Direct Current Circuits

Chapter-4: Circuit Theorems

Md Mohi Uddin Khan

Lecturer, Dept. of EEE
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology
Website: https://sites.google.com/view/mohi-uddin-khan

Reference Book: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits - 5th edition by Charles K. Alexander and Matthew n. o. Sadiku

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Introduction:

• A major advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws is that we can analyze a circuit
without tampering with its original configuration.
• A major disadvantage of this approach is that, for a large, complex circuit, tedious computation is
involved.
• To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have developed some theorems to simplify
circuit analysis.
• Such theorems include Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
• These theorems are applicable only to linear circuits.

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Types of Electrical Circuits or Networks:
Electrical Circuits or Networks
1 2 3 4

Active Passive Linear Non-Linear Unilateral Bi-lateral Lumped Distributed

1.1 Active Circuit: An active circuit contains at-least an active component like a voltage source, current source, or
amplifier that can generate electrical energy. e.g. Operational amplifiers, transistors, and integrated circuits.
1.2 Passive Circuit: A passive circuit consists only of passive components such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors
that do not generate energy but rather dissipate or store it. e.g. Resistor-capacitor (RC) circuits, resistor-inductor (RL)
circuits.
3.1 Unilateral Circuit: A unilateral circuit allows the flow of current or voltage in one direction only; the circuit
characteristics and behavior change if the direction of current flow is changed. e.g. Diodes, rectifiers.
3.2 Bilateral Circuit: A bilateral circuit allows the flow of current or voltage in both directions; the circuit characteristics
and behavior remain same irrespective of the direction of current flow. e.g. Resistors, capacitors, and most passive
components.
4.1 Lumped Circuit: In a lumped circuit, all the circuit elements are physically separable. e.g. Most electrical and
electronic circuits with components like resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage sources, etc.
4.2 Distributed Circuit: In a distributed circuit, the circuit elements like resistor, capacitor, inductor, etc. are not
physically separable and remain distributed over the entire length of the network. e.g. Transmission lines, waveguides,
and antennas
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Types of Electrical Circuits or Networks: (contd.)
2.1 Linear Circuit: A linear circuit follows the principles of superposition, additivity, and homogeneity (i.e. scaling). Linearity is
the property of an element/circuit describing a linear relationship between cause and effect.
e.g. Resistive circuits, simple RC circuits, and RL circuits.

Additivity: The response to the sum of multiple inputs is the same as the sum of the responses to each input individually.
i.e. Suppose we have two resistors, R1 and R2, connected in series to a voltage source V. The total voltage drop across
the series combination is Vtotal.
Therefore, voltage drop across R1 and R2 is, 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 , 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2
According to Additivity property, 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑣𝑣1 + 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 = 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
This result shows that the total voltage drop across the series combination of resistors is equivalent to the product
of the total current and the equivalent resistance (R1 + R2).

Homogeneity: Scaling the input signal scales the output signal proportionally.
i.e. Say, in a simple 1-resistor 1-VSource circuit, 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊. If the input voltage of VSource is increased by a multiplier
constant 𝒌𝒌, then the output current will also be increased by the same constant 𝒌𝒌 such that 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 = 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌.
However, since 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 2 /𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅 is a quadratic equation, the relationship between power and voltage (or current) is
nonlinear. Therefore, the theorems covered in this chapter are not applicable to power.
2.2 Non-linear Circuit: A non-linear circuit does not adhere to the principles of superposition, additivity, and homogeneity.
The response is not a simple linear relationship with the input.
e.g. Diode circuits, transistor circuits, and circuits with non-linear elements.

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Superposition Theorem:
Statement: The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit
is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source acting
alone.

Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:

 Turn off all independent sources except one source. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled
by circuit variables. We replace,
 every independent voltage source by 0 V (a short circuit)
 every independent current source by 0 A (an open circuit).
 Find the output (voltage or current) of any particular element due to that active source using the techniques covered
in previous Chapters.
 Repeat the 1st step for each of the other independent sources.
 Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the individual independent sources.

Mathematical Examples (from reference book, 5th edition):

Example – 4.3, 4.4, 4.5
Practice Problem – 4.4

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Source Transformation:
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source 𝑽𝑽𝒔𝒔 in series with a resistor 𝑹𝑹 by a current source 𝑰𝑰𝒔𝒔
in parallel with that resistor 𝑹𝑹, or vice versa.

This process is applicable to both

independent and dependent types of
sources.

The arrow of the current source is

directed toward the positive terminal
of the voltage source

Mathematical Examples (from reference book, 5th edition):

Example – 4.6, 4.7
Practice Problem – 4.6, 4.7

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Thevenin’s Theorem:
Analyzing electrical circuits directly can be challenging due to their inherent complexity. In practical scenarios, circuits
often contain a variable element, commonly known as the load, alongside fixed components. For instance, a household
outlet terminal may connect to various appliances, creating a variable load. The challenge arises when this variable load
changes, requiring a complete reanalysis of the entire circuit. To mitigate this issue, Thevenin's theorem (proposed by
French engineer Léon Charles Thévenin) offers a solution. It introduces a technique that replaces the fixed portion of
the circuit with an equivalent circuit, simplifying the analysis process and eliminating the need for a full circuit analysis
whenever the load changes.

Statement: Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and
RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Figure: Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin equivalent: [left] original circuit
[right] the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

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 Thevenin’s Theorem: (contd.)
RTh

VTh

Values of v0 and i0 can

be taken arbitrarily

If the circuit does not have any dependent source If the circuit has dependent source
8
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Thevenin’s Theorem: (contd.)
• It often occurs that 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 takes a negative value. In this case, the negative resistance (𝑣𝑣 = −𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) implies that the circuit
is supplying power. This is possible in a circuit with dependent sources; Example 4.10 will illustrate this.

• Mathematical Examples (from reference book, 5th edition):

Example – 4.8, 4.9, 4.10
Practice Problem – 4.8, 4.9, 4.10

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Norton’s Theorem:
About 43 years after Thevenin published his theorem, E. L. Norton, an American engineer at Bell Telephone
Laboratories, proposed a similar theorem. This is essentially source transformation of the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Statement: Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current through the terminals
and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

 We find RN in the same way we find RTh. In fact, what we know from source transformation, the Thevenin and Norton
resistances are equal. i.e. RN = RTh

Figure: Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Norton equivalent: [left] original circuit
[right] the Norton equivalent circuit.

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 Norton’s Theorem: (contd.)

IN RN

Values of v0 and i0 can

be taken arbitrarily

RN =
RN = RN =

If the circuit does not have any dependent source If the circuit has dependent source
11
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Norton’s Theorem: (contd.)

• Mathematical Examples (from reference book, 5th edition):

Example – 4.11, 4.12
Practice Problem – 4.11, 4.12

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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
• The Maximum Power Transfer theorem addresses the efficient transfer of power from a source to a load in a circuit. In
practical situations where a circuit is designed to provide power to a load, such as in communication systems, the goal is
to maximize the power delivered to the load for optimal performance.
• Let's consider an example of Radio-Frequency (RF) communication system, where a transmitter is the source and an
antenna is the load in an RF communication circuit. The goal is to maximize the power transferred from the transmitter to
the antenna to ensure efficient signal transmission. The transmitter is designed to have a specific output impedance, and
the antenna is designed to have an impedance that matches the complex conjugate of the transmitter's output
impedance.
• The Thevenin equivalent circuit is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a load.

Figure: Thevenin equivalent circuit Figure: Power delivered to the load as a function of RL

• Statement: Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance
2
equals the Thevenin resistance as seen
𝑉𝑉
from the load. i.e. 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 and therefore, 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇
4𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇

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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: (contd.)
• Statement: Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as
seen from the load. i.e. 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇
• Proof:
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇 2
2
From the circuit, power transferred to the load, 𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿
For the power to be maximum with respect to varying load resistance, =0
𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿

𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 Applying the formula,

⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 =0 𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢
𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
− 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 2
⇒ =0 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 2 ⇒ =0
2 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 3
𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉2 𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
2 𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 2
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 .
𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
− 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 .
𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 0
⇒ =0
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 4 ∴ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 [Proved]
2 2
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 2 .𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 .2 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
⇒ =0
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 4
• Mathematical Examples (from reference book, 5th edition):
2
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 .𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 − 2𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
⇒ =0 Example – 4.13
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 4
Practice Problem – 4.13
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Exercise Problems:

Exercise (from reference book, 5th edition):

4.11 4.44
4.14 4.50
4.15 4.51
4.18 4.54
4.19 4.55
4.24 4.59
4.25 4.60
4.26 4.61
4.29 4.62
4.32 4.66
4.36 4.67
4.38 4.68
4.40 4.70
4.42 4.73
4.43 4.75
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 Your success as an engineer will be directly proportional to your
ability to communicate!

—Charles K. Alexander
 The art of effective communication is of the utmost importance to your success as an engineer.
 The higher your professional career progresses, the more you will need to communicate.
 Continually look for opportunities to develop and strengthen your reading, writing, listening, and
speaking skills. You can do this through classroom presentations, team projects, active
participation in student organizations, and enrollment in communication courses. The risks are
less now than later in the workplace.

Video-1 Video-2

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