the poop bridge and
of the early class, but was designed to allow the ship to the forecastle enclosures were covered to make a com-
be used as a freighter when not serving as a cannery. plete shelter deck. Orlop decks were installed fore and
The cannery was almost entirely enclosed in the bridge aft of the machinery spaces. An auxiliary machinery
house structure. The iron chinks, sliming tables, fish space was installed aft of the present engine room and
bins and conveyors, located fore and aft abreast of the space abreast of the shaft alley in the lower hold was
No. 2 an<^ 4 hatches, were made portable to be readily used for fuel tanks.
removed. The only other cargo space used for anything Next came the trawler Deep Sea, fig. 573. She was
than general stowage was the No. 1 'tween deck, con- built to fish the vast shelf underlying the Bering Sea.
[513]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
A conventional trawler from outward appearance, she in the processing operation. Processing vessels are at a
was designed to process fish on board. Fig. 574 gives fundamental disadvantage to shore establishments
the deck arrangement. The distinctive features are the because the operating crew does not walk out the front
processing house aft of the trawl winch and the blast door at night and provide their own food, accommoda-
freezer located below it. tion, and amusements. A large part of the total cost is
Two L.S/T.'s, the Saipan and Tinian, were converted in providing facilities and taking care of the men's needs
for use as fish-freezing vessels in the tuna trade. They after working hours so that every man hour saved by the
were the first of several conversions which included two proper arrangement of processing and handling saves
World War II net tenders and another L.S.T., the on a man's wages and the cost of keeping him on board.
Oceanic 5.
Fig. 575 is a profile drawing of the Tinim. The
M/V
Saipan basically a sister ship. Conversion work on
is NEED FOR SPACE
these vessels consisted of refrigerating the holds, installing
brine tanks, quarters, refrigeration machinery and cargo Adequate space is essential, a most difficult thing for an
handling facilities. inexperienced owner or architect to appreciate. They
In 1948 a salmon cannery firm made plans for the should keep a picture of the average food processing
conversion of the L.S.T. 662 into a combination salmon plant constantly in mind and remember it is not possible
canning and freezing vessel. This project was completed to add extensions to a ship after the initial conversion
"
in 1950, and it represents the latest evolution of fish has been made. Piling nets or spare gear on the vacant
"
processing vessels. Its name is Neva. Fig. 576 and 577 lot next door is not possible on a ship.
show the inboard profile and arrangement of decks. The vast majority of fish-processing vessels are essen-
The entire hold area is refrigerated and a salmon cannery tially motherships and are responsible for a fleet of
is put in a new house extending almost full length of the small boats that look to their parent ship for the same
main deck. Boilers and generating equipment, cargo type of services they get at a dock. The fishing gear, in
handling facilities and a pilot house are installed. particular, is bulky and cannot be stowed neatly on
shelves like spare parts for machinery. The Ogontz
appeared to have ample room for any conceivable
CONVERSIONS operation yet, when canning at full capacity, both
forward and after weather decks were completely covered
All but one of the processing vessels that have operated with salmon cans being cooled. During the canning
in the past were originally built for some other purpose. operations at least one of the 'tween deck spaces had to
The Deep Sea is the exception to the rule and is the only be assigned to the storage of gear and similar materials.
vessel actually operating at sea for more than a few Had the Ogontz been of smaller size and of smaller hold
months of the year. Tuna motherships have in the past capacity, this would have restricted her potential
made a maximum of only four trips a year and the large capacity.
bulk of their time is spent at anchor, receiving or dis- The Pacific Explorer when operating as a tuna mother-
charging tuna. This is a basic reason why the fishing ship in the South Pacific had no use for her fillet line
industry cannot afford new vessels, other than the Deep or crab line on the shelter deck so this whole area could
Sea type, designed specifically for fish processing work. be used for storage. Reports from the skipper showed
Fuel and other operating economics are of real advantage it was so used and he thought that the ship was in no
only during full operation of a vessel. As fish processing way over-supplied with general storage and working
vessels operate at full power only one-quarter to one- space. In the Bering Sea, when both the crab cannery
sixth of the time of a regular freighter, these savings and the fillet line were being operated, the crew were
would have to be four to six times as large to make the limited to some open deck space and to the 'tween decks
capital investment of a modern vessel worthwhile. Fish for storage of spare gear. This did seriously handicap
processing vessels can be justified only if the net cost per them as the full potential processing capacity could not
ton of product is less than the same product processed be used and some cargo space was appropriated for gear
in shore establishments. storage.
The first design problem in developing a fish processing The Deep Sea is again the exception because she does
vessel (other than the Deep Sea type) is the selection of the not act as a mothership and does her own fishing. The
vessel which is to be converted. The importance of this Saipan and the Tinian are good examples of how space
from the standpoint of overall cost and operating is really needed and used. The entire wing wall spaces,
efficiency cannot be over-emphasized. The naval with the exception of the machine shop and the refrigerat-
architect can be of more value in the selection of the ing machinery areas, are available for storage. In addi-
vessel than he can in the remainder of the programme. tion, the Tinian has a large open deck on which gear can
To have a vessel with adequate space for the required be piled. It would seem impossible to fill all of this space,
quarters, handling equipment, services, storage spaces, but it can and has been done. The wing walls are filled
etc.,makes a tremendous difference in the overall cost. with sacks of salt and spare provisions for the fishing
The next most important consideration is labour cost vessels, plus spare parts, ropes and gear of all nature.
[514]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
SS. OQONTZ
-
PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS LIST OF ACCOMMODATIONS 1 STEAM COOKING RETORTS 10 ' WASHER
LENGTH BP 590-0 119.0 DECK OFFICERS 4 2 -
CANNERY LINES 11 - SLIMING TABLE
4
LENGTH OA 401 % 122.3
ENGINEERING OFFICERS
SEAMEN AMD ENGINEERS (MCL tsmM) 19
3 - SEAMER 12 - CONVEYOR
CAM MLD 54-0 16.5
STEWARDS DEPARTMENT B 4 - CLINCHER 13 -IRON CHINK
CAM MAX 54 -2 1655 RADIO OPERATOR I 5 - PATCH TABLE 14 - HEADER
DEPTH MLD TO MAM 32-0 976 TOTAL SHIPS CREW -
8 ;
36 6 FILLER 15 -SORTING TABLE
- - PORTABLE
7 FISH CUTTER 16 SHELTER OVER
OWNER, FOREMAN, ETC (MCL IIMND 5
FISHERMEN (MCL I IMftl) 66 8 -BIN IRON CHINK AND SLIMING TABLE
CANNERY CREW 76 9 -CAN FORMING AREA
TOJAt .CANNERY PERSONNEL 147
SECOND DECK
t tO tO BO 4O BO Q
Fig. 570. Profile and deck arrangement 0/Ogontz, a Hog Island type freighter converted into salmon cannery. Naval architects: W. C. Nickum
and Sons, Seattle, Washington, U.S.A.
The deck is usually cluttered with all sorts of gear from stateroom is no longer followed. However, fishermen
the small vessels plus large numbers of oil and gasoline on a cannery ship spend a relatively short time on board,
drums. so their quarters are of a minimum standard. The rest
of the time they are fishing and have only an occasional
meal on the mothership. Their quarters, of course, are
QUARTERS also used by the fishermen on the trip to and from the
fishing grounds.
Quarters present the same problem. The standard of On the Ogontz the No. 1 'tween deck was designated
accommodation for ship operating personnel in fish- as a mass berthing space, following the common practice
processing vessels is the same as that of merchant ships, in transporting cannery workers to the fishing grounds.
although large open berthing rooms are still common for The were two-high instead of three-
berths, however,
the cannery personnel and fishermen. On the Ogontz high, which was usual in the Alaska steerage trade. All
all of the ship's personnel and some of the cannery berths were easily portable. It was relatively simple to
personnel were located on the boat and bridge decks. remove the berths and the hatch trunk bulkhead and
The practice of berthing more than one officer in a open the whole 'tween deck for stowage. Items such as
[515]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
the sparring on the frames, protection for pipe covers, course excess stability and GMs, which range from
etc., were left undisturbed. Neither berth lights nor IS ft. (4.6 m.) upwards, cause the designer some thought
lockers were provided for this class of personnel, because of the stiffness of the vessel but again the special
although minimum locker storage is now usually pro- nature of the service prevents this from becoming a
vided for all personnel. On the Pacific Explorer, the problem. Alaskan operations take place only in the
cannery crew berthing spaces in the No. 1 'tween deck summer when the weather and sea conditions are favour-
area had special foot lockers designed to fit underneath able. Operations on the tuna grounds in South America
the lower berths. can generally depend on good weather and trips can be
Accommodation on the Saipan and Tinian is very planned to avoid severe conditions.
similar, in number and size of rooms, to that on first- The case of the Pacific Explorer was somewhat of an
class freighters. The heat conditions encountered by exception. Because of the large number of crew aboard
tuna motherships anchoring in tropic waters are severe and also because the vessel would be operating in
and personnel required to live under these conditions Alaskan waters for longer than was customary, with the
for two or four months at a time, appreciate the value consequent possibility of bad weather, the sub-division
of room. Naturally, the provision of awnings and was investigated and the vessel met one-compartment
folding camp cots on the tuna mothership is an essen- sub-diivsion standards. Most of the vessels in the trade
tial as a good many of the crew sleep on deck. can meet this requirement as their draft, because their
Neva follows the arrangement of the Saipan with deadweight, is considerably less than a merchant vessel
additional quarters to take care of a slightly larger crew. of the same size.
The wing wall compartments have been rearranged to
accommodate cannery personnel.
Steam vessels, such as the Pacific Explorer, are subject BUNKER AND WATER PROBLEMS
to U.S. Coast Guard inspection and the crew, other
than fishermen and cannery men, come under the The provision of an adequate supply of fuel oil and fresh
jurisdictionof the sea-faring unions. Their quarters water is always a problem. The mother-ship type of
must meet the union standards for merchant ships. vessel has to provide large quantities of diesel oil for the
Motor vessels, however, since they are not inspected, attendant fleet and fresh water for the cannery service.
generally come under the jurisdiction of the fishermen's The fishing type of vessel, such as the Deep Sea, has an
union. Perhaps because of the share basis on which unusual oil problem due to the long distance between
they are paid, or perhaps because they are accustomed Seattle and the Bering Sea in which she operates. She
to small boats, the fishermen generally have no rigid needs to carry a supply of oil to take her up there and
standards for quarters and the owner's opinion as to back and fish for several months. Fresh water is not
what is required to keep a good crew contented is the much of a problem as it can be replenished at Dutch
governing factor. Harbour, but the ideal situation, of course, would be to
Ships' stores facilities presentno great problem. In be self-contained in oil and water.
all cases the vessels carry a considerable quantity of Vessels other than the Deep Sea have no particular
consumable stores but they make a fairly even rate of problem in providing tank capacity for the main engines
catch throughout the operating period and it is usual and generators, as the trips to and from the grounds are
to stow stores in the cargo holds on the outgoing voyage. no longer than usually expected on an average commer-
As they are consumed, their place is taken by the fish. cial vessel. Their problem, however, is to have sufficient
tank capacity to supply their fleet of boats. In the
Pacific Explorer the space abreast of the shaft alley
STABILITY under No. 4 and 5 holds was fitted with tanks for diesel
and fish oil. By means of spectable flanges in the pipe
Stability of fish-processing vessels has, of course, to be lines, the tanks can be changed from fish to diesel oil
investigated, but in the types afloat to-day no stability service. This was not found to be necessary in operation.
problem has been introduced by the special character of In the Saipan and Tinian, the total capacity of diesel
the work. The vessels usually* follow freighters in oil available for use on board and for supplying the
stability requirements. They leave with large tankage attendant fishing boats is 285,000 gal. (238,000 imp. gal.,
and cargo space filled with a fair amount of stores, 1,080 cu.m.), adequate for southern operation.
provisions, supplies, etc. As they load up the catch, the The problem of providing adequate fresh water for
oil and water are used up in the bottom tanks. The salmon canning is a difficult one. The large crew requires
worst condition usually occurs on arrival home with full a considerable amount for normal services, but some is
cargo and no fuel. Generally, however, the maximum used for the salmon canning process, even though the
load is well under the cargo deadweight that would be amount is kept to a minimum and is considerably less
carried by a freighter of similar size, and consequently than on shore installations. A small can washer is
the average processing vessel can handle without always installed on canneries at the after end of the
difficulty the higher centre of gravity due to equipment canning line. This was omitted on the Ogontz to save
being placed high up. In the case of the L.S.T.s, of water, but is installed on Neva. The water which
[516]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
^ HnJ^. ^*"'
"
***>* """t'ViiSiyEi""]" -irl "" *
L "~ *
"riis^i
*" * ifi i..TT.i isir-fp
:
g^mii!T^"^-'""'T"''"g.'
n L>' >
^ -^ ^---^ SBffirr|
53wi " Jr ^^L- ^ J
- *
"<
i}|
- ..-.. -p ^ fci
;
^H
UE: LcSs^Sffl^sitejp^^s^^i
. 577. Profile and upper decks of 410 ft. (125 m.) Pacific Explorer, experimental factory ship for tuna and crab freezing and canning.
Naval architects: W. C. Nickum and Sons, Seattle; Washington, U.S.A.
Fig. 572. Lower decks of 410 ft. (125 m.) Pacific Explorer, experimental factory ship for tuna and crab freezing and canning.
[517]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
condenses from the steam in the cooking retorts cannot GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS
be recaptured and used again in the boiler because it is
full of impurities. Various methods have been tried to Fish-processing vessels are free from the majority of
solve the problem. On the International the condensate Government regulations. The motor ships, even though
from the retorts was led through a single effect evaporator over 300 register tons, are exempt from any regulation
and condensed in a regular surface condenser and then by the Coast Guard. Steam vessels are subject to the
returned to the feed system. On the Ogontz the deep do not have to
regulations for inspection of freighters but
tank was filled with fresh water from barges after the meet passenger ship requirements. They do not have to
vessel reached the fishing grounds. It was planned to carry lifeboats for a full complement on both sides of
put a coffer dam around the settling tank in this opera- the vessel.
tion, but because of the cost involved it was not done. The Pacific Explorer was a special case. Because she
When the vessel was at anchor the oil was drained into was owned by the Government, carried a very large crew
the double bottoms and the oil service pump drew and was engaged in experimental work which might
directly from them. This, of course, is not recom- require her to operate in all weather conditions, it was
mended practice for a long-term operation, but it was decided to comply as nearly as was practical with Coast
done successfully. The fresh water in the deep tanks Guard passenger ship regulations. The installation of a
was connected so that it would be circulated by a special submersible bilge pump was the major exception.
pump through the retorts and the retort drains were led Quarters were constructed of non-inflammable material
directly into the deep tanks. To minimize the amount of throughout; provisions for fire detecting, fire extin-
cooling required, spray headers were fitted in the retorts. guishing and fire control were carried out in complete
When cooking was completed the spray headers were accordance with Coast Guard regulations. All the
turned on to give an initial quick cooling to the salmon. electrical work and the piping installation followed Coast
This, of course, reduced the time the salmon had to Guard rules. In the case of the Ogontz, because of having
be piled on deck before being loaded into the holds. to comply only with freighter standards, the existing
The scum was taken off every morning by suction connec- wood joiner bulkheads were left in.
tions, keeping the water clean enough to be used for The fish-processing vessel is also out of the jurisdiction
cooling. of the U.S. Public Health Service because it does not
Another scheme was used on the Pacific Explorer make a voyage from port to port. While most installa-
which allowed spray cooling in the retorts yet restricted tions are made in accordance with Public Health Service
the amount of fresh water required. A fresh water tank rules as a matter of course, full compliance would be
was placed in the 'tween deck below the retorts and fitted onerous.
with pipe cooling coils connected to the salt water system. The products canned or processed are, of course,
A circulating pump drew from the tank and discharged Food and Drug Act but this is simply
subject to the Pure
to the spray headers in the retorts. When 'cooking was a matter of inspection of the final products.
completed the pump was turned on and the water United States fish-processing vessels are not required
circulated through the retorts until the can temperature to comply with the Leadline Regulations as they are not
was reduced to an acceptable level. It is not felt that the engaged in commercial trade from port to port but when
Pacific Explorer operated for a sufficient length of time the Saipan and Tinian were changed to Honduras
to determine whether this was of particular value in registry they had to comply with the regulations.
reducing the time and space required for cooling.
On Neva the cans are cooled by air circulation after
they leave the retorts. The retort water is sent through a SANITATION
heat exchanger to give part of its heat to the make-up
feed water. The water is then passed into the suction Sanitation is given serious consideration on all fish-
side of the cannery salt water service pump to take processing vessels although those exclusively engaged
part of the chill of this water when it is being used for in tuna freezing have no particular need for worry. Tuna
sliming. are caught and frozen in the round and consequently
In the southern operation, the Explorer's water there is no great danger of contamination of the flesh
problem was aggravated because she had to supply water from insanitary surroundings. In salmon canneries
to the small vessels and to the ice-making tank. This sanitation is very important to ensure the purity of the
required 10 short tons (9 metric ton) of water per day. product.
In the northern operation the ice-making plant was not On the Pacific Explorer special care was taken to
operated, but a large amount of fresh water was required ensure the purity of the large quantities of salt water
for washing the fillets and for washing the crab. The used in washing the fish and crab. A
sea chest was
reduction plant steam cooker also required a consider- installed forward of the forepeak bulkhead and a special
able amount of direct contact steam. The evaporators salt water cannery service pump was fitted over the fore-
on the Pacific Explorer had a total capacity of 12,000 gal. peak tank. It was reasoned that, with the vessel lying
(10,000 imp. gal., 45 cu. m.) per day between the two of at anchor, water taken from close to the bow would be
them, sufficient, but none too much. uncontaminated by the vessel's sanitary outlets.
[518]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
On the Ogontz the main emphasis on sanitation was on be readily removed at the end of the canning season.
the all-steel character of the canning equipment and sur- Divisions are not indicated in the drawing, but there
rounding structure, and the fact that it was installed partly were internal transverse bulkheads in each bin which
in the bridge deck space and partly in the open air where divided each into four sections. The bottoms of the bins
everything could be cleaned with steam and water hoses. had a slope of about 1$ in. per ft. (125 mm. per m.)
The Pacific Explorer went a step further. Care was and vertical sliding watertight doors were provided at the
taken to ensure that the fish ponds had no hidden nooks lower end. The fish were dumped directly into the bins
or cranies in which matter could collect, and the decks, from the dump boxes or brailing nets.
particularly around the sides of the cannery deck, were On Neva, the fish bins are permanently installed,
cemented to provide a slope to all the drains. Sanitation located under cover in the forward part of the main deck.
Fig. 573. Deep Sea, freezer trawler for king crab. (1) landing the catch; (2) sorting species offish; (3) butchering, washing and cleaning king
crabs prior to cooking; (4) sluice conveyor to cooker; (5) cooker conveyor leading to processing room; (6) chute to processing conveyor; (7) pro-
cessing conveyor to filleters; (8) fish conveyed to spray washer; (9) spray washer; (JO) conveyor to hopper; (11} hopper; (12) inspection table;
(13) weighing; (14) packing in freezer trays; (15) chute for clean tray supply; (16) freezer conveyors; (17) frozen trays; (18) defrost stage;
(19) defroster tank; (20) glazing tank; (21) racks for glaze to set; (22) packing cartons; (23) full carton conveyor; (24) carton storage forward
in ship. Naval architects: Coolidge, Hart and Brink, Seattle, Washington, U.S.A.
is even better on Neva where there are no blind corners Each bin has a hatch directly over the centre so that the
or dead spaces in the tanks and the steel fish ponds are fish can be dumped straight into them. A
sorting belt,
either smooth or the stiffeners are of pipe sections which served by hatches and chutes, port and starboard, is
can be easily washed down. The usual steam and salt located forward of the bins. Unsorted fish are carried
water hoses are provided. The cement deck covering has along the belt and an attendant fills each bin with the
been built up to a thickness of 6 in. (15 cm.) at some proper species offish. An indexor, by means of which the
points to allow the installation of proper gutters and a fish are mechanically fed into the iron chink, is placed
slope towards the drains. All drains are oversized and between the supply bin and the chink.
" "
can be easily cleaned. The entire deck arfea of the cannery The iron chink is the machine that cuts the head
can be flushed out continuously. off the salmon and removes the fins and the entrails.
This work was done in the old days by Chinese, and the
automatic machines which replaced them were called
"
SALMON CANNING iron chinks ". From the chink the fish are taken by an
elevating ^conveyor to a sliming table where operators,
The starting point of the salmon canning operation is standing on each side, scrub them clean and place them
the fish bin (ponds). On the Ogontz the bins were on top of on another conveyor for delivery to bins ahead of the
No. 2 and No. 4 hatches. They were portable and could filling and canning machines.
[519
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
The can bodies are loaded on the vessel in a flattened Neva the product is labelled and cased on board. There
condition. The heads and bottoms are packed separate is a cooler inverter at the forward end of the cooling
from the bodies. In the can reform line the bodies are area. This machine turns over the cooler trays and feeds
placed in the machine where they are put into a round them into a chute leading to the labelling and packaging
shape and the bottom is put on. The cans then go by machines. From the packaging machine they are led
cable conveyors to the filling machine. The lids are into the hold for stowage.
loaded in stacks into the clinching machine. Every emphasis in a salmon canning operation is
The filling machine cuts the salmon into even lengths placed on speed of packing and dependability because,
and fills the empty cans. The cans then go over a in many of the areas in Alaska, the season averages
patching table where, if there is doubt about their three weeks or 15 days packing and the loss of one day
weight, they are put on a scale. Modern shore canneries means a loss of 7 per cent, of the season's operations.
use automatic weighing machines which operate on the
balanced beam principle but they require a steady floor
and will not operate when a ship is rolling or pitching. CRAB CANNING
With a cannery line operating at 250 cans per minute,
the patching table is a busy place during full production. The crab canneryinstalled on the Pacific Explorer differs
The cans next go through the clincher and seamer from a salmon cannery in that it is essentially a manual
where the lids are put on, the cans clinched and evacuated operation. Automatic machinery has not yet been
under vacuum, and the final closing seam made. The developed for processing crabs. A
crab cannery requires
cans then generally go through a fresh water wash and twice the personnel of a salmon cannery, yet on the
on to what is termed a " cooler loader", an inclined chute Pacific Explorer output never reached more than 40
at the base of which is the cooler tray. This is a heavy cases per hour as against the 400 cases of salmon per
shallow wire basket made of flat bar approximately hour output of the two lines on the Ogontz and the 300
36 in. (90 cm.) square. As the cooler trays are filled they cases of one line on Neva. The crab cannery on the
are stacked one on top of the other on four-wheeled Pacific Explorer was the first and only American cannery
dollies. Flat bars welded to the deck are generally designed to handle Alaskan King crab for an output
used for the tracks. The dollies are wheeled into the much greater than the average small crab cannery in the
retorts and the cooking process is started. Steam at U.S.A. home water. The Russian crab fishing vessels,
15 Ib./sq. in. (1.05 kg./sq. cm.) pressure is generally used. equipped by the U.S. War Shipping Administration,
On Neva steam is produced at 250 Ib./sq. in. (17.6 kg./sq. have never equalled the output of the Explorer because
cm.) pressure at the boilers and is used to drive certain their installations were Very crude and laid out with
pumps, the cannery line turbines and steam generators. littlethought to saving manpower. They require approxi-
Steam is exhausted from the turbines at 15 lb. (1.05 kg.) mately twice the personnel for the production obtained
back pressure and put from there into the retorts. A on the Pacific Explorer. The data from preliminary
surface condenser condenses the steam when the retorts tests by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on a small
are not in operation and a pressure reducing valve station vessel in Alaska were used in designing the crab cannery.
automatically feeds extra steam into the retorts if the An estimate was made of the number of people required
available back pressure steam is not sufficient. per weight of product and of the number of raw crabs
After being cooked in the retorts the packed cans are which had to be handled to obtain the finished pack. That
wheeled out of the retorts into a position for cooling. the cannery produced close to its designed rate speaks
The early canneries cooled their salmon on the open deck. well for these preliminary man-hour figures of the Fish
Cooling is necessary to prevent excessive "burning" and Wildlife Service. But assumptions had to be made.
of canned salmon because if the cans are put in the hold For example, in laying out the continuous cooker, it
while hot, the cooking continues. Cooling on the open had to be assumed that with a given weight of broken
deck has disadvantages, however, because of the large crab legs coming into the cooker, the legs would stack
amount of rain encountered in Alaska. This means that approximately 3 in. (7.5 cm.) high and that in the given
it is necessary to rig tarpaulins and to keep a careful watch length of the tank and a given conveyor speed it would be
to see that the cans are not touched by the rain which will possible to get a sufficient cooking period. This is
spot and rust the cans. On Neva the entire cooling area hardly precise engineering and as the nearest King crab,
is placed inside of the main deck house. The cans cool at the time the design work was being done, was some
within 10 hours without the use of mechanical ventila- 2,000 miles away on the floor of the Bering Sea, there was
tion but fans can be added to increase the cooling rate. little possibility of making tests to confirm the assump-
On Neva the large side ports installed in the main deck tions.
house can be opened to allow air to circulate over the King crab cooked by the Pacific Explorer was caught
salmon and then up through the hatch and ventilator by conventional trawlers and by tangle nets. King crab
is all leg with a relatively small body. It is not uncommon
openings.
On the Ogontz the cooled salmon was lowered into to find crabs which measure 12 in. (1.8 m.) from tip of
holds by sheet metal spiral chutes set into the hatchways one claw to the other. Basic design assumptions called
after being put through a simple casing machine. On for an average crab weight of 6.2 lb. (2.8 kg.) It was
[520]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
presumed that a large percentage of the crabs would be the tank, then dumped down an inclined chute which
caught in tangle nets and a house with a large work fitted into a small raised watertight hatch. conveyor A
table was installed on the after end of the weather deck carried the crabs through salt water which reduced the
on the starboard side. The tangle nets came in the temperature to allow them to be handled. The line
forward end of the weather deck and were pulled over extended the full length of the port side of the cannery
this table. Men picked the crabs out of the nets and deck. A 200 ft. (61 m.) row of tables serviced by three
placed them on a slatted wood conveyor running below beltswas installed, with stations for various parts of the
the table. The space aft of this house was arranged to crab process. The top belt fed in the raw material, the
take the trawled crabs which went on to the same con- bottom took away the offal which fell from chutes, and
veyor belt. The belt extended into another house built the middle belt carried the finished product to other
TRAWLER "DEEP SEA*
tummm COOCNMC HART BRINK
MATTLI. VAIN
BOAT ft PILOTHOUSE DECK FORECASTLE DECK
BELOW DECKS
Fig. 574. Deck plans of Deep Sea.
across the ship aft of No. 5 hatch and dumped on to the stations. The first tables consisted of crab picking and
distribution belt which feeds the crabs past the main butchering stations. There were about twelve stations
butchering tables. A special hooked knife was per- provided with small rotating saws to enable the joints
manently fixed in front of each operator. The men ripped to be cut neatly. At the picking stations the meat was
off the backs of the crabs and dropped them into a chute shaken out of the shells into pans which were taken
which discharged overboard. They next broke the through a brine and acid dip to tables where the crab
crabs into halves and placed them on another feed belt was packed by hand into cans. From here it went past
which dumped on to a conveyor running forward on the checking and weighing stations, then into the clincher
port side through the cooking tank. This conveyor, and seamer and then into the retorts on cooler trays.
the tank, including the shell, steam heating coils, and all The Explorer was unconventional in that a lift truck was
parts in contact with water, were made of stainless used to pick up the load in the cooler trays and place
steel because of the peculiar chemical characteristics them in the retorts, and to remove them and place them
of the crab. The meat is subject to excessive discoloura- in the cooling area. No
can reform line was installed
tion when brought in contact with copper or conventional because the packing capacity was small. The empty
mild steel. The crabs were given their initial cook in cans were carried in the round.
[521]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
FILLETING bins which were provided with a screw conveyor leading
to an elevator. This discharged the meal into the sacking
As the Pacific Explorer was also designed to handle machine. After being sacked the meal was stored in the
Bering Sea bottom fish, a large fillet line was installed. open for 48 hours and then piled in a hold or in the
The fish were brought aboard from the trawlers and were sacking area.
placed in ponds forward of No. 1 and aft No. 2 hatches. It is nearly impossible to convince an equipment
The fish went on to a conveyor belt which dumped them manufacturer or owner's representative, who is used to
into a watertight hatch leading through to the shelter a 12 to 14 ft. (3.6 to 4.3 m.) head room in a shore cannery,
deck. Achute conveyed them into a rotary fish washer that there is any necessity to know within an inch the
from which they were fed to the top belt of the fillet exact height of a piece of machinery. The reduction
line with spaces provided for 60 men, 30 on each side. plant probably requires the greatest amount of attention
Like the crab table, it had three belts. The top belt to detail because of the large number of conveyors.
brought the raw material, the middle took away the During the design stages of the reduction plant on the
finished product, and the bottom belt removed the Explorer the amount of slope for the dryer caused
offal. At the end of the line the finished fillets were much discussion. It was placed at the stern and the
discharged through a continuous dip tank (which was natural sheer of the vessel allowed J-in. slope per ft.
subsequently found to be unnecessary) to packing tables, (21 mm. per m.) when she was on an even keel. It was
then fed to packaging machines which labelled and considered that no difficulty would be encountered in
wrapped them. Next the fillets were placed by hand on maintaining an even keel due to the large tankage
the trays of large dollies which fitted the blast freezers. and the fact that the cargo could be stored in any hold.
Shore installations are generally made f to i in. per ft.
(33 to 42 mm. per m.). The Explorer only operated her
BY-PRODUCTS reduction plant for about two months in the Bering Sea.
While the operation was successful, the short length of
The offal belt on the fillet line discharged on another belt time does not give conclusive evidence that the slope
which ran past a packing table where personnel removed would be satisfactory for all types of processing vessels.
the livers. They were frozen in drums for processing
ashore. After the carcasses left the liver picking table
they were taken through a hog in which they were FREEZING
chopped into small pieces and discharged into a pond.
Both crab and fish offal ponds were provided with screw The Pacific Explorer froze some crab, processing it in
conveyors in the centre line at the bottom which dis- the same way through the cooker and cooling tank. The
charged through a series of screw conveyors into the first sections of the tables were used in trimming the
reduction plant cooker, from which it was discharged legs to proper lengths which were put on trays on the
into a press of the screw type. The oil and water squeezed dollies and moved into the blast freezers.
" "
out was taken through a fletcher machine, a basket The Deep Sea planned to freeze both crab and fillets
type centrifuge which effectively separates all remaining but soon gave up because of the high labour
filleting
" "
solid ingredients from the liquid. From the fletcher cost and low price of the product. Crab is caught
several alternate procedures could be followed. Aseries by the Deep Sea by trawl and taken from the trawl
of four settling tanks, all provided with steam jets and to a table, protected from the very inclement weather
heating coils and arranged at different levels so that the found in the Bering Sea. The crab backs are removed
oil could gravitate over the top of one settler into the and a conveyor carries the legs under a high pressure
other, were provided. A final finishing centrifuge could water jet to remove the bulk of the sand and other
be used or could be used in combination, depending on foreign matter. The legs are discharged into con-
the species and character of the fish or offal from which tainers which have wood sides and ends, portable wood
the oil was obtained. The oil was discharged into tanks. tops and heavy expanded metal bottoms. A small
The solid material was taken by a screw conveyor through electric trolley hoist, running on a rail, takes the con-
a disintegrator, which reduced the particles into smaller tainers back to cooking and cooling tanks which are
bits, and then into a dryer, the most imposing piece of made of wood and fitted with steam coils and live steam
-equipment in the reduction plant. On the Explorer jets. There are three sections, two of which are used for
it was 50 ft. (15 m.) long by 72 in. (1.8 m.) outside
cooking and the third for cooling. Sea water is circu-
diameter. It rotated slowly and was arranged at an lated through the cooling tank to take much of the
angle so that the meal being fed into one end would flow cooking heat out of the crabs. A transverse mesh
by gravity, tumbling and in contact with steam pipes, conveyor takes the crabs to the final processing table.
until it reached the other end in a dry condition. The On their way, they pass behind the engine casing where
meal was discharged by air into a receptacle where a they are given another cleaning spray. Crab legs may
screw conveyor carried it into a finishing grinder which be taken off on the starboard side of the final processing
further refined the meal. From there the meal went table where the joints are cut to size for freezing whole,
through a fan and cyclone and was dropped into sacking or they may be taken off on the port side for shaking
[522]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
when the product is loose crab meat. The meat is put is removed. In the case of loose crab meat, the meat is
into pans on the same conveyor and again transported packed on the final processing table into trays of such
across the ship to the final processing table. The blast size that the product becomes a flat bar
weighing 5 Ib.
freezer extends from the after end of No. 2 hold up to a (2.3 kg.). Each tray takes three bars. The trays have
trunk extending into the fish-processing room where a locking covers which are not quite watertight but allow
door in the after end allows the product to be fed for the expansion of the product. When the trays are
directly into the blast freezer. Legs and meat are placed loaded, water is added to the crab meat to glaze it and
REPmOEHATED CAROO SPACE IN CCMTNC
Fig. 575. Profile ofTmian, L.S.T. convened to tuna freezing ship. A similar ship was Saipan. Naval architects: W. C. Nickum and Sons,
Seattle, Washington, U.S.A.
Fig. 576. Profile and main deck of Neva, an L.S.T. converted for both salmon canning and freezing. Length o.a., 328 ft. (100 m.); length p.p.,
316 ft. (96 m.); beam, 50 ft. H in. (15.3 m.); depth, 24 ft. 10 in. (7.5 m.). (1) hopper: (2) feed table; (3) indexor; (4) iron chink; (5) sliming
table; (6) conveyor belt; (7) fish elevator; (8) fish pond; (9) chute; (10) filling machine; (11) can elevator from below; (12) patching table;
(13) curler clincher; (14) vacuum closing machine: (15) cooler loader; (16) cooler inverter. Naval architects: W. C. Nickum and Sons, Seattle,
Washington, U.S.A.
on plywood shelves in the blast freezer on angles secured after freezing, the trays fall outby gravity into the final
to a vertical continuous conveyor which moves down processing room on the port side in No. 2 aft hold,
from the top of the trunk. Fig. 578 shows the freezer where they are immersed in a defrost tank to allow re-
arrangement. The crabs may be frozen continuously moval of the frozen crab bars. Glazing tanks and the pack-
by adjusting the conveyor speed and adding shelves as aging area where the bars or crab legs are put into cartons,
the conveyor moves down, or in a batch process. Experi- are also in this room from which the finished cartons
ence has proved the batch method best and it is now are moved forward on a roller conveyor to the hold.
usually followed. In this process all of the shelves The Deep Sea has successfully operated several seasons
on the conveyor are filled with the product. The con- on crabs. It is believed that the handling costs are close
to the minimum and the consumer demand shows that
veyor remains still while the fan is on. After the batch
is frozen the conveyor is started again and the product the process yields a very satisfactory product.
[523]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
TRANSFERRING AND HANDLING OF CATCHES water spray, which froze immediately upon striking the
tuna, effectively prevented any movement of the fish.
Handling facilities are a problem on all fish-processing It was, however, found to be necessary to segregate fish
vesselsand the more products handled and the more received from each tender because they were paid for
varied the processing work, the more difficult the prob- on the basis of being in good shape and any spoilage after
lem becomes. On salmon canneries conventional gear delivery was deducted from the boat's share.
is used to transfer the fish from the small vessels into During the design stage of the Pacific Explorer the
the bins. No method has yet been devised which works estimates of stowage factors varied from 50 to 75 cu. ft.
better than this. Portable elevators have been tried. per short ton (0.64 to 0.43 metric ton/cu. m.) of tuna.
One operator has tried a portable elevator every year The actual figure worked out to be, on average, 59 cu.
for some five years and has always ended up with one ft. per short ton (0.54 ton/cu. m.). In some cases
elevator completely broken each year. The problem holds have been stowed to a factor of 57 cu. ft.
of adjusting the depth of the elevator to small fishing per short ton (0.56 ton/cu. m.), but this has been
vessels and the control of the relative motion of the two with very small tuna averaging not over 10 to 15 Ib.
vessels has so far not been overcome. In the opinion (4.5 to 6.8 kg.) apiece. Large tuna running up to 150 Ib.
of the writer the answer to the problem is the use of a (68 kg.) apiece will stow at the rate of 65 cu. ft. per ton
small steel receiving barge with very little freeboard, (0.49 metric ton/cu. m.).
moored tightly against the hull of the mothership, into
which fish can be sluiced from barges or pitched from
small boats. An elevator can be led to the top deck from
MOORINGS
the moored barge. Nobody has yet tried this method.
In bringing tuna aboard ships such as the Saipan
No special provisions were made for mooring the small
and Tinian conventional burtoning type cargo gear is
vessels alongside the motherships in any of the earlier
salmon canneries, as they anchored in quiet water.
used. The Saipan, when purchased from the Navy, was
The Pacific Explorer, however, was expected to operate
equipped with a diesel electric rotating crane mounted
in the fairly open Bering Sea and perhaps in open South
on the upper deck. This was left aboard but it was found
Pacific waters where running seas would be a problem.
that even in calm water when tied up to a dock the move-
For this reason special mooring arrangements were pro-
ment of the vessel was sufficient to make control of a load
vided, based on the experience of the reduction plants
suspended from a single whip inadequate. The Saipan
and Tinian used a bottom dump type basket for bringing operated in the mid-thirties, 15 miles at sea off Monterey
on the California coast. The key to this mooring arrange-
the fish aboard, with a hook type weighing scale inserted
ment is a counterweight secured to the inboard end of a
between the regular cargo hook and the dump basket.
This enabled the load to be weighed as it came aboard. mooring line which can move up and down as a small
craft surges against the line. In detail it consists of a
This is not necessary in a salmon operation as payment
tower which is an open frame structure with the counter-
is on the basis of a unit price per fish.
Two portable elevators were provided on the Pacific weight on the inside. A cable leads from the end of the
boat boom over fair lead sheaves to the top of the tower
Explorer and were very useful in lifting products from
and is then secured to the counterweight. The other end
one deck to another, such as bringing cans up from the
of the cable is attached to a 4 in. (10 cm.) manila line
'tween decks to the canning and processing area. Two
which is secured to the small boat and acts as a safety
lift trucks were also provided and were used extensively
link because it will break from heavy strains without
for transporting materials along the cannery deck for
damaging the boat boom or the mooring fittings. This
storage in the holds or for delivering materials to the
line is secured to the bow of the small boats. At the
various processing stations.
other end it is secured to a similar line which, in turn,
The handling of frozen tuna between the brine tanks and
is secured to a heavy spring on the mothership's deck.
the holds represents a large labour cost. The ideal location
The counterweight tower takes care of the extensive
for a tank on a tuna mothership is on the upper decks,
movements of the small boat and the spring takes up
as high as possible to allow discharge by gravity chutes.
any heavy shock load. This type of mooring worked
very successfully on the reduction plants when they were
anchored in mid-ocean for long periods of time but it is
STORAGE
not believed that any salmon cannery or tuna mother-
The storage of the tuna after it was frozen was given ship operation in the future will require such mooring
considerable thought on the Pacific Explorer because equipment.
no one had previous experience of how to handle it on a
large scale. It was felt that it would be necessary to ELECTRIC POWER
provide storage bins to stack the fish and to prevent
them from falling off the stacks. This was right for the As most processing machinery is commonly driven by
wrong reason. There was no difficulty in maintaining motors, the installation of fish-processing equip-
electric
the stacks of tuna. The addition of a very light fresh ment almost invariably requires additional generating
[524]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
capacity. On the Ogontz, two turbine driven A.C. subject to continual wash-down and surface water and
generators, each developing 100 kw., 220 v., three-phase steam. Transformers were installed to provide 220 v.
current, were installed in the old bunker space on the current for these motors. A few conveyors were driven
'tween decks abreast of the engine room. The cannery by D.C. where speed regulation was important. Trans-
installationwas connected to an A.C. system and was formers also delivered 110 v. single phase power for the
made separate from the ship's regular D.C. installation. lighting and fractional horse power motors. To increase
This was one of the first commercial installations of A.C. the power factor of the installation the two 175 h.p.,
equipment on board ship in the Pacific north-west. one 225 h.p and one 50 h.p. motors driving the refrigera-
The use of A.C. was influenced by the second hand tion compressors were of the synchronous type, and a
generators available and the fact that all canning equip- motor generator set was installed to provide D.C. motor
ment for shore installations was universally equipped excitation.
with A.C. Even with new generators the first cost worked No difficulty at all was experienced with the electrical
out to slightly less than the cost of D.C. equipment. installation while operating in Alaskan waters. In south-
No difficulty was experienced wHh the operation of the ern waters, however, it was a constant source of trouble.
Fig. 577. Second and third deck of Neva, an L.S.T. converted for both salmon canning and freezing. (J) can elevator; (2) cable drive stand and
motor; (3) cable runway; (4) motor for seamer; (5) can reformer; (o) can elevator tofianger; (7)flanger; (8) can elevator to seamer; (9) seamer;
(10) can elevator to second deck; (11) can packer; (12) discharge conveyor; (13} gluer; (14) 36ft. (11 m.) compression unit; (15) roller conveyor;
(16) portable roller conveyor. The holds occupy the whole space on both second and third decks In the centre.
equipment. This rather startled the writer when he The generators laboured continuously under southern
found out that at the end of each season they had to take conditions. One of the diesel engines broke down and the
off about 25 per cent, of the motors in the cannery and trip had to be completed with two generators in opera-
send them into a shop for baking out and rewinding. tion. After six months' service the two remaining
Even though totally enclosed motors were used, the generators had to be completely overhauled. Practically
service in the cannery was particularly arduous as there every electrical motor which had done any kind of
was the large amount of water and steam around and service during this six months stay in the tropics had to be
at frequent intervals the entire area was hosed down with overhauled on its return. The motors that gave the most
water and steam. The owners accepted the necessity difficulty were those which were in contact with the
for this repair work as a matter of course, as they were refrigerated air. The blast freezer fans were axial flow
used to doing it in Alaskan shore canneries. type with the motor directly in the air stream. Under
The Explorer, because of the size of the
Pacific these conditions the motors had an expected life, before
refrigeration plant and the number of motors required, rewinding, of approximately three months. In addition,
needed a large new electrical installation. The generating it was found that contactors and other delicate control
plant as installed consisted of three 300 kw. 440 v., parts of the electric system were a source of continual
three-phase diesel driven generators. The existing two trouble due to the high humidity and the temperature
15 kw. D.C. generators in the main engine room were conditions.
left installed and by means of double throw switches the Onthe Saipan and Tinian, because of the relatively
lighting circuits were arranged so that should the large available generating capacity already in the
Explorer ever sail as a freighter, the diesels could be shut vessels, no additional equipment was installed. However,
down and the auxiliary machinery space left unmanned. it was necessary in both cases to drive two of the four
All the motors of the Explorer received 440 v., except refrigeration compressors by diesels. The original
those which drove conveyors and other equipment in the 230/1 15 v. D.C. electrical installation was left unchanged.
crab canning and fish-filleting areas where they would be No serious breakdowns have occurred in this equipment
[525]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
but it requires constant attention and maintenance. could be circulated through the duct coils. A few radia-
Experience has shown that electrical equipment is the tors were installed in the pilot house, passageways, etc.
largest item of maintenance when operating in extremely The system worked satisfactorily for heating but, unfor-
hot and humid waters. tunately, it never had a real test as a cooling system.
On Neva the existing installation was 230/1 IS v. D.C. On the way to southern waters, on its first and only trip
The generators did not have sufficient capacity for the under tropic conditions, the chilled water tank froze,
necessary new electrical equipment. The problem was due undoubtedly to failure or mis-adjustment of the
resolved by the use of surplus equipment. Surplus ammonia back pressure valve. The only thing proved
boilers, with a steam capacity far in excess of that was that simple ventilation alone was not adequate for
required for just salmon cooking and washing service, quarters similar to those in the Pacific Explorer. The
were available at a very low cost. A 200 k.w. turbine- experience of the writer has been that unless the air is
driven D.C. generator was also available from surplus. actually cooled, simple ventilation does not give any
The operators were familiar with the upkeep cost of sense of relief from oppressive heat, no matter how many
motor-driven canning equipment and were glad to have times the air is changed. The air must be given velocity
a steam turbine installation using line shafting and belts by a bracket fan or discharge jet from a duct, so that a
for the cannery line so the installation had steam drives person can feel an impact on the skin. This was proved
for the canning machinery, steam winches, and a steam by the fact that there were no complaints on the Saipan
generator large enough to carry the balance of the load and Tinian, although the air changes were less than those
without operating the diesels. When the vessel is at on the Pacific Explorer. They had bracket fans but
anchor, the operation is almost entirely by steam. When Pacific Explorer had not.
she is under way and no processing is going on, the The other special ventilation problem on the Pacific
operation is by diesel. Economic studies showed that Explorer was the reduction plant, located in the stern.
the first cost of this type of installation was the lowest The general odour around a reduction plant, no matter
and operating costs about the same. It was felt that the how sanitary it is and how often it is washed down, is
few dollars additional cost in oil required to generate hardly conducive to a good appetite. Besides the smell,
electricity and drive the canning equipment by steam however, there is a considerable amount of steam dis-
would be offset by the reduced maintenance of the steam charged from the press, and over the basket type centri-
drive canning line. fuge. The ventilation was entirely exhaust, so as to
The Deep Sea has diesel driven 220 v. A.C. generators. discharge it as far over the stern as possible. While the
No particular electrical problems were encountered in rate of change in the whole reduction plant area Was
her operation. Fortunately, the blast freezer fan motor made once every four minutes and 2,000 cu. ft. (57 cu. m.)
could be installed in the engine room with an extended per minute of local exhaust ventilation was provided in
shaft into the blast freezer so that it gives no trouble. the press area, it was not adequate to keep the area free
for condensation. When the plant was operating there
VENTILATION AND HEATING was a continual fog of steam within a radius of about
Ventilation and heating presented no problem on the 15 ft. (4.5 m.) from the basket centrifuge. Future
Ogontz and the Deep Sea and Neva as in Alaskan waters installations of this nature should provide separate
conventional commercial ventilation and heating instal- enclosures for the press and basket centrifuge and that
lations are practicable. not less than 10,000 to 15,000 cu. ft. (280 to 400 cu. m.)
On the Saipan and Tinian some special precautions per minute exhaust fans should be used to change the air
were taken to ensure adequate air distribution around the as rapidly as possible.
refrigeration machinery but otherwise the original Navy Another problem was proper local ventilation in the
installation and heating system was not disturbed and refrigerated holds. Deep floor gratings and sparring
it proved to be adequate for tropic conditions. around the shell and bulkheads are essential to allow
On the Pacific Explorer, as the vessel was required to air circulation around the refrigerated cargo. On the
operate in both tropic and in northern waters, a com- Tinian, portable blowers were necessary to provide some
bined heating and cooling system was installed. The air movement. A
small blower of only 500 to 1 ,000 cu. ft.
heating was done by a conventional hot air system, the (14 to 28 cu. m.) per minute per hold was adequate and
air being warmed by coils in the inlet ducts and dis- in any coil type of refrigeration storage this type of
tributed by fans through ducts into the living quarters. ventilation should be permanently installed.
Approximately 70 per cent, of the air passing through
the quarters was continually being re-circulated with
30 per cent, being continually removed. The heating REFRIGERATION
coils in the ducts were supplied with hot water from a
water tank heated by steam coils. A conventional The Ogontz was the only vessel of the group discussed
continuous circulating pump was provided. In order to which did not have facilities for freezing and frozen
cool the air when in the tropics a duplicate water tank storage of fish.
cooled by ammonia coils was installed and the two The refrigeration installation on the Pacific Explorer
tanks were so connected that either hot or cold water was designed to be able in southern waters to: freeze
[526]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
tuna at the rate of 120 short tons (109 metric ton) per advantages and disadvantages and the selection of one
day; make 10 short tons (9 metric ton) of ice per day; of them depends on the product to be frozen. The air
and to hold the entire refrigerated storage space at blast method has the advantage of a fairly quick rate of
deg. F. (-^18 deg. C). freezing and using a small amount of space when the
In northern waters the plant had to freeze: fillets at product is of a uniform shape and size. Its disadvantage
the rate of 5,000 Ib. (2.3 metric ton) per hour or 60 short is that the flesh of raw fish brought in direct contact with
" "
tons (55 metric ton) per day; to freeze halibut on shelf the air blast will get a freezer-burn which spoils the
type freezers at the rate of 25 tons (23 metric ton) per quality of the product. Another disadvantage is that
day; and keep the refrigerated holds at deg. F. products not uniform in size cannot be loaded sym-
( -18
deg. C). metrically on to uniform dollies or on uniform freezing
Requirements on the Deep Sea were to freeze 1,000 Ib. trays designed to fit the air passage in the tunnel.
(450 kg.) of crab or fillets per hour and to hold the cargo The contact method, which is commonly used for
at ( -18 deg. C.).
deg. F. halibut or other large fish which must be dressed before
Requirements on the Saipan and Tinian were to freeze freezing, has the advantage of handling products which
tuna from +90 deg. to deg. F. (+32 deg. to -1 8 deg.C.) lack uniformity in size or are too large for packaging
"
at the rate of 60 short tons (55 metric ton) in 24 hours without discolouration or burning. The term direct
"
and to keep the holds at deg. F. (-18 deg. C.). contact is a misnomer, as the shelf type of coil used
Requirements on Neva were to freeze 70,000 Ib. (32
metric ton) of salmon or halibut from +48 deg. to
-10 deg. F. (+9 deg. to -23 deg. C.) in 24 hours and
to keep the hold at deg. F. ( -18 deg. C.).
The design assumptions on ambient temperature
varied slightly but basically they were as follows:
(a) Tropic waters: water temperature, +88 deg.
F.
(+31 deg. C.); air temperature, +110 deg. F.
(+43 deg. C.), with 25 per cent, to be added for
decks and sides where the insulated surfaces were
in direct contact with the sun.
(b) Alaska and Pacific northwest waters: water
temperature, +60 deg. F. (+16 deg. C.); air
temperature, +80 deg. F. (+27 deg. C.) with
Fig. 578. Deep Sea. Arrangement of continuous tray blast freezer
25 per cent, added for sun effect on exposed
decks and sides.
These design assumptions proved to be only just on and Neva is not solely direct
the Pacific Explorer
contact. Thermal convection of air current in the com-
adequate in the southern waters and slightly in excess of
requirements in northern waters. Water temperatures partment undoubtedly plays an important part in the
of +88 deg. F. (+31 deg. C.) were recorded on various freezing action. As yet no freezer of the double contact
occasions on the Saipan, Tinian and Pacific Explorer, type have been used on ship board, although it has
and the average for months at a time was +84 deg. F. advantages for freezing fillet or crab.
(+29 deg. C.). Air temperatures exceeded +110 deg. F. The brine immersion method used on the Saipan
and Tinian for tuna has many advantages. Stowage of
(+ 43 deg. C.) but it was felt that the sun effect took care
of this. Air temperatures in excess of +60 deg. F. the product during freezing is no problem. It is only a
matter of dumping the tuna into the brine. Due to the
(+16 deg. C.) were never found in the Bering Sea and
water temperatures averaged +42 deg. F. (+5.6 deg. C.). high heat transfer values obtained between the fish and
On very rare occasions in inlets and bays the temperature brine the tuna can be frozen in a shorter period of time
went to +50 deg. F. (+10 deg. C.).
than under the contact or air method. If a large tank of
When vessels bring their catch back to northwest brine is already down to a low temperature, it has a
ports where +60 deg. F. deg. C.) water and
(+16 potential refrigerating effect which is available imme-
+80 deg. F. (+27 deg. C.) air temperatures are found, diately. If the fish introduced into the tank area are
it is believed that only the holding coils need be designed
over 65 deg. F. (+18 deg. C.) and are one-third the
weight of the the brine temperature
initial brine, raising
to cope with these higher temperatures. Capacities - 12 deg. C.)
of compressors and condensers can be based on the from zero to +10 ( deg. to
deg. F. -18
lower temperatures and the freezing compressors used will lower the temperature of the fish more than 30 deg. F.
to make up any deficiencies in holding compressor (17 deg. C.) without any additional refrigerating effect
from the compressors. Also, the capacity of the com-
capacity when in Puget Sound waters.
The Pacific Explorer and the Deep Sea used the air pressor increases as suction pressures go up, and this
blast method, the Pacific Explorer and Neva used the initial rise inbrine temperature allows an increase in
contact method, and the Saipan used the brine immersion suction pressure, with a consequent increase in capacity.
method of freezing fish. All of these methods have their With properly designed evaporator coils in the tanks,
[527]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
the maximum capacity of the compressor can be used 175 h.p. motors. The third high-stage compressor was a
during all stages of the freezing action. The brine tank small 6Jx6J in. (165x165 mm.) machine driven by a
has the disadvantage, of course, of not being useable on 40 h.p. motor used for the icemaking plant and for pump
packaged products, and salt penetration is judged to be out. The evaporating coils, for the shelf and blast
a disadvantage when the raw flesh of the fish is subject freezer spaces, and the holding rooms, are all of the
to immersion. This is questioned by some experts and flooded type. Booster suctions were connected to seven
there are many people who claim that brine freezing will low-pressure receivers, one for the storage rooms and
work well on dressed salmon, at least for salmon thai six, two forward and four aft, for the blast- and shelf-
will ultimately be canned. The present use of brine freezers. The liquid from the receivers was pumped
freezing is limited almost exclusively to the tuna industry through the evaporator coils and back into the receivers.
where the fish are never sold to the fresh fish market. Fig. 579 shows the arrangement in, and fig. 580 shows
All the vessels described use the direct expansion the arrangement forward of, the machinery space. The
ammonia system for refrigeration. Many people have installationwas the conventional two-stage type. The
questioned why freon is not used extensively in the fish discharge gas from the boosters was put through a
processing field and many manufacturers of freon water-cooled gas cooler, and a direct expansion liquid
equipment have spent considerable time and money and gas cooler, before entering the high-stage com-
investigating the industry, but direct expansion ammonia pressors. These discharge directly to shell and tube
continues to remain a favourite for several reasons. The condensers and into a high pressure receiver from which
first cost is in favour of the ammonia system and because the liquid is returned to the low-pressure receivers.
of low temperatures the power required generally is less. Float controls were used for maintaining the levels
Thus the cost of fuel is less and the operating mainten- in the receivers. The ice plant was fed from the high-
ance costs are certainly equal if not lower than that of pressure liquid receiver. A combined hot gas defrost
freon units. The use of freon has certain disadvantages. and pump out line was installed to all of the evaporator
The majority of fish processing vessels store their controls.Piping was so arranged that boosters could be
products unpackaged in coil type, rather than circulating by-passed and the whole plant operated on a single
air type, holding rooms. Copper coils would be exor- stage.
bitantly expensive and the use of steel coils has well-known The plant on the Pacific Explorer was operated for
disadvantages. Also there are no rules and regulations sixmonths under tropical conditions which were as
similar to the U.S. Coast Guard rules prohibiting severe a test as has ever been given any refrigerating
ammonia on passenger ships, which affect the installation plant. The equipment was first but personnel
class,
of the machinery, nor are there any hazards involved, inexperienced in two-stage compressor operation were
providing common sense precautions are taken. incapable of handling it properly. Heavy fluctuations
The investigation made at the time the Pacific Explorer in loads threw the system out of balance and careful
was designed shows the economic advantage of the and continuous attention was required to prevent
ammonia system. A
check indicated that an ammonia suction pressure going up, ammonia being robbed from
plant with 575 h.p. compressors was sufficient but a one part of the system by another part, etc. Certain
freon system required about 900 h.p. It was estimated modifications could and should be made to the basic
that CO, or other refrigerant would also require greater layout which would simplify operations. For example,
power than ammonia, and the use of any other system the boosters suctions were common from all the freezers
would require the installation of large brine heat and storage spaces. This means that load fluctuations
exchangers and pumps. The space required for the in one freezer affected the other freezers and the holding
machinery would be about double that for an ammonia rooms. Separate suction lines and more compressors
plant. of a smaller size would possibly eliminate some of the
The refrigeration installation on the Pacific Explorer operational difficulties encountered on the Pacific
isbelieved to be not only the largest but the only two- Explorer. However, it is the writer's considered opinion
stage system installed on ship board in the U.S.A. fleet. that two-stage operation is beyond the capacity of
Five ammonia compressors were installed; two were marine personnel.
boosters and three were secondary compressors. The The refrigerating machinery on the Deep Sea was
boosters are one four-cylinder 15 x 10 in. (382 x 254 mm.) single-stage and
operated very satisfactorily. All
unit and one four-cylinder 13x9 in. (330x229 mm.) refrigeration compressors were motor-driven and con-
unit driven by 125 and 50 h.p. synchronous motors. sisted of two four-cylinder 3^x3$ in. (89x89 mm.)
They were designed for operation at zero Ib./sq. in. compressors and one two-cylinder 5^x5$ in. (140 x
(0.07 kg./sq. cm.) suction pressure and a discharge 140 mm.) compressors. The latter compressor was
pressure of 24 Ib./sq. in. (1.7 kg./sq. cm.). The boosters generally used in the holding load and the quads for the
were operated at anywhere from 5 to 9 in. (127 to freezing load. On her first trip the Deep Sea suffered
228 mm.) of vacuum and at discharge pressure between from lack of flexibility. Later, the compressors were
15 and 25. Ib./sq. in. (1.05 and 1.75 kg./sq. cm.). The connected up so that any compressor could be used on
large high-stage compressors were two-cylinder \\\ either freezing or storage suctions. The holding com-
X 10 in. (292x254 mm.) machines, each driven by pressors were operated at 5 to 10 Ib./sq. in. (0.35 to
[528]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
0.7 kg./sq. cm.) suction pressure, depending on the load speeds were kept lower than this. The installation proved
conditions. The compressors working on the blast very satisfactory.
freezerswere operated around zero Ib./sq. in. (0.07 kg./ Refrigeration on the Saipan and Tinian illustrates the
sq. cm.) suction pressure. With average condensing difficulty in selecting the size of a plant for a vessel using
water temperature in Bering Sea of +42 deg. F. the brine freezing system. In the preliminary design
(+5.6 deg. C.), compression ratios at zero Ib. (0.07 kg.) stage, the operators felt that they would like to have the
were well within acceptable and standard levels. capacity of 50 to 75 short tons (45 to 68 metric ton) per
t t-
i
L
. 579. Pacific Explorer. Ammonia flow diagram in the compressor room
The Saipan and Tinian were each equipped with four day. It was decided that the basic requirements would
2-cylinder ammonia compressors. Two of the com- be 60 tons (55 metric ton) every 24 hours with the fish
pressors were driven by 75 h.p. electric motors and two brought on board at +80 deg. F. (+32 deg. C.), the
were driven by diesels. Separate suction lines were final fish temperatures leaving the brine tank to be
provided to the storage holds and to the brine freezing deg. F. ( 1 8 deg. C.). Refrigeration size was, therefore,
tanks and the compressors were arranged so that each based on the suction pressures remaining at 5 Ib.
can be thrown on either load. Holding compressors (0.35 kg.) unloading fish semi-continuously from the
operated at 5 to 10 Ib./sq. in. (0.35 to 0.7 kg./sq. cm.) tanks at deg. F. ( 18 deg. C.). It was realized that the
suction pressure and the brine tank compressors at plant would actually freeze a good deal more than 60
10 to 15 Ib./sq. in. (0.7 to 1.05 kg./sq. cm.). With short tons (55 metric ton) of tuna, as the brine tempera-
+88 deg. F. (+31 deg. C.) cooling water, head pressure ture and suction pressures could rise with greatly
of necessity had to rise to 185 Ib./sq. in. (13 kg./sq. cm.). increased compressor capacity, and because of the
With compressors operating at 5 Ib. (0.35 kg.) suction storedup potential in the brine. It was felt that it was
pressure, compression ratios above accepted
were advisable to provide excess capacity which might be
standards. However, the compressors were never needed for surge loads. It was not realized, however,
operated at more than 350 r.p.m. and 95 per cent, of the just how much excess capacity was built into the plant.
[529]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
a of 175 short tons freezer. There is one large shelf freezer on the lower deck
On one trip the Saipan froze total
of tuna in 24 hours. But the tuna came and two smaller units on the main deck. The capacity
(160 metric ton)
aboard at 4-32 deg. F. (0 dcg. C) not at +90 deg. F. of the lower and main deck shelf freezers arc about
is for the main
(+32 deg. C.), as it had been in the brine tanks of the equal. The ammonia absorption plant
small boats for at least 24 hours. It was brought down deck freezers. The suction lines are cross-connected so
that either the absorption plant or the compression
to +10 deft F. (12 deg. C.). Just raising the brine
equipment may be put on the storage coils or on
either
temperature from deg. to +10 deg. F. (-18 deg. to
12 deg. C.) was the equivalent of 25 American tons of of the shelf freezers. The capacity of the plant is 30
Fig. 580. Pacific Explorer. Ammonia flow diagramJn the forward part of the ship
American tons of refrigeration per 24 hr. (27 British tons
refrigeration per 24 hours (23 British
tons of refrigeration,
were put of refrigeration, 360,000 B.Th.U.; 91,000 kcal./hr.) at
300,000 B.Th.U.; 76,000 kcal./hr.). The fish
There
into the storage holds and the holding coils brought
50 deg. F. (46
deg. C.) suction temperature.
are several advantages of the system for marine service.
them down to deg. F. (-18 deg. C.) in 24 to 36 hours.
This potential capacity for peak loads is one of the great Low evaporator temperatures, i.e. 50 deg. to 60 deg. F.
(46 deg. to 51 deg. Q, can be obtained without the
advantages of the brine freezing system. com-
Refrigeration on Neva was designed
for freezing necessity of going to the complicated two-stage
and the fish The elimination of lubricating oil
halibut or salmon on shelf freezers keeping pression equipment.
at zero in the holds. The refrigeration machinery is of
from the ammonia system means continuously effective
two types, conventional compressor equipment and an heat transfer surfaces and no oil drains, etc., in the
ammonia absorption plant. The compression equipment ammc - hues. The ability of the absorption system to
consists of a 6 x 6 in. (153 x 153 mm.) two-cylinder
take liquid ammonia back into its absorber without
vertical compressor to take the holding load in northern danger does away with surge drums, knock-out drums,
etc., and the operator docs
not have the problem of
waters and two two-cylinder 9x9 (229x229 mm.)
in.
to prevent surges.
vertical compressors to handle the lower deck shelf constantly watching his suction lines
[530]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
Many vessels, particularly cannery vessels, have steam refrigeration (19.8 British tons; 263,000 B.Th.U.;
readily available, whereas electric power for compressor 66,000 kcal./hr.) at 10 Ib. (0.7 kg.) suction and 185 Ib.
drives often is expensive and difficult to obtain. (13 kg.) discharge pressure. At 35 Ib. (2.5 kg.) their rating
The between a good and a barely acceptable
difference was 35.8 American tons of refrigeration (32.5 British
design the provision of flexibility and proper balance.
is tons; 433,000 B.Th.U.; 108,500 kcal./hr.). Obviously
Flexibility enables the operator to divide the load and itwas no use putting large motors on the compressors
to use any and all of the equipment as the circumstances for peak loads unless the condensers were able to handle
arise. Balance means the careful design so that the the load. This provision of adequate condenser capacity
maximum capacity of the equipment may be used under is of particular importance in southern waters. The
Fig. 581. Pacific Explorer. Arrangement of blast freezers
varying conditions. For example, the compressors on average refrigeration engineer can scarcely believe that
the Saipan and Tinian each require approximately +88 deg. F. (+31 deg. C.) sea water actually exists, nor
50 h.p. when operating at 10 Ib./sq. in. (0.7 kg./sq. cm.) can anyone who has not seen the fouling action that
suction and 185 Ib./sq. in. (13 kg./sq. cm.) discharge takes place in southern waters realize just how severe
warm fish is dropped this can be. On the Pacific Explorer the head pressure
pressure. However, when a load of
in a brine tank, the temperatures may rise to where the of the circulating water pump went from 30 to 80 Ib./sq. in,
suction pressure can be raised to 35 Ib./sq. in. (2.5 kg./ (2.1 to 5.6 kg./sq. cm.) in three months simply due to
sq. cm.) when the horsepower required
is approximately fouling. Divers cleared the sea chest and the pressure
65. By installing a motor developing 75 h.p., the maxi- dropped to the neighbourhood of 45 Ib. (3.2 kg.). An
mum capacity of the compressor can be used under examination of the condenser tubes when the Explorer
extreme load conditions. Similarly, a condenser with the returned revealed an unbelievable amount of growth and
capacity based on the low suction pressures only will
be shells which, of course, easily explains why the head
considerably under capacity when the compressor gets pressure on the Pacific Explorer went to 250 Ib./sq. in.
up to a high suction pressure. The Saipan and Tinian (17.5 kg./sq. cm.) during certain periods. The tentative
compressors had a capacity of 21.8 American tons of standards for tuna boat refrigeration put out by the
[531]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
Southern California Refrigeration Installers in 1938 Fig. 581 shows the arrangement of the blast freezers on
recommends a condenser capacity of IS sq. ft. (1.4 sq. m.) the Pacific Explorer. Fig. 578 showed the arrangement
per American tons of refrigeration per 24 hr. (16.5 sq. ft. of the blast freezers on the Deep Sea. Both freezers operate
or 1.53 sq. m. per British tons of refrigeration per 24 hr. on the same principle, a continuous circulation of air
or 13,300 B.Th.U. or 3,340 kcal./hr.) at 185 Ib. (13 kg.) over the product and the coils which effects a rapid
discharge pressure, and 15 Ib. (1.05 kg.) suction pressure. transfer of heat. The freezer on the Deep Sea has proved
The errors that can be introduced by the use of rule of to be very satisfactory. The small freezers on the cannery
deck of the Explorer , which were designed and used for
package products, were also effective. The large blast
freezers on the second deck of the Pacific Explorer,
which were designed to take tuna or any other big
fish, were not too satisfactory. It took from 24 to 36
RELIEF
UNC hours to freeze big fish, and the freezers had to be defrosted
three or four times in the process. The fish were loaded
manually on portable shelves in the freezer, an expensive
and tedious job. The low pressure receivers and pumps
were located in the second deck freezers. The pumps were
subject to shaft seal troubles due to suction pressures
which varied between vacuums and positive pressures,
and ammonia leaks around the seals, which occurred
when the freezers were full of tuna, were naturally
troublesome. The oil drains had to be checked and
jg"SQ TUBING
cleared continuously to prevent the float controls from
sticking. This became such a problem on the Explorer's
southern trip that the direct expansion liquid cooler was
LIQUID HEADER
Fig. 582. Pacific Explorer. Flooded circulation type shelf freezer
thumb formulas, such as this, can be understood by
comparing this rule to the condensers on the Saipan
and Tinian. These condensers were designed for an
80 per cent, clean tube factor and the ratio was 23.4
sq. ft. (2.18 sq. m.) of surface per American ton of
refrigeration per 24 hr. (25.8 sq. ft. or 2.4 sq. m. per
British ton or 13,300 B.Th.U. or 3,340 kcal./hr.).
FREEZERS
The blast freezers units installed on the Pacific Explorer
followed conventional land practice. They were essen-
LIQUID
tially a tunnel in which the product could be loaded and LEG
through which air could be circulated by means of a
high capacity fan and the evaporator coils. They proved
effective and met their rated capacity. However, certain
difficulties were experienced with their operation. It is
recommended that the motor proper be not placed in Fig. 583. Neva. Flooded gravity recirculation type shelf freezer
the blast freezer chamber. Defrosting on the Pacific
Explorer was accomplished by a water spray introduced by-passed. On any future marine installations, the float
over the blast coils. The headers were effective and valves and pumps should be placed where they are easily
defrosting could be accomplished but the problem, which accessible for adjustment. The use of a packless type
was never solved, was how to make the operating per- pump would also be very desirable.
sonnel defrost the coils as often as was required and to do The coils on the Deep Sea differed from the Explorer,
a complete job of defrosting. Unless the coils were in that they were designed for natural rather than forced
defrosted at least every eight hours, their capacity was circulation by a pump. A
float control was used to
reduced practically to zero. The operator of the Deep maintain the coils in a flooded condition. No difficulties
Sea had actually to submerge the coils for a short period were experienced with the float, possibly because the
to ensure a complete defrosting. liquid was not sub-cooled.
[532]
PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS
The shelf coil freezerson the Pacific Explorer were high heat transfer rate between the brine and ammonia
located on the second deck aft. They were designed was obtained and the large volume of the tanks ensured
primarily for halibut, although they were used effectively that the fish would give up their heat to the brine as
on tuna. Fig. 582 shows a typical shelf coil, low pressure fast as the coilswould receive it. Impellers mounted
receiver, pump and control. The coils were arranged in on vertical shafts driven by belts from motors in the
groups and two pumps and two receivers fed all the coils. wing wall compartments were used for circulation. The
Other than some pump and float difficulties, they gave tanks were very successful in operation.
no trouble. They had a very high capacity and did a
good job of freezing. AGITATOR HOT OK OUTSIDE
COLO *PAOC
On Neva it was decided to use a gravity circulation type
coil. A
special coil, shown in fig. 583, was designed.
Level control is maintained by the usual float and the
liquid feeds are oversized and arranged to feed in any
of the vertical legs. The headers and vertical legs were
made sufficiently large that the gas velocities would be
well below the point where they could pick up any
liquid. Tests of small scale models showed the coil
surfaces to be effective under extreme conditions of
concentrated local heat loads, and under high angles of
heel and trim.
Brine tanks are arranged on the ordinary tuna clipper as
shown in fig. 584. On some of the smaller vessels the
outside brine coolers are omitted, tank coils alone being Fig. 585. Tinian and Saipan. Arrangement of brine freezing tank
used for refrigerating.
The Saipan and Tinian arrived with large loads which The volume of the tanks was about 10,000 cu. ft.
total
(280 cu.m.). Approximately 80 short tons (73 metric
ton) can be placed in the tanks and frozen at one time
SHAFT ALLEY
without the fish sticking together in the freezing opera-
tion. The writer believes that the sticking is due to the
buoyancy of the fish in the dense brine. As successive
layers of fish are added, the pressure exerted by the fish
on the bottom layer reaches a point where the fish actually
freeze together. Thus, depth is the controlling factor
and it is recommended that future tanks be shallow and
broad. Experiments are going on now with the use of
horizontal partitions which may increase the effective
capacity of the Tinian tanks.
Brine temperatures on the Saipan and Tinian are
maintained between deg. and +5 deg. F. (18 deg.
COIL ALL INSIDE and 15 deg. C.). As the fish have always been either in
SURFACE OF TANK " "
ice or brine on the small boats, no chilling is done
before they are loaded into the brine. Tuna clippers
conventionally use cold sea water to chill the fish when
first caught, and the water also cleans off the blood and
Fig. 584. Typical arrangement of tuna clipper brine freezing tank.
(A) tank circulating brine pump; (B) brine transfer pump; (C) brine gurry.
cooler (optional) (suction to each compressor); (D) brine cooler feed The Oceanic V, another converted L.S.T. uses brine
(L.P. float); (E) compressor suction mains (through suction pressure tanks for both freezing and storage and the entire hold is
regulators); (F) strainer plate brine suction; (G) brine discharge
simply a series of large brine tanks. On the first trip
they depended on shell and tube brine coolers and
would take a cannery weeks to process. This meant pumps which meant that they had to keep the fish in the
that the tuna had to be in dry storage and the brine tank brine for the entire voyage. The rolling and motion of
was just a production freezing tank. the ship damaged the fish so ammonia coils were put in
The arrangement of brine tanks on the Saipan and the tanks. This now allows the fish to be frozen with the
Tinian is shown in fig. 585. In place of external brine brine coolers. The brine is then pumped out and the
coolers, regular raceway coils similar to an ice tank fish held dry with the coils. This method of storing
installation were provided and impellers circulated the the tuna increases the capacity of a given vessel by about
brine through the coils, out through the tanks and back one-third as the fish will stow at the ratio of at least
through the coils again. By using high brine velocities 45 cu. ft. per short ton (0.71 metric ton/cu. m.). However,
through the raceway (150 ft. or 46 m. per minute) a very the conversion cost per ton of capacity is about the same
[533]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
and the fish must be thawed before they are removed, brine, and the spilling of brine into the cans, which made
so they must be canned immediately they -are brought them harder to freeze.
ashore.
The holding coils on the Pacific Explorer were the
flooded ammonia recirculating type. Holding coils on INSULATIONS
" "
the other vessels are all the dry type controlled by
thermal and hand expansion valves. Flooded coils are Insulation in the refrigerated spaces of the Deep Sea
undoubtedly more effective, and have a higher heat was cork throughout. The other vessels used a combina-
transfer valve, and on large installations the saving in tion of cork and fibre-glass. The experience of the writer
pipe justifies the increased cost of the low pressure is that there is no better material for cold insulation than
receiver and pump and the additional ammonia. An cork. Where weight and fire-retarding qualities are no
overall coefficient of heat transfer of 1.6 B.Th.U. per consideration, the only reason for using other materials
sq. ft. of surface per deg. F. per hour (7.8 kcal./sq. m., is cost. Because the difference in cork and fibreglass is
hr., deg. C.) can be used for the flooded coils, whereas so great, every effort was made on the Pacific Explorer
the dry coils should not be rated at more than and Saipan and Tinian and Neva to use fibreglass. To be
1.25 B.Th.U. per sq. ft. per deg. F. (6.1 kcal./sq. m., hr., practical, the installation must provide a perfect vapour
.deg. C.). seal on the warm side of the insulation. This is essential
Provisions are generally made for defrosting the hold in tropic service where high humidities and temperature
coils by hot gas from the compressor discharge. De- increase the vapour pressure differential between the cold
frosting over the tuna load is done wherever necessary. and warm sides of the insulation. The only good vapour
The drip from the coils adds a glaze to the stacks of fish. seal in the opinion of the writer is a steel surface against
On the Deep Sea hot gas defrost was not installed, as the which the insulation can be .placed with the warm area
vessel carried a package product and could not there- on the opposite side of the steel. Wherever this condition
fore defrost with a load. A quick turn around was of no existed on the vessels named, fibreglass was used, with
importance at the unloading terminal and there was the exception of the blast freezers on the Pacific Explorer,
ample time to defrost by natural air circulation. the brine tanks on the Saipan and Tinian, and the decks
of all three vessels. On the blast freezers cork was used
because of the high temperature differences. The brine
ICEMAKING tanks had a steel lining on the inner cork surface because
leaks would ruin the fibreglass. Cork was used on the
The Pacific Explorer had the only ice tank ever installed decks for the same reason.
to the writer's knowledge on a sea-going ship. It was The insulation on all vessels gave a minimum coverage
conventional, as far as the tank, agitator, ice cans, of 2 in. (5 cm.) over all structural members. With low
ammonia coils, thaw tank, can filler, can dump, and can cost materials such as fibreglass the space between frames
hoist were concerned. It was rated at 10 short tons and beams can be filled in solid at less cost than is
(9 metric ton) per day at a 36-hour freezing rate using required for boxing. The result was 8 to 15 in. (20 to
300 Ib. (135 kg.) cans. It met its rated capacity in calm 38 cm.) of insulation, depending on the size of frames and
waters, but had difficulties whenever a sea was running. beams. Through experience, the writer has adopted
The unusual features of the tank were the insertion the practice of using an overall coefficient of heat transfer
of swash bulkheads in an attempt to minimize the effect of .1 B.Th.U. per sq. ft. per deg. F. per hour (0.5 kcal./
of the movement of the ship, and the addition of a brine sq. m., hr., deg. C.) for ship side, deck head and deck
dump tank under the main deck. The dump also acted insulation, regardless of whether the thickness is 8 or
.as an overflow collection tank. Its capacity was 14 in. (20 or 35 cm.).
sufficient to allow the brine to be lowered to half the
normal level in heavy weather. The greatest difficulty The mobility which allows fish-processing vessels to
encountered in operation with any roll or pitch was the move to the most productive fishing areas is likely to
.spilling of fresh water from the ice cans, which diluted the result in the industry making more use of them.
[534]
THE EXPERIMENTAL FREEZER TRAWLER DELAWARE
by
C. G. P. OLDERSHAW
objectives of the project to freeze fish at sea insulatedand refrigerated for storing frozen whole fish
THE being carried out during 1952-1954 at the Boston
Technological Laboratory of the U.S. Fish and
and housing the fish freezing tank; and one pound
housing the refrigeration machinery.
aft,
Wildlife Service's Branch of Commercial Fisheries are: The original hold insulation of 4 in. (10 cm.) of cork,
(a) the development of handling, freezing, and storage laid in hot asphalt and covered with 1& in. (3.8 cm.)
facilities which can be installed and used in existing tongue and grooved sheeting, was thought sufficient
vessels of the New England fleet, and (b) the establish- for the experimental work to be carried out. However,
ment of the technical and economic feasibility of there may be more economical methods of insulation in
" "
freezing fish in the round at sea for later processing fitting a commercial vessel for cold storage of frozen
(i.e. thawing, filleting, and re-freezing) ashore. Methdds fish.
that would require extensive conversions or the designing
and building of new vessels are not being considered. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT
The trawler Delaware used in these studies is a typical,
The refrigeration equipment installed on the Delaware
present day, large New England trawler with the follow-
consists of the following:
ing dimensions:
(1) BRINE TANK AND FISH-FREEZING MECHANISM
Length, over-all: 147 ft. 6 in. (44.8 m.);
The method of freezing the whole fish by immersion in
Beam: 25 ft. (7.62m.);
refrigerated liquids was chosen in preference to refriger-
Depth: 14 ft. 8 in. (4,47 m.); ated coils or plates, refrigerated air blast, or refrigerated
Gross register tonnage: 303 tons;
Net register tonnage: 172 tons; moulds, because it appears to offer advantages in
Main engine: 7 cylinder, two-cycle, 735 h.p.; economy of space and manpower, short freezing time,
and simplicity of machinery.
Auxiliaries: two units supplying the 115v. D.C.
The freezing apparatus consists of a tank of chilled
electrical system; one 40 kw. diesel generator set,
brine' through which the fish are carried in baskets
one 25 kw. diesel generator standby set;
mounted on an endless chain conveyor (fig. 587). The
Trawl winch power: one 80 kw. diesel generator set
connected to the 100 h.p. electric winch motor; rectangular steel tank, approximately 8 ft. (2.4 m.)
Fresh water tank capacity: 11.0 short tons (10 ton); long by 5 ft. (1.5 m.) wide by 14 ft. (4.3 m.) deep, is
situated lengthwise in the centre of the fish-hold approxi-
Fuel-oil tank capacity: 63.2 short tons (57 metric ton);
mately 5 ft. (1.5 m.) forward of the refrigeration machine
Lubricating oil tank capacity: 335 imp. gal. (400 gal.,
room bulkhead. It extends upward through the main
1514 L);
deck about 2\ ft. (0.75 m.). Chilled brine is pumped
Cruising range: 8,000 nautical miles:
from the brine cooler in the refrigeration machinery
Speed: approximately 10 knots;
room to four inlets located in the tank line about
Crew accommodation: 20.
1 ft. (0.3 m.) below the deck on the starboard side. The
brine flows out of the tank and returns to the circulating
ALTERATIONS TO FISH-HOLD pump by way of an overflow trunk at the forward end
The fish-hold of the Delaware originally had a volume of of the port side, having been made to circulate through
about 8,000 cu. ft. (226 cu. m.), with its 36J ft. (11.12 m.) the depth of the tank by a central baffle. The overflow
length divided into seven pound sections. It has now trunk is fitted with a removable strainer, which is acces-
been partitioned by cork-insulated bulkheads as follows sible from the deck for cleaning.
(seefig. 586): one pound section forward for storing iced, The mechanism for carrying the fish through the brine
gutted fish; two pound sections insulated and refrigerated consists of 11 cylindrical steel-mesh baskets, 7 ft. (2.1 m.)
for storing frozen whole fish; three pound sections long by about 2 ft. (0.6 m.) in diameter, mounted
[535]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
end on continuous travelling chains.
ccntroidally at each 20 cu. ft. (0.57 cu. m.) in volume, hold about 300 Ib.
The chains run on 30 in. (76 cm.) diameter sprockets (136 kg.) of round fish, giving the freezer a total capacity
mounted on a supporting framework. This framework of about 4,400 Ib. (2,000 kg.). The loading density of
can be hoisted as a unit out of the tank to facilitate about 20 Ib./cu. ft. (320 kg./cu. m.) provides sufficient
maintenance or repairs. The path of the chains brings space for agitation of the fish in the baskets.
each basket, in turn, up beyond the top rim of the tank,
where the fish can be loaded or discharged by personnel
(2) HOLD-COOLING EQUIPMENT
on the deck. After being removed from the baskets,
the frozen fish are lowered through the hatches and fed The frozen fish storage holds, where the temperature
into the pounds by light metal chutes. The top of the tank is deg. F. 18 deg. C), are refrigerated by banks of
(
is covered with a hood fitted with hinged doors. A 1J in. (3.1 cm.) iron pipe coils mounted on bulkheads,
2 h.p. motor and reduction gear, located above deck in deckhead, and port and starboard surfaces. Wooden
a watertight enclosure, drives the conveyor at the rate gratings are laid on the floor to aid in circulation of air
of one cycle per minute. under the piles of frozen fish. The refrigerant, a solution
Each basket is fitted with a full-length door about of ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and water, is pumped through
20 in. (51 cm.) wide, which can be opened from either the coils of a shell-and-tube cooler in the refrigeration
side to make loading and discharging easy. The baskets, machinery room.
HCCKC* BOARDS
CHUTE
INSULATED tOLKHEAOS
ABSORPTION
REFRIGERATION PLANT
MOIIN FUN ITOHAM itM
Fig. 586. Delaware. Boston trawler converted for experimental brine freezing of whole white fish. Owned and operated by U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service
[536]
THE EXPERIMENTAL FREEZER TRAWLER DELAWARE
(3) REFRIGERATION PLANT plant on the Delaware is enclosed in a water-and-gas-
A 25 U.S. ton (23 Br.
tons, 300,000 B.Th.U., tight compartment which, in case of dire emergency,
could be flooded.
75,000 kcal./h.) ammonia absorption refrigeration machine
is used for freezing and cold storage. A
number of these Two shell-and-tube liquid coolers are used, one rated
at 20 U.S. tons of refrigeration (18 Br. tons; 240,000
plants have been used on the U.S.A. West Coast salmon
freezer ships for several seasons. They appear to offer B.Th.U., 60,000 kcal./hr.) for maintaining the freezing
a number of advantages over the more conventional medium at +2
deg. to 5 deg. F. (-17 to -15 deg. C),
and one rated at 5 U.S. tons (4.5 Br. tons, 60,000
compression system: low initial cost; small electrical
B.Th.U., 15,000 kcal./h) for maintaining the holds at
deg. F. ( 18 deg. C.j. A
30 h.p. oil-fired vertical boiler,
located in engine room, supplies steam to the
the
FORE HATCH refrigeration machine and heat to the vessel.
Electric motors, totalling 9 h.p., are used in the
refrigeration equipment. This includes power for circu*
lating the brine and ethanol solutions, circulating
aqua-ammonia solution and cooling water in the
refrigeration machine, and driving the fish-freezing
mechanism.
COLD STORAGE CAPACITY AND FREEZING
RATES
The machinery room, originally the aft
refrigeration
pound-section of the hold, occupies approximately
1,300 cu. ft. (37 cu. m.), while the brine tank and
associated pipes occupy about 700 cu. ft. (20 cu. m.)
" "
in the centre or slaughter-house area of the present
MOTOR after hold. Using an observed load factor of 33 Ib./cu. ft
now
(525 kg./cu. m.) for frozen whole fish, the vessel, as
fitted for experimental work, has an estimated total
capacity of about 130,000 Ib. (59 tons) of whole frozen
REDUCTION and 15,000 Ib. (6.8 tons) of iced gutted fish.
The design of the freezing plant was based on an
DRIVE
average catch rate of 1,000 Ib. (450 kg.) per hour, with
Fig. 587. Delaware. Arrangement of perforated containers of an appreciable overload capacity. The fish, depending
freezing mechanism
on size, are frozen in one to three hours in the 5 deg. F.
load, as low pressure steam energizes the plant ; a few (15 deg. C.) brine, having been sorted into species
moving parts, simplifying maintenance; ability to adjust and size groups. After the correct freezing time has
to widely fluctuating loads without complicated con- elapsed for each size group, the machine is stopped for
trolling devices; little change in efficiency with reduced discharging the appropriate numbered baskets, then
loads; little reduction in capacity with lowering of load run again until the next size group is frozen. The larger
*4
temperatures, thus eliminating the need for staging "; fish, requiring about three hours to freeze, remain in the
and comparatively small floor space requirement. One freezer during the course of two one-and-a-half-hour
disadvantage is the necessity of using ammonia in the trawling hauls but there are sufficient baskets to accom-
plant. To overcome this hazard, all of the refrigeration modate the ensuing catch during normal fishing.
[537]
FREEZER TRAWLERS
by
DAVID B. CUNNINGHAM
rriHE whale factory ship was developed by necessity The handling of the nets over the side of the vessel, as in
and perseverance and it is now a highly scientific and
I a normal trawler, would require low freeboard and this
meticulous operating unit. Fish, as distinct from would detract from the seagoing qualities in a ship which
whales, are more plentiful and can be found in almost has to remain at sea for many weeks. This problem has
every sea and ocean of the world so that a wider scope been overcome through experiments carried out in the
should exist for the fish factory ship. steam yacht Oriana and later in the Fairfree, both
Fishing boats vary from country to country and the described by Lochridge (1950). A stern ramp or chute
diversity of size, design/ and opinion in planning them, was designed to enable the nets to be shot from the stern.
arises from the need to meet the actual operating con- This reduced the handling of nets to a minimum and
ditions in each locality. Bearing in mind that these vessels ensured maximum recovery of the catch instead of losing
are all designed and built for fresh fish, one may consider a portion, as often happens, when bringing the net
the distinct advantages that the freezer factory ship alongside. The arrangement also enables the sides of a
can offer. The factory ship has no need to rush home vessel to be built up, or another deck to be carried out
for the market so she does not need to be as fast as a to the side to provide cover and accommodation for
factory work.
As speed is not of prime importance, beam can be
introduced to give greater transverse stability and a
wider working platform for shooting and recovering
the nets, and a steadier 'tween deck for the factory
workers.
Factory ships can be built to any size to suit the
requirements of owners and may vary in length from
100 ft. (30.5 m.) to 500 ft. (152.5 m.) depending on the
work the ship is to do and how much may be spent on
Fig. 588. Arrangement of a freezer trawler illustrating passage offish it. In designing, two salient questions must be answered :
from time caught until processed. (A) fish in cod end; (B) on trawl
deck; (C) in cooled fish ponds; (D) factory deck (heading, gutting, What
1. quantity of frozen fish does the owner
filleting); (E) freezers; (F) low temperature holds; (G) fish meal
plant; (H) liver processing; (J) trawl winch; (K) fishing bridge require to be processed during the voyage?
2. In what time, as regard the number of days at
44 "
wet vessel. She can stay longer at sea, and fish
fish sea, has this to be carried out?
longer. She also makes a considerable saving in fuel
If, for instance, the owner wishes to process 100 tons
because of her slower speed and fewer trips to the fishing
of frozen special type fish and this is to be brought back
grounds. in 20 days, the ship will be quite different in design from
In warm climates the freezer factory ship may be very
that planned to handle, say, 600 tons of a common type
important, as she can operate at sea for many weeks, fish, brought back in 60 days. The length, breadth, depth
catching her fish in the cool of the morning or evening, and draft of the vessel, her fuel and fresh water capacity,
and processing the catch inside the factory deck, which and number
stores, refrigerating machinery, generators,
is enclosed and cooled so that work may go on irrespec-
of crew, are all affected.
tive of outside temperature.
The size of a vesseldetermined also by the area in
is
which she In northern waters she must be
will operate.
BASIC DESIGN robust to stand up to heavy storms, but in southern
In planning a freezer factory ship, such as the Fairtry, waters the weather may be generally placid and the ship
there are many salient points which affect the design. will not be subject to -such arduous strain. And, again
[538]
FREEZER TRAWLERS
the catch may be smaller than that normally taken in The navigating captain and his crew take the vessel
Arctic waters. to the fishing grounds where the fishing skipper and his
As the beam can be
increased, will the vessel be best crew take over and maintain control from the fishing
powered by single- or twin-screws? When the nets are bridge during fishing operations. Should any emergency
streaming astern, the warps are pivoting from the centre occur which might affect the safety of the vessel, the
of the .top of the ramp and not on a quarter of the ship, navigating captain at once assumes command.
as normal. If a single propeller is used, the trawling
is When the fish are caught the nets are hauled up the
"
depth must be watched to avoid traversing crab-wise ", ramp to the trawl deck and shot through the hatches into
because the rotation of the screw does not help to keep the fish ponds below, where the factory deck manager is
the trawl warps as taut as they should be. Use of twin in charge. The fishing crew are then -free to shoot their
propellers partly overcomes this problem, provided the nets again. On completion of trawling, with all gear
engine room staff are experienced in operating the safely on board, the ship reverts to the command of the
engine revolutions to steady the ship on her trawling navigating captain.
course. But the propellers should be protected to avoid Meanwhile, below decks the processing of the catch
the net catching on them. has been taking place. When these operations are
Sea-worthiness is essential. Stability is a contributory completed, the frozen fish is transferred to the refrigerated
factor toward this and the ideal is to create a vessel which holds for storage, the livers are canned or processed, and
will provide a steady platform for the crew and the factory the offal is processed into fish meal.
workers. These products are stored in their respective compart-
The entrance waterlines of the hull can be straight or ments and it is the responsibility of the navigating captain
slightly full. This gives a little extra buoyancy forward, to ensure safe carriage and correct storage temperature.
and some extra capacity to the forward fish-hold. It can be assumed that the navigating captain is in
The run of the lines to merge into the stern is worthy command of the vessel at all times but that he delegates
of careful attention as a following sea could be a nuisance his authority to the specialized branches which he has
if it arrived under the overhang at the crucial moment to control. They can be divided into the following
of taking the cod end up the slope. groups:
OPERATING CREW (a) Navigation and machinery;
Each member of the crew of a small ship has several (b) Fishing operations;
duties to perform, but the larger the vessel, the more (c)Fish processing and by-products;
clearly defined are the specific duties. These can be (d) Refrigerated cargo holds, temperatures and storage ;
roughly divided into three categories: (e) Safe transit of processed fish and all by-products;
(/) Catering and administration personnel.
(a) the navigating crew and operating personnel who
run the vessel as a sea-going ship;
(b) the fishing crew who shoot and recover the nets FISHING OPERATIONS
during fishing operations; The trawl deck of the Fairtry is situated well above the
(c) the factory workers who operate below decks to
sea and, being wide and clear, gives adequate space to
process and freeze the fish.
spread the trawl net for examination and repair.
Assuming, for a medium-sized factory ship that there
About 8 ft. (2.44 m.) from the ship's side on the trawl
isa crew of about 90 people, it is wise to appoint a deck is a small bulwark, about 2 ft. (0.61 m.)
fitted
head for each department, all under the command of high, running fore and aft. This enables the net and the
the navigating captain. wet fish and slime to be confined in the centre of the ship
The suggested distribution of the crew would then be: leading aft to the trawl ramp. The space on the sides
can house numerous articles such as spare nets or bobbins,
Navigating captain 1
etc., and
all the ancillary gear for trawling.
Fishing skipper 1
To
shoot the net or nets if they are run in pairs (this
Factory deck manager 1
is possible with stern operation, and nets are normally
Chief engineer 1
run parallel to each other) the lines are led from the
Navigating officers 6 outer ends of the rear rope aft into the slipway and round
Fishing officers 2 the vertical rollers or pillars at the stern and then back
Engineering officers 6 to the warping ends of the trawl winch.
Refrigeration engineers 2 When the trawl winch is started, warp ends, port and
Seamen 8
starboard, operate simultaneously. The mouth of the
Catering staff 6 net is pulled aft until it is suspended over the slipway,
Fishermen 6 with the belly and cod end lying on the trawl deck. These
Engineroom hands 10 are pushed into the chute and, sliding down into the
Factory workers 40
water, they stream aft. Then the remainder of the net is
Total 90 lowered and the trawl warp is payed out until the whole
[539]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
net streams astern of the vessel. Next, the trawl doors any doubt in assessing the size it is a safe policy to over-
are attached from the outer after-quarters and the trawl power to ensure reliability.
winch pays out the length of warp required. This method Some owners have considered the advisability of
of using the stern slipway (for which patents are already carrying a spare motor on board, and there is an instance
in existence) enables the trawl winch operator full and where one has been placed beside the main motor to
complete vision of the net and warps during the entire form a pair. They are so linked by clutches that either
operation of shooting, trawling and recovery. Both the can be brought into use in a matter of a few seconds if
winch and operator are fully protected from the weather, the other fails.
" "
and the ship is usually so dry while fishing that
operators have been known to wear house-slippers FACTORY DECK PONDS
instead of the usual sea boots.
The shot into the 'tween deck factory ponds for
fish are
During the shooting or hauling operations the fishing
sorting. These ponds are similar to those in the normal
bridge maintains control of the ship, including instruc-
trawler except that they are in the stern of the vessel
tions to the engine room and trawl winch. During the
and are under cover, between decks.
actual trawling the ship is steered from the wheel inside
the fishing bridge.
The rate of catching must be governed by the amount
of fish which the freezers can handle in 24 hours. But as
To recover the net the ship is slowed to about 2 knots
and the trawl warps heave in until the trawl doors come catching may be uncertain because of bad weather or
some other factor, it is necessary to store enough fish to
up. They are then unshackled and the net is hauled in,
with the head rope and mouth first, the belly next and, keep the factory machines at work. For this purpose it-is
advisable to separate the deck ponds from the factory
finally, the cod end which comes straight up the stern
deck by a bulkhead because the temperature in the pond
slipway. It continues over the safety hump at the top
must be maintained at 32 deg. F. (0 deg. C.) to keep the
of the ramp and on to the trawl deck, finishing just
fish fresh. On the factory deck a temperature of, say,
forward of the hump on top of the flush deck hatches.
50 to 60 deg. F. (10 to 16 deg. C.) is required for the
The rip cords are pulled and the hatches opened,
comfort of the workers.
mechanically or hydraulically.
The catch is shot aft into the cooled 'tween deck fish- The bulkheads in the pond should be fitted with
refrigerated cooling grids to maintain an even tempera-
ponds and the hatches closed. The rip cords on the cod
ture. Draughts must be excluded so the compartment
end are re-tied and the net is checked over and repaired
and the door between it and the factory space may be
immediately as it is spread put on the trawl deck. No
insulated.
man-handling over the bulwark is required. The deck
is well above the water line and the danger of a man
being washed overboard is remote. The catch is imme- FISH WASHING MACHINES
diately cleared which enables the crew to concentrate After sorting the fish pass along the trough or conveyor
on fishing without having to wade about waist deep in belt into the factory. The first machine washes them,
fish, as normally happens in a side-operated trawler
removing all slime, blood and dirt. There are many types
where a heavy catch has to be stowed before another of fish washing machines on the market and selection is
trawl can be brought on board.
governed by the size and type of fish the vessel is most
likely to catch. A
simple type is a rotating, circular tank,
with continuous flowing water, which swills the fish
TRAWL WINCH round its periphery. The slime and scum overflow to a
The trawl winch is the heart -of trawling operations and
discharge pipe led overboard. Such tanks have been
fishingoperations cannot be carried on if anything used for several years and one machine can adequately
happens to it. In a factory ship it is even more important wash all the fish the freezers can handle in 24 hours,
for the winch to function efficiently, with complete which may be in the region of 20 to 30 tons.
freedom from breakdown, otherwise all the factory The fish are not damaged by the mechanical washing
deck machinery, freezers, processing equipment, etc., machine as they often are on a normal trawler because
would come to a standstill. As the trawl winch of the fishermen walk about in the ponds while washing the
Fairtry is placed slightly abaft amidships at the fore end catch.
of the trawl deck, and is fully protected, there is little
likelihood of a breakdown.
A factory ship is of greater displacement and bulk than
HEADING AND GUTTING
the normal trawler, consequently the horsepower of the The test of efficiency of the heading and gutting machinery
main engines is greater. Should a net become fast is its ability to do the job in one operation, cleanly and
bearing in mind that the nets are recovered with the with no loss of edible flesh. As the freezers govern the
vessel moving slowly ahead the trawl winch must be amount of fish to be processed, the most economical
able to take the sudden strain. The size of the electric method is to deal with the heading and gutting in batches,
motor on the trawl winch in a factory ship, such as the processing the tonnage required to provide sufficient
Fairtry, would be in the region of 300 h.p., but if there is to fill the freezers.
fillets
[540]
FREEZER TRAWLERS
FILLETING Of available refrigerants, freon hasmany advantages
Automatic filleting machines are now reasonably efficient compared with carbon dioxide or ammonia. The
brine,
and one or two of the more prominent makes have been refrigerant used may, in the event of leakage or other
fitted on board ships. They can safely handle most of accident, have the disastrous effect of giving the fish an
the fish to be filleted. The fish are hand-fed to the off-smell. In some cases it is not possible to detect a
machines. To guard leakage until the damage is done.
against breakdowns, it is advisable
to install tables for hand filleting. As these will not be
in constant use, they may be built of aluminium alloy PACKING IN CARTONS
so they are easy to store, handle and clean. After freezing, the fillets or whole fish are tipped onto
Adjacent to the machines and tables should be placed the packing tables for making up into boxes.
a conveyor leading into the fish meal compartment where
Assuming, for example, commercial packs are being
the offal may be stored in hoppers before processing. dealt with, they would probably weigh about 14 Ib.
If it is allowed to accumulate in bins or in deep troughs each and measure about 18x12x2 in. (457 x
(6.4 kg.)
on the factory deck, it becomes congested and unsanitary. 305 x 51 mm.). Four of these 14 Ib. packs are then placed
into a cardboard carton, giving a total weight of 56 Ib.
PACKING IN TRAYS (25.4 kg. or J cwt. British measure).
The cartons are sealed and stored in low temperature
From the filleting machine the fish are conveyed on a
holds. They can be transported to the holds by electric-
table, or a slow-moving belt, to the packing benches.
ally operated conveyor belts and gravity chutes. The
They are placed in packs or trays and weighed to ensure after-hold is situated below the factory deck and is best
that the average weight is consistent.
supplied by means of a chute from the packing tables.
The trays are usually selected to hold the following The chute should be of smooth polished, stainless metal
sizes: personal or small domestic pack, or multiples of and should start steeply to give the carton initial impetus.
this pack, making a large domestic or commercial pack. It should level out at the bottom and run the full length
Multiples of the larger packs determine, of course, the of the hold. This enables stops to be set anywhere along
size of trays which, in turn, decide the breadth of the
its length, adjacent to the pound being filled.
freezers. The number of shelves are determined by the
The use of a conveyor belt is a decided asset for the
total capacity required.
fish-hold forward. Accommodation is normally admid-
Calculations should be made on all multiples to ensure
ships and the cartons have to be taken through the
the trays fit into the freezers. If trays were to get loose crew's alleyway. A conveyor offers a very compact
inside the freezer, the motion of the vessel would amplify method of transport and does not interfere with the
the movement and damage the freezer and the fish.
normal use of the alleyways. It starts from the packing
benches and is covered to protect the crew because a
FREEZING AND REFRIGERATION HOLDS vessel at sea is not always steady. It carries the cartons
to the top of a chute where they travel down through
In view of the restricted space available, a blast freezer
insulating felt curtains, and are stowed.
with finned refrigerating tubes as the shelves is a satis-
factory type. The cold blast is circulated around the
trays. The freezer is about 10 to 12 ft. (3.1 to 3.7 m.)
INSULATED FISH-HOLDS
in length, 6 ft. (1.8 m.) high and 3 ft. (0.9 m.) wide and Particular care and attention is needed in arranging
has a door at each end. The machine is compact and lay-out, accessability, storage, cooling and insulating to
the shelves are spaced to provide for the maximum maintain a steady temperature of 5 deg. F.
number of trays. These are pushed in one after the other, ( 21 deg. C.) in the fish-holds. Modern weight-saving
travelling the full length of the 12 ft. (3.7 m.) shelves. thermal insulating materials, such as glass fibres, aerated
The shelves are loaded at one end and unloaded at the rubber or spun stranded asbestos, should be used. The
other. may
It take about two hours for one tray to floor, bulkheads, and ceiling of the holds should all be
travel the full length of the freezer. That is sufficient insulated to a thickness of about 12 in. (30.5 cm.) .
time to freeze fillets or small whole fish. Opinions vary on whether the inside of the fish-hold
Many other types of freezers are available and the should be covered in wood suitably varnished or sheathed
" "
owner must select one that issuitable for handling the in aluminium. In a normal wet fish-hold aluminium
fish he intends catching. Bulky freezers are costly to has considerable advantages. It is easy to clean and does
carry and maintain. The unit must be compact and not harbour bacteria. But in a factory ship the fish are
require the minimum amount of refrigerant. already processed and in cartons. In view of this, some
The amount of pipes in refrigerated fish holds must be owners have preferred wood facing covered with insu-
sufficient to ensure a steady storage temperature of lating varnish.
-5 deg. F. ( -21 deg. C). The holds must be free of All hatches to the fish-hold should be of the plug type
draughts and be thermostatically controlled, and so and insulated. Size of the hatches is governed by the
planned as to eliminate any blind spots. Protective batten number of cartons to be lifted from the hold and the
should be provided to separate the fish from the pipes. need to maintain the low temperature while unloading.
[541]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
The entrance door into each hold should be covered forated steam coil at the bottom of each boiler. Boiling
with two curtains about 12 in. (30.5 cm.) apart, made of merely opens the liver cells, releasing the oil which floats
2 in. (S.I cm.) thick wadded felt. Many experiments The boiler is allowed to settle and then
to the surface.
have proved felt to be the best for this purpose. The the oil drained off to the storage tanks.
is
openings used are about 2 ft. (0.6 m.) square. When the Another method coming into use is electric centrifugal
carton comes down the chute it pushes its way through separation. The livers are placed in a shredding machine
these flaps which automatically fall back into place as it and, with the addition of hot water, reduced to a thick
moves into the hold. porridge which is put through strainers. Then it passes
Floor, deck head, bulkheads, and ship sides of the into the centrifuges which extract the clear liver oil.
hold are covered with refrigerating pipes, in some cases This method gives a slightly higher yield of oil than the
placed between sections or between the cargo. steam extraction process, but the initial cost of equip-
The cartons have to be carefully stowed to avoid ment is higher and maintenance calls for more skilful
crushing and damage by movement of the ship. The operators.
standard size of the pound in the normal fresh fish Some vessels have been very successful in canning
trawler Is about 3 ft. (91 cm.) in length and forms an livers and it seems likely that the canning process will be
approximate cube of this dimension. In a freezer ship more widely adopted, especially, perhaps, for canning
the cartons are all cubical so that their mobility is reduced. small, choice portions of fish.
Because of this the pound space can be increased to
approximately 6 ft. (1.83 m.) cube or the nearest multiple
of the sizs of the cartons. Tolerances must be allowed FISH MEAL PLANT
for easy accessibility for stowing, but not too much or The fish meal plant
is best sited below the factory deck,
the motion of the ship may cause damage. The distance
preferably aft, so that the offal can be sent down to it
between the shelves is about 6 ft. (1.83 m.) but it should,
by chutes. Opinion differs on whether the batch or the
in some instances, be reduced to about 4 ft. (1.22 m.),
continuous type of processing plant is the better. The
depending on the type of fish processed. Too much decision must rest with the owner and depend on the type
weight may crush the bottom cartons. This actually of fish to be caught and processed.
happened in a freezer trawler a few years ago. For normal white fishing bearing in mind the limita-
tions of space the batch type seems to be most suitable
LIVER PROCESSING because it occupies less space. If a number of hoppets
are installed an almost continuous process can be
One of the essential by-products is liver oil. Livers are
organized.
collected in ponds and moved aft to the liver oil
room, The final grinding and packing of the fish meal can be
normally situated in the stern because of the obnoxious done by the operator attending the plant. It is stowed
gases given off in the boiling. in a dry wood-lined compartment adjacent to the plant.
In some vessels an electric pumping system has been
used for transporting livers from the collecting hopper,
placed near the factory deck where the livers are extracted.
This is a very clean, efficient method. Apump of slow CONCLUSION
revolutions pushes the livers through. The system gives The freezer factory ship has been developed by a very
satisfactory resultsand does not damage the livers. The long process of painstaking advancement. Its use
storage tank is placed above the boilers. commercially widens the gap between big and little fishing
The livers can be cooked in a standard steam liver vessels, but there is a market for the catches landed by
boiler. The installation in a ship, such as the Fairtry, all of them. The demand for wet fresh fish will always
comprises five or six boilers, each about 2 ft. (61 cm.) exist, but the factory ship makes it possible to store
in diameter and 3 ft. (91 cm.) high and fed with a per- first class fish in big quantities.
[542]
NOTES ON FACTORY SHIPS
by
H. E. JAEGER
of overfishing the boats have to go to 500 tons of fillets, fish meal and 35 tons of
300 tons of
more and more distant grounds. This is the reason The displacement 2,400 tons and the power
BECAUSE liver oil. is
why freezer trawlers (Jaeger 1949) are contemplated. 1,400 h.p. for a speed of 11 J knots. The temperature
Such a vessel, which has been built as an experimental in the freezer is 40 deg. F. (40
deg. C.) and the
ship in Great Britain, is based on the consideration that refrigerated store should be kept deg. F. (18
deg. C.).
the consumable part of the fish is only one third of the The various equipment for filleting, for extracting liver
weight of the whole fish and if it was frozen immediately oil and fish meal are installed under the deck. The
after the catch, the ship could stay longer on the fishing refrigeration machinery is not very voluminous and it is
grounds. The time spent in fishing could be 75 per cent, placed in a chamber next to the fish-hold. The electrical
or more of the voyage instead of 25 per cent, or 30 per installation is important as the compressors require
cent. Fig. 589 shows a design of such a freezer trawler large power to produce the low temperatures. The
or factory ship, capable of dealing with 25 tons of fish working deck does not extend to the full breadth of the
per day during 60 days. ship and consequently a good space is available on the
These 25 tons offish yield 9 to 10 tons of fillets, 1 to 2 main deck between the gallows. It is estimated that
tons of liver oil, and 14 tons of refuse, to which can be such a factory ship could replace six or seven normal
added 6 tons of small size fish for fish meal production. trawlers, but the large sums which must be invested,
From 25 tons of fish, 4 to 5 tons of fish meal can be have slowed down considerably the interest in this,
obtained. After 60 days the ship returns to port with kind of ship.
(See fig. 589 on next page.)
[543]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
rtMMllPAl BtHUWONt DKAU6HT (LOADtD,
DUFUCIMINT (ICAWD). . .
KE/OTM HOOLDCB 57- S' HAIN CNIMK OUTFUT
PCFTM TO MAIMDICK W-"
. 5^9. General arrangement of a proposed freezer trawler
[544]
LIVER CONVEYOR SYSTEM OF A TRAWLER
by
MARIO COSTANTINI
1949 the Italian fishery company, Genepesca of working in collaboration with Messrs. Gallieni, Vigano
INCantieri
Leghorn, placed an order with the shipbuilders,
Riuniti dell' Adriatico, for two deep sea
and Marazza of Milan, devised an hydraulic conveyor
system based on the ejector principle. Fig. 593 shows
motor trawlers (fig. 590 and 591). They were to fish for the arrangement of the plant. A
wooden trough (1)
cod on the Newfoundland banks and the catch was to with running water (2) is placed at one end of the gutting
be cleaned and salted on board, ready for marketing. benches (3). The livers are thrown into the trough and
This meant that the processing system adopted had to be from there a stream of water conveys them to the
capable of dealing with the fish as fast as they were caught. ejector (4) where they are drawn into the jet chamber
It was decided that, to do this the fish must always move by suction. They are then carried by water through a
in one direction only to avoid double handling and that conveyor pipe (6) to the processing room (7). The mass
labour saving devices must be used wherever possible. of water in the pipe is sufficient to float the livers so that
they reach the processing room undamaged.
ARRANGEMENT OF DECK PONDS AND A swivel spout is fixed at the end of the conveyor pipe
GUTTING BENCHES to enable the water and the livers to be discharged into
either of two wire baskets in a steel tank (9) which drains
In the system finally adopted the cod move across the overboard (10). The livers collect in the baskets and
deck from starboard to port. The fish ponds and the while one is being filled the other is emptied into the
trawl gallows are on the starboard side. The system for disintegrator.
sorting, gutting and cleaning the fish is shown on the The ejector unit (fig. 594) consists of a funnel-shaped
deck view of the general arrangement (fig. 592). When receiver (12) and the ejector (13). The lower end of the
the trawl is hauled in the fish are dropped into the receiver fits into a circular chamber, being in communica-
ponds (A) to be sorted and from there are moved to the tion with it through a series of vertical slots. Air may be
gutting benches (3) where heads, guts and bones are drawn into the chamber through a spring-loaded non-
removed and thrown into a trough, while the fish, after return valve. If there is a stoppage in the system the
being washed in tanks (C), are returned to the ponds livers pile up in the chamber to
soon a level higher than
(A) for stacking in salt in the holds. The offal is washed the vertical slots in the receiver. When this happens
aft by a stream of water. the suction created by the ejector draws air through the
non-return valve and the vertical slots, which sets the
LIVER CONVEYOR SYSTEM livers moving again by stirring up the bottom layer.
Sometimes cod heads and bones, etc., get into the
Meanwhile the livers are collected in another trough and ejector (fig. 595) and clog it and have to be forcibly
from there they have to be carried aft. In some trawlers cleared. To do this the jet nozzle (15) is forced forward
this is done by hand which calls for a journey over a by means of a wheel (16) which works, through the bevel
considerable distance on an exposed and slippery deck. gears (17). The jet nozzle cuts and forces the obstruction
In the trawlers under discussion this was, in any case, into the tapering discharge nozzle (18) and there the
an impossible method because, with the limited crew full pressure of water from the jet clears it.
available, production would outpace disposal of the Fig. 596 and 597 show the finished installation. The
livers. capacity of the plant is about 1 ton of livers an hour.
This is noc a new problem and attempts have been made Some 30 tons of water are used at 40 Ib./sq. in. (2.8 kg./
to solve it by using conveyor belts, mono pumps and sq. cm.) pressure. The conveyor pipe has an internal
water pressure but in each case there were disadvantages, diameter of 4 in. (10.2 cm.) and a length of 135 ft. (41 m.).
such as scalding, chaffing or breaking the livers in The plant has been working since 1950 and has given
transit. In this instance, however, the shipbuilders, satisfactory results.
[545]
^Tv*
1
- y"\r -fft r. *
^* ' Hf^tit
irfP^^t
/W-tfr^J^V; V>
-'
: 'ii'
v;
[546]
LIVER CONVEYOR SYSTEM OF A TRAWLER
Fig. 591. Profile of Genepesca II
Fig. 592. Deck plan 0/ Genepesca II. (A) fish ponds; (B) cleaned fish; (C) washing tanks. (J) liver trough; (2) sluicing line; (3) gutting benches;
(4) propelling unit; (5) ejector; (6) conveying pipe line; (7) liver processing room; (8) disintegrator; (9) receiving baskets and tank (JO) discharge
overboard
HOC WAIM mi
Fig. 593. Genepesca II. General arrangement of hydraulic liver conveyor. (1) liver trough; (2) sluicing line; (3) gutting benches- (4) propelling
unit; (5) ejector; (6) conveying pipe line; (7) liver processing room; (8) disintegrator; (9) receiving baskets and tank; (10) discharge overboard
[547]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
SUCTION OP LlVtftS
SUPPLY
Fig. 594. Genepesca II. Ejector unit of the hydraulic liver conveyor Fig. 595. Genepesca II. Ejector with jet cleaning nozzle
Fig. 596. Genepesca n. Photograph of the ejector unit Fig. 597. Genepesca 11. Photograph of the steel tank in the liver
processing room
[548]
FREEZING AT SEA
by
G. C. EDDIE
has been possible to put some kind of freezing plant freezing has been adopted in place of brine freezing.
on board fishing vessels for at least 50 years, and
IT It is believed that brines being developed in U.S.A.
during the last 20 years enough has been known and Denmark do not produce such undesirable effects
about the quick-freezing and low-temperature storage on the surface of the fish and in the flesh as ordinary
of fish to produce a satisfactory refrigerator fishing sodium chloride, but there are other objections to them.
vessel. The real problem is matching the installation Again, tests have shown that fish must be gutted before
to the conditions of the fishery and it has to be solved freezing at sea, otherwise the blood gives them an
for each fishery. What is satisfactory for tuna, which are unfamiliar appearance and they rapidly develop off-
to be dissected and cooked twice, is not satisfactory for flavours. It takes as long to bleed a fish as to gut it.
white which may not be processed beyond freezing.
fish, Cold store temperatures of 22 deg. F. (30
deg. C.)
Even where projects are concerned with more or less are currently recommended and used in the United
the same species, as are the Delaware and the current Kingdom as compared with deg. F. (18 deg. C.) in
British projects, the designs differ a great deal because U.S.A. Freezing always has some effect on external
of the different operational conditions on the fishing appearance, and it is not considered worth while to
grounds, the different final forms of the product, and the freeze fish which will be less than 10 days in ice at
different processing and
distribution problems on land. landing, whereas the New England, U.S.A. fleet makes
But there are points common to all such schemes entire trips of not more than about ten days. Some
namely, choice of refrigeration plant, layout, process authorities believe the American fish, although of similar
planning and so forth. species, spoil faster at ice temperature than N.W.
The final product from the Delaware, after processing European fish but, again, some stowage temperatures
on shore, will be frozen skinned fillets. It is apparently quoted for New England and Canadian vessels show
possible to produce satisfactory^ frozen fillets by brine that the icing technique could perhaps be improved.
freezing whole fish and storing at'o deg. F. ( 18 deg. C.) The size offish caught by Delaware gives freezing times
even if they are subsequently thawed and refrozen on of one to three hours; one British project is concerned
shore. Tn Britain, on the other hand, much of the cod almost entirely with Arctic cod, which takes about four
landings is distributed either whole or as steaks or long hours, so that the proportion of hold space occupied
fillets, or is split and smoked, or filleted and smoked, by the freezer would alter radically. Finally, the catching
according to a demand which varies daily. In contrast rate quoted of less than half a ton per hour requires,
to U.S.A., British inland transport is of short enough in Arctic fishing, that fish are at times left in ice for
duration for distribution against daily orders in the five or six days before freezing. The British are not sure
unfrozen state, even after non-sterile filleting. Indeed, if this is acceptable: two to three days is satisfactory,
there are not yet enough cold stores for anything else. seven not, and four to six are as yet doubtful, pending
is
The processors, therefore, require whole fish, and in this larger scale tests.
respect the Fairtry project is a new departure. But it will It can be seen how very difficult it is to say whether
be many years before British public taste is converted any particular project is a good solution to the problems
to frozen to an extent to justify an entire fishing
fillets itwas designed to overcome, but very easy to say why
fleet producing only or mainly such food. it will not suit another fishery.
In Britain, therefore, external appearance of the whole All schemes for freezing at sea have two objectives,
fish when thawed is important; and cold smoking namely, improvement in quality and steadying the
(which much of the catch undergoes) is a most delicate markets. Another is to build ships which can spend
test of the quality of freezing and cold storage technique. more of their life on the fishing grounds, and sail at
On the criteria of external appearance and smoke curing, more economical speeds. This latter may in some cases
and as a result of severe tests, air blast and plate contact require the building of an entirely new fleet. Oldershaw's
[549]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
remark that every ship is a potential factory ship, of the thickness, the space occupied by freezers may be
must be considered with reserve in the light of the follow- as little as one quarter or one-eighth of that required for
ing facts: Delaware, a trawler of 147$ ft. (45 m.) and whole fish. In this connection the successful development
8,000 cu. ft. (226 cu. m.) capacity, can be fitted for the in Germany of mechanical filleters for certain species is
New England fishery to freeze almost 90 per cent, of the a big step forward, otherwise an Arctic trawler would
catch, whereas a 175 (53.3 m.) British trawler of
ft. require between ten and twenty filleters per shift. Con-
13,000 cu. ft. (370 cu. m.), for the reasons given, cannot ventional designs of freezers require too much labour
be fitted to freeze more than 25 per cent, of the catch and the use of vertical plate types is being investigated.
without reducing the total catch to below the present A saving in weight in cooling grids for the hold would
average of 100 tons. Oldershaw unfortunately does not be achieved by adopting the jacket system of cold store
mention whether the Delaware's hold capacity is now cooling, as developed in Canada. This also has the
less or greater than the average landing. There is only advantage that no labour is required for glazing fish or
one British Arctic trawler on which it would be at all for removing frost from the pipes.
possible to freeze more than 50 per cent, of the catch. The biochemical problems of freezing at sea are by
The best example at present of the size of ship and crew no means solved. Besides the question of buffer storage,
economically necessary to freeze the whole catch is the already mentioned, there are effects associated with
Fairtry. rigor mortis which require more study. The resultsof
Reduction in size and cost of factory vessels can only tests are so far conflicting.
come through better design of freezing and auxiliary Freezing at sea a very complicated subject and
is
plant and better planning and mechanization of the success does not come by merelyputting a freezing plant
process. The size of the freezing plant can be substan- of a certain capacity on board. A great deal of thought
tially reduced by arranging for temporary storage of and experiment lies behind such projects as Delaware
fish at ice temperatures. This can be done, as mentioned, and Fairtry a work which has very little to do with
in the case of cod, for two to three days provided the refrigerating engineering and naval architecture in the
frozen fish is left at -20 deg. F. (29deg. C.) after narrow sense. Success requires not only the co-operation
freezing. For example, a prolonged study of catching of engineers and naval architects but also, and above all,
rates on British Arctic trawlers gives roughly the follow- of biochemists, bacteriologists and fisheries experts.
ing requirements in freezing capacity expressed as Very few schemes have so far had complete success
weight of fish processed per hour: because some part of this team was missing. It is
necessary for the technical people to go out on the
Freezing all fish at once 6 tons/hr. fishing grounds and record what the operational con-
within 12 hours 2-3 ditions are. There have been too many schemes merely
within one day 1-1$ drawn up in design offices. Delaware and Fairtry are
within two days 0.8 not among them.
The
factory ship producing domestic packs eliminates
This raises problems of double handling, calling for the shore processor, and this may go far to offset the
novel systems of storage, unless freezing by brine in present necessity to carry (relative to normal trawlers)
wells in the hold, as on tuna boats, is proved acceptable. a very much bigger crew who will get higher wages at
Filleting or cutting into steaks reduces the size and sea than on shore for similar work. Also one or two
cost of the freezer and of the hold. Not only is the volume ships may be able to catch a higher proportion of
reduced by more than 50 per cent but, as the freezing expensive fish than the fleet as a whole, and this makes it
time varies (at least for plate freezing) nearly as the square difficult to set up a firm criterion of economic success.
[550]
ASPECTS OF FACTORY SHIP OPERATIONS
by
MOGENS JUL
progress has been made in the techniques TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
MUCH of handling and stowing fish in fishing boats, but
fishing trips may be so long that the catch cannot CARGO SPACE
be sufficiently preserved by icing and chilling. British Nickum has dealt in his paper with the problem of the
trawlers make trips lasting up to 21 days, although 17
large space needed in a fish-processing vessel. This seems
days is considered the maximum for landing fresh fish. to be one of the most difficult things to appreciate, and
Some maintain that fish from such trips could still be Nickum suggests that one should bear in mind the
distributed and retailed in a satisfactory state of fresh-
appearance of the ordinary fish-processing plant, noting
ness if it were handled with better care ashore. While this how much storage space is used and how much extra
is undoubtedly true in some cases, it is equally true that space has been added since it was built. All such space
there is often room for improvement in the handling at
must be provided for in the original design of a factory
sea. The real difficulty is that, with fishing trips up to
ship.
21 days, one is so close to the upper limit of the keeping One of the most frequently mentioned reasons for
time for iced fish that they cannot always be in prime
factory ship operations is the possibility of better use of
condition when put on sale in the fishmonger's shop. the cargo capacity. In canning or filleting about 30 to
For such long fishing trips, the use of factory ships, 40 per cent, of the volume of the round fish is used,
i.e. vessels equipped for processing the catch into a non-
figures differing according to the kind offish. This means,
perishable product, seems to be the answer. The idea it is argued, that a factory ship should be able to land
of factory ships has long appealed to designers of fishing about three times more edible fish flesh.
boats and many have been proposed and some built. A study has been made of figures from some factory
Much has also been written about different ways of
ships. The large Boston trawler, Cormorant, with a
fitting out such boats. 1 5,000 cu. ft. (425 cu.m.) cargo hold, was converted into
All modern plans for factory ships are based on a freezer trawler, Oceanlife (fig. 598) by constructing a
freezing, canning, or the manufacture of meal and oil. 'tween deck with a 1,500 cu. ft. (42.5 cu. m.) fresh fish
When considering factory ships, one should distinguish
storage hold, a 5,300 cu. ft. (150 cu. m.) factory depart-
between four different types:
ment, and a freezer cargo space of 5,720 cu. ft.
1. The mobile plant, i.e. plants installed on barges (162 cu. m.). About 2,476 cu. ft. (70 cu. m.) of the fis?
or boats but depending on shore facilities for holds were used for insulation, 'tween deck, etc. The
labour, water, etc. Several salmon cannery scows cargo room could store 200,000 Ib. (90 metric ton) of
fall into this group. frozen packaged fillets. This corresponds to 600,000 Ib.
(270 ton) round fish compared with some 500,000 Ib.
2. The mother ship, i.e. a completely self-contained
(226 ton) or almost as much, which could have been stored
plant aboard a ship, but which is dependent on in ice in the fish holds of the ship before conversion.
catcher boats for raw material. Mother ships On the Fairfree, space was used roughly as follows:
generally also act as supply boats for the catchers. cu. m.
Whale factory ships are in this category. Fish ponds 40.0
3. The factory ship proper, i.e. boats equipped for Fish working deck 158.5
both fishing and processing, Deep Sea Freezer 26.0
e.g. the
and the Freezer storage 374.0
Fairtry.
Refrigerating machinery 118.0
4. The fishing boat equipped for processing part of
Insulation, 'tween deck 140,0
the catch, e.g. trawlers with fish meal or freezer
installations. 30,225 856.5
[551]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
The ft. (856 cu. m.) could store
total space, 30,225 cu. conversion, the Cormorant (later Oceanlife) averaged
about 1,030,000 (470 metric ton) of iced round fish,
Ib. 76,500 Ib. (35 ton) of fish per trip, compared with an
as compared with 1,400,000 Ib. (630 ton) of round fish actual storage capacity of 500,000 Ib. (226 ton). After her
needed to produce the 210 tons of fillets which was the conversion the Oceanlife (ex Cormorant) returned from
storage capacity on the Fairfree. the first voyages with fillets from 15,000 to 30,000 Ib.
As seen from this, the Fairfree used about 44 per cent, (7 to 14 tons) of round fish. These catches were very
of the original space for cargo while the Oceanlife used much lower than when she operated as a trawler. This
about 38 per cent. Not included in the figures is the was due to labour difficulties which were so serious that
Fig. 598. Oceanlife ex Cormorant. Boston trawler converted for freezing fillets. Length o.a., 150 ft. (46 m.); length p.p., 139ft. (42 m.); beam,
25 ft. (7.6 m.); depth, J 4.5 ft. (4.4 m.). (1) upper crew's quarters; (2) lower crews quarters; (3) washroom and shower; (4) officers' quarters
entrance; (5) captain's quarters and chartroom; radio direction finder, echo sounder, loran, radio telephone; (6) wheethouse; (7) galley and mess-
room; (8) fishing deck; (9) trawl winch and controls; (10) fishing gear stowage and steering engine; (11) fish-hold; (12) processing room; chute
from deck and fish hold; scaling table; filleting table; weighing and packing table ; freezing tray racks; conveyor belts; (13) freezers; (14) frozen
fillet holding room; (15) engine room; 690 h.p. diesel, refrigeration plant, generators, compressors, pumps, batteries; (16) diesel oil tanks;
(17) fresh water tanks; (18) lifesaving equipment
additional space required to lodge the factory workers. the venture was eventually given up and the ship recon-
On the Oceanlife this space was 1,560 cu. ft. (44 cu. m.). verted to a conventional trawler. This shows how
meal plants had been provided for, still less cargo
If fish may be in factory ship
important non-technical factors
space would have been available, so it appears that this operation.
type of conversion does not materially increase the catch On the other hand, schemes for freezing fish in the
with which a fishing boat can deal. It may well be, round at sea are promising because the space require-
however, that a ship which is carefully designed from the ments for processing equipment and extra crew are
beginning as a factory ship, e.g. the Fairtry, may show modest.
more favourable figures.
Another, and much more important consideration
PROCESSING SPACE
is, that a fishing boat may often have to return to port Factory ships are often very ingeniously designed to
before the holds are filled in order to land the catch while give just enough room for every machine and every
it is still fresh. Actually, in 1948/49, i.e. before her process, but they frequently lack space for unforseen
[552]
ASPECTS OF FACTORY SHIP OPERATIONS
storage, stops due to mechanical breakdowns in the Alma Ata, a Russian floating cannery, cools cooked crabs
processing line, etc. Difficulties relating to space require- in seawater and also uses sea water for initial cooling of
ments are particularly common for processing vessels the processed cans. The cans are then rinsed in fresh,
which operate as mother ships, as these have to serve water and finally dried in air.
a fleet of small boats with fuel, fishing gear, etc. Often
their processing capacity is limited, not by the processing OPERATION IN ROUGH SEA
machinery, but by the storage space available. Reports
Many processing machines, i.e. fish cutting machines,
on the operations of Pacific Explorer indicate that she automatic scales, ice plants, etc., may cause problems
had about enough storage space but only because she because they are designed for a shore-plant having a
was fitted with both a canning and a freezing line. When motionless floor. On a ship there are difficulties, not
one line was being used, the other was completely taken
only with balances, but also with inclinations, the
up for storage. The ship could not have carried on drainage of water, and extraordinary bearing stresses,
full-scale filleting and canning at the same time as was
especially in the longitudinal direction of the shafts, etc.
anticipated in the original design. A normal fishing crew is used to work on a boat in a
Lund and Kramhoft (1953) give a detailed description
seaway, and can cut, wash, ice-pack and split fish in
of the construction of the Refrigerator series built in
difficult weather conditions without much trouble, but
Denmark for Russia. It is interesting to note how not so in the case of a factory crew used to stable shore
considerable space on these ships is allowed for storage
conditions. Even if they remain free from seasickness,
of fish before processing, storage after washing and work in cramped quarters on board ship is much more
before packing, and for the storage of empty boxes,
fatiguing for them than work in a shore plant.
etc. The wooden boxes used for packaging the fish
are manufactured aboard. On the whole, it is obvious
FISHING FROM FACTORY SHIPS
that much experience forms the basis of the design.
A British trawler can catch up to five tons per hour. Factory ships are, as a rule, designed to be larger than
Processing installations would use excessive space and deep sea trawlers. To pay their way they must catch
labour if adjusted to the maximum catching rate, there- more fish per day, and this necessitates the use of larger
fore, processing vessels must generally have buffer gear. Fishing gear normally consists of trawls but,
because of the larger size of the ships, it is
storage of iced fish.
The freezer capacity was 0.25 ton per hour on Ocean- necessary to devise new fittings so that the gear can be
life. On the aft part of the 'tween deck there was space
properly handled. The Fairfree had paravanes to open
for about 80,000 Ib. (36 tons) iced fish, equal to about the net and these paravanes are said to have been so
12 tons of fillets, i.e., about two to three days' supply successful that the Fairfree continually outfished the
for the freezer. From these and similar figures for other other trawlers. Catches of 10 tons for half an hour's
factory ships, it is seen that it is normally not possible trawling were not uncommon.
to process the fish in a state as fresh as one might expect. Because of the necessity for a large amount of space
fish in the round are the on a factory ship, Lehmann (1953) suggested having a
Here, again, ships freezing
half shelter deck on the port side of the ship, fig. 599.
exception.
This is to gain more space, and keep the trawling deck
WATER SUPPLY down at its normal level.
A major problem for the factory ship is to provide fresh The Fairtry has a full shelter deck and uses a stern set
water for processing and to meet the needs of the trawl because her freeboard is too high for trawls to be
increased crew during prolonged stays at sea. handled over the side as they are generally on British
One floating salmon cannery was supplied with fresh distant water trawlers. The stern set arrangement is
water from barges after the vessel reached the fishing similar to that on a whale factory ship. Anderson (1951)
mentions that a stern set trawl was used on the 150 ft.
grounds. The Icelandic floating reduction plant Haeringur
has had to operate most of the time at a pier in Reykjavik, (45.7 m.) trawler Alaska. This trawl had about the same
to take fresh water aboard from the city supply. capacity as the conventionally set trawl on the Deep Sea f
Water supply problemsare particularly important on but Alaska's could not be handled in as rough weather.
However, it was not exactly the same as Fairtry's and
a canning vessel because so much water is required
fish
for washing and cooking, for the steam retorts and for corresponded to those commonly used on U.S.A. Pacific
trawlers.
cooling the processed cans. Most floating canneries
cool the cans in air. This easily leads to overcooking the
can contents, and it requires large space. It has been MOORING AND TRANSFER OF CATCHES
abandoned in most shore canneries. It causes even A difficulty in mother ship operations is that of trans-
greater difficulties at sea because frequent heavy rains, ferring the catch on the high seas. The success of the
Alaskan regions, make it difficult to protect
especially in whale factories is in no small part due to the ease with
the cooled cans from humidity. If the cans are even which whales may be transferred.
slightly humid when put in storage they rust. According Roscher (1953) mentions that the 10,000 ton German
" "
to Pacific Fisherman (Made in America . . .
1947), the factory ship Hamburg, built shortly before World War II,.
[ 553 ]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
it was intended to operate as a mother ship for a number (1950) conclude that the cost of operating a factory ship
of normal trawlers, but she was tested in this way only and trawlers together leads to a much higher cost per
a few times before she was sunk. During these trials ton of fish, and that the system would be less flexible
it was found that the difficulties of transfer at sea were than that using the combined freezer-trawler.
so considerable that she had to stay inside sheltered
waters on the Norwegian coast. The catchers had to QUALITY OF RAW MATERIAL
go there to deliver their fish, which was not what had It is generally assumed that the quality of fish processed
been intended. is much higher than that processed ashore. This is
at sea
Wigutoff and Carlson (1950) describe how the Pacific not always the case. While the shore processor can select
Explorer, in a crab fishing venture where she served as x>n the market the type, size and quality of fish suited
mother ship for ten fishing boats, found that mooring for its production, the sea operator has to process
the boats was difficult.
whatever catch he happens to make, and he has to
Japanese trials in 1948-49 with mother ships in process practically all of it, regardless of its quality or
tuna fishing are reported to have had only a limited
composition.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS
The cost of paying, lodging and feeding the processing
crew on a factory ship is probably the most important
consideration of all Lehmann (1953) arrives at a
mathematical formula for the relation between capacity
of fish holds and fuel tanks, distance from fishing
grounds, number of fishihg trips per year, etc. but he ;
Fig 599. Model of a proposed semi-shelter deck on a freezer trawler
.
does not consider mechanical breakdowns, labour, or
as suggested by Dr. G. W. Lehmann, naval architect of New York other factors, such as ordinary fishing luck; yet their
influence is likely to upset the calculations.
success, principally because the weather delayed transfers So far as the crew is concerned, one should keep in
and caused the fish to spoil as the catchers were not mind the conditions under which a shore plant employs
equipped with refrigerating plants. staff. Labour is hired whenever there are fish to process,
Conventional ship's gear is sometimes considered and paid by the hour until the catch is treated; then the
sufficient for transferring the catch. This is the case of workers go home. But when the workers are taken to
the ships in the Refrigerator series. sea on a factory ship, they have to be paid, fed and
"PacificFisherman" (Cannery, 1950) 'describes how lodged all the time, whether or not there is anything
salmon is from the scows to the Neva by the
transferred to process. A calculation on the operation of the
aid of a two compartment metal outrigger frame attached Oceanlife may be of interest. Before her conversion, the
to the side of the scow. A perforated metal bottom dump when still a fresh fish
Oceanlife, trawler, in 1948/9 seldom
box is placed by the ship's tackle in each of the compart- landed more than 135,000 Ib. (61 metric ton) a trip.
ments. Fish is sluiced into one box while the other is Average landings for this vessel during the years 1948/9
being hoisted and unloaded. were actually little more than 76,500 Ib. (35 metric ton)
Roscher (1953) suggests a novel method in which and she made only 2.23 trips per month. The average
trawlers use net bags 33 ft. (10 m.) long and 5 ft. (1.5 m.) landings for other larger trawlers at Boston, U.S.A.,
in diameter. The bags
are kept afloat by large air cushions during 1949 were 41 tons per trip and each boat made
and are filled with cleaned and gutted fish. When the 2.6 trips per month.
bags are full, they are left with a buoy to be picked up On Boston trawlers, the crew is paid on a share basis,
by the factory ship and hauled aboard through the stern and investigations have shown that the deck-hands got
chute. on an average $20-22 (7 10s. Od<) per day at sea in the
Pick (1953) feels that this method, which is inspired 1948/9 period. A normal trip takes about 10 days. No
by whale factories, would be impractical, because it pay is made for the days between trips.
would be difficult to have a net bag lying alongside a If a boat takes about 10 days to bring ashore 40 tons
trawler in heavy seas without it being torn and the fish of fish and five days are used for fishing, the average
being seriously damaged or even lost. He also feels catch is 8 tons per day on the fishing ground. factory A
that, in anything but calm weather, it would be time- ship such as Oceanlife needs about 270 tons of fish to
wasting for the mother ship to locate the net bags, and it produce a full cargo of fillets (200,000 Ib. or 90 metric
might prove difficult to haul them aboard. ton), so it would take about 34 fishing days to produce
It is very interesting to note that Roscher thinks that a them. With five days for steaming to and from the
ship depending on its own gear alone runs a greater ground, the total trip would take almost six weeks. As the
financial risk in case of poor catches. On the other hand, ship is expected to stay in port at least one week, that would
careful experiments and calculations made by Lochridgc mean about seven weeks for a complete round trip.
[554]
ASPECTS OF FACTORY SHIP OPERATIONS
The Oceanlife (the Cormorant), as a fresh fish trawler, processing crew and maintenance of processing equip-
would have been able to make 3.9 trips in about seven ment.
weeks and catch about 300,000 Ib. (136 ton) at an This is only a very rough calculation, but it does indicate
estimated value of $18,000 (6,400). If the boat had that every single cost factor must be watched very closely
caught as much as an average Boston trawler, i.e. if such a venture is to be an economic success. In fact,
89,800 Ib. (41 ton) per trip and had made 2.6 trips per it tends to confirm the opinion that factory
ship opera-
month, the corresponding catch in seven weeks would tions can only be economic successes if they are doing
have been over 400,000 Ib. (185 ton), valued at $24,000 something which cannot be done economically from a
(8,600). shore plant, or if very cheap labour can be employed.
The cost of the crew would be about When the latter is the case, conditions are much more
4.5 trips x 10 days x$21 x 14 men=$13,200(4,700). favourable. This is assumed to apply to Russian and
This means that 55 per cent, of the gross income goes Japanese factory ship operations. The Russian crab
to direct labour. The rest, or $10,800 (3,900), is used processing vessels which were built in the U.S.A. during
for bonuses to officers, for food, ice, fuel, fishing gear World War II were fitted with processing lines which
and boat repairs, insurance, depreciation, etc., and what required a very large crew. Wages paid to cannery
is left is profit. workers on Japanese factory ships are said to be less
Now the same boat working as a factory ship, could than 3s. 6d. (U.S.$ 0.50) per day. In addition, this type
theoretically catch and process 200,000 Ib. (90 ton) of of labourer requires only modest accommodation and
fillets in 45 days, and if it were possible to get a crew food, and accept long working hours.
for the usual pay per day, in spite of the fact that they The indirect cost of the factory crew is also consider-
must stay at sea during a longer continuous period and able. Quarters take up much space and are expensive to
catch and handle 50 per cent, more fish, the labour cost install.
would be: Stanley Miller, who was engaged in the operation of
floating reduction plants off California in 1935-37,
"
.
Fishing crew : states in a letter that: There is no reason why a floating
45 days x $21X14 men =$13,200 (4,700) fish factory cannot be successful under the register of
Factory crew: governments who have more liberal labour laws. But
45 days x $21X14 men =$13,200 (4,700) years of experience have taught me that a shore plant is
more satisfactory than a floating factory because it uses
local labour for both fishing and operating, and is more
$26,400 (9,400)
economical in -its operations. A ship must have a large
capacity to overcome the great difference in cost of
If the fillets could be sold for $0.25 (Is. 9$d.) per Ib. operation, as there are many days in the year when it is
or $50,000 (18,000), the difference would be $23,600 not possible to make a catch because of the seasonal
" "
(8,600). The trawler cost was $10,800 (3,900), habits of most schooling fish. A
ship must be used a
which means that $12,800 (4,700) would be left to pay large part of the year to cover the extra costs of its
for depreciation of the factory, the extra food and bonuses, operation, whereas on shore the men can do some other
insurance, wrapping material, etc. This is 6 c. (5d.) per kind of work during the six months the plants are idle."
Ib. fillet. If the conversion cost $250,000 (89,000) It is thus mainly the cost of labour which make a factory
and we reckoned on 10 years depreciation and 5 per cent, ship more difficult to operate economically than shore
interest, the annual cost would be $37,500 (13,400). plants.
" "
The maximum processing capacity would be ,380,000 Ib. 1 Fisherman (Deep Sea, 1947) describes how a
Pacific
(630 ton) per annum, and accordingly the cost of depre- special arrangement was worked out with the fishermen's
ciation 2.7 c. (2.3d.). per Ib. The extra insurance would unions while the Deep Sea was being planned and gives
perhaps take another cent, and if, then, repairs, upkeep examples of production bonus schemes and other
and other costs took as little as 2 cents (1.7d.) per Ib., conditions agreed with the unions.
little would be left for the owner. Similar efforts to meet the increasing requirements of
In the above calculation, it was assumed that the boat the crew as to accommodation, etc., are indicated in a
would operate at maximum capacity. If production brief reference to the Russian floating cannery, the
dropped 25 per cent., the factory ship would land Vsevolov Sibertsev, which is said to be equipped with
50,000 Ib. (23 ton) at 25 c. or $12,500 (4,500) less. The stores, dining rooms, libraries, barber shop, tailor shop,
same would happen if the fillets should sell for 20 c. and numerous recreation facilities.
(Is. 5d.) instead of 25
c. (Is. 9}d.) per Ib. On the other hand, personnel considerations may
Savings or earnings, compared with the operation of ultimately factory ships a necessity in some fishing
make
the ordinary trawler, are made because as no ice is operations. It is evident that fishermen on conventional
required aboard, the fish are landed filleted, and not trawlers, long liners, etc., often have accepted inferior
round. Further, total fuel consumption might be less. working conditions with excessively long working hours,
These factors may possibly offset the extra cost items, not great risk, exposure to very rough climate, and so on,
included in the calculation, such as provisions for the simply through force of habit. It is not likely that
[555]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
modern workers will continue to accept these conditions. salted aboard. The fishermen were not used to it, and
Superior accommodation and working conditions may were not willing to do it without such extra pay that the
be one of the most important justifications for such operation was economically impossible.
ventures as the Fairtry.
FLOATING CANNBRIES
EXPERIENCES WITH FACTORY SHIP Floating canneries operate mainly on the North Pacific
where they are used for canning salmon and crabs.
OPERATION
According to Anderson (1951) several American floating
salmon canneries have operated in Alaska every -season
The cost is naturally the determining factor in factory
and, with two exceptions, they are all dependent on
ship operation. Therefore when considering the experi-
ence gained from such ventures in various parts of the adjacent shore facilities.
The most successful canning-at-sea operations appear
world, one should examine their balance sheets. As these
to be carried out by Russia. It is possible that the secret
are not readily available one may, for a moment, con-
of their success lies in the relatively low pay of the
sider what might be termed the world's balance sheet of
Fiedler (1937), Anderson
workers, or in state support of the operations.
factory ship operations.
In general, the tendency is to change from canning
(1951) and Hardy (1947 and 1953) review such operations
to freezing at sea. Frozen fish, e.g. salmon, is canned
throughout the years. It is evident from these papers
that many, probably most, operations have resulted in
ashore; frozen crab meat is marketed frozen. This
economic failure. development is due to the fact that freezing at sea can
be carried out with less personnel than is used in canning,
Notable exceptions have been cod and herring salting
which offsets the cost of double processing freezing
in the Atlantic, whale factories in the Antarctic, tuna
aboard, canning ashore as in the case of salmon.
freezing in the Equatorial Pacific, salmon and crab
freezing in the North Pacific and shrimp freezing in the
Gulf of Mexico. In making this observation it is at once FREEZER SHIPS
evident that none -of these operations could have been A French trawler, Zazpiakbat, formerly engaged in the
carried out from shore bases without great difficulties, salt fish trade, was equipped with freezing installations
and that this seems to be the main criterion for successful in 1928, and a little later an Italian company also fitted
factory ship operation. out a vessel for freezing aboard. In 1931 and succeeding
Much -information on problems of this nature can be years, several other French and some Greek freezer
obtained from a review of the methods used in the suc- trawlers followed. The fish were in most cases frozen
cessful operations mentioned, but whale factories will in brine in a revolving wire mesh drum.
not be considered as they are beyond the scope of the A number of fish-freezing ships were built in the
present subject. thirties and after World War II, but most of them have
been unsuccessful. A sad example is the Norwegian
SALTING ABOARD
filleting and freezing ship Thorland (Norway, 1947).
Salting aboard cod fishing vessels has been done in the She showed a deficit of about a half million Norwegian
Grand Bank fisheries for centuries. The U.S.A. and kroner (ca. 36,000/U.S.$ 100,000) in her first year of
Canada discontinued such operations when refrigeration operation. This ship had an annual fillet production of
came into common use, and landed the fish in ice because 863 tons instead of the anticipated 4,500 tons, and she
this was preferred by the consumers, But countries was later put to other uses.
further away from the Grand Banks, especially France, It is believed that one reason for these failures may
Spain, Portugal and, in later years, Italy, have con- have been that the designers followed the trend in freezing
tinued the trade. fish ahore, i.e. towards the freezing of filleted, packaged
Salting of herring aboard is carried out by Russia, fish, a process requiring a great deal of labour and special
the Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands. In handling, which is difficult to provide aboard.
the summer season of 1950, Russia is said to have had Schemes based on freezing fish in brine or other liquid
four mother ships producing salted herring, working with have, on the whole, been much more successful. Par-
50-60 catching vessels off Iceland. In 1954, the Russian ticularly well known is the method used on tuna clippers.
fleetoperated almost the year around in the area between Putting the fish in brine is actually less time-wasting
Jan Mayen and the Faroes. Some modern trawlers, and more convenient than icing them. In this respect, the
e.g. the Jacques Coeur, are equipped for salting the tuna clipper is different from most factory ships, and it is
major part of the catch and freezing the remaining part. easy to see why this type of vessel had gained a popularity
One of the reasons for the economic success of salting which had never been approached by any other type of
at sea is that it is a very old tradition. Fishermen are fish-processing vessel. The fact that the fish freeze
used to salting the catch and accept it as something for together in the brine tank is of no consequence, as
which they cannot expect any extra pay. But, fishermen defrosting is begun one or two days before the boat
not used to this work may refuse to do it, as happened reaches port, so they are thawed out when unloaded at
in Denmark when it was proposed to have herrings the cannery.
[556]
ASPECTS OF FACTORY SHIP OPERATIONS
As soon as one changes the system for instance, by the temperature in the interior of the fish to deg. F.
introducing mother ships, such as several companies (18 deg. C.). The coils are placed below, and can be
have done complications arise. It is not convenient completely shut off from the tunnels. They are defrosted
to have a big ship tied up while the cargo is being de- with hot refrigerant and heating through a steam pipe
frosted, one part at a time according to the processing placed in the water trays below the coils. The connection
capacity of the cannery. On one tuna mother ship, the between the freezer tunnel and the coils is closed every
Oceanic V9 the catch was first kept in brine during the time the tunnel doors are opened to prevent the entrance
entire voyage but the rolling of the ship caused so much of large amounts of warm air. The fish are packed in
damage to the fish that she had to be converted so that trays.The trucks, which take 18 trays each, are hung
the holds could be emptied and cooled with conventional on overhead rails attached with four wheels so as to
coils. prevent longitudinal swinging. They are moved by a
It appears that the salmon industry in Alaska is giving chain. Whenever a truck has to be moved, a bar on it
up floating canneries and relying more and more on can be shifted up and engaged on the chain. The fish
floating freezers in which the designers are using to a are loosened from the trays in the glazing process,
considerable extent the experience gained with tuna after which they are placed in boxes and taken to the
"
clippers. Someof this experience is described by Pacific storage rooms. The latter are maintained at deg. F.
"
Fisherman (Freezership Revolution, 1951). These boats (18 deg. C.), and are cooled by brine in 1 in. (3.8 cm.)
have processing capacities as large as four to eight tons coils. The capacity of the holds is 46,400 cu. ft. (1,315
per hour because they all serve as mother ships. cu. m.).
The success of the tuna clipper has led to several The Torry Research Station, Aberdeen, Scotland, has
experiments in freezing white fish at sea, particularly developed a plate freezer which will take big Arctic cod
trawler-caught fish for refreezing or smoking ashore. and is suitable for installing in any large trawler. Present
In most of the experiments, labour-saving immersion conditions in the fishing industry of the U.K. were kept
freezing (mostly salt brine) has been used. By this in mind in developing this equipment. There are a
method the freezing medium can store up refrigeration large number of well-built trawlers representing a huge
for quick use when a catch is made. Adifficulty en- investment, and every effort is therefore made to use that
countered in brine freezing is that the fish freeze together, fleetto the best advantage as, for instance, by developing
but experience has shown that this can be avoided if freezer equipment capable of being installed in these
fewer fish are put into the tank at one time and if the ships. Similarly, the large demand in the British market
direction in which the brine circulates is changed. is at the moment, and will be for a long time to come,
Another difficulty brine penetration. This can, to some
is for fresh or smoked whole fish, therefore, the freezer
extent, be prevented by using a carefully controlled in demand is one which is adapted to such a production.
temperature close to the eutectic point of the salt brine Some of the most promising fields of freezing at sea
(Holston and Pottinger, 1954). Also attempts are being have been in the crab, shrimp and crawfish fisheries.
made to find other freezing liquids, i.e. ethanol or sugar Crustaceans spoil quickly and, therefore, should be
solutions, to avoid the undesirable taste of brine and its frozen very soon after capture; and, as they are
tendency to cause rancidity. Methods based on the use highly priced products, they can well carry the added
of ethyl alcohol solutions run into difficulties with expense.
regard to tax on alcohol and control of its proper use. Freezing shrimp at sea takes place in the Gulf of
There is now a tendency for designers of freezer ships Mexico, some on independent catching units and some
to turn to compact designs of contact or air blast on mother ships. Some of the latter are converted naval
freezers. A specially designed contact freezer was used salvage tugs, and they also supply ice and fuel to the
on the Oceanlife. Clement (1951) states that as filleting catchers. This activity has been taken up partly because
machines, etc., would reduce the carrying capacity too operators from the U.S.A. find considerable legal and
much, the Marbrouk was fitted for freezing the fish after technical difficulties in setting up processing plants in
gutting and washing. Pans of fish are frozen on flat the other countries with shores on the Gulf. Recent
finned brine coils at 31 deg. F. (34.6 deg. C). Air experiments carried out by -the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
is circulated above the pans at about 1,500 ft. (460 m.) Service have, according to Dassow (1954), demonstrated
per minute. that it .may be feasible to freeze shrimp at sea in much the
With the Fairtry the British have taken the lead in same type of equipment as is used on the Delaware.
experimenting with freezer boats not equipped for brine The king crab of the North Pacific is frozen at sea
freezing. The Fairtry uses contact freezers and com- by Russian and American ships. The fishing grounds
bination contact-airblast freezers of the type sometimes are rich, but are so far from any shore base that factory
" "
referred to as Murphy freezers. ship operation is the only suitable method of exploita-
According to Lund and Kramhoft (1953) the Refriger- tion. The Deep Sea and other ships are engaged in this
ator series has air blast tunnels with a total capacity of trade.
50 tons of fish per 24 hours, at an evaporator tempera- A is carried out in the Southern
third type of activity
ture of 35.5 deg. F. (-37.5 deg. C.). This is expected Hemisphere. Boats from France are venturing down to
to give complete freezing in four to five hours, reducing the small groups of islands southeast of Madagascar,
[557]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
and returning after five or six months with frozen craw- the U.S.A. had such need for cargo vessels at the time
fish tails. The Cape Horn, based in Valparaiso, is that the floating reduction ships were reconverted.
all
carrying out similar operations around the Juan Fer- Many of the floating reduction plants operated in
nandez and other island groups west of Chile. Alaska are in effect mobile plants, i.e. dependent of
shore facilities.
The
Icelandic herring reduction ship Haeringur, was
PROCESSING PART OF THE CATCH
a rather unsuccessful experience, but better results have
Many Icelandic, German or British trawlers freeze been obtained with the Clupea, fig. 600, an L.S.T.
the prime fish and take the rest, generally the larger part converted into a floating reduction plant in Norway. She
of the catch, home in ice; French, Italian or Greek
operated very successfully off Esbjerg, Denmark,
trawlers often salt the remaining fish. Operations of this
during 1952-53 when the catches of herring exceeded
kind require only a small processing crew and very what could be processed by the shore plants in Esbjerg,
limited factory installations but, of course, production but by the beginning of the 1954 season new shore plants
is low. were in operation and she was no longer used in this
fishery. The Clupea did not operate on the fishing
FISH MEAL INSTALLATIONS
grounds as originally visualized, but was anchored in
The of processing aboard is that of producing
last type sheltered waters. She must have been profitable, as the
fish meal andoil. The ships manufacturing whale meal owner converted another smaller ship, the Bras, into a
and oil in the Antarctic confirm the general principle herring reduction boat.
that factory ships can be economically successful where In recent years a great many trawlers have installed
shore-based plants are not feasible. Whale factory ships fish meal plants for processing offal and trash fish, and
have seldom been operated in waters other than the there may even have been some over-enthusiasm for such
Antarctic. Even so, shore-based plants in Chile, on the installations. Meyer (1952) has calculated the per-
South Georgia Islands, and in Australia, seem to compete centage of offal in relation to the weight of round fish
successfully with them, although they can exploit whales to be about 12 to 15 per cent. An average German
from only a very limited area. trawler producing 2,500 tons of fish annually would
The whale factory ship also confirms the principle produce about 50 tons of fish meal valued at DM. 30,000
that, in order to be really efficient, a factory ship should (2,700; U.S.$7,500) which would only pay running
be designed specifically for the particular operation she expenses and depreciation of the fish meal plant. This
is to carry out, especially if she is to operate on the high indicates that fish meal plants should be installed only
seas and not in sheltered waters. An advantage in the on trawlers more than 175 ft. (53.3 m.) in length. The
operation of whale factory ships is that they have no installation of fish meal plants aboard trawlers has been
" "
mooring problems. described in Allgemeine Fischwirtschaftzeitung
" "
Some nine fish reduction boats, servirtg as mother (Fischmehlfabrik, 1952) and in Ship and Boat Builder
ships for fleets of purse seiners, operated off the coast of (Fish Meal, 1952).
California in 1935-37. Their appearance was due, in Some people think that factory ships should use all
part at least, to State laws which put a tax of about the various parts of the fish processing them into foods,
U.SJ1.00 (7s.) per ton on pilchards used in the manu- Pharmaceuticals and other products. However, the
facture of meal in the State, i.e. ashore, and also limited quantities available of some parts are usually too small
the quantity of pilchards that could be processed into to make processing profitable; in any case, to produce
meal. several different products is contradictory to the need
Mr. Stanley Hiller (in a letter) states that their opera- for extreme simplicity in factory ship operation. The
tions were prohibited by law, but what really destroyed problem of the manufacture offish meal aboard trawlers
the industry was the labour regulations which finally is an example of ihis.
forced the operator to have a separate crew to operate
the processing plant. Hiller recalls that the first plant GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
was operated with 36 men in three eight-hour shifts.
When the ship anchored and started to receive the fish, Many consider factory ships an efficient tool in the
the sailors became fish handlers, the engineers became development of fisheries in technically under-developed
operators, foremen became superintendents, and the areas. After a considerable number of studies of this
captain plant manager. However, in 1937 it took about problem, FAO has concluded that it is very difficult
96 men to do the same job. The payroll became so to find persons in under-developed areas with the neces-
high that it was impossible to continue the operation, sary experience in fishing, maintenance of ships and
but Hiller thinks that such boats could be used in machines, and management. Yet it is not inconceivable
countries having different labour union regulations. that a mother ship, carrying a large number of dories or
Hiller took one of the boats to Newfoundland and similar small boats, might be used in such cases. Russian
Labrador, where it operated very successfully for a ships, e.g. the Refrigerator series, have frequently used
season but the outbreak of World War II prevented con- this principle; a similar example is the Silver Lord, fishing
tinuation of such activities in these waters. In any case, with long lines off Mauritius.
[558]
ASPECTS OF FACTORY SHIP OPERATIONS
FRAME SMONG BALLAST HE ATT CHL BALLAST
ELEVATION CROSS SECTION
Fig. 600. Arrangement and details of processing equipment in the Norwegian fish meal factory ship Clupea,
a converted L.S.T.
[559]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD FACTORY SHIPS
In such -cases, however, one would probably have to A factory ship of the mobile plant type may be useful
export the product or limit the processing aboard to where large landings of fish occur irregularly and over
salting. The reason for this is that a system for frozen a short period. Examples are, the use of the Clupea in
fish distribution is not likely to exist in technically Esbjerg, the La Merced, or several of the salmon freezers
under-developed areas, and the purchasing power of the in Alaska.
population is not likely to justify the production of either references to the La Merced, the Deep Sea, the
Most
frozen or canned fish. Clupea, and the Fairtree-Fairtry ventures refer repeatedly
It has sometimes been suggested that freezing aboard to the usually efficient management under which these
is particularly desirable in the tropics, because high boats have been operated, an essential factor in suc-
temperatures make the fish spoil quickly. However, the cessful factory ship operations.
amount of refrigeration required for freezing would Factory ship operations are most likely to be successful
always greatly exceed that required for keeping the fish when they exploit a resource which cannot be brought
chilled with ice, and in a country such as Venezuela, to a shore processing plant. Only small parts of the
for example, where the climate is very hot on the coast, oceans are now being exploited, and one must hope that
excellent results are obtained by icing the fish in insu- factory ships may eventually find and use fish stocks not
lated holds. at present available to man.
[560]
FACTORY SHIPS DISCUSSION
U.S. PACIFIC COAST PROCESSING VESSELS it is caught, and take it down to Seattle.
as The salmon can
be held in the ship in prime condition until the cannery there
Mr. James F. Petrich (U.S.A.): On the tuna clippers, after is ready to take them.
the tuna has been initially frozen, the brine is pumped over- Once there were a number of floating salmon canneries
board or into another well and the catch is maintained dry but now there are only two in service. Most of the floating
frozen at deg. to 10 deg. F. ( -18 deg. to -12 deg. C.) until canneries were built and operated in the past by salmon
a few days before the clipper arrives in port. At this point the operators who had not arrived in time to get good sites near
refrigeration is switched off and the well is filled with circu- fishing grounds. Of the two cannery ships now operating, one
lating sea-water which gently thaws out the fish so that they is very successful and the other unsuccessful. This difference
are ready for immediate despatch to the cannery upon has nothing to do with the installations on board the
in results
landing. ships. successful ship is run by a very shrewd and
The
A similar method is used in the Alaskan salmon fishery. intelligent man who moves his boat from place to place to
Salmon is more sensitive to salt penetration and salt is more get full benefit of the seasons and the various qualities of fish
easily tasted in them because they are canned complete with available. In other words, he makes excellent use of a ship's
skin and bones. The problem has been to devise quicker great advantage mobility. Salmon is a very valuable product
freezing to avoid excessive salt penetration. It was found, and if, by being on the scene with a floating cannery at the
for example, that if a well was filled with salmon, the fish, right moment, the ship is enabled to can 30,000 cases of fish,
because of their smaller size, packed tightly, the brine could then upwards of $700,000 (250,000) are earned. The ship is
not circulate effectively and the fish were spoiled. This an old three-masted schooner, built probably 50 years ago,
difficulty has been overcome by partly filling the well with fish with a 600 h.p. diesel. She has probably made more money
so that the brine can circulate effectively and freeze the fish for her owner per foot of length or per ton of displacement
faster. The brine is then pumped out and the salmon are than any other ship afloat.
transferred to a dry well. This involves extra handling of the The unsuccessful salmon cannery-vessel is owned by a
catch but the method is successful. salmon fishing company. It was designed to be based at one
Salmon freezing ships also use tanks on deck in which brine site where there was a good regular catch of salmon, but this
race coils are fitted. The fish freeze satisfactorily in 6 to 12 site had to be shared with another cannery, with the result
hours, then the brine is pumped out and the fish are stowed that there has not been enough fish to keep the ship's cannery
in refrigerated holds. busy.
These successful methods of handling salmon have been capacity of the refrigeration plants in modern salmon
The
developed in the past few years and tests have shown that the freezing shipsis from four to eight short tons an hour. Means
fish delivered frozen by the ships to the canneries in the should be developed to even out the flow offish to the freezing
Puget Sound area often yield a superior product than the or canning plants. This has been neglected because of the
fish canned in shore factories in Alaska, especially when concentrated effort to speed up processing. For example, in
there is delay in landing and canning. the Alaska salmon fishery the climatic conditions are such
that fish can be held for at least twelve hours in ponds with circu-
Mr. George C. Nick urn (U.S.A.): Mr. Petrich has described lating chilled seawater or ice. One reason why brine freezing
the salmon freezers which are now being built. The reason for is so popular among American fishermen is that it enables
this development is an economic one, because the ships will them to store fish for later processing. However, this can
operate in Bristol Bay where the catching season only lasts also be done by using ice. A tank full of sea-water at 28 deg. F.
about 20 days. The Bristol Bay salmon have traditionally ( deg. C.) or brine at 10 deg. F. ( -12 deg. C.) has a large
-2
been canned in large shore-based canneries and the fish have capacity of immediately available refrigeration.
always come in great gluts. The expense of running the shore The flow of fish for processing has been regulated by one
canneries has increased enormously and owners are now Alaska salmon fishing company through the use of a 202 ft,
combining their factories in an effort to cut down costs. A (62 m.) ex-naval landing craft, fitted with two ice-making
lot of this cost arises from the fact that the companies have to machines capable of producing between them 20 short tons
fly in equipment and men, a journey of 3,000 miles from (18 tons) of ice a day. The machines are located over a large
Seattle. Mechanics have to be flown to the canneries months insulated compartment built on the deck aft. Forward of the
before the season opens to ensure that once the fish start compartment is the iron chink, the machine for heading and
coming in, there is no hold-up. It is obviously uneconomic gutting salmon. The ex-landing craft operates in conjunction
to-day to fly upwards of 600 men to the site and to maintain with a ship fitted out as a floating cannery. The fishing boats
a complete establishment of this kind. It is much cheaper to bring their catches to the ice-making vessel to be boxed and
have a ship which will anchor in Bristol Bay, freeze the salmon iced in the conventional manner. They can be kept for
[561]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
72 hours in prime condition for delivery to the canning ship powered vessels or barges and they seem to have operated
"
according to an agreed schedule. As a result of this regular with economic success for years where larger vessels used for
"
flow scheme, the output of the canning ship has been sub- the same purpose have failed.
stantially increased.
There were once several tuna freezers operating from the
Columbia River area. The Saipan and Tinian were two of the
best known of them. One has been sold to Japan but the other OCEANLIFE
is still in operation. They were economic for their operator
when they were built but the time came when the industry Mr. L BromfleW (U.S.A.): The Oceanlife was converted to a
could buy tuna from the Japanese at less cost than they could trawler because the New England fishing boats
filleting freezer
fish it off South America, so the vessels were converted into were having to go further and further afield to make catches.
tuna packers and cold storage ships. The vessel bought by Going to the Grand Banks or Western Banks meant that they
the Japanese will, however, be used for a different purpose. had to steam about six days, and when they got there they
Fig. 601. Arrangement of the processing room of Oceanlife
Freon seems to be the popular refrigeration agent in had to catch fish quickly because their ice was depleted.
Europe. In the United States, especially on the Pacific Coast, They were able to fish only for about two to four days and
ammonia is generally used, probably because the big shore- then had to return, otherwise the catch would be spoiled.
based refrigerating industry uses ammonia. The danger From the point of view of design, the main problem in the
arising from the use of ammonia on board ship has been Oceanlife was to find the right proportion between the
greatly overrated; the fact that ammonia is soluble in water catching and processing capacity. She has a length of 150 ft.
means that the best way to get rid of an ammonia leak is to (46 m.), a beam of 25 ft. (7.6 m.) and a depth of 14.5 ft. (4.4 m.).
use water. Another reason why ammonia is popular among As an ordinary trawler she carried about 500,000 Ib. (226
United States fishermen is the general use of an evaporator metric ton) of iced fish. In the conversion an upper deck was
in contact with water in brine freezing. A water leak is less used for the processing machinery and the lower deck for
damaging to the equipment in an ammonia plant than it is storing the product. It took more than a year to design
in a freon plant. Further, big quantities of refrigerants are machinery to fit the space available. For example, it was
used. For example, about 60 short tons (54 metric ton) were necessary to design a completely new plate freezer because
used in the system on the Pacific Explorer. If that had been there was no suitable machine available on the market. An
freon at $1.00 (7s.) per Ib. and had been lost, the cost would absorption type plant was selected for refrigeration because
have been enormous (U.S. $120,000; 43,000). of (1) limited space, (2) the light weight of the plant, and (3)
the small amount of maintenance it required. The plant
Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.) On the West Coast of the United
: needed only two small circulating pumps and a steam boiler.
States several operators use mobile plants installed on small The filleting process (see fig. 601), started with the sealer
[562]
FACTORY SHIPS DISCUSSION
and then the fish, having been washed on the way, were DELAWARE
carried by a conveyor to a rotating filleting table. After
processing, the fillets were washed through a brine tank and Prof. H. E. Jaeger (Netherlands): It is not economic to make
carried by another conveyor to a rack which held about a trawler so big that her fish-hold larger than 17,700 cu. ft.
is
15 Ib. (6.8 kg.) of fish, the capacity of one shelf in the plate (500 cu. m.). Above this size, only a deep-freeze trawler has
freezers. It took almost three hours to freeze approximately a chance of success. The freezing trawler Delaware described
1,500 Ib.(680 kg.) of fish in 5 Ib. (2.27 kg.) packages, 2* in. by Mr. Oldershaw is too small and does not take full advantage
(63 mm.) in thickness. After freezing, the fish were packed of the deep-freezing possibilities.
into cartons of 50; the cartons were sealed and slid down to
the lower hold where they were securely packed. The hold Mr. G. C. Eddie (U.K.): It is difficult to understand, especially
had a capacity of about 200,000 Ib. (90 metric ton) of pro- on a motor trawler, the choice of an absorption refrigeration
cessed fish. The temperature of the plate freezer was about system, in which the horse-power demand ranges only from
30 deg. F. ( 34 deg. C.) and the temperature in the hold 50 to 100, because efficiency is not of prime importance but
was maintained at 1 deg. F. (18 deg. C.). space is. It is difficult to believe that a boiler and its fuel and
In the aft part of the processing deck there was space for an absorption plant are smaller than a diesel generator and
about 80,000 Ib. (36 ton) of fresh fish. This was provided so compressor plant. Experience of similar lay-outs suggests
that if the catch was too great for the cutters to handle, part that freon compressors of similar capacity could go into the
of it could be stored until they could fillet the fish. same place and be more accessible for servicing and removing,
When Oceanlife was being converted there were many as well as less dangerous. The overload capacity is illusory
problems to be solved. The fishermen, for example, con- because the evaporator must be big enough to take the
sidered it impossible to cut fish at sea because of the motion maximum overload without the tube metal temperature
of the vessel so that belts, similar to those used by window falling below the freezing point of the brine. The capacity is
cleaners, were fitted to the filleting table. A
stainless steel in the end fixed by the boiler and the compressor plant can
mesh glove, leaving two fingers free and the rest of the hand be made flexible in capacity.
protected, was designed. But experience showed that no
matter how rough and how much the boat pitched
the weather Mr. Puncochar (U.S.A.): The Delaware is not strictly a
J. F.
and rolled, if the men could fish, then the cutters were able factory ship; she is an experimental vessel for developing
to carry on with their filleting and they didn't need to use methods of handling and processing fish at sea. Mr. Eddie
any of these devices. raised the question as to why an absorption unit was selected
The machinery and equipment on the Oceanlife gave no for the Delaware. The answer is simple. It was the cheapest
trouble at all, but there were many difficulties with the crew. unit available at the time. The second reason is that fishermen
The fishermen were always willing to work on deck, but the do not like complicated machinery. Mr. Eddie also raised
cutters experienced men from the shore installations the question as to space requirements for the boiler which
were supposed to work six hours on and six off. Fishing is provides the energy used to run the refrigeration machine.
always uncertain and sometimes, perhaps, three or four hours The boiler was already in the ship. It was enlarged from
would pass before fish were located and caught; then the 5 h.p. to 25 h.p. and used to supply heat to the vessel as well
1
cutters might refuse to work the next six hours on the pretext as to run the refrigeration plant. A
diesel generator and
that they had been ready to cut fish but there had been none refrigeration compressor would have taken more space than
available. So the fishermen might bring the catch on board the boiler.
and it might have to lie there six hours before the cutters would Fish frozen in the freezer designed for the Delaware come
touch it, by which time it had lost quality. out very straight so they pack neatly and closely into the
These circumstances made it impossible to operate the ship's hold. The Delaware, as she is now fitted out, can bring
vessel. Later two red fish filleting machines were installed on in 50 per cent, more fish than normally done by a New
deck in an effort to overcome the problem; they did an England trawler of her class. The average load of a large
excellent job. On one trip a catch of 30,000 Ib. (14 ton) New England trawler is about 100,000 Ib. (45 ton). The present
of fish was dealt with in less than 10 hours. Unfortunately, capacity of the Delaware is 130,000 Ib. (59 ton) of frozen fish
on that trip difficulties arose with the processing crew and and 15,000 Ib. (6.8 ton) of iced fish. The old hold had a
the vessel returned to port without shooting her nets again. volume of 8,000 cu. ft. (226 cu. m.) of which 1,300 cu. ft.
That was the end of the experiment. (37 cu. m.) were taken for the refrigerating machinery and
The fillets processed in the Oceanlife were excellent. The about 700 cu. ft. (20 cu. m.) for the freezing equipment. If
U.S. Fish and WildUfe Service compared a 5 Ib. (2.27 kg.) the refrigerating machinery had been placed in some other part
package of them with a similar package of frozen fillets of the vessel, the capacity of the Delaware would have been
processed on shore. The report of the analysis showed that about 185,000 Ib. (84 ton). This was not done because it
the Oceanlife fillets were rated at 90 per cent, compared with was not essential for an experimental vessel.
60 per cent, for the fillets which had been conventionally
processed on shore. Not only was the condition of the Mr. G. C. Eddie (U.K.): Oldershaw's stowage rate of 33 Ib./
Oceanlife fillets better, but the colour was pure white. The cu. (525 kg./cu. m.) if it includes shelves, stanchions and
ft.
Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company, after making tests in boards, disagrees with British figures for almost rectangular,
their laboratory, were so impressed by the good colour and solid slabs of frozen cod, which, with the shelves, gives a
the excellent cooking of the fillets that they were ready to pay figure of 28 Ib./cu. ft. (448 kg./cu. m.). The figure for fish
a special price and launch an advertising campaign to support stowed in ice, including shelves, is 32 Ib./cu. ft. (5 1 2 kg./cu. m.).
a marketing scheme if sufficient and regular supplies could be There is also the point that fish frozen in brine come out in
guaranteed. They felt that the Oceanlife fillets could be sold awkward shapes. Brine also makes it difficult to glaze the
in considerable quantity in the Mid- West of the United States cold storage if they must be held for any time on shore,
fish for
where fresh fish generally arrive in poor condition. and brine also produces corrosion problems. It is, however,
[563]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
the fastest form of freezing apart from the very low tempera- they could plan a new factory ship which would meet most
ture air blasts of -50 deg. or -60 deg. F. ( 46 deg. or of the requirements. What they have thought right in a fish
-51 deg. C.) now being used in British Columbia. factory vessel is not necessarily right for everyone, because
The Torry Research Station is engaged in experiments they have had to think of their specific conditions, i.e. market,
regarding bulk freezing to be used aboard trawlers or ashore location of fishing grounds, type of product wanted and many
for pelagic fish. The Station feels that, with -the present other things. Experience with the Fairfree convinced them
marketing system in the U.K., there is a greater demand for that the fish factory vessel has certain advantages over the
frozen fish from the fish processors than from the consumers, deep-sea trawler. They look upon it as a vessel which will
therefore the freezing method should be adapted to fit the compete with the deep-sea trawler, not with the inshore
processors' needs. Contact freezers are used with slabs fishermen or even the middle water fishermen. One advantage
15 to 100 Ib. (7 to 45 kg.) in weight so as to require very little is that the ship can be designed and built to have long endur-
hand labour. ance and the productive days on the fishing grounds can be
extended far beyond those of the normal trawler. For
Mr. Mogens Jul (FAO): Mr. Eddie expressed surprise in his example, *the Fair try has an endurance of 80 days, which
paper to see that in the U.S.A. the storage temperatures used allows, theoretically, four voyages a year with more than 60
are around deg. F. ( -18 deg. C.). In the U.K. -10 deg. to days per voyage on the fishing grounds. To that must be
7**L &*<*
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P'" ^
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**ji*******''te ******* ****&" ^.-"**0te.
" >*^*ww&*-r'W* *?
:
i
,,.ii j
I^T^ i^
%l ^^
---..^^^-j^p y^/r
c^^
i i
*^^^^i^r^^^
I
f/ Vft**-:4
!^- <- iiHTT^
\_7flmM^i:, r
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-
.g --*-^ j; jb 25 35 *! />.
N. fipim m \
Fig. 602. Profile and shelter deck of Fairfree
15 deg. F. ( 23 to 26 deg. C.) is common. There appears added the possibility of getting a big haul of fish on the last
to be some confusion over this matter as an American few fishing days so that processing can be carried on during
refrigeration expert recently commented that he was very the homeward voyage.
surprised to see that in Europe they used temperatures of was important to find out if the fish frozen on the fishing
It
around deg. F., while in the United States freezer storage grounds was worth having. That was not for the Company
temperatures far lower than that were in use. It seems that to say. They had to catch, process and sell the fish to find out
there a variation in freezer storage temperatures from plant
is what the wholesalers, retailers and the consumers thought.
to plant both in Europe and in the United States. The answer, they discovered, is that, if a high quality is
maintained, the fish is superior in texture, taste and smell,
to almost any fish brought ashore in a wet state and then
FAIRFREE AND FAIRTRY frozen. But that fact does not solve all problems because
production at sea can go wrong very easily. It is not like
Mr. L. M. Harper Gow (U.K.): Before Messrs. Chr. Salvesen buying a lot of standard quality fish in the market and
& Co. decided to risk substantial finance on building the freezing it. Fish have to be taken as they are caught and a
Fair try, they bought and converted an experimental vessel constant effort must be made to keep up the standard of
called the Fairfree, fig. 602 and 603. They thought that she production. It is necessary to keep a very careful watch
might pay her way and they knew that they would learn a throughout all operations and never to lower quality for the
lot about factory ships through her. After three years of sake of quantity; otherwise difficulties may be created and
operating her they felt that they had reached the stage when perhaps months afterwards sales will suffer.
[564]
FACTORY SHIPS DISCUSSION
Another advantage is that however long the factory ship With regard to high operating costs, the object is to try to
remains out, the catch can always be brought home in good keep the crews working every day. There work for them
is
condition. There is no risk of having part of it condemned on the way out, preparing everything, and work for them the
and consigned to the fish meal plant. That does happen on whole way back, finishing off production and getting ready
deep-sea trawlers, resulting in heavy losses. There is also to discharge the cargo.
the fact that the factory ship can visit distant fishing grounds The Fairtry will have greater endurance (about 80 days at
more economically than can the deep-sea trawler because the sea) than had the Fairfree but lower fuel consumption, 8 tons.
range of the vessel is greater and fuel consumption is relatively Her carrying capacitymuch increased (600 tons) and by the
is
lower than in the big steam trawler. installation of filletingand freezing machinery sufficient to
Finally, the factory ship makes it possible to escape the deal with very large catches (up to 40 tons a day), her catching
periods when fish are plentifuland when vessels come back capacity in periods of good fishing will not be limited by her
to portand find it impossible to sell magnificent fish. That processing capacity, as was the case on the Fairfree.
problem is avoided, but, on the other hand, the factory ship
operator does not enjoy the very high, often ridiculously high Mr. G. C. Eddie (U.K.): Referring to Cunningham's paper,
prices, fetched by individual catches when there is a shortage. the circulation of chilled sea water in factory deck ponds rather
These were the points that Messrs. Chr. Salvesen Co. & than refrigerating coils is a better method of cooling fish
saw as advantages, but they felt that the disadvantages, rapidly. Another method is to mix crushed ice with the fish.
although fewer, were just as serious. The first was the very In handling the fish on a factory ship, the ideal process is
high financial investment at the outset. far more expensive
It is continuous flow, not by batch.
to build a factory vessel, with all equipment, than a
its
trawler. Then there is the high operating cost and, thirdly, Mr. W. Lochridge (U.K.): The Fairfree was a converted
in Great Britain, it is necessary to overcome the prejudice in Navy vessel which had a stern chute for its fishing operations
the minds of many members of the public with regard to and an aft bridge from which fishing was directed. It fished
frozen fish. satisfactorily except that there were difficulties in handling
Making the most of the advantages, and offsetting the large catches. The limited processing facilities also created
disadvantages, is a matter of common sense applied specific- difficulties and some of the catch often had to be thrown
ally to the Fairtry, fig. 604. The vessel has been designed to overboard after 24 hours. Fishing was frequently stopped so
give as much range as possible and to keep fishing all through that processing could catch up. The slipway of the Fairtry
the year. Time for steaming back and forth to the fishing is water so that no lifting of the net is required and the
in the
grounds is cut to the minimum. The point concerning the trawl dragged straight on board. A heavy catch cannot be
is
quality of the catch is a matter of management, of careful taken on board in several bags as in an ordinary trawler so
checking of processes from start to finish. the trawl is equipped with two, three or even four cod ends,
Every owner of a factory ship will have to watch operating to distribute the load and thereby the catch can be taken on
costs very carefully. Flexibility is necessary. There must be board in one haul. The fish are dropped directly through
reserves to take and freeze all the fish caught. There must be hatches into the fish ponds on the factory deck, generally in
no hold-up because of a bottle-neck somewhere. One must the side ponds, from which they are taken, bled and gutted,
be able to deal with many types of catches and put them up and transferred to the centre ponds. When the fish are stored
in different ways. For example, a full catch should not be they are springled with an ample amount of flake ice.
frozen in consumer size packages as that would require too Air blast freezers are used for bulk freezing the fish, while
large a crew. The variety of production sought in the Fair try plate freezers are used for the fish fillets packed in catering
consists of large packs for processors, individually wrapped or consumer size containers.
fillets in boxes, and consumer packs. The decision has to be Accommodation for the crew on the Fairtry is similar to
made in accordance with the size and composition of the that on a merchant ship. She has surplus accommodation
catch. Thus, large catches of cod should mainly be put up in for extra crew if experience proves that necessary.
7 or 14 Ib. (3.2 or 6.4 kg.) packages. All flat fish can be kept The Fairtry is equipped with a Doxford opposed piston
on ice and processed in consumer size packages when con- engine developing 1950 h.p. at 135 r.p.m. All accessories
venient, as for instance, when the weather is unfavourable are electrically driven, powered from four 240 kw. diesel-
for fishing. The policy should be to try to produce the most driven generators placed forward on the main engine. The
valuable product from the catch. is of
refrigerating machinery, using freon as its refrigerant,
Problems of insufficient space apply particularly to a ample capacity and is placed aft of the main engine. Evapora-
converted vessel. Nearly all previous factory ships have been tors and brine pumps are located in a special insulated room
converted vessels and converted vessels are never satisfactory, and brine is used as the cooling medium for all refrigerated
and that one fact tips the economic scales against them. The low temperature storage spaces.
heavy cost of crews is an important point. In the U.K. The vessel carries drinking water for the full voyage as
when something new of this kind is being tried, the procedure well as about half of the domestic and boiler feed water
is to discuss the problem with the labour unions. If they feel supply. An evaporator is installed so that the balance of
that the employers are being fair, they will agree to reasonable fresh water required can be produced during the voyage.
terms. Incidentally, Messrs. Chr. Salvesen &
Co. feels that
the rates of pay on a factory ship should be lower than on the
ordinary trawlers because superior working conditions are OTHER FISH PROCESSING ABOARD SHIPS
provided indoors and the work is done in shifts. Men cannot
work 16 hours a day doing detailed sorting, packing, freezing, Mr. E. R. Gueroult (France): In the 1930s the Greeks had
and filleting. The work has to be carried out with care and the ships in which -the fish was frozen in brine. The process was
workers are required to work only so many hours a day, there- continuous and the capacity was 15 to 20 tons a day. After
fore there is scope to negotiate reasonable wage agreements. that the fish was kept in a hold at a temperature of 6 deg. F.
[565]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
C). At present, the French industry has devoted
dpg. meal or fertilizer. There is much of value in the entrails of
a few cod trawlers to freezing pan of the catch. Up to a
salt fish and no doubt they could be used if some thought were
quarter of the hold is used for fillets. Maintenance of filleting given to the problem of handling them.
machines is very expensive and as the crew can fillet up to
1,400 tons of cod by hand per voyage, the necessity of Mr. L. M. Harper Gow (U.K.): Mr. Jul in his paper put his
machines is questioned. The main problem from a design fingeron the point when he mentioned fish meal. It is very
point of view is to find the right proportion between the doubtful if it pays to make fish meal on a freezer trawler.
catching and the processing capacity. For instance, a self- The capital cost is quite considerable, and installation of
contained factory ship should not be bigger than 250 ft. reduction equipment introduces the difficulty of using steam
(76 m.) in length because beyond that size trawling becomes on board the ship which may not otherwise be needed with a
very difficult. A distinction should also be made between the diesel but, considering all factors, it probably does pay to
type of fish caught and processed between high quality make fish meal in a large factory ship producing fillets,
filleted fish, frozen and packaged and sold at a high price, although it is not certain that in every part of the world it
and whole fish frozen in bulk. The quality fish finds a ready would be advisable to fillet the catch. Where the catch is to
market in Europe and North America, but the bulk frozen be frozen after cleaning and gutting only, or frozen in the
cheaper fish are probably more suitable for the markets of round, an owner would need to consider carefully before
underdeveloped countries. A 200 ft. (61 m.) French trawler deciding to install a fish meal plant, particularly in a diesel
is catching and freezing fish south of Madagascar. After a vessel.
Fig. 603. Upper and lower deck of Fairfrcc
voyage of 5 months this ship has brough back crayfish Mr. Hilmar Kristjonsson (FAO): An Icelandic floating
tails and whole frozen fish in excellent condition. The main reduction plant is installed on a 7,000 ton converted Great
features of present-day French designs are: trawling over Lakes steamer called the Haeringur. She is equipped with
the stern, diesel electric drive with all machinery forward, California press reduction machinery. The main difficulty
bunkers in the double bottom and cranes for handling nets in operating her as a factory ship without connection with
and on the deck. A mother ship and catcher is a probable
fish land is that water consumption is too high because direct
solution and may be devised by using the Norwegian whaling steam is used for cooking the fish. The plant is said to have a
practice as an example. The difficulty, however, is to transfer capacity of 500 tons of fish per day but has only been operated
the fish from the catcher to the mother ship in a moderate at capacity for a total of a few weeks in its six years of existence.
sea. Almost all of this time the Haeringur was tied up to a pier
during operations and obtained her water supply from the
Mr. Hilmar Kristjonsson (FAO): Several of the newest shore.
Icelandic trawlers have freezing installations for processing
pan of the catch. In some instances, the plant is installed in
an extension of the raisedforecastle on the port side of the CONCLUSIONS
foredeck. of the trawlers also have fish meal plants
Many
in which they can process a great deal of the trash fish and Mr. George C. Nickum (U.S.A.): A factory ship must be sea-
offal which would otherwise have to be discarded. worthy and hull and machinery must be in good condition and
acceptable to ship regulations. There must be adequate space
Mr. I. Bromfield (U.S.A.) In the larger factory ship there is the
: for the processing plant and the extra factory crew, and
advantage of using by-products. For instance, the head and considerable deck area for fishing or handling the fish. As
bones, which form a base for chowder after being cooked such ships are intended to stay at sea for long periods, their
could be put into gallon cans and so 1 to hotels and restaur-
1
endurance must be longer than common for fishing boats or
ants. In addition, of course, -the offc Mien fresh can be used
I
freighter . i.e., a considerably larger proportion of the dead
for pharmaceutical purposes and also processed into fish weight ipacity must be devoted to fuel tanks, stores for
[566]
FACTORY SHIPS DISCUSSION
provisions, etc. The type of engine must be chosen with a house him and take care of him, and still sell the catch at a
view to low fuel consumption; some consider that steam low price. Similarly, one cannot pay $1,000 (360) a month
engines have already proved unfit for factory ship operations for a greaser when the ship is anchored off-shore, packing
because of their high fuel consumption. Most of the equip- tuna, and expect to make a profit.
ment, processing machinery, etc., must be of special design When approaching a factory ship scheme one should start
to meet the difficulties of continuous sea movements, different with the premise that whenever one can operate a shore plant,
trim according to different loading, corrosion by salt water where labour goes home at night and takes care of housing
and extreme limitation of space. A
mother ship must, in and feeding itself, it is more economical than processing on a
addition, have stores, fuel supply, and repair and unloading ship where the owner has to provide quarters and food for the
facilities for the catchers. entire crew and pay them throughout the trip.
Labour costs in a factory ship can be disastrous. This was
the case of the Pacific Explorer. It is impossible to pay a Mr. H. C. Hanson (U.S.A.): One of the reasons why the
man $700 (250) a month to shake crabs on a trot-line, factory ship has not been very successful on the Pacific Coast
OS 10 20
4 10 A METER
FO'C'LE DECK
Of
:
"^E^I
5
]
a
Nf 2 HOLD g g
+Hfi
HOLDS
Fig. 604. Arrangement o/ Fail-try
[567]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
of the United States is that some operators use too large a the job. When conversions are indicated, the L.S.T. is a good
vessel with the consequent increase in labour required and a basic hull design for mother ship operations.
tremendous increase in labour costs. The very high pay, The owners of the Fairtry do not necessarily have in mind
overtime and fringe benefits make the operation uneconomic. exploitation of fishing grounds as known today. They have
Elsewhere in the world the factory ship could have a great had great experience in whaling and it is quite possible that
part to play. For example, in the Gulf of Mexico the shrimp they intend to use the Fairtry in fishing in Antarctic waters.
industry is wasting as much as 90 per cent, of its catch, If Messrs. Chr. Salvesen &
Co. are right and the operation of
retaining only the shrimp. The retention of the larger part the Fairtry proves economically successful, will that lead to a
of the catch for other purposes would be valuable. Again, marked change in trawling operations? Fish factory ships are
in the Indonesian region and like areas the factory ship might being designed to deal with fish in the same way as the oil
prove most valuable, particularly where labour is plentiful. extraction plant deals with the oil. From the first crude
refining operations, where only the essential parts of the oil
Mr. A. Thurmer (Netherlands): As the operation of freezing were used, processes have been improved so that now every
factory ships is extremely costly, it is much more economical single fraction of the oil is utilized. It appears that the factory
for Dutch long distance trawlers to salt the fish, and it is ship can take care of all parts of the fish in the same manner.
also easier for the Netherlands to find an export market for There will always be different types of factory ships. Some
salted fish than for frozen fillets. will be completely self-contained, others will fish with dories.
It does seem that there is a place and a function for factory
Mr. Ronald Kendell (U.K.): Attention is called to the main ships, but they need to be designed and built as such, not
development in food technology, especially to the possibility merely converted from former trawlers or other types of vessels.
of dehydrating fishery products. It is felt that a product has
been developed which is so satisfactory that it may consider- Mr. I. Bromfield (U.S A.) There are many plans and designs
:
for proposed factory ships, some of them misleading. The idea
ably change processing on board ship and would do away
that such a ship can go out and catch perhaps 300,000 Ib.
with the need for refrigerated holds. The system is also
(135 ton) of fish in a week or so and fillet them is all wrong.
promising because the product is much easier to distribute than
frozen fish.
There is no guarantee
that fish will be found in the right
quantity or of the right quality or species. In a day's fishing
it might be possible to catch 100,000 Ib. (45 ton) or maybe
Mr. Mogens Jul (FAO): Mr. Kendell has mentioned the
catch less than 5,000 Ib. (2.25 ton). It is impossible to make
possibility that new fish preservation processes, such as
vacuum dehydration, might make freezing or canning ships a sound plan for a factory ship on the basis that a certain
obsolete, but it seems that no process so radically new is yet quantity of fish will be caught in a stated time.
in sight.
Mr. E. R. Gueroult (France): There are more factory ships
on paper than at present afloat. Experiments in design and
Commander A. C. Hardy (U.K.): It is of no use landing first
in coping with the various problems connected with the
quality fish if the fishmonger does not know how to deal with
must go on and will be solved.
ships
it and British fishmongers have so far not shown sufficient
care in the handling of fish.seems necessary to build up a
It Mr. Mogens Jul (FAO): Some have said that the factory
complete distribution system and to educate both distributors ship is the fishing boat of the future. People have also said
and consumers in dealing with the product. that the aeroplane is the means of transport of the future.
Thirty years ago whale factory ships were converted cargo Both may be true, but only in this sense: for a long time to
liners or tankers. From them gradually evolved the whale come the world will probably have cargo liners, river barges,
factory ship. It is probable that the day of the converted bicycles and mules as well as aeroplanes. In the same way
factory ship is over. Many of them have failed in the past it will have factory ships along with trawlers, purse seiners,
chiefly because they were not designed first and foremost for long-liners, catamarans and other fishing craft.
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1948 Bewuchsschutzanstrichen (On the Efficiency of 1952 Institute, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A., 398 pp.,
Contact Insecticides in Anti-FouJing). Akademische illus. (228)
Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, Germany, p. 183. In
German. MEYER, A. Fischmehlfabrik an Bord? (Fish Meal Processing
(229)
1952 on Board?). Allgemeine Fischwirtschaftszeitung,
t)ber die Besiedlung Metallischer Oberflachen durch Bremerhaven F., Germany, Vol. 4, No. 12, 1 p. In
1950 Balanus Improvisus Darwin (On the Attachment of German. (558)
Balanus Improvisus to Metallic Surfaces). Neue
Ergebnisse u. Probleme der Zoologie, Akademische MOCKEL, W. Ober die Stabilitatsgefahrdung von Fischdampf-
1949 ern bei hohem Seegang von achternlichen See (Danger
Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, Germany, p. 461, 17 pp.
In German. (229) to the Ship Through Reduced Stability in High
Following Seas). Schiff und Hafen, Hamburg,
LANDMARK, J. Om
Kjoling av Fisk i. Traalere (On Chilling of Germany, No. 1. In German. (326)
1950 Fish in Trawlers). Kulde, Copenhagen, Denmark,
Vol. 4, No. 4, p. 48. In Norwegian. (265) NORDSTROM, H. F. Forsok med fiskeb&tsmodeller (Tests
1943 with Fishing Boat Models). Meddelanden fr&n
LANTZ, A. W. Experiments with the Use of Chilled Sea Statens Skeppsprovningsanstalt, Goteborg, Sweden,
1953 Water in Transporting Fish. Western Fisheries, No. 2, 32 pp., illus. In Swedish, with English sum-
Vancouver, B.C., Vol. 46, No. 6, p. 16. (265) mary. (281)
La peche aux iles St. Pierre et Miquelon (Fisheries on the NORN, B. Bultforband i tra (Bolted Wood Fastenings).
1953 Islands St. Pierre and Miquelon). La peche maritime, 1948 Teknisk Tidsskrift, Stockholm, Sweden, p. 535,
la peche fluviale et la pisciculture, Paris 8e, France, 4pp. In Swedish. (71)
p. 15, 3 pp., illus. In French. (70)
Norway Fiasco. The Fishing News, London, Vol. 35, No.
LEHMANN, G. Technisch-Wirtschaftliche Fragen zum Tief- 1947 1792, p. 1, Short notice. (556)
1953 kuhl-Fabriktrawler (Technical-Economic Questions
of the Freezer Factory Trawler). Die Fischwirtschaft, PBILLON, M. L. Le rendement des generateurs de gaz a pistons
Bremerhaven F., Germany, Vol. 5, Nos. 1-2, pp. 21, 1949 libres. (The Output of Free Piston Gas Generators).
51. In German. (553, 554) Paper presented at 1949 Session of A.T.M.A. (429)
[571]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
PIERROTTET, . A
Standard of Stability for Ships. Transac- SAUNDERS, H. E. The Multiple Skeg Stern for Ship. Trans-
1935 tions of the Institution of Naval Architects, London, 1 947 actions of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine
S.W.I, pp. 208, 14 pp., illus. (344) Engineers, New York 18, Vol. 55, p. 97, 73 pp.,
illus. (217)
Plastics in Boatbuilding. The Motor Boat and Yachting,
1951- London, E.C.I, 1951 and p. 171, April
p. 42, Jan. SCHAFFRAN, K. Modcllversuche fur Fischereifahrzeuge
1953 1953 (72) 1921- (Model Tests with Fishing Vessels). Schiff bau, Vol. 22,
1922 Nos. 22-23, p. 507; same Vol., No. 24, p. 541 same ;
POTTINCSER, S. R., HOLSTON, J., and MCCORMACK, G.
Vol., No. 25, pp. 578-84; same Vol., No. 27, pp. 633-
1952 Fish Frozen in Brine at Sea: Preliminary Laboratory
641; same Vol., No. 42, pp. 1028-37; same Vol.,
and Taste-Panel Tests. Commercial Fisheries Review,
No. 43, pp. 1071-76; same publication, Vol. 23,
Washington 25, D.C., U.S.A., Vol. 14, No. 7, p. 20,
No. 1, pp. 6-11; same Vol. as above, No. 2, pp. 43-
4pp. (535) 50. Illus. In German. (281)
POTTINOER, S. R., KERR, R. G., and LANHAM, W. B., Jr.
SCHLEUFE, F. Der Fischdampferbau (Construction of Steam
1949 Effect of Refreezing on Quality of Sea Trout Fillets.
1948 Trawlers). Clasing und Co., Bielefeld, Germany,
Commercial Fisheries Review, Washington 25,
90 pp., illus. In German. (151)
D.C., U.S.A., Vol. 11, No. 1, p. 14, 3 pp. (535)
SIEBENALER, J. B. Trap Lift Net for Catching Tuna Bait
Pumping Live Fish Simplifies Problem of Bait Handling
1953 Fishes. Commercial Fisheries Review, Washington
1953 Aboard Clipper. Pacific Fisherman, Seattle, Wash.,
25, D.C., U.S.A., Vol. 15, No. 8. (497)
U.S.A., Vol. 51, No. 8, p. 55, 3 pp. (497)
SIMPSON, D. S. Small Craft, Construction and Design.
PUNCOCHAR, J. Freezing Fish at Sea for Later Thawing,
F.
1 95 1 Transactions, Society of Naval Architects and Marine
1949 Processing and Refreezing Ashore. Fishing Gazette,
New York Engineers, New York 18, Vol. 59, p. 554, 58 pp.,
1, Vol. 65, No. 12, p. 206, 210. (535)
illus. (338)
Freezing Round Fish Aboard Boats. Atlantic
1949 New SMITH, H. M. The Design and Construction of Small Craft.
Fishermen, Golfstown, Hampshire, U.S.A.,
Vol. 30, No. 5.
1924 Association of Engineering and Shipbuilding
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Draughtsmen, London, 299 pp., illus. (127)
PUNCOCHAR, J. F., and POTTINGER, S. R. Freezing Fish at
1953 Sea. Food Technology, Champaign, SNYDER, G. C. Stability of Tuna Clippers. Paper read 3 May,
Illinois, U.S.A.,
1946 1946 before Pacific North-west Section of Society of
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Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, New York 1 8,
RAHOLA, J. The Judging of the Stability of Ships and the Photostat. (320)
1939 Determination of the Minimum Amount of Stability.
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. Model
Yhteiskirjapaino Osakeyhtio, Helsinki, Finland,
1950- Resistance and Expanded Resistance Data Sheets to 1
232 pp., 81 illus. In English. (151, 344, 367)
1953 150. New York 18, illus. (281)
RAWLINGS, J. E. A Report on the Cuban Tuna Fishery.
1953 Commercial Fisheries Review, Washington 25, B.C., SPANNER, W. F. Some Notes on the Design of Trawlers and
1946 Drifters, With Particular Reference to Sea-worthiness
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1936 Lifeboat Association, Gothenburg, Sweden, 1936. illus. (151, 212)
In Swedish. (68)
STEVENS, W. C., and TURNER, N. Solid and Laminated Wood
Report of the 5th International Lifeboat Conference. Nor- 1948 Bending. H.M.S.O., London, S.E.I, 71 pp. (71)
1947 wegian Lifeboat Institute, Oslo, Norway. In English.
SUND, E. Modellfors0k med Fiskefart0yer II (Model Test
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1951 with Fishing Vessels II). Skipsmodelltanken, Trond-
Report of the 6th International Lifeboat Conference. Belgian heim, Norway, No. 7, 31 pp., illus. In Norwegian,
1951 Marine Administration, Brussels, Belgium. 246 pp. with English summary (318)
In English. (68, 72)
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1944 en keuze van een passende MG
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Werf, Rotterdam, Netherlands, Vol. 11, p. 39, 3 pp., Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers,
illus. In Dutch. (151) New York 18, Vol. 55, p. 359, 26 pp., illus. (127)
ROSCHER, E. K. Zum Problem des Fischerei-Fabrikschiffes TAKAGI, A., INUI, T., and NAKAMURA, S. Graphical Methods
1953 (The Factory Ship Problem). Die Fischwirtschaft, 1950 for Power Estimation of Fishing Boats. Fisheries
Bremerhaven-F, Germany, Vol. 5, No. 10, p. 238. Agency, Tokyo, Japan, 47 pp., illus. In English,
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RUPP, L. A. Controllable Pitch Propellers. Transactions of TAYLOR, A. R. Fishing Vessel Design. Transactions of the
1 948 the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1943 Institution of Naval Architects, London, S.W.I,
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1948 Resistance, propulsionand Steering of Ships. The
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[573]
INDEX
Acceleration of roll and pitch, 334, 369, 371, Bent frames, 2, 4, 109, 187 Cavitation, propellers, 205, 218, 272. 277
Berths, dimensions, 349 Cedar, yellow or Alaska, 93
of winches, 488 Bins, 519, 540, 545, 565 Centring, 4, 320, 334, 335, 365-7, 382, 384
Accidents, 4, 364, 365-7, 380 Block coefficient, influence of, 319 Centre board, 253
Accommodation for crew, 123, 324, 349, 352 Boats, life, 121, 199, 350, 351, 378-80 well, 219
on factory ships, 515, 539 Boatyard, accounting, 238, 266 Chapel, 117, 121
Accounting, 238, 266 Boiler, exhaust gas, 248 Chata, Portuguese beach landing craft, 63
Active rudder, 21 7, 255 for steam engines, 169 Chesapeake Bay launches, 358
Adjustable pitch propellers, see controllable Bolting, 18, 93, 191, 197, 243, 338 Chile, mechanization, 393-7
pitch Bom (Bomschuit), Dutch beach landing Chine, 5, 259, 312, 356, 360, 362
Admiralty constant, 281, 327, 376 craft,63 double, 259, 356, 360
Africa, beach landing, 255 Book-keeping, 238, 266 Choice of engines, 68, 218, 456
Aid, see Government aid Borers, 227 Chromium, 227
Air-cooled engines, 6, 70, 421 Bottom, chine, 5, 259, 312, 356, 360, 361 Classification Societies, 18, 92, 123, 243,
Air conditioning, 117, 526 double chine, 259, 356, 360 249,343,361,385-9
pressure controls, 457, 480 flat, 5,6 Chummer, 113
resistance, 327, 328 round, 258, 312 Clutches, 390
Alaska limit seiner, 191 - round or V, 8, 259, 312, 360 CO, firefighting equipment, 114, 339, 380,
Alden, John G., 129, 131 tunnel, 6, 7, 68, 70 381
Alignment, propeller line, 6, 94, 206 V, 7, 71, 81, 83, 187, 243, 259, 312, 356, Coal or oil burning boiler for steam engines,
Alternating or direct current, 507, 525 360, 361 169, 247
Aluminium, 72, 153, 223, 230, 239, 243, 260 V or round, 8, 259, 312, 360 Coble, Yorkshire, 57, 68, 72
Amphibians, 69, 254 Bow, flared, 357, 374, 375 Cod liver oil extraction, 184
Amplitudes of pitch, 331, 371 Breadth, influence of, 148, 319, 330, 353, Cod trawlers, 149, 177, 351, 502, 545-S
of roll, 322, 331,371,375 375 Coefficients, see dimensions
Amsler dynamometer, 280 influence on vibration, 433 Coils for refrigeration, 265
Anchor gear, 352 on factory ships, 539 Collision mats. 340
hawse, 166 Breakdown of engines, 267, 339, 395, 457 Collisions, 382
windlass, 112, 121,491 Brine, 113, 118, 197, 199, 533, 556 Combination boats
Angle of entrance, 103, 319, 353-5, 359, 360 tank, 116, 118, 198, 527, 535, 556, 561 discussion, 242, 266
of heel, 322, 331,371,375 British Columbia boats, 92-106 Iceland, 211
of pitch, 331, 371 Bulb propulsion, 357, 361 Ireland, 203
of roil, 322, 331,371,375 Bulls for beaching, 66 Pacific coast, 187, 362
Anti-fouling. 227, 260 Bull trawler, 142, 171 trawler-longliner, 374
Anti-frceze, 70 Buoyancy, location, 311, 319, 354, 355 Albert Condon, naval architect, 130, 136
Apprenticeship schemes, 23 Bunker requirements of factory ships, 516 Constant voltage, 258
Arrangement, fore or aft, 205, 242, 251 By-products, 513, 522, 542, 555, 558, 566 Construction, see scantlings
Asdic, 255, 259 Construction rules, 18, 92, 123, 243, 249,
Auxiliaries, 149 Canada 343, 361, 385-9
Amos Ay re, Sir, 354 British Columbia boats, 92 Contra rudder, 415
gillnetters, 94 Controllable pitch propellers, 56, 66, 70,
Baier, Professor L. A., 194 launches, East Coast, 1 13,, 152, 218, 249, 255, 392, 405-407,
Bait cans, 199 iongliners, 97 415, 438^3, 454-6, 465, 471-3
fishing boats, 496, 511 purse seiners, 99 Control, by air pressure, 457, 480
tank, tuna, 81, 113, 116, 118, 187, 193, schooners, 311 of fishing gear, 474, 475, 505
196, 197,494, 511 transport boats, 100 noise, 217, 221, 257
Baker, 353 trawlers, 102, 323, 373 Conversions of engines, 1 1
Balancing plank, 25, 29 Trollers, 96 Cooling, air of engines, 6, 70, 421
Ballast, 132, 148, 367, 373-5 Candil, Portuguese beach landing craft, 64 fresh water, 11, 70, 118, 198, 391, 398,
Baltic Sea cutter, 357 Canoes, 18, 25 410,413,462-3
Bank fishing schooners, 128, 311 Canopy, 113 hopper, 56, 66
Bare, 254 Calicut, India, dugouts, 18, 25, 26 Copper sheeting, 227
Barcos, Portuguese beach landing craft, 65 Can making, 520 Cork, 230
Beach landing, 51-72, 250, 253-5 washer, 516 Corrosion, 17, 72, 114, 117, 223, 229, 260,
boats, 2, 4, 6, 7, 51-72, 76, 253-5 Canning, on factory ships, 516, 519 261,395,463
by bulls, 66 vessels, 513-26, 561-2 Costa bulb, 357, 361
by lifeboat institutions, 68 Capacity fish holds, 323 Cost control, 266
by the Navy, 69 Cape Island boats, 3, 243, 247, 372 Costings, 238, 266
by tractors, 59 Capsizing, 4, 320, 334, 335, 365-7, 382, 384 Costs, beach landing, 54
by winches, 51, 59, 61, 66, 253 Cargo handling, 323, 349, 476, 488-93, boats, 10, 28, 30, 61, 63, 65, 117, 157,
by rollers, 51 177, 184, 190, 243, 245, 248, 260, 364, 381,
Beam, influence of on speed, 148, 319, 330, factory ships, 524, 553 383
353, 375 Cargo rooms, see fish holds engines, 455
influence on vibrations, 433 Catches, 21, 68, 74, 117, 143, 568 funnels, 223
of factory ships, 539 preservation of, 115, 118, 122, 230-3, harbours, 55, 64
Beam trawl, 474, see trawling gear 263-5, 479 maintenance engines, 245, 394, 414, 466,
Beam trawler, see trawler Catchers, whales, 84, 318, 424 470
Bedi boats, 28, 30, 32, 38, 39, 42-8, 372 Catraia, Portuguese beach landing craft, 64 repairs engines, 245, 457, 470
Beds for engines, 261, 339, 395, 434, 460 Cavitation, profiles, 279 Crab canning ships, 514
[575]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
Crash mats, 382 Ekdar, 25, 29, 30 Fish, density of load, 143, 153, 264, 524,
Credit, 23, 73, 123, 236, 245, 267, 360, 457 Electric fishing, 380, 474, 505
Creosote, 227 Electricity, constant voltage, 258 insulation of, 149, 167, 225, 230, 233,
Criteria on stability, 320, 368, 369 D.C. or A.C., 507, 525 264, 534, 541
Critical angle of heel, 345 effect of climate, 506, 507, 528 jacketed, 230, 263
Crow's nest, 113 Electric winches, 149, 184, 444, 481, 505, wood or aluminium, 122, 153, 225, 230,
Cuba, bait and tuna, 494 506, 508 263, 541
Curves of form, 194 Electrolysis, 17, 72, 114, 117, 223, 229, 260, Fishing gear control, 474, 475, 505
of stability, 362-7 261,395,463 methods, influence on design, 242, 474
Cycle, two or four, 400, 435, 437, 463, 464 Engine, air-cooled, 6, 70, 421 schooner. Grand Banks, 311
beds, 261, 339, 395, 434, 460 Fish meal, 542, 558, 566
Damage stability, 369 breakdowns, 267, 339, 395, 457 meal ships, 513, 522, 555, 559
Damping of roll, 335 choice of, 68, 218, 456 ponds, 519, 540, 545, 565
Danish seining, 204, 242, 249 choice of r.p.m., 143, 218, 412, 435, 456, pounds, 152,224,230,264
Davit, lifeboat, 246, 350, 378-80 464-7 processing vessels, 513-68
purse seine, 193 conversions, 11 storage temperatures, 527, 549
DDT, 229 costs, 455 washing device, 264, 540
Deck gear, 15,474,512 diesels, 390-401, 409-27, 444-8, 456-72 Fixed blade propellers, 66, 70, 392, 438, 44*
houses, 10 diesel-electric, 170, 218, 246, 445, 471 Flared bow, 357, 374, 375
ponds, 519, 540, 545, 565 diesel or steam, 84, 122, 128, 151, 169, Flat bottom, 5, 6
quarter, 151 171,218,245,390,456,472 Flexible mountings for engines, 434
shelter, 255, 553 Father and Son, 170, 246, 420, 444-50, Floating trawl, 475
wooden, 352 452, 472 Floodable length, 150, 368, 516
working, of research vessels, 219 forward or aft, 103, 205 Flooding, 335, 362
Dehydration of fish rooms, 233 gas turbine or diesel, 428-32, 462 Floor, adjustable, in testing tank, 270
Denmark gasoline (petrol) or diesel, 11, 95, 393, Floor timbers, 94
beach landing, 51,250 468 Flow laminar, 269, 311, 357, 361
North sea cutters, 249 guarantee, 267, 458 Fluorine, 227
small boats, 250 high or low speed, 143, 218, 412, 435, Foam plastic, 378
Denny fishing boat tests, 35, 104 437, 456, 464-7 Following sea, 334
Density offish load, 143, 153, 364, 524, 537,
- lighl weight and high speed, 129, 218, Forebody, flared, 357, 374, 375
563 412,456 Forefoot design, 312, 373, 374
Derating engines, 390, 456, 459, 462 .
maintenance, 21, 394, 415, 460 Form of hull, 32, 68, 72, 95, 143, 194, 319,
Derrick, 502, 505 opposed pistons, 466 333, 353-62, 369-78, 474
Development, sec History outboards, 12, 69, 393-5 Foundations for engines, 261, 339, 395,
Dhatta hora, 25, 27, 28 reduction gear, 131, 218 434
Dickie, 362 semi-diesels, 56, 212, 393, 402-408, 416- Fouling, 227, 260
Diesels, 390-401, 409-27, 444-8, 456-72 418,467-471 Frames, 10, 197
Diesel-electric, 170, 218, 246, 445, 471 semi-diesels or diesels, 70, 393, 407, 416- laminated, 94, 239, 243, 262
Diesel or gasoline (petrol), 1 1 95, 393 418,467-471
- sawn, 93, 118, 190,243
,
or gas turbine, 428-32, 462 starting, 56, 510 steam bent, 2, 4, 109, 187
- or semi-diesels, 70, 393, 407, 416-18, steam, 122, 127, 222, 255, 456 steam bent or sawn, 93, 242
467-71 super-charging, 131, 198, 391, 398, 399, France
or steam, 84, 122, 128, 151, 169, 171,218, 409,421,425,456,461 diesels, 398-401
245, 390, 456, 472 steam, oilburner or coalburners, 169, gas turbines, 428-32
Dimensions 247 propellers, 422-43
Dutch trawlers, 154 two or four cycle (stroke), 400, 435, 437, research vessel, 259
French trawlers, 144 463, 464 trawlers, 143
German cutters, 357 V-built, 420 tuna clippers, 512
gillnetters, 13 Entrance, angle of, 103, 319, 353-355, 359, winches, 481-7
Irish boats, 204, 209 360 Freeboard, 4, 104, 113, 151, 171, 243, 321,
New England trawlers, 132 Evaporators, 219, 248, 518 345,351,362,367,369
Pakistan boats, 25 Exhaust gas boiler, 248 Free piston generator with gas turbine, 251,
Spanish trawlers, 172 gas turbines, 169, 246, 255 428-32, 462
trollers, 96, 107 pipe, length, 403 Free surface effect, 362, 365
U.S.A. combination boats, 191, 195 Expenses in boatyard, 238, 266 Freezer ships, 513-68
Dimensions of material, see scantlings Exploratory fishing vessels, 213, 221, 255- Freezing fish, 522, 556
Direct or alternating current, 507, 525 259 Freezers,
Directional stability, 217 blast, 523, 527, 532, 541, 557
Explosions, 11
Distances to grounds, 113, 122, 143, 151, killing toredo, 228 brine immersion, 527
218, 320 Explosives magazine, 221 contact, 527, 535, 557, 562
Docking, 343 shelf freezer, 532
Dory, 12 FAO, 136, 238, 243, 367, 371, 381, 383, 468, Freezing rates, 527, 529-33, 537, 550, 553,
Double chine construction, 259, 356, 360 558 561,563
Drag of keel, 373 Factory ships, 170, 251, 498, 513-568 Fresh water, 349, 5 1 6, 553
Dragger, see trawler Fastenings, 18, 93, 191, 197, 243, 338
- cooling, 11, 70, 118, 198, 391, 398, 410,
Drawings, 267, 268, 343 Father and Son, engines, 170, 246, 420, 413,462,463
Drifters, 13, 17, 142, 154, 204, 211, 390 444-50, 452, 472 Friction resistance, 281
Drinking water, 349 Fibre glass, 254 Froude's model law, 272, 311
Drum seiner, 96, 99, 105, 476 Filleting, 124,514,541,563 Fuel, consumption, 153, 228, 351, 355, 403,
Dry rot, 262 Film, 383 414, 416-18, 426, 448, 460, 462, 465, 466,
Dugouts, 18, 25, 26 Financial aid, 23, 73, 123, 236, 245, 267, 469
DUKW, 254 360, 457 quality, 391,396,414
Dynamic stability, 344, 345, 362, 368 Finland construction of seal hunting vessels, Fundamental research, 213
Dynamometers, 243, 280, 506 248 Funnels, 223
Finkcnwerder 357
cutter,
Economy, 1, 143, 223, 234, 261, 265, 355, Fire-fighting equipment, 114, 339, 380, Gallows, 474, 506
360, 400, 415 381 Galvanic action, 17, 72, 114, 117, 223, 229,
of factory ships, 514, 554 Fishery research vessels, 213, 221, 255-9 260,261,395,463
Economical speed, 149 Fish holds, 115, 123, 153, 167, 224, 230, 233, Garvey, 6, 7
Education, 23, 236, 339, 381-84, 390, 460 246, 263, 323, 368, 479 Gas generator, 251, 428-32, 462
[576]
INDEX
Gasoline, explosions, 1 1 India Mackerel fishing boats, 80, 84
ordiesel, 11,95,393,468 Bombay boats, 17-24 Maierform, 132, 357, 361, 373, 375-7, 419
Gaspe boat, 1 Calicut dug-outs, 25 Maintenance of engines, 21, 394, 415, 460
Gas turbine, 251, 428-32, 456, 458, 461 462 , Inflatable rubber boats, 378-80 of ships, 338, 341
or diesel, 428, 432, 462 Influence of beam
Manoeuvrability, 217
Germany on factory ships, 539 Marine pest, 227
Baltic Sea cutter, 357 on speed, 148, 319, 330, 353, 375 Mass production, 239, 248
Finkenwerder cutter, 357 on vibrations, 433 Masts, 498, 502, 512
near water trawlers, 250 Influence of labour, 131, 337, 555 Materials
trawlers, 166 Injection pressure, 404, 413 aluminium, 72, 153, 223, 230, 239, 243,
Gharat hora, 28 Injection, water, in engines, 403 260
Gillnetters, 13, 94 Instruments, navigation, 121, 122, 199, 340 dimensions of, sec scantlings
Gill propulsion, 70 Insulation offish rooms, 149, 167, 225, 230, fibre glass, 254
Glazing, 523 233, 264, 534, 541 nylon, 30, 226
Government advice, 17, 73 Insurance, 115, 268, 337, 367, 384, 385 378
plastic, 72, 226, 239, 243,
aid, 2, 23, 73, 123, 204, 245, 267, 360, 385, Integrator, 364 rubber, 226
457 Investment, 234, 265 wood, 92, 195
control of fish, 126, 264, 518 Ireland, combination boats, 203, 242 wood or aluminium, 260
regulations, 18, 24, 66, 92, 156, 243, 249, Iron chink, 519 wood or steel, 1, 68, 72, 112, 114, 135,
343, 367, 378, 385-9, 516, 518, 528 Italy, tank tests, 35 154, 187,242,247,338
training programme, 23 cod trawler, 502, 545-8 Measurement of hulls, 41
Grand Bank schooners, 128, 311
-- Mechanization, 1, 12, 14, 17, 34, 73, 76, 127,
trawlers, 149, 177, 351, 502, 545-8 Jacketed fish holds, 230, 263 235, 243, 347, 393, 467
Greece, factory ships, 565 Japan Mechanized beach landing, 53
Guarantee engines, 267, 458 Danish seiners, 142 Mediterranean type, 242
Gulf of Mexico shrimp trawler, 248, 312 diesels, 424-7 Metacentric height, 80, 83, 148
Gurdies for trolling, 107, 1 10 longlining, 83, 503 Methods, fishing, influence on design, 242,
Gutting and heading, 540 pelagic fishing boats, 80 474
retractable propeller shaft, 70 Midship section, 9, 45, 97, 102, 107, 131,
stern, 95 136, 187,332,371,377,378
Handling catches, 349, 476, 488-93, 507-1 1
trawlers, otter, 137, 425 Minikay system, 233, 264
factory ships, 524, 553
- 230-3, 263-5, 479
fish, 115, 118, 122,
trawlers, pareja, 142, 425 Model tests, see tank tests
tuna clippers, 81, 425 Moisture content of wood, 262
Handlinmg, 242, see also tuna bait fishing
whale catcher, 84, 424 Moorings, 524, 553
Hastings lugger, 61, 70
Jet propulsion, 68, 70 Motion pictures, 383
Hatches, 246, 343, 347, 498, 512, 541
Hawaii, tuna clipper, 121 Jonesport boat, 3, 243, 247 Motherships, 513, 568
bait, 494 Motorization, 1,12, 14, 17, 34, 73, 76, 127.
Keel, side, 59 235, 243, 347, 393, 467
Heading and gutting, 540
Headroom, 349 Kempf log, 280 Movies, 383
Kerosene or diesel, 468 Multiple engine units, 415, 420, 449
Heating, 423, 526
Heaving period, 331 King crab processing, 520 diesel-electric. 170, 218, 246, 445, 471
Heel angles, 322, 331,371,375 Kitchen rudder, 70 Father and Son, 170, 218, 246, 445, 471
Kort no/zle, 70, 156,415 Multiple reduction gear, 445-9, 465, 471,
Herring reduction ships, 513, 555, 559
472
High or low speed engines, 143, 218, 412,
435, 437, 456, 464-7 Laboratories, 219, 257, 349
Labour costs, 238, 514, 561, 567 Navigation lights, 352
History
Chile, mechanization, 393
influence, 337, 555 permits, 24, 66, 92, 156, 343, 367, 378,
Dutch trawlers, 154 saving equipment, 21, 96, 99, 105, 110, 518
505 Navigational errors, 381, 383
Germany, 246, 419
high-speed diesels, 412
union, influence, 131, 337, 555 instruments, 121, 122, 199, 340
Lake boat, 247 risks, 367, 381
Ireland, 203
Laminar flow, 269, 311, 357, 361 Netherlands
Japan, 424
- New England Laminated frames, 94, 239 beach landing, 63
trawler, 127
Pacific Gillnetters, 13 Lamination, 71, 94, 239, 243, 249, 262 - safety at sea, 343, 362, 378
semi -diesels, 402 Launches, 1,247,358 trawlers, 154
tuna clippers, 113, 118 Launching lifeboats, 246, 350, 378-80 Net rollers, 15
Hogging, 196, 251, 377, 384, 433 LCB, 311,319, 354,355 Newfoundland schooners, 128, 311
Holds for Leaks, 261,506 Noise control, 217, 221, 257
fish, 115, 123, 153, 167, 224, 230,
233, 246, 263, 323, 368, 479 Lengthening, 347, 359, 360 North Sea cutters, 250
Hopper Island launches, 8 Length-displacement ratio, 319, 353, 355, Norway, tank tests, 35, 318, 355, 360, 377
Hot-bulb engines, 56, 212, 393, 402-408, 361 Nova Scotia schooners, 128, 311
Lifeboats, 121, 199, 350, 351, 378-80
416-18,467-71
Hotchkiss propulsion, 70, 253 davit, 246, 350, 378-80 Observation of fish stocks, 213
institutions, 68 Oceanographic research vessels, 213, 216,
Hora, 28, 31-4, 36, 37
Hull efficiency, 408 launching, 246, 350, 378-80 255-9
Life rafts, 378-80 Oil or coal burning boilers, 169, 247
frequency, 434
shape, 32, 68, 72, 95, 143, 194, 319, 333,
Liver processing, 522, 542, 545-8 Open water propeller tests, 274
353-62, 369-78, 474 Loading, 323, 349, 476, 488-93, 507-1 1 Operation
factory ships, 524, 553 of menhaden boats, 466, 510
vibrations, 433-5
Loans, 23, 73, 123, 245, 267, 457 of tuna clippers, 113, 338
Hysteresis damping, 436
Lobster catcher, 74 of trawlers, 122, 245,457
Hydraulic drive, 15, 110, 125, 243, 483-93
clutch, 208
Location of buoyancy, 311, 319, 354, 355 Opposed piston engines, 466
starters, 510 Log, 280 Otter trawl, 474, 538
- winches, 483-8, 491, 505-1 1
Longitudinal framing, 197, 260 Otter trawler, see trawler
Longliner, 81,97, 204 Outboards, 12, 69, 393-5
Cape Island, 3 motor boat, 247
Ice consumption, 131, 230, 264 Jonesport, 3 Outrigger canoes, 25, 27, 28, 35
Iceland, combination boats, 21 1 Portugal, 74 Over-capitalization, 265
Icemaking, 534 Longlining arrangement, 83, 193, 503 Overhaul of engines, 21, 394, 419, 460
Icing up, 362, 373, 374, 512 Loss of speed, 327, 376 Overhead expenses, 241, 266
Inclining experiment, 343, 363-7 Luggers, see drifters Overloading, 347, 362, 367
[577]
FISHING BOATS OF THE WORLD
Overpowering, 8, 11, 73, 99, 358, 359, 467 Radial measurement method, 41 Scuppers, 66, 335, 367
Overrating engines, 390, 456, 459, 462 Radio, 340 Seabright skiff, 4,
Ownership, 117, 122, 234, 266, 383 Radius of action, 113, 122, 143, 151, 218 Seal hunting vessels, 249
320 Seakindliness, 72, 95, 144, 156, 216, 326, 369
Packers, 23, 99, 100 of gyration, 321, 328, 362 Seamanship, 337, 370, 382
Pacific coast Rahola, 345, 367, 368 Sea-Scanner, 255, 259
combination boats, 187 Raised quarter deck, 151 Seasickness, 369
gillnetters, 13, 94 Rationalizing boat yards, 238, 266 Seatings for engines, 261, 339, 395, 434, 460
tonglincrs, 97, 187 Reduction gear, 131, 218, 414, 465, 471 Seaworthiness, 103, 216, 326
purse seiners, 99, 187 multiple, 449-55, 465, 471, 472 Seiner, Danish system, 142, 204, 249
trawlers, 102, 187 Refrigeration Seiner, purse
trailers, 96, 107, 187 absorption system, 530, 537, 563 Alaska limit, 191
tuna clippers, 113, 118, 187 ammonia, 116, 137, 184, 199, 264, 528 Iceland, 210
Paint, antifouling, 227 ammonia or freon, 528, 541, 562 Portugal, 75
Pair trawler, 142, 171 by brine, 113, 118, 197, 199, 533, 556 U.S.A., 476
Pakistan boats compressors, 117, 118, 137, 528 with drum, 96, 99, 105, 476
Bedi, 28, 30, 32, 38, 39, 42-8, 372 factory ships, 526-37, 541, 543, 549, 550, with turntable, 104, 106, 187
Dhatti hora, 25, 27, 28 556, 557 Self propulsion tests, 149, 273, 357, 375
discussion, 354, 355, 358, 360, 372 freon, 264 Semi-diesels, 56, 212, 393, 402-408, 416-18,
dug-outs 25, 26 in ice, 264 467-71
Ekdar, 25, 29, 30 jacketed holds, 230, 233, 263 or diesels, 70, 393, 407, 416-18, 467-71
Oharat hora, 28 sea-water, 265 Shallow water tests, 270
Hora, 28, 31,34, 36, 37 Regulations for construction, 18, 92, 123, Shaft alignment, 6, 94, 206
Tony, 25, 26 243,249,343,361, 385-9 Shafting vibrations, 435-7
Parallel midbody, 319 Government, 18, 24, 66, 92, 156, 243, Shape of hull, 32, 68, 72, 95, 143, 194, 319,
Pareja trawler, 142, 171 249, 343, 367, 378, 385-9, 516, 518, 528 333, 353-62, 369-78, 474
Paravanes for stabilizing, 97, 112, 371, 372 Repairs, of engines, cost, 245, 457, 470 Sheeting by copper or galvanized, 227
Peniche boats, Portugal, 65, 73 Rescue apparatus, 340, 351 Sheerline, 144, 148, 187, 321, 347, 371
Pens, see pounds Research vessels, 213, 216, 255-9 Shelter deck, 255, 553
Period of pitch, 326, 330 Resistance, see tank tests Shifting of cargo, 367
of roll, 276, 321, 326, 328, 362, 372 air, 327, 328 Ship Model Basin, see tank tests
Permits, 24, 66, 92, 156, 343, 367, 378, 518 friction, 281 Shorings, 340
Petrol or diesel, 11, 95, 393, 468 rough water, 327 Shoulders, 319
Phenol compounds, 227 still water, 281-319, 353-62 Shrimp trawler, 248, 312
Piston speed, 413, 465, 471 tests, 272 Sinking, 382
Pitching angles, 331,371 trawling, 327 Skiff, 99, 121, 477
period, 326, 330 Retorts, 516 Skipjack pole and line fishing boat, 81
Plastics, 72, 226, 239, 243, 378 Reversible pitch propellers, see controllable Sliphook, 166, 475
Plywood, 71,93, 198 pitch propellers Sonar, 255, 259
Pole and line fishing boats, 80 Rigging screw, 246 SOS transmitter, 379
Ponds on deck, 519, 540, 545, 565 Rigor mortis, 550 Spain, beach landing, 66
Pounds in fish holds, 152, 224, 230, 264 Rollers for beach landing, 51 trawlers, 171, 351
Portugal, beach landing, 63 Rollers for net, 15 Speed, 12, 66, 95, 96, 103, 105, 118, 122, 128,
small boats, 73 Rolling, 89, 97, 143, 145, 276, 371 143,151,154,172,205,354
Preservation of catch, 115, 118, 122, 230-3, angle, 322, 331, 371, 375 economical, 149
263-5,479 period, 276, 321, 326, 328, 362, 372 loss of, 327, 376
of wood, 260 tests, 276, 328 trawling, 129, 144, 149, 152, 177, 444,
Prismatic coefficient, 95, 102, 131, 136, 319, r.p.m. of engines, 143, 218, 412, 435, 456, 474
353-5, 357, 361 464-7 Spray angle of fuel injection, 404
Processing vessels, 513-68 Roughness of ship's hull, 274 for tuna catching, 197
Productive costs, 238 Rough water resistance, 327 Spring mountings for engines, 434
Propellers, captation, 205, 218, 272, 277 Round bottom, 359, 312 Stability, 80, 83, 89, 99. 114, 137, 142, 151,
controllable pitch, 56, 66, 70, 131, 152, or V-bottom, 8, 259, 312, 360 175, 181, 194, 217, 223, 320-36, 343-7,
218, 249, 255, 392, 405-407, 415, 438-43, Rubber boats, 378, 380 355, 362-78
454-6, 465, 471-3 Rudder, 133, 205, 353 curves, 362-7
design, 18, 149, 152, 212, 383 Active, 217, 255 directional, 217
efficiency, 394, 396, 408 kitchen, 70 factory ships, 516, 539
fixed blade, 66, 70, 392, 438, 449 Kort nozzle, 70, 156, 415 regulations, 66
open water tests, 274 Rules for construction, 18, 92, 123, 243, 249, Stabilizers, 97, 112, 371, 372
tunnels, 6, 7, 68, 70 343,361,385-9 Standardization, 143, 204, 243, 251, 266,
weedless, 6 Rust, 227 352, 354
Propeller shaft, alignment, 6, 94, 206 Starting of engines, 56
inspection, 343 Safety at Sea, 10, 11, 337-52, 362-89 hydraulic, 510
retractable, 7, 70 firefighting, 114, 339, 380, 381 Steam bent frames, 2, 4, 109, 187
torsional stresses, 242, 395, 409, 436 lifeboats, 121, 199, 350, 351, 378-80 Steam engines, 122, 127, 222, 255, 456
Proportions, see dimensions Sagging, 196, 251, 377, 384, 433 coal or oil burning boilers, 169, 247
Propulsion bulb, 357, 361 12,23,25,406,473 or diesel, 84, 122, 128, 151, 169, 171,218,
- jet, 68, 70
Sails, 1,
Salmon canning vessels, 513-26, 561, 562 245, 390, 456, 472
tests, 149, 273, 357, 375 Salting, 556 Steel or wood, 1, 68, 72, 112, 114, 135, 154,
Power for trawling, 143, 440, 442, 444, 449, Sanitation, 518 187, 242, 247, 338
Saveiro, Portuguese beach landing craft, 63 Steering tests, 274, 353
Pumps for unloading, 476, 505 Sawn frames, 93, 118, 190, 243 Stern, cruiser, 109, 194, 354, 360, 369, 373
Purse seiners, 75, 96, 99, 104-106, 187, 191 Scantlings, 16, 18, 30, 35, 55, 57, 61, 67, 71, fantail, 194, 360, 369
210, 242, 476 74, 95, 156, 173, 174, 177, 179, 183, 191, sea, 334
197, 210, 243, 249, 338 transom, 14, 40, 94, 319, 354, 356, 372,
Quads, 415, 465, 466 Scavenging, 404, 416, 421 373
Quarter deck. 151 Schoenherr formula, 311 tube, 6
Quarters on factory ships, 515, 539 Schooners, Grand Bank, 128, 311 Still water resistance, 281-319, 353-62
Scotch boilers, 169, 172 Storage, density offish, 143, 153, 264, 524,
Racks for tuna fishing, 113 Scotch ringnettcr test, 35 361 537, 563
Radar, 340, 352 Scow, 6, 7 Stranding, 367, 381, 383
[578]
INDEX
Stroke, two or four, 400, 435, 437, 463, 464 Trial results, 81, 83, 105, 137, 142, 326 U.S.S.R.
Stowage factor, 143, 153, 264, 524, 537, 563 Trim, 99, 104, 114, 151, 175, 181, 191, 205, factory ships, 520, 553
Sub-division, 150, 368, 516 311,321,327,355,365,373 seal hunting vessels, 248
Subsidies, 23, 73, 123, 245, 267, 360, 457 Trimmed keel, 373
Supercharged engines, 131, 198, 391, 398, Tripod masts, 512
Torsional stresses, 242, 395, 409, 436 Vaporizer, 402
399,409,421,425,456,461 Variable pitch propellers, see controllable
Surface effect, 362, 365 Torsion metres, 280
Surf landing, 2, 4, 6, 7, 51-72, 250, 253-5 Towing block, 166, 475 pitch
Sweden, tank tests, 35, 105, 355 Trial prediction, 280 V-bottom, 7, 71, 81, 83, 187, 243, 259, 312,
Trollers, 96, 107 356, 360, 361
Synchronism, 334
V-built engines, 420
Trolling, 242
gurdies, 107, 110 Ventilation, 349, 526
Takagi, 312, 361, 367
Tank poles, 1 10 Vibrations, 433-7
tests, 1, 35, 104, 143, 171, 178, 184,
Tuna canning Voith-Schneider propeller, 70
194, 260, 269-319, 353-62, 369-78, 457 vessels, 513-26, 561, 562
Tender, 197 clippers, 81, 113, 118, 197, 320, 337, 378, Voltage, constant, 258
Timber quality, 195 425, 494, 561
V or round bottom, 8, 259, 312, 360
Tony, 26 fishing, spray agitation, 197
Toredos, 227 live bait fishing, 81, 113, 118 Wake tests, 276
Torque converter, 510 long lines, 81, 83 Ward-Leonard couplings, 149, 184, 444, 506
Towing power, 143, 440, 442, 444, 449, Tuning of engine, 437 Washing device for fish, 264, 540
451 Tunnel, 6, 7, 68, 70 Water injection in engines, 403
Tractors for beach landing, 59 Turbo-charging, 131, 198, 391, 398, 399, 409, Waterline, form of, 102, 106
Training programme, 23, 236, 339, 381-4, 421,425,456,461 Waterlogging, 369
390, 460 Turbulence stimulation, 269, 311, 357, 361 Water requirements on factory ships, 516,.
Transferring catches, 349, 476, 488-93, 507- Turntable for purse seining, 104, 106, 187, 534
11 191-3 Water type boiler, 169
factory ships, 524, 553 Two-boat trawler, 142, 171 Waterways, 66, 335, 367
Test, see tank tests Two or lour cycle (stroke), 400, 435, 437, Waves, 72, 327
Transmitter, SOS, 379 463, 464, 467 W.C, 349
Transom sterns, 14, 40, 94, 319, 354, 356, Weight calculations, 175, 181
372, 373 Underwriters, 115, 268, 337, 367, 384, 385 estimation, 153
Transport vessels, 23, 99, 100, 514 united Kingdom Welding, 72, 89, 156, 171, 223, 243
Trawlers beachlanding, 57 Well on research vessels, 219
Canada, East, 323 factory ships, 538-42, 549, 550, 564, 565 Whale catchers, 84, 318, 424
Canada, West, 102 Hastings lugger, 61, 10 Whaling winches, 491
-- Scotch
cod or Grand Banks, 149, 177, 351, 502, rmgnetter, 35 Whirling, 435
545-8 tank tests, 318 Winches, beach landing, 51, 59, 61, 253
Dutch, 154 trawlers, 122-6, 390, 392, 409-11 combined trawl and purse seine, 193
French, 143 Yorkshire coble, 57 electric,481, 505, 508
German, 166, 326 unloading, 323, 349, 476, 488-93, 507-1 1
hydraulic, 483-7, 491, 505-11
Gulf of Mexico, 248, 312 e/nproaucnve costs, 238 - longlining, 192,491,503
Irish, 204 unsymmetncal flooding, 364 purse seining, 142, 491
Italy, 502, 545-8 upsetting arm, 363 - research 220, 256, 259, 491
vessels,
Japan, 137, 425 U.S.A. - trawl, 122, 124, 128, 141, 171, 193,390-2,
-- New - -
Alaska limit seiners, 181
England, 127,323 474,481-8,491,505,539
pareja, 142, 171
combination boats, 187, 362 whaling, 491
shrimp, 248, 312 factory ships, 513-68 Windheel criterion, 368, 369
Spanish, 171, 351 Garvey, 6 Windlass, 112, 121,491
U.K., 122 gillnetters, 13 Wind pressure, 362, 368
- U.S.A., East, 128, 373 Grand Bank schooners, 311 Wood or aluminium, 260
U.S.A., West, 187, 197 Hopper Island launches, 8 moisture content, 262
- 358
Trawling, 242, 370, 474 launches, 1, or steel, 1,68,72, 112, 114, 135, 154, 187,
gear, 474, 538 New England trawlers, 127, 31 1, 323, 373 242, 247, 338
power, 143, 440, 442, 444, 449, 451 Seabright skiff, 4 preservation, 260
pareja, 177 Scow, 6
resistance, 327 Sharpie launch, 5 64
Xavega, Portuguese beach landing craft,
speed, 129, 144, 149, 152, 444, 474 shrimp trawlers, 248, 312
Trawl winch, 122, 124, 128, 141, 171, 193, Trollcrs, 107
390-2, 474, 481-8, 491, 505, 539 tuna clippers, 113, 118, 320, 337, 362-7, Yellow cedar, 93
Trial measurements, 280, 371, 375 378, 494 Yorkshire coble, 57, 68, 72
[579]
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