Coordination and response

The two systems are nervous and endocrine system. The nervous system deals with a rapid but short
lasting response whereas the endocrine system deals with slower responses.

The nervous system in mammals consists of

i. The central nervous system: consisting of the brain and the spinal cord, which has the function
of receiving information, integrating and processing it.
ii. The peripheral system: consisting of the cranial nerves from the brain, spinal nerves from the
spinal cord and the sense organs; the neurons of the peripheral nervous system link the central
nervous system with the body’s receptors and effectors.
Receptors
These are structures that contain the sensory cells that receive stimuli from the internal and external
environment and convert them into nerve impulses. E.g. include sense organs such as the eye, ear, the
skin, the nose and the tongue.

Effectors
These are structures that respond, directly or indirectly to a stimulus. There are only TWO EFFECTORS
ORGANS muscles and glands.

Nerve cells/neuorons

Draw and label the 3 main neurons and label them.

1. A sensory neuron (receptor neuron): carry electrical impulses from the sense organs or
receptors to the central nervous system.
2. Motor neuron (effector neuron): carry electrical impulses from the central nervous system to
the effectors.
3. Relay neuron (intermediate): are found within the central nervous system. Those found in the
spinal cord are known as relay neurons and those found in the brain are known as pyramid
neurons
Receptor, relay and effector neurons link together to form a reflex arc.

The four parts of a neuron

 The cell body containing a nucleus and many energy-providing mitochondria and protein making
ribosomes.
 One axon, leading to the nervous impulses from the cell body;
 One or more dendrons leading the impulse towards the cell body from a number of dendrites
 The axon terminals which relay the impulse to the next neurone.
A fatty myelin sheath usually surrounds the axon and dendrons in myelinated fibres but can be
absent from other nerve impulses.

A reflex action
A reflex is a very simple behavior pattern involving a rapid automatic response to a stimulus
which protect the body from harm. For example, if the hand is accidentally placed on a hot object,
it is rapidly pulled away. This is a reflex action. It is a form of protective behavior which the
body uses to prevent against damage. It is automatic, unlearned or inborn response to a stimulus.
It is an instinctive action.

Examples of reflex actions includes; knee jerk, pupil reflexes, eye lid reflex, accomodation, heat
reflexes etc.

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 The pathway involved in the reflex action is called the reflex arc.

The brain and the spinal cord

Human brain only weighs about 1.5 kilo grams. Contains more than 100 billion neurons.

Draw the diagram of the brain

The brain consists of four main regions;

The cerebrum (cerebral hemisphere): the largest portion of the brain, it is in the form of 2 matching
halves-known as cerebral hemispheres. They are responsible for
The coordination of the organs of the body
Controls voluntary actions
Receives sensations.
It sorts out, interpret and decide on action.
This is the area concerned with learning, cognition/reasoning, memory, personality, morals
and ethics.

The cerebellum: located inferior to the cerebrum and posterior to the brainstem; second largest part of
the brain, a motor area involved in coordination, maintenance of posture, instict and balance.

Medulla oblongata: contains nerve centers instrumental to the regulation and control of breathing,
swallowing, coughing, sneezing and vomiting. Other centers in the medulla regulate arterial blood
pressure, thereby exerting control over the circulation of blood. In short it is the control centre for
invountary actions such as heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, coughing and sneezing.

The hypothalamus: It serves as a relay center for all sensory impulses (except olfactory) being
transmitted to the sensory areas of the cortex. The hypothalamus is the control centre for

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 homeostasis/monitors change in the blood. This region is also the control centre for endocrine system
by the pituitary gland.

Spinal cord: extends from the medulla or the brain stem to a point near the ‘tail’. It is surrounded and
protected by meninges and vertebrae. It is a hollow tube. The grey matter in the spinal cord is located
inside and white mater outside. Its function is to transmit receptor and effector impulses to and
from the receptors and effectors, or relays receptor and effector impulses to and from the brain.

Question

What is likely to happen to an individual who has a damaged cerebellum?

THE EYE

Draw a diagram of the eye and label the following parts conjunctiva, cornea, iris, pupil, lens, aqueous
humour, ciliary muscles, suspensory ligaments, retina and blind spot, vitreous humour, sclera, optic
nerve.

Pupil : The pupil is the hole in the center of the iris that light passes through. The iris muscles control its
size.

Retina : The retina is the film of the eye. It converts light rays into electrical signals and sends them to
the brain through the optic nerve. It contains photoreceptor cells which convert light energy into nerve
impulses. The sides of the retina are responsible for our peripheral vision. The center area, called the
macula, is used for our fine central vision and color vision. The retina is where most the problems leading
to vision loss occur.

Iris: This is the colored part of the eye: brown, green, blue, etc. It is a ring of muscle fibers located behind
the cornea and in front of the lens. It contracts and expands opening and closing the pupil, in response to
the brightness of surrounding light (It regulates the amount of light entering the eye).

Lens: focus/bends light on the retina.

Conjunctiva: Protects the cornea. The conjunctiva is a thin, clear membrane covering the front of the eye
and inner eyelids
Cornea: The cornea is a clear, dome-shaped surface that covers the front of the eye. It is the first and
most powerful lens in the eye's optical system. To keep it transparent the cornea contains no blood
vessels.
Aqueous Humor: A water like fluid, produced by the ciliary body, it fills the front of the eye between the
lens and cornea and provides the cornea and lens with oxygen and nutrients.

Suspensory ligaments: holds the lens in position.

Ciliary body: secretes aqueous humour which helps maintain pressure of the eyeball. It also provides
nutrients to the lens and cornea.

Blind spot or optic disk: does not have photoreceptors cells. The optic disk is the spot on the retina
where the optic nerve leaves the eye. There are no sensory cells here, creating a blind spot. Each eye
covers for the blind spot of the other eye and the brain fills in the missing information.

Optic Nerve: Each optic nerve has about 1.2 million nerve fibers. This is the cable connecting the eye to
the brain. This is a seonsory nerve cell.

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Sclera: The sclera is the white, tough wall of the eye. It along with internal fluid pressure keeps the eye
shape and protects its delicate internal parts.

The pupil reflex and light control

To prevent damage to the light sensitive cells (cones and rods) found on the retina, the pupils always
adjust according to the amount of light available. The adjustment is controlled by the circular and cordial
muscles of the iris. These set of muscles exhibit some antagonistic action.
In dim light In bright light
Light sensitive cells in the retina detect the light Light sensitive cells in the retina detect the light
intensity. intensity.
Impulses are sent along the optic nerve to the brain Impulses are sent along the optic nerve to the brain
The brain returns impulses along a motor nerve cell The brain returns impulses along a motor nerve to the
to the radial muscles of the iris. circular muscles of the iris.
The radial muscles contract while the circular iris The circular iris muscles contract while the radial iris
muscles relax. muscles relax.
The diameter of the pupil increases, allowing more The diameter of the pupil (hole in the eye centre)
light to enter. decreases, allowing less light to enter, decreasing the
risk of damage to the retina.

Accommodation (focusing)

This is the ability of the eye to adjust its lens focusing power for distant and near objects. This is why the
lens has the ability to widen and narrow according to the distant of the object you’re looking at in order to
make the light ray hit the retina at the right spot. This is called accommodation. Light rays refracted from
close objects are diverging (spreading out), they need to be refracted inwards to be focused on the fovea.

Close objects

When you look at a close object, it takes some time till the vision becomes clear. This is because at first,
the light ray is not correctly refracted, so it hits the retina away from the fovea. The electrical impulses are
generated and sent to the brain which realises that the image is not clear. The brain then sends electrical

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impulses to the ciliary muscles making them contract. When the ciliary muscles contract the suspensory
ligaments become loose, this makes the lens become thicker and rounder for more refraction of the light
rays. Now the light rays are correctly refracted and hit the retina at the fovea, the image becomes clear.

Distant objects

For far visions it is the exact opposite. The rays reflected from far objects are almost parallel. Very little
refraction should be done. The brain sends electrical impulses to ciliary muscles making them relax, the
suspensory ligaments now tighten up and pull the lens which become narrow.

When viewing a near object When viewing a distant/far object

The circular ciliary muscles contract, reducing The circular ciliary muscles relax, increasing their
their circumference. circumference.

They reduce pull on the elastic suspensory The suspensory ligaments are pulled tight.
ligaments and make them to relax.

With less force on the lens, its elasticity allows it to The lens is stretched to become longer and thinner,
become wider-decreasing its focal length. increasing its focal length.

Rays from nearer objects produce a focused image Rays from the distant object are brought to focus
on the retina.light bends more. on the retina.light bends less.

Summary of accomodation

feature Close objects Distant objects

Ciliary muscles contract Relaxes

Suspensory ligaments Become loosen/ slacken Becomes tight

lens Lens becomes more thicker and Lens becomes more narrow/thin

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 rounder

Focal length Reduces Increases

light More light bent into the eye Less light is bent into the eye

Describe and explain how the eye changes its focus from a distant object to a near object.