STRUCTURAL SYSTEM DESIGN

EARC327

Presentation 11

Lecturer Yaşar Umut Barış Bektaş

High-Rise Structures

● There no specifically mentioned demarking line to separate high

rise buildings and low rise buildings. However, as per the
methods used in the world, the buildings above 15 stories could
be considered as high rise buildings.

● Buildings with heights between 30 m and 150 m can be

considered high-rise buildings. Buildings higher than 150 m are
classified as skyscrapers.
High-Rise Structures

● The high rise buildings shall be designed to withstand the gravitational loads and lateral loads due to the actions of wind and
earthquake. Therefore, there is a requirement of having a good lateral load resisting system for maintaining the lateral stability
of the building. Based on the height and other arrangements of the building, the most suitable structural system is selected.

● The materials used for the structural system of high-rise buildings are reinforced concrete and steel.

● Foundations of High-Rise Buildings

● The foundations of high-rise buildings support very heavy loads, but the systems developed for low-rise buildings are used,
though enlarged in scale. These include concrete caisson columns bearing on rock or building on exposed rock itself. Bearing
piles and floating foundations are also used.
Loads Acting on High-Rise Buildings

● Wind loads

● The structural systems of tall buildings must carry vertical gravity loads, but lateral loads, such as those due to wind and
earthquakes, are also a major consideration.

● The effect of wind forces on tall buildings is twofold. A tall building may be thought of as a cantilever beam with its fixed end
at the ground; the pressure of the wind on the building causes it to bend with the maximum deflection at the top.

● Earthquake Loads

● Timber frame buildings are light and flexible and are usually little damaged by earthquakes; masonry buildings are heavy and
brittle and are susceptible to severe damage. Continuous frames of steel or reinforced concrete fall between these extremes in
their seismic response, and they can be designed to survive with relatively little damage.
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● In the historical process, high-rise buildings first started and developed with monumental and religious buildings. In the mid-
16th century, tall buildings continued to exist in Europe, with cathedrals up to 160 meters high being built. The process of high-
rise building formation gained great momentum after the Industrial Revolution. The most important reason for this is the
development of construction technology and the materials used in the construction process, which enable the construction of
high-rise buildings. In particular, the transition from masonry walls to skeletal systems has been a factor that enables multi-
storey construction. Subsequently, the development of the strength properties of steel and the ease of its production and its use
in frame systems rapidly progressed the evolution of high-rise buildings.
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● The most important factor in solving problems arising from the

behavior of the building itself, external loads, and the behavior of
nature is the choice of the structural system. As the height of the
buildings increases, the structural system options decrease.
Therefore, architectural design and structural system design
should be considered together in high-rise buildings. Structural
systems in high-rise buildings may vary depending on the
materials used, building height, number of floors and function of
the building.
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● The structural system of a high-rise building is designed to cope with vertical gravity loads as well as lateral loads caused by
wind or seismic activity. The determination of the structural system for a high-rise building involves the selection and
arrangement of the major structural elements to resist most efficiently the various combinations of gravity and lateral loading.
A high-rise building needs to be stabilised for horizontal load and to achieve this, several different structural systems can be
chosen. The different types of structural systems used in high-rise buildings are listed below:

● Braced Frame Structural System

● Rigid Frame Structural System
● Infilled Frame Structure System
● Shear Wall Structural System
● Frame-Wall or Dual Structure System
● Tube Structural System
● Outrigger Structural System
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● Braced Frame Structural System

● A braced frame is used in structures subject to lateral loads such as wind and
seismic pressure. The members in a braced frame are generally made of
structural steel, which can work effectively both in tension and compression.
The beams and columns that form the frame carry vertical loads, and the
bracing system carries the lateral loads.

● In braced frames, the beams and columns are generally arranged in an

orthogonal pattern in both, the elevation and on the plan. The structural
members are joined using a pinned connection which does not transfer
moments. This structured system is designed to withstand wind and
earthquake forces.
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● Rigid Frame Structural System

● A rigid frame structural system is the load-resisting skeleton constructed with straight or curved members interconnected by
mostly rigid connections, which resist movements induced at the joints of members. Its members can take a bending moment,
shear, and axial loads.

● Design and construction of rigid frame structures can be done up to 20-25 stories. Beyond these limits, it would be more
difficult to control the lateral drift due to the lateral load as they become critical with the increase of height.

● Lateral stability is provided by column, beam and beam-column joint. Sizes of the column and beams are greatly affected by
lateral loads in addition to the gravity loads.

● Ideally suited for reinforced concrete buildings because of the inherent rigidity of reinforced concrete joints. Also used for steel
frame buildings, but moment-resisting connections in steel tend to be costly.
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● Infilled Frame Structure System

● Masonry infills walls can be used to improve the lateral load resisting capacity of a building. Masonry wall constructed inside
the concrete frame makes these types of structures.

● Further, the continuation of the infill walls vertically is important to consider for lateral stability. It is not a must to have all the
walls to be filled with masonry walls. However, at least one panel could be filled.

● Due to great stiffness and strength in their planes, infill walls do not allow the beams and columns to bend under horizontal
loading.
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● Shear Wall Structural System

● Concrete walls constructed vertically fixed at the base

with a rigidity to transfer the vertical loads and horizontal
loads applied on them can be identified as a shear wall.
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● Shear Wall Structural System

● Shear walls withstand both gravity and lateral loads, and it acts
as a narrow deep cantilever beam. Shear walls are particularly
important in large, or high-rise buildings, or buildings in areas
of high wind and seismic activity. It can be positioned at the
perimeter of buildings or it may form a shear core – a structure
of shear walls in the centre of a high-rise building.

● Since the concrete walls are stiffer than the rigid concrete
beam and column structure, shear wall structures could be
constructed up to about 30 stories.
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● Frame-Wall or Dual Structure System

● Dual wall systems are the combination of shear walls with frame systems. Generally, frames are placed around the perimeter of
the building and shear walls are placed at the center of the structure around staircases or lifts. When frames at the center of the
structure is connected to the perimeter columns, not only does gravity load carrying capacity of slabs would increase but also the
stiffness of the system increases and consequently structural displacement due to earthquakes would decline substantially.

● Shear wall and frame systems are generally suitable for heights of 40-60 floors; However, in regions under the influence of
earthquakes, these number of floors are much lower.
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● Tube Structural System

● The tube system is a structure system consisting of frames formed by the combination of external columns and beams close to
each other. Since the external walls absorb all or most of the wind load, there is no need for diagonal bracings and shear walls
within the building. The tube has great rigidity and resists horizontal loads in a way similar to a cantilever beam.

● It is a developed version of moment resisting frames which is described as three dimensional rigid frames that able to withstand
lateral loads due to earthquakes. The structural rigidity of tube system can be improved by decreasing the spacing between
perimeter columns, increase beam depth, and combining more than one tube.

● Tube systems not only increase structural efficiency compared to framed systems, but also save 50% of structural material.
Thus, it allows lighter buildings to be built. Suitable for reinforced concrete and steel construction and has been used for
building ranging from 40 to more than 100 stories.
Structural Systems of High-Rise Buildings

● Outrigger Structural System

● Outriggers are interior lateral structural systems provided to improve the overturning stiffness and strength of high-rise
buildings. It is a lateral load resisting system that is located within the building. The whole system consists of a core structure
connected to the perimeter columns of the building using structural members called outriggers.

● The purpose of the outrigger is to copple the internal structures and the perimeter structural system in order to resist the lateral
loads. The outriggers can be in the form of horizontal beams, truss, or walls. Outrigger systems can be made of any material of
concrete, steel, or composite.
Shell Structures

● The shell structure is a thin curved membrane or a slab that is usually made from the reinforced cement concrete. The shell
structure is used as both structure and covering.

● The term shell is generally used to describe structures that possess high strength and rigidity due to their thin form. The of the
best feature of the shell structures is their continuity and curvature. Due to its structural continuity, the shells can transmit the
loads in a number of different directions.
Shell Structures

● The main purpose of constructing the shell structure is to reduce the

self-weight of the structure by making the structure as thin as possible.

● Shell structures are one of the best and lightweight structures which are
used to cover a large area of span without any supports of beams,
columns, and walls. The most important feature of shell covers is that
they are light. Cover thickness can go down to 4 cm in shells.

● The material which is generally used and suitable for the construction of
the shell structure is concrete. Concrete is used because of its high
plasticity.
Types and Forms of Shell Structure

● The shell structures are categorized into various types which are as follows:

● Short Shell

● It is a cylindrical shell that has a considerably large radius in comparison with its length. Short shell consist of shell element
spans between arches, arch structure, and edge beams provided at the lowest point of the shell.

● Barrel Vaults

● The barrel vault is one of the commonly used shell structures because of its greater span capacity. These types of shell structures
have a span capacity of up to 50 m.

● Domes Shell

● Domes are basically hemisphere in shape. The domes are generally used as a roof structure. A dome is a space structure that
covers a circular area. Support element of domes include columns, circular or regular polygon shaped wall.
Types and Forms of Shell Structure

● Folded Plates

● The folded plate is a type of shell structure that is made from a thin flat slab. These types of structures are generally joined along
their edges to construct the three-dimensional structure. In this way the structural system is capable of carrying loads without the
need for additional supporting beams along mutual edges.
Types and Forms of Shell Structure

● Folded Plates

● Folded plate structures have an intrinsic rigidity and high load-carrying capacity which makes them economical over long spans
that need to be free of internal columns and other obstructions. The maximum length to which the folded plate can be
constructed is up to 30 meters with only 60mm thickness.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell Structure

● There are various advantages of shell structures which are as follows:

● Shell structures have very high stiffness.

● Shell structures are used to cover a large area.

● It is very simple in design and has more strength as compared to other types of structures.

● The dead load in the shell structure can be reduced by economizing the foundation and the overall support system.

● There are also some disadvantages of shell structures which are as follows:

● In the case of shell structures, it is not possible to construct a floor above them.

● The labor cost required for the construction of shell structures is more.
Tensile Structures

● A tensile structure is a structure that is stabilised by tension rather

than compression. The tension can be in one linear direction via
cables or rods, such as with a suspension bridge or in a number of
linear directions via the same such is found in tensegrity structural
systems.

● Typically, tensile structures use less material than conventional

compression structures and, as a result, are lighter and can span
larger distances.
Tensile Structures

● A tensile structure is most often used as a roof, as they can

economically and attractively span large distances. These type of
structure is commonly found in sports facilities, warehousing and
storage buildings, and exhibition venues.

● Their main characteristics are the way in which they work under
stress tensile, their ease of prefabrication, their ability to cover large
spans, and their malleability.

● The steel ropes used in this system should be galvanized against

rusting or coated with PVC in order not to lose its carrier power.
Types of Tensile Structures

● The classification of tensile structures are made on the plane in which the tensile forces are acting in the structure. On this basis,
the tensile structure are divided into following types:

● Linear Tensile Structures

● Linear tensile structures are the structure in which the all the member are in linear tensile forces. This linear members are
supported by the compression members , but the major loads are carried out by tensile members. Common example of these
structure is cable suspended bridges. The main pillars acts as compression members, but the whole load is carried out by the
cables which are in tension. Linear tensile structures are further classified into following types:

● Suspension bridges,
● Cable-stayed beams or trusses,
● Cable trusses,
● Straight tension cables.
Types of Tensile Structures

● Three-dimensional Tensile Structures

● Three-dimensional tensile structures, is a compilation of elements that are primarily in tension, with the compression being
transferred to a central mast and down into the ground. The most common occurrence of three-dimensional tension can be seen
at sports arenas and usually serve as roofs for these structures. Three-dimensional tensile structures are classified into following
types:

● 3D cable trusses,
● Tensegrity structures.
Types of Tensile Structures

● Tensegrity Structures

● The applications of tensegrity structures are employed in

both civil and architectural engineering mainly in
structures such as dome structures, towers, roofs of the
stadium, temporary structures as well as tents. Tensegrity
also called as tensional integrity or floating compression,
involving a structural principle for the creation of complex
systems which comprises of elements which are only in
compression or tension.
Types of Tensile Structures

● Tensegrity Structures

● In a detailed manner, it consists of strings which are in tension and bars that are in compression. Strings have the property of
being foldable, light but strong.

● A tensegrity system is established when a set of discontinuous compressive components interacts with a set of continuous tensile
components to define a stable volume in space.
Types of Tensile Structures

● Surface-Stressed Tensile Structures

● Surface-stressed tensile structures are same as other two types

tensile structure, but the surface members are tension bearing
members. Surface-stressed tensile structures are further classified
into following types:

● Fabric structure,
● Prestressed membranes,
● Pneumatically stressed membranes,
● Gridshell.
Types of Tensile Structures

● Pneumatic Structures

● The pneumatic structure is a membrane structure which is stabilized with the help of the compressed air. The pneumatic
structures are a very cost-effective type of buildings for the longer span.

● The pneumatic structures are generally made from the laminated membranes such as nylon, fibreglass polyester and silicon
rubber.
Types of Tensile Structures

● Pneumatic Structures

● The shape of the pneumatic structure is round because it creates a larger volume for less amount of material. The pneumatic
structure is a membrane which can carry the total load develop from the tensile stresses.

● There are two types of pneumatic structures:

● Air Supported Pneumatic Structures

● Air Inflated Pneumatic Structures
Space Frame Structures

● A space frame, also called a space structure, is a truss-like structure comprising of struts that are interconnected in a geometric
pattern that is both strong and lightweight.

● The system is designed to cover large openings and to continue the spaces without being interrupted by columns, and the
covering surface has a structural integrity.

● These systems are formed by the combination of different units (modules). The properties of basic units vary according to the
number of faces, number of edges and number of corners.
Space Frame Structures

● These structures are durable because of the triangle's intrinsic stiffness and the bending stresses transferred down the length of
each strut as tension and compression.

● The usage areas of space frame systems are quite wide. The areas where these systems are most used are industrial facilities,
aircraft hangars, sports halls, warehouses, factories, stadiums and opera houses.

● The openings through which space frame systems can be passed vary between 20 m and 120 m.
Types of Space Frames

● Depending on the curvature and how the elements are arranged, there are numerous kinds of space frames described below:

● Classification Based on Curvature

● Space Plane Covers: Spatial structures are mostly made up of planar substructures. The planes are channeled through the
horizontal bars, while the diagonals are responsible for supporting the shear forces.

● Barrel Vaults: The cross-section of barrel vaults resembles a simple arch, with tetrahedral modules or pyramids typically used
as a unit component.

● Spherical Domes: A spherical dome is constructed from an intricate network of steel sections. Typically uses tetrahedral
modules or pyramids with skin support.
Types of Space Frames

● Classification based on the Arrangements of Elements

● Single Layer Grid: They have a single layer of members, making them lighter and suitable for smaller to medium-sized spans.
These structures are commonly used in sports arenas, shopping malls, and convention centers.

● Double Layer Grid: Double-layer grids are space frames constructed with two layers of members, one above the other, creating
additional depth and strength. This type is ideal for large spans and can be seen in applications like airport terminals and
industrial warehouses.

● Triple Layer Grid: These are arranged in three parallel lines, with the diagonals connecting them. They are often flat and are
mainly used in buildings with larger spans.
Advantages of Space Frame Structures

● High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Space frames are lightweight compared to

traditional building materials like steel and concrete. Their high strength-to-
weight ratio allows them to span large distances with minimal material usage,
reducing construction costs and environmental impact.

● Open Interior Space: Space frame structures provide open and unobstructed
interior spaces with minimal support columns.
Advantages of Space Frame Structures

● Durability and Longevity: Space frame structures are known for their
durability and resistance to various environmental factors. They can
withstand harsh weather conditions, seismic activity, and heavy loads,
making them ideal for regions prone to natural disasters.

● Rapid Construction: Space frame structures are quick to assemble,

significantly reducing construction time. The prefabricated
components are easily transported to the construction site, where they
are assembled efficiently.