ROBOT

The term “ROBOT” was derived from the Czech word “ROBOTA” (a Slavic language) meaning
“compulsory/forced labour”. The word "Robotics", was coined by the Russian-born, American scientist, Isaac
Asimov in 1940s. Robot was first used in 1921 in a play named Rossum‟s Universal Robots (R.U.R) by the
Czech novelist and play writer Karel Capek to describe a mechanical device that looks like a human but
lacking human sensibility that can perform only automatic mechanical operations.

 The American Robots Association (ARA) defined robot as “a multi-functional operator which can be
controlled by programs. It moves the materials, components, tools and other special apparatus through
control programs to finish a series of work”
 A White Paper on “Robotization of Industry, Business and Our Life” produced by the New Energy and
Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) in March 2014, define robots as “intelligent
mechanical systems equipped with the three component technologies of sensors, intelligence/control
systems and drive systems.”
 Robotics is an interdisciplinary sector of science and engineering dedicated to the design, construction
and use of robots.

Robot Categories/Types
Robots can be categorized using various criteria into Industrial robots, Humanoid robots, Turtle robots,
Medical/surgical robots, Robotics vehicles, Agricultural robots, Building robots, Military/army robots,
Autonomous Robots etc. Fig. 1 shows the International Federation of Robotics (IFR) classification of robots.

Fig.1: International Federation of Robotics (IFR) classification of robots

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 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS (IR)
These are robots that are generally used in the industrial environment for various purposes such as lifting very
heavy components or moving parts from one place to another etc. These are robots that look mostly like a
robotic arm, that is why, they are sometimes called robotic arm. Industrial robots are design to automate
production-related tasks.

 The International Organization for Standardization (IOS 8373) define industrial robot as: “An automatically
controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may
be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications.” This definition is also
supported by the International Federation of Robotics (IFR) and European Robotics Research Network
(EURON).
 Robotics Industry Association (RIA) define industrial robot as: “A re-programmable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed
motion for a variety of tasks”

The first industrial robot was Unimate which was invented in 1954 by the American engineer George Devol and
later developed by Unimation Inc., a company founded in 1956 by American Engineer Joseph Engelberger. By
1959, a prototype of the Unimate was introduced to General Motors Corporation die-casting factory in Trenton,
New Jersey. Today, there are industrial robots of different shapes and sizes for various applications.

Fig. 2: An industrial robot

Benefits of industrial robots
Robots have replaced human labour in the factory because of the following reasons:
1. Robots can carry out simple and repetitive work effectively than human beings.
2. Robots do not take rest and so they can work continuously for a longer period, thereby increasing
productivity in manufacturing.
3. Robots can be used in assembly work with high precision and accuracy in which the quality of products is
enhanced.
4. Robots can replace workers without laboring cost or salary.
5. Robots can achieve stable production rate as robots will not be late to work, resign, take a day off or strike.
6. Programs for controlling robots can be modified easily such that flexibility in manufacturing is increased.
7. Robots can work in unfavourable environments that will affect the health of workers such as high-
temperature environment like removing a part from a casting machine, welding, spraying, transportation of
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 chemicals etc.
8. Using robots may minimize the wasting of materials in manufacturing
9. Improved resilience to deal with production peaks and withstand systemic shocks such as COVID-19
10. Overall, industrial robots increase productivity and competitiveness. This is particularly important for small-
to-medium sized (SME) businesses that are the backbone of both developed and developing country
economies

Limitations of industrial robots

Despite the benefits offered by robots, there are also limitations as well, such as:
1. There are limitations in the senses of robots. It will be difficult for robots to accomplish tasks that
require a lot of observations like identifying different materials/colours.
2. Robots cannot do tasks which are too delicate, for instance, grinding of small gold jewelry and
making pottery etc.
3. The cost for setting up a robot for industrial use is very high. Medium scale and small-scale
enterprises may not be able to afford.
4. Compilation of the operational or control programs for robots is time consuming. Each degree of
freedom had to be tested repeatedly and the positions set accurately, this limitation makes robot to be
more suitable for use only in large scale production than in small scale production line.
5. The space required in factories using robots must be large enough for robots to work in order to avoid
accidents.

Applications of Industrial Robot

Industrial robot applications can be divided into:
o Material-handling applications: These applications involve the movement of materials or parts from one
location to another. Examples of such applications are e.g. pick and place operation, part placement,
palletizing and/or de-palletizing, machine loading and unloading etc.
o Processing Operations: These applications require the robot to manipulate a special processing tool. These
applications include spray painting, machining, deburring, polishing etc.
o Assembly Applications: The applications involve part-handling manipulations using special tools in
assembly operations. The applications include welding such as spot welding, arc welding (e.g. FCAW),
riveting, soldering etc.
o Inspection Operations: These are applications where the robot is used to manipulate a device or sensor to
perform product quality inspection. It requires the robot to position a workpart to an inspection device.

COMPONENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL ROBOT

There are five main components of a robotic arm.
1. Controller (Control Unit)
2. Manipulator (Body-and-Arm Assembly and Wrist Assembly/End-effector)
3. Power supply and Drives/actuators
4. Sensors (Sensory devices)

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The robot is typically mounted on a fixed or mobile base.

Fig. 3: Components of an industrial robot

CONTROLLER
The controller is the brain in the robot that provides the intelligence or control command which makes the robot
to perform the action/tasks required. It is a complex device consisting of multi-processor system connected to
other devices. The controller controls the motion of robot links and joints in a programmable manner.
Robot controllers are available in the form of microcontrollers, specialized controllers, computers, IPC
(Industrial Personal Computer), PLC (Programmable Logic Controller), PAC (Programmable Automation
Controller), etc. Robot controllers perform 3 types of functions:
 Control and Monitoring: The control initiates and terminates the motion of the manipulator in a desired
sequence and at specified points.
 Data storage: It stores position and sequence data in their memory.
 Interfacing: It permits the robot to be interfaced to the outside world via sensors. Sensors and actuators are
interfaced with the controller through hardware interfaces. Controllers can also have a user-interface for
programming or human inputs such as pendant.

Fig. 4: An industrial robot controller

MANIPULATOR
The manipulator/arm is the mechanical part of the robot that functions similarly to a human arm. Its purpose is
to move as required and provide reach in the workspace so that the robot can perform the required task. The
manipulator is made up of links/segments and joints/axes. The manipulator consists of 2 assemblies:
1. Body-and-Arm Assembly – for positioning of objects in the robot‟s work volume
2. Wrist Assembly – for orientation of the objects
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 Body-And-Arm Assembly
This is the main body of the robot. Its function is to position objects in the robot‟s work volume. To a large
extend, the physical construction of a robot arm resembles a human arm. It consists of links/segments and joints
for positioning and orienting the end of the manipulator relative to its base. The whole assembly is connected to
the body, which is usually mounted on a base.

Fig. 5: Robot body-and-arm assembly

Joints and Links in Industrial robots
The point where two segments/links are coupled is called a joint or axis. The joints are the movable
components of the robot that cause relative motion between adjacent links. The links are the rigid members
connected by the joints. The joint of an industrial robot is similar to that of the human body which provides
relative motion between the parts of the body. Each joint provides the robot with a Degree-Of-Freedom (DOF)
of motion (DOF is also called mobility). The DOF refers to the independent movement of the links (i.e., the
number of independent motions the robot can make). An axis represents a degree of freedom (DOF). In nearly
all cases, only one degree-of-freedom is associated with a joint.

Fig. 6: Example of Degree of Freedom (5 DOF, 2 rotary [Ɵ0 and Ɵ4] and 3 angular [Ɵ1, Ɵ2 and Ɵ3])

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Connected to each joint/axis are two links/segments called the input link and output link. Links are the rigid
components of the robot manipulator.

Fig. 7: Joints and links

As it can be seen from Fig. 7, the robot arm is usually mounted on a base. The base is connected through Link
0 to the first joint (Joint 1). Link 0 is the input link to Joint 1. The output link to Joint 1 is the Link 1. Link 1
is the input lint to Joint 2, whose output link is Link 2 and so forth.

Classification of Joints in Industrial robots

Nearly all industrial robots have 5 types of mechanical joints/axes:
A. Two (2) types that provide translational motion.
1. Linear joint (type L) or Prismatic joint (type P)
2. Orthogonal joint (type O or type U)
B. Three (3) types that provide rotary motion
3. Rotational joint (type R)
4. Twisting joint (type T)
5. Revolving joint (type V)

1. Linear Joint (type L) or Prismatic Joint (type P)

In this type of joint, the relative movement between the input link and the output link is a translational
sliding motion with the axes of the two links being parallel.

Fig. 8: L or P type joint

2. Orthogonal joint (type O or type U)
This type of joint also has a translational sliding motion, but the input link and output links are
perpendicular to each other during the move.

Fig. 9: O or U type joint

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 3. Rotational Joint (type R)
This type of joint provides rotational relative motion, with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes
of the input and output links

Fig. 10: R type joint

4. Twisting Joint (type T)
This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis of rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.

Fig. 11: T type joint

5. Revolving Joint (type V)
In this joint type, the axis of the input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint, and the axis of
the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation

Fig. 12: V type joint

Configurations/Types of the Robot Body-And-Arm Assembly

Based on the types of joints/axes, there are five (5) basic configurations of the robot arm assembly. These are:
1. Spherical or Polar configuration,
2. Cylindrical configuration,
3. Cartesian or Rectangular configuration,
4. Jointed-arm robot or Articulated or Anthropomorphic or Angular configuration,
5. SCARA (Selective Complains Assembly Robot Arm)

I. Spherical (Polar) Configuration

This configuration consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the body that can rotate about
the vertical axis (T joint) and horizontal axis (R joint)

Applications: Material handling, spot welding, machine loading

Fig. 13: Spherical robot

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 II. Cylindrical Configuration
This robot arm configuration consists of a vertical column, relative to which an arm assembly is moved
up and down. The arm can be moved in and out relative to the axis of the column. There is T joint to
rotate the column about its axis. An L joint is used to move the arm assembly vertically along the
column while an O joint is used to achieve radial movement of the arm.
Applications:
 Small robots are used for precision small assembly tasks.
 Large robots are used for material handling and machine loading/unloading tasks.

Fig. 14: Cylindrical robot

III. Cartesian (Rectangular) Configuration
This type is made up of three sliding joints, two of which are orthogonal. It is also called gantry or x-y-z
robot.
Applications: Precision assembly tasks, arc welding, gluing, material handling etc.

Fig. 15: Cartesian robot

IV. Jointed-arm or articulated Configuration
This robot manipulator has the general configuration of a human arm. The jointed-arm robot consists of
a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T joint. At the top of the column is a shoulder joint
(R joint) and the link connects to an elbow joint (R joint).
Applications: Welding, painting, sealing, deburring and material handling

Fig. 16: Articulated arm robot

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 V. SCARA (Selective Compliant Assembly Robot Arm)
This configuration is similar to the jointed-arm robot except that the shoulder and elbow rotational axes
are vertical, which means that the arm is very rigid in the vertical direction but compliant in the
horizontal direction.
Applications: Used for precision, high-speed and light assembly tasks.

Fig. 17: SCARA robot

Wrist Assembly
The wrist assembly consists of the wrist and the end-effector. The wrist assembly is used for orientation of the
objects in the robot work volume.

1. Wrist: A wrist is attached to the robot arm. To facilitate gripping or handling, a tool is attached at the end of
the wrist, this tool is called an end-effector. The wrist is connected to the end of the arm to orient the end-
effector in the workspace, i.e. the robot wrist is used to establish the orientation of the end effector.

2. End Effector: The end-effector is a device or tool specifically designed for attachment to the robot wrist or
tool mounting plate to enable the robot perform its intended task. It is connected to the last joint (wrist) of
the manipulator. The end-effector is one of the most important and complex parts of industrial robots.
Examples of end-effectors include gripper, spot-weld gun, arc-weld gun, spray- paint gun, or any other
application tools.

Types of end-effectors
The two categories of end effectors use in robot applications are:
• Grippers.
• Tools.

A. Grippers are end effectors used to grasp and manipulate objects during the work cycle. Examples of
Grippers are mechanical grippers, electromagnetic grippers, adhesive grippers, suction cups or vacuum
cups, hooks, scoops (to carry fluids) etc.

Fig 18: Grippers

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 B. Tools are used in applications where the robot must perform some processing operations. Examples of
the tools are: Spot welding gun, Arc welding tool, Spray painting gun, Rotating spindle for drilling,
grinding, Assembly tool (e.g. automatic screw driver), Heating torch etc.

Fig 19: Spot welding tool and spraying gun

POWER SUPPLY and ACTUATORS

Robots require a reliable power source to operate their components including motors, actuators, sensors and
control systems. The most common source of energy to power industrial robot is electricity, but hydraulic and
pneumatic energy may also be used. The actuator is the component in the robot that functions as the driver of
the robot joints/axes, which allows a robot to move the arm up and down or rotate and it converts energy into
mechanical motions. The actuators are required to move the links/segments about joints/axis of the robot. The
types of actuators in industrial robots include electric, pneumatic, hydraulic actuators etc. But the electrical
actuators are the commonly used actuators. They are available in different types such as brushless DC, stepper,
DC servo and reversible AC servo motors.

SENSORS
For the robot to operate effectively in a changing environment, it must be equipped with sensors. Sensors are
used by the robot to communicate with the outside environment. Two types of sensors are used in building
industrial robots, tactile and non-tactile sensors.
o Tactile sensors make physical contact for sensing, generating analog or digital signals in proportion to the
measure of the desired physical quantity. Tactile sensors include force, torque, pressure, touch, and position
sensors.
o The non-tactile sensors make no physical contact for sensing but use a magnetic field, radio waves, or
ultrasonic sound waves. Non-tactile sensors include proximity, imaging, range imaging, and optical
sensors.

Example of sensors used in industrial robots

Sense Sensor Signals to be detected

Hearing Microphones Sound
Touch Thermometer and contact tip Heat, weight, pressure, shapes, dimensions, positions etc.
Smell Gas or or smell detectors Smell
Vision Light dependent resistors Light

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 BASIC ROBOT MOTIONS
There are six (6) basic motions or Degrees of Freedom (DoF), which provide the robot with the capability to
move the end effector through the required sequences of motions to perform a useful task. The six basic
motions as shown in Fig.20 below consist of:

1. Three (3) arm and body motions

2. Three (3) wrist motions.

Arm and Body Motions

 Vertical traverse: This is the up and down motion of the arm. It is done by pivoting the entire arm about
a horizontal axis or moving the arm along a vertical slide.
 Radial traverse: This is the in and out movement of the arm, i.e. extension and retraction of the arm
 Rotational traverse: This is the rotation of the arm about the vertical axis, i.e. right or left swivel of the
robot arm.

Wrist Motion
 Wrist swivel: This is the rotation of the wrist. It uses a T joint to accomplish rotation about the robot‟s
arm axis.
 Wrist bend or Pitch: This is the up or down movement of the wrist. It involves rotational movement
using typically an R joint
 Wrist yaw: This is the right or left swivel of the wrist. It is also accomplished by means of an R Joint.

Fig. 20: Basic robot motions or Degrees of Freedom (DoF) of a robot

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 ROBOT MOTION CONTROL SYSTEM
 Point-to-point (PTP) control robot: is capable of moving from one point to another point. The locations are
recorded in the control memory. PTP robots do not control the path to get from one point to the next point.
Common applications include spot welding, drilling, machine loading and unloading etc.
 Continuous-path (CP) control robot: with CP control, the robot can stop at any specified point along the
controlled path. All the points along the path must be stored explicitly in the robot‟s control memory.
Typical applications include spray painting, finishing, gluing, arc welding etc.
 Controlled-path robot: the control equipment can generate paths of different geometry such as straight lines,
circles, and interpolated curves with a high degree of accuracy. All controlled-path robots have a servo
capability to correct their path.

ROBOT CHARACTERISTICS
The precision with which the robot can move the end of its wrist is a critical consideration in most applications.
In robotics, precision of movement consists of the following attributes/characteristics:
 Control resolution
 Accuracy
 Repeatability/variability
 Payload
 Reach

1. Control Resolution - This is the smallest change that can be measured by the feedback sensors, or caused
by the actuators, whichever is larger. If a rotary joint has an encoder that measures every 0.01 degree of
rotation, and a direct drive servo motor is used to drive the joint, with a resolution of 0.5 degrees, then
the control resolution is about 0.5 degrees (the worst case can be 0.5+0.01).

2. Accuracy - This is determined by the resolution of the workspace. If the robot is commanded to travel to
a point in space, it will often be off by some amount, the maximum distance should be considered the
accuracy.

3. Repeatability - The robot mechanism will have some natural variance in it. This means that when the
robot is repeatedly instructed to return to the same point, it will not always stop at the same position.

4. Payload: A robot‟s payload capacity refers to the amount of mass its wrist can support. Payload is
expressed as a weight unit, with most robot manufacturers using kilograms (kg). Industrial robots are
available in a wide range of payloads from as light as 0.5 kg to as heavy as over 1000 kg. Robot payload
is one of the most important parameters to consider when selecting an industrial robot.

5. Reach: Robot reach is referred to as the „work envelope or workspace‟. The work envelope is the spatial
specification of a robot, which is defined by its swept area, reach and stroke. The work envelope's
essential part is the space the robot can access. The size of the work envelope depends on the type of
robotic arm (Cartesian, polar, SCARA, etc.) and the length of its linkages. The parameters of the work
envelope are important for machine loading and unloading applications. Figure 20 below shows some
work envelopes, a Cartesian robot works within a „cube‟ work envelope. Cylindrical robots have a
„cylinder‟ work envelope. Polar and Jointed- arm robots have „spheres‟ work envelope. The work
envelope determines the best application to the robot. When choosing or design a robot for a task, the
shape and size of work envelope must be defined

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 Fig. 20: Robot Reach or Robot work envelope

ROBOT WORK CELL

A robot work cell or work station is a complete system that includes the robot, controller, and other peripherals
such as a part positioned and safety environment. A robot and its associated equipment form the basic robot
work cell

Layouts of Robot Work Cell

Robot work cells can be organized into various arrangements or layouts. These layouts are classified into three
basic types:
1. Robot-centered cell
2. In-line robot cell
3. Mobile robot cell

1. Robot-Centered Work Cell: In the robot-centered cell, illustrated in Fig. 21, the robot is located at the
center of the cell and the equipment is arranged in a circle around it. For example, a case where one robot
performs a single operation, either servicing a single production machine, or performing a single production
operation. An application of the robot-centered cell in which the robot performs the process is arc welding.

Fig.21: Robot Centred Work Cell Layout

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2. In-Line Robot Cell: With the in-line cell arrangement, shown in Fig 22, the robot is located along a moving
conveyor or other handling system and performs a task on the product as it travels past on the conveyor.
Many of the in-line cell layouts involve more than a single robot placed along the moving line. A common
example of this cell type is found in car body assembly plants in the automobile industry. Robots are
positioned along the assembly line to spot, and weld the car body frames and panels.

Fig.22: In-line Robot Work Cell Layout

3. Mobile Robot Cells: This robot cell is capable of moving to the various pieces of equipment within the cell.
This is typically accomplished by mounting the robot on a mobile base which can be transported on a rail
system. The rail systems used in robot cells are either tracks fastened to the floor (track-on-floor system) or
overhead rail systems. Fig. 23 illustrates the concept of overhead rail system mobile robot cell

Fig.23: Overhead rail system mobile robot cell

SELECTION OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

The important parameters to consider when selecting an industrial robot are:
1. Size of the robot working envelope or workspace
2. Precision of movement i.e. control resolution, accuracy and repeatability
3. Lifting capability
4. Number of robot axes
5. Speed of movement (maximum speed, acceleration/deceleration time)
6. Motion control (path control and velocity control)
7. Types of drive system (hydraulic, electric or pneumatic)
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 INDUSTRIAL ROBOT MANUFACTURERS/PRODUCERS

1. ABB
2. The Yaskawa Electric Corporation
3. Midea Group (KUKA)
4. The Fanuc Corporation
5. Kawasaki Heavy Industries
6. Epson Robotics
7. Stäubli Robotics
8. Nachi Fujikoshi Corporation
9. Denso Robotics
10. Omron Adept
11. Mitsubishi Robotics
12. Fox Conn
13. Universal Robotics
14. Techman Robotics
15. Rethink Robotics
16. Bosch

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