VII- SEM/IV B.E. CSBS Prepared By: R.

Reshma/AP/CSE

CS8081 - INTERNET OF THINGS

LECTURE NOTES
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF IoT 9
Evolution of Internet of Things - Enabling Technologies – IoT Architectures: oneM2M, IoT World Forum (IoTWF) and
Alternative IoT models – Simplified IoT Architecture and Core IoT Functional Stack -– Fog, Edge and Cloud in IoT –
Functional blocks of an IoT ecosystem – Sensors, Actuators, Smart Objects and Connecting Smart Objects

EVOLUTION OF INTERNET OF THINGS

The Internet of Things (IoT) is an ecosystem of connected devices that exchanges data over a wired or wireless network.
These devices could be smartphones, laptops, smart electric appliances, smart office equipment, or any device tagged with
sensors. Data generated by these devices is then shared with servers located in the cloud or on-premise, where it is processed
to gain insights that help in making decisions. The IoT ecosystem can be established within small areas like our homes or
office and over larger areas like gated communities, university campuses, and cities. Smart devices connecting with each
other are ubiquitous in our lives. As an individual user or business owner providing IoT-related products and services, it
makes sense to understand the evolution of IoT. Knowledge of the past equips us to foresee the future and use any technology
to our advantage.

IoT Ecosystem
The Internet of Things (IoT) has evolved significantly since its inception, transforming the way we interact with technology
and the world around us. Here is a summary of the key stages in the evolution of IoT:
❖ Early Conceptualization (Pre-2000s):
• The concept of connecting devices and objects to the internet was discussed in academic and research circles.
• The term "Internet of Things" was coined by Kevin Ashton in 1999, referring to the idea of connecting physical
objects to the internet.
❖ Connectivity and Standardization (Early 2000s):
• Advancements in wireless communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, facilitated device
connectivity.
• Standardization efforts emerged to establish protocols and communication standards for IoT devices.

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• The first wave of connected devices focused on industrial applications, such as smart grids and industrial
automation.
❖ Expansion of Applications (Mid-2000s to Early 2010s):
• IoT started to gain broader attention as the technology became more accessible and affordable.
• Applications expanded to include areas like home automation, smart cities, agriculture, healthcare, and
transportation.
• The development of low-power wireless technologies, such as Zigbee and Z-Wave, enabled efficient connectivity
for battery-operated devices.
❖ Big Data and Cloud Integration (Mid-2010s):
• The proliferation of IoT devices led to the generation of vast amounts of data.
• Cloud computing emerged as a key enabler for storing, processing, and analyzing IoT-generated data.
• Data analytics and machine learning techniques were applied to extract valuable insights from IoT data.
❖ Edge Computing and Real-Time Analytics (Late 2010s to Present):
• Edge computing gained prominence as a solution to process and analyze IoT data closer to the source.
• Edge devices and gateways equipped with processing capabilities enable real-time analytics, reducing latency and
bandwidth requirements.
• This approach is particularly valuable for applications where low latency and quick response times are critical, such
as autonomous vehicles and industrial automation.
❖ Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (Present and Future):
• The integration of IoT with artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) technologies has opened new
possibilities.
• AI and ML algorithms enable advanced data analytics, predictive maintenance, anomaly detection, and intelligent
decision-making in IoT systems.
• The combination of IoT, AI, and ML is driving the development of smart homes, smart healthcare, autonomous
systems, and more.
❖ Interoperability and Security Challenges (Ongoing Focus):
• Interoperability and standardization remain significant challenges in the IoT ecosystem.
• Efforts are being made to establish common protocols and frameworks to ensure seamless connectivity and data
exchange between diverse IoT devices.
• Security and privacy concerns have also gained attention, with efforts focused on improving device security, data
encryption, and user privacy protections.
As technology continues to advance, we can expect further innovation and expansion of IoT applications, driven by
developments in areas like 5G connectivity, edge computing, AI, and increased focus on security and privacy. The future of
IoT holds the potential for a more connected, intelligent, and efficient world.

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Characteristics of the Internet of Things

The Internet of Things (IoT) is characterized by the following key features that are mentioned below.

1. Connectivity
Connectivity is an important requirement of the IoT infrastructure. Things of IoT should be connected to the IoT
infrastructure. Anyone, anywhere, anytime can connect, this should be guaranteed at all times. For example, the connection
between people through Internet devices like mobile phones, and other gadgets, also a connection between Internet devices
such as routers, gateways, sensors, etc.
2. Intelligence and Identity
The extraction of knowledge from the generated data is very important. For example, a sensor generates data, but that data
will only be useful if it is interpreted properly. Each IoT device has a unique identity. This identification is helpful in tracking
the equipment and at times for querying its status.
3. Scalability
The number of elements connected to the IoT zone is increasing day by day. Hence, an IoT setup should be capable of
handling the massive expansion. The data generated as an outcome is enormous, and it should be handled appropriately.
4. Dynamic and Self-Adapting (Complexity)
IoT devices should dynamically adapt themselves to changing contexts and scenarios. Assume a camera meant for
surveillance. It should be adaptable to work in different conditions and different light situations (morning, afternoon, and
night).
5. Architecture
IoT Architecture cannot be homogeneous in nature. It should be hybrid, supporting different manufacturers ‘ products to
function in the IoT network. IoT is not owned by anyone engineering branch. IoT is a reality when multiple domains come
together.
6. Safety
There is a danger of the sensitive personal details of the users getting compromised when all his/her devices are connected
to the internet. This can cause a loss to the user. Hence, data security is the major challenge. Besides, the equipment involved
is huge. IoT networks may also be at risk. Therefore, equipment safety is also critical.
7. Self-Configuring
This is one of the most important characteristics of IoT. IoT devices are able to upgrade their software in accordance with
requirements with a minimum of user participation. Additionally, they can set up the network, allowing for the addition of
new devices to an already-existing network.
8. Interoperability
IoT devices use standardized protocols and technologies to ensure they can communicate with each other and other systems.
Interoperability is one of the key characteristics of the Internet of Things (IoT). It refers to the ability of different IoT devices
and systems to communicate and exchange data with each other, regardless of the underlying technology or manufacturer.
Interoperability is critical for the success of IoT, as it enables different devices and systems to work together seamlessly and
provides a seamless user experience. Without interoperability, IoT systems would be limited to individual silos of data and
devices, making it difficult to share information and create new services and applications. To achieve interoperability, IoT
devices, and systems use standardized communication protocols and data formats. These standards allow different devices
to understand and process data in a consistent and reliable manner, enabling data to be exchanged between devices and
systems regardless of the technology used.

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Major Components of IoT Ecosystem

1. Sensors/ Devices
The foremost component to consider in Internet of Things technology is sensor/devices. A sensor picks up all the minute
details from an environment. The environment can have many complexities. What makes IoT security so great is these
sensors that pick up even the most sensitive changes. These sensors are built in the devices which collect all the data to be
used later. For instance, our phone is a device with built-in sensors like GPS, camera, etc.
2. Connectivity
Once the data is collected it is transferred to the cloud infrastructure (also known as IoT platforms). But to transfer the data,
the devices will need a medium. That’s when connections like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, WAN, cellular networks, etc come into
play. These mediums are all different and must be chosen wisely for best results.
The effectiveness of IoT security highly depends on the speed and availability of these mediums.
3. Data Processing
After reaching the cloud infrastructure the data has to be analysed so that the right action can be taken. This process is
however considered one of the most crucial obstacles in front of IoT app development. The analysis can be as simple as
checking the temperature of the AC or a complex one such as a situation where an intruder comes in and the device has to
identify it through cameras. The IoT application is made such that it can process all the data at a fast rate to take immediate
actions.
4. User Interface
The last step is when the user is notified about the action with the help of a notification or an alert sound sent to the IoT
mobile apps. This way the user will know that his command has been run through the systems.

However, this isn’t as easy as it seems. It all depends on what is IoT technology and how it has been developed. It becomes
crucial for Internet of Things (IoT) app development companies to develop a system that can also be manually adjusted. In
a situation where the temperature of the fridge is not cold enough to freeze ice cubes, users should be able to do that manually
without the system backfiring.

IoT Working Principle

IoT devices share the sensor data they collect by connecting to an IoT gateway or other edge device where data is either
sent to the cloud to be analyzed or analyzed locally. Sometimes, these devices communicate with other related devices and
act on the information they get from one another.

Operating principle of IoT devices or smart objects.

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What are the pros and cons of IoT?

Some of the advantages of IoT include the following:
• ability to access information from anywhere at any time on any device;
• improved communication between connected electronic devices;
• transferring data packets over a connected network saving time and money; and
• automating tasks helping to improve the quality of a business's services and reducing the need for human
intervention.
Some disadvantages of IoT include the following:
• As the number of connected devices increases and more information is shared between devices, the potential that a
hacker could steal confidential information also increases.
• Enterprises may eventually have to deal with massive numbers -- maybe even millions -- of IoT devices, and
collecting and managing the data from all those devices will be challenging.
• If there's a bug in the system, it's likely that every connected device will become corrupted.
• Since there's no international standard of compatibility for IoT, it's difficult for devices from different manufacturers
to communicate with each other.

ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are
1. Wireless Sensor Network
2. Cloud Computing
3. Big Data Analytics
4. Communications Protocols
5. Embedded System
1. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN):
A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor the environmental and physical conditions.
A wireless sensor network consists of end nodes, routers and coordinators. End nodes have several sensors attached to them
where the data is passed to a coordinator with the help of routers. The coordinator also acts as the gateway that connects
WSN to the internet.

IoT Network
Example –
• Weather monitoring system
• Indoor air quality monitoring system
• Soil moisture monitoring system
• Surveillance system
• Health monitoring system

2. Cloud Computing:

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It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the internet. Cloud means something which
is present in remote locations. With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases, web
servers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
Characteristics –

• On demand: The resources in the cloud are available based on the traffic. If the incoming traffic increases, the cloud
resources scale up accordingly and when the traffic decreases, the cloud resources scale down accordingly.
• Autonomic: The resource provisioning in the cloud happens with very less to no human intervention. The resources
scale up and scale down automatically.
• Scalable: The cloud resources scale up and scale down based on the demand or traffic. This property of cloud is also
known as elasticity.
• Pay-per-use: On contrary to traditional billing, the cloud resources are billed on pay-per-use basis. You have to pay only
for the resources and time for which you are using those resources.
• Ubiquitous: You can access the cloud resources from anywhere in the world from any device. All that is needed is
Internet. Using Internet you can access your files, databases and other resources in the cloud from anywhere.

Cloud computing offers three basic service models using which users can subscribe to cloud resources. These service models
are:
• Infrastructure-As-A-Service (IAAS)
• Platform-As-A-Service (PAAS)
• Software-As-A-Service (SAAS)
These three service models can be illustrated as shown below. IAAS model provides the core infrastructure to companies
for building their own applications. This core infrastructure includes servers, storage, networking, etc. PAAS model offers
development runtimes for the users to build and deploy their application. SAAS model offers already developed and
deployed applications for the users to use.
Cloud computing supports four basic deployment models. These models differ in the way how the cloud is built and who
are using the resources in the cloud. The four cloud deployment models are:
• Public cloud
• Private cloud
• Community cloud
• Hybrid cloud

3. Big Data Analytics:

Big Data analytics is the process of collecting, organizing and analyzing large sets of data (called Big Data) to discover
patterns and other useful information. Big Data analytics can help organizations to better understand the information
contained within the data and will also help identify the data that is most important to the business and future business
decisions. Analysts working with Big Data typically want the knowledge that comes from analyzing the data.

Some examples of big data generated by IoT systems are described as follows:
• Sensor data generated by IoT system such as weather monitoring stations.
• Machine sensor data collected from sensors embedded in industrial and energy systems for monitoring their health
• and detecting Failures.
• Health and fitness data generated by IoT devices such as wearable fitness bands
• Data generated by ioT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
• Data generated by retail inventory monitoring systems

BigData is often characterized by six Vs. They are:

• Volume: Refers to the huge volume of data aggregated from various sources.
• Variety: Refers to different types of data. Data can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
• Velocity: Refers to the speed at which the data is generated. Now-a-days the amount of data available on the Internet
per minute is several peta bytes or even more.

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• Veracity: Refers to the degree to which the data can be trusted. If the data collected is incorrect or has manipulated for
wrong values, the analysis of such data is useless.
• Value: Refers to the business value of the collected. Even though we have huge amount of data, but it is not useful for
gaining profits in the business, such data is useless.
• Variability: Refers to the ways in which the big data can be used and formatted.

The data analytics framework consists of six steps namely: collection, cleaning, integration, analysis, visualization and
alerting. These six steps can be summarized as shown in the below figure.

Big Data Analysis Framework

4. Communication Protocols
Communications protocols form the backbone for IoT systems. They allow devices to communicate with each other.
Protocols define the data exchange formats, data encoding and addressing schemes for devices. Protocols also provide flow
control, error control, and other functions. A group of protocols designed to work together are known as a protocol suite;
when implemented in software they are a protocol stack.

Internet communication protocols are published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The IEEE handles wired
and wireless networking, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) handles other types. The ITU-T
handles telecommunication protocols and formats for the public switched telephone network (PSTN). As the PSTN and
Internet converge, the standards are also being driven towards convergence. In IoT we used MQTT, COAP, AMQP etc.
protocols

5. Embedded Systems
Embedded system can be imagined as computing hardware with software embedded in it. An embedded system can be an
independent system or it can be a part of another larger system. An embedded system is a microcontroller or microprocessor
based system which is designed to perform a specific task.

The key components include microcontroller/micrprocessor, memory, networking units, I/O, and storage. It runs Real-Time
Operating Systems (RTOS).
An embedded system has three components. They are:
• Hardware
• Software
• Real Time Operating system (RTOS) that supervises the application software and provide mechanism to let the
processor run a process as per schedule by following a plan to control the latencies

The characteristics of an embedded system are:

• Single-functioned
• Tightly constrained
• Reactive and Real time
• Memory

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• Connected

IoT ARCHITECTURES
• OneM2M
• IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardized Architecture
• Simplified IoT architecture

The essence of IoT architectures involves how the data is transported, collected, analyzed, and ultimately acted upon. The
challenges and requirements of IoT systems have driven a whole new discipline of network architecture. In the past several
years, architectural standards and frameworks have emerged to address the challenge of designing massive-scale IoT
networks.

OneM2M Architecture

In effort to standardize the rapidly growing field of machine to machine (M2M) communications, the European
telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) created the M2M Technical committee in 2008. The goal of this committee
was to create a common architecture that would help accelerate the adoption of M2M applications and devices. Over the
time, the scope has expanded to include the Internet of Things. Recognizing this need, in 2012 ETSI and 13 other founding
members launched one M2M as a global initiative designed to promote efficient M2M communication systems and IoT.

OneM2M is similar to a distributed Operating System for the Internet of Things. It takes the form of a middleware service
layer consisting of a suite of common service functions (CSFs). The middleware service layer sits between applications and
connectivity transport. oneM2M's common service functions (CSFs) are exposed to applications and to IoT devices via
RESTful APIs. A oneM2M service layer and/or applications can reside in field devices and sensors, on gateways and in
back-end or cloud applications. This supports cooperative intelligence in distributed IoT systems.

The one M2M architecture divides IoT functions into three major domains: the application layer, the services layer and the
network layer. While this architecture may seem simple and somewhat generic at first glance, it is very rich and promotes
interoperability through IT-friendly APIs and supports a wide range of IoT technologies. Let's examine each of these
domains in turn:

Applications Layer: The one M2M architecture gives major attention to connectivity between devices and their
applications. This domain includes the application layer protocols and attempts to standardize northbound API definitions
for interaction with Business Intelligence (BI) Systems. Applications tend to be industry specific and have their own sets of
data models and thus they are shown as vertical entities.
Services Layer: This layer is shown as a horizontal framework across the vertical industry applications. At this layer,
horizontal modules include the physical network that the IoT applications run on, the underlying management protocols,
and the hardware. Examples include backhaul communications via cellular, MPLS (Multiprotocol label switching)

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networks, VPNs and so on. Riding on top is the common services layer. This conceptual layer adds APIs and middleware
supporting third party services and applications.
Network Layer: This is the communication domain for the IoT devices and endpoints. It includes the devices themselves
and the communication network that links them. Embodiments of this communication infrastructure includes wireless mesh
technologies and wireless point to multipoint systems.

OneM2M Services

In many cases, the smart (and sometimes not so smart) devices communicate with each other. In other cases, machine-to-
machine communication is not necessary, and the devices communicate through a field area network (FAN) to use case
specific apps in the IoT application domain. Therefore, the device domain also includes the gateway device, which provides
communications up into the core network and acts as a demarcation point between the device and network domains.
oneM2M’s Service Layer is typically implemented as a software layer. It sits between IoT applications and processing or
communication hardware corresponding to the connectivity layer. Data storage, processing and transport in the connectivity
layer normally rides on top of IP. However, oneM2M also supports non-IP transports via interworking proxies.

The oneM2M Service Layer provides commonly needed functions for IoT applications. To date, oneM2M specifications
cover fourteen such functions. Developers can use these functions progressively for their applications, beginning with the
most frequently required ones such as device management, registration and security.

Functional Architecture
oneM2M standards comprise a horizontal architecture in the form of a three-layer model comprising applications,
middleware services and networks.

Functional Architecture of OneM2M

The oneM2M functional architecture comprises the following entities:

▪ Application Entity (AE): The Application Entity is an entity in the application layer that implements application
service logic. Examples of AEs include an instance of a fleet tracking application, a remote blood sugar measuring
application, a power metering application or a pump controlling application. Each application service logic can be
resident in a number of nodes and/or more than once on a single node. Each execution instance of an application
service logic is termed an "Application Entity" (AE) and is identified with a unique AE-ID.
▪ Common Services Entity (CSE): A Common Services Entity represents an instantiation of a set of "common
service functions" of the oneM2M Service Layer. A CSE is actually the entity that contains the collection of

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oneM2M-specified common service functions that AEs are able to use. Examples of service functions offered by a
CSE include: data storage & sharing with access control and authorization, event detection and notification, group
communication, scheduling of data exchanges, device management, and location services. Each CSE is identified
with a unique CSE-ID.
▪ Underlying Network Services Entity (NSE): A Network Services Entity provides services from the underlying
network to the CSEs. Examples of such services include location services, device triggering, certain sleep modes
like PSM in 3GPP based networks or long sleep cycles.
Application Entities (AEs) are hosted on nodes (e.g., enterprise server, device). These nodes may be virtualized or physical
instances. AEs communicate with each other by sending requests to a Common Service Entity (CSE) that, in turn routes the
request to the target AE while providing services based on the request. CSEs are hosted on virtualized or physical nodes.
An AE and a CSE can share the same node (e.g., device). It is possible to enable bi-directional communications between
oneM2M and non-oneM2M systems via an IPE (Interworking Proxy Entity). This is a specialized AE (Application Entity)
that allows the oneM2M system to interact with any non-oneM2M system, in a seamless way, through the MCA interface.
It relies on the capability to remap non-oneM2M data models to oneM2M resources (<AE>, <container>, <flexContainer>,
etc.).

OneM2M Nodes
oneM2M has defined a set of Nodes that are logical entities identifiable in the oneM2M System. oneM2M Nodes typically
contain CSEs and/or AEs. For the definition of Node types, oneM2M distinguishes between Nodes in the “Field Domain”
– i.e. the domain in which sensors / actuators / aggregators / gateways are deployed – and the “Infrastructure Domain” – i.e.
the domain in which servers and applications on larger computers reside.
Nodes can be of the following types:
▪ Application Service Node (ASN): a Node that contains one CSE and contains at least one Application Entity (AE),
located in the Field Domain. An ASN could be implemented on a range of different devices ranging from resource
constrained devices up to more powerful hardware. Examples of devices that could be represented by ASNs include
data collection devices, more capable sensors and actuators including simple server functions.
▪ Application Dedicated Node (ADN): a Node that contains at least one AE and does not contain a CSE. It is located
in the Field Domain. An ADN would typically be implemented on a resource constrained device that may not have
access to ample storage or processing resources and – therefore – may be limited to only host a oneM2M AE and
not a CSE. Examples for devices that could be represented by ADNs include simple sensor or actuator devices.
▪ Middle Node (MN): a Node that contains one CSE and could also contain AEs. MNs are located in the Field
Domain. There could be several MNs in the Field Domain of the oneM2M System. Typically an MN would reside
in an M2M Gateway. MNs would be used to establish a logical tree structure of oneM2M nodes, e.g. to
hierarchically aggregate data of buildings / neighborhoods / cities / counties / states etc.
▪ Infrastructure Node (IN): a Node that contains one CSE and could also contain AEs. There is exactly one IN in
the Infrastructure Domain per oneM2M Service Provider.
▪ Non-oneM2M Node (NoDN): A Node that does not contain oneM2M Entities (neither AEs nor CSEs). Typically
such Nodes would host some non-oneM2M IoT implementations or legacy technology which can be connected to
the oneM2M system via interworking proxies.

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Node Topology

OneM2M Reference Points

The oneM2M functional architecture defines the following reference points:
▪ Mca: Reference point for the communication flows between an Application Entity (AE) and a Common Services
Entity (CSE). These flows enable the AE to use the services supported by the CSE, and for the CSE to communicate
with the AE. The AE and the CSE may or may not be co-located within the same Node.
▪ Mcc: Reference point for the communication flows between two Common Services Entities (CSEs). These flows
enable a CSE to use the services supported by another CSE.
▪ Mcn: Reference point for the communication flows between a Common Services Entity (CSE) and the Network
Services Entity (NSE). These flows enable a CSE to use the supported services provided by the NSE. While the
oneM2M Service Layer is, usually independent of the underlying network – as long as it supports IP transport – it
leverages specific M2M/IoT optimization such as 3GPP’s eMTC features (e.g. device triggering, power saving
mode, long sleep cycles, etc).
▪ Mcc’: Reference point for the communication flows between two Common Services Entities (CSEs) in
Infrastructure Nodes (IN) that are oneM2M compliant and that reside in different M2M Service Provider domains.

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Common Service Functions (CSFs)

oneM2M defines a set of common service functions that apply to all the IoT domains. Think of these functions as items in
a large toolbox to solve a number of IoT problems across many different domains. For example, a screwdriver can be used
to fasten screws in a car as well as in a plane. In the same way, oneM2M CSFs, such as device management or security, are
applicable to different IoT use cases and across different industry domains.

OneM2M members analysed a large number of IoT use cases to identify a set of common requirements in the initial phase
of standardisation. This process resulted in the design of a set of Common Service Functions. Furthermore, oneM2M
standardized how these functions are executed, i.e. it defined uniform APIs to access these functions.

CSFs are general purpose services and are not specific to any IoT domain in particular. This enables each domain to build
on top of this service layer and focus on its specific industrial needs. This is similar to functions of a generic operating
system (OS) exposed to applications running on that OS. For instance, many applications read and write to files. File I/O is
typically provided by the OS. oneM2M’s Service Layer provides similar functions in a generic way to many different IoT
Applications. The common services functions reside within a CSE They provide services to the AEs via the Mca reference
point and to other CSEs via the Mcc reference point.

IoTWF Standardized Architecture

While various IoT reference models exist, the one put forth by the IoT World Forum offers a clean, simplified perspective
on IoT and includes edge computing, data storage, and access. It provides a succinct way of visualizing IoT from a technical
perspective. Each of the seven layers is broken down into specific functions, and security encompasses the entire model.

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Using this reference model, we are able to achieve the following:

1. Decompose the IoT problem into smaller parts
2. Identify different technologies at each layer and how they relate to one another
3. Define a system in which different parts can be provided by different vendors
4. Have a process of defining interfaces that leads to interoperability
5. Define a tiered security model that is enforced at the transition points between levels

Layer 1: Physical Devices and Controllers Layer

The first layer of the IoT Reference Model is the physical devices and controllers layer. This layer is home to the “things”
in the Internet of Things, including the various endpoint devices and sensors that send and receive information. The size of
these “things” can range from almost microscopic sensors to giant machines in a factory. Their primary function is
generating data and being capable of being queried and/or controlled over a network.

Layer 2: Connectivity Layer

In the second layer of the IoT Reference Model, the focus is on connectivity. The most important function of this IoT layer
is the reliable and timely transmission of data. More specifically, this includes transmissions between Layer 1 devices and
the network and between the network and information processing that occurs at Layer 3 (the edge computing layer).
.

IoT Reference Model Connectivity Layer Functions

Layer 3: Edge Computing Layer

Edge computing is the role of Layer 3. Edge computing is often referred to as the “fog” layer and is discussed in the section
“Fog Computing,” later in this chapter. At this layer, the emphasis is on data reduction and converting network data flows
into information that is ready for storage and processing by higher layers. One of the basic principles of this reference model
is that information processing is initiated as early and as close to the edge of the network as possible

IoT Reference Model Layer 3 Functions

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Another important function that occurs at Layer 3 is the evaluation of data to see if it can be filtered or aggregated before
being sent to a higher layer. This also allows for data to be reformatted or decoded, making additional processing by other
systems easier. Thus, a critical function is assessing the data to see if predefined thresholds are crossed and any action or
alerts need to be sent.
Upper Layers: Layers 4–7
The upper layers deal with handling and processing the IoT data generated by the bottom layer. For the sake of completeness,

Layers 4–7 of the IoT Reference Model are summarized in Table.

A SIMPLIFIED IOT ARCHITECTURE

Simplified IoT Architecture

The presentation of the Core IoT Functional Stack in three layers is meant to simplify your understanding of the IoT
architecture into its most foundational building blocks. The network communications layer of the IoT stack itself involves
a significant amount of detail and incorporates a vast array of technologies. Data management is aligned with each of the
three layers of the Core IoT Functional Stack. The three data management layers are the edge layer (data management within
the sensors themselves), the fog layer (data management in the gateways and transit network), and the cloud layer (data
management in the cloud or central data center). An expanded view of the IoT architecture presented as below:

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Expanded View of the Simplified IoT Architecture

The Core IoT Functional Stack can be expanded into sublayers containing greater detail and specific network functions. For
example, the communications layer is broken down into four separate sublayers: the access network, gateways and backhaul,
IP transport, and operations and management sublayers. The applications layer of IoT networks is quite different from the
application layer of a typical enterprise network. Instead of simply using business applications, IoT often involves a strong
big data analytics component. One message that is stressed throughout this book is that IoT is not just about the control of
IoT devices but, rather, the useful insights gained from the data generated by those devices. Thus, the applications layer
typically has both analytics and industry-specific IoT control system components.

THE CORE IOT FUNCTIONAL STACK

IoT networks are built around the concept of “things,” or smart objects performing functions and delivering new connected
services. These objects are “smart” because they use a combination of contextual information and configured goals to
perform actions. From an architectural standpoint, several components have to work together for an IoT network to be
operational:
• Things” layer:
• Communications network layer
• Access network sublayer
• Gateways and backhaul network sublayer
• Network transport sublayer
• IoT network management sublayer
• Application and analytics layer

The following sections examine these elements and help you architect your IoT communication network.

Layer 1: Things: Sensors and Actuators Layer

“Smart Objects: The ‘Things’ in IoT,” provides more in-depth information about smart objects. From an architectural
standpoint, the variety of smart object types, shapes, and needs drive the variety of IoT protocols and architectures. One
architectural classification could be:
Battery-powered or power-connected: This classification is based on whether the object carries its own energy supply
or receives continuous power from an external power source.
Mobile or static: This classification is based on whether the “thing” should move or always stay at the same location.
A sensor may be mobile because it is moved from one object to another or because it is attached to a movin
Low or high reporting frequency: This classification is based on how often the object should report monitored
parameters. A rust sensor may report values once a month. A motion sensor may report acceleration several hundred times
per second.
Simple or rich data: This classification is based on the quantity of data exchanged at each report cycle
Report range: This classification is based on the distance at which the gateway is located. For example, for your fitness
band to communicate with your phone, it needs to be located a few meters away at most.
Object density per cell: This classification is based on the number of smart objects (with a similar need to communicate)
over a given area, connected to the same gateway.
Below figure provides some examples of applications matching the combination of mobility and throughput requirements.

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Example of Sensor Applications Based on Mobility and Throughput

Layer 2: Communications Network Layer

Once you have determined the influence of the smart object form factor over its transmission capabilities (transmission
range, data volume and frequency, sensor density and mobility), you are ready to connect the object and communicate.
Compute and network assets used in IoT can be very different from those in IT environments. The difference in the physical
form factors between devices used by IT and OT is obvious even to the most casual of observers. What typically drives this
is the physical environment in which the devices are deployed. What may not be as inherently obvious, however, is their
operational differences. The operational differences must be understood in order to apply the correct handling to secure the
target assets.

Access Network Sublayer

There is a direct relationship between the IoT network technology you choose and the type of connectivity topology this
technology allows. Each technology was designed with a certain number of use cases in mind (what to connect, where to
connect, how much data to transport at what interval and over what distance). These use cases determined the frequency
band that was expected to be most suitable, the frame structure matching the expected data pattern (packet size and
communication intervals), and the possible topologies that these use cases illustrate.
One key parameter determining the choice of access technology is the range between the smart object and the information
collector.

Access Technologies and Distances

Range estimates are grouped by category names that illustrate the environment or the vertical where data collection over
that range is expected. Common groups are as follows:
• PAN (personal area network): Scale of a few meters. This is the personal space around a person. A common
wireless technology for this scale is Bluetooth.
• HAN (home area network): Scale of a few tens of meters. At this scale, common wirelesstechnologies for IoT
include ZigBee and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE).

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• NAN (neighborhood area network): Scale of a few hundreds of meters. The term NAN isoften used to refer
to a group of house units from which data is collected.
• FAN (field area network): Scale of several tens of meters to several hundred meters. FANtypically refers to
an outdoor area larger than a single group of house units. The FAN is oftenseen as “open space” (and therefore
not secured and not controlled).
• LAN (local area network): Scale of up to 100 m. This term is very common in networking, and it is therefore
also commonly used in the IoT space when standard networking technologies (such as Ethernet or IEEE 802.11)
are used.
Similar ranges also do not mean similar topologies. Some technologies offer flexible connectivity structure to extend
communication possibilities:
• Point-to-point topologies
• Point-to-multipoint

Layer 3: Applications and Analytics Layer

Once connected to a network, your smart objects exchange information with other systems. As soon as your IoT network
spans more than a few sensors, the power of the Internet of Things appears in the applications that make use of the
information exchanged with the smart objects.

Analytics Versus Control Applications

Multiple applications can help increase the efficiency of an IoT network. Each application collects data and provides a
range of functions based on analyzing the collected data. It can be difficult to compare the features offered. From an
architectural standpoint, onebasic classification can be as follows:
• Analytics application: This type of application collects data from multiple smart objects, processes the collected data,
and displays information resulting from the data that was processed. The display can be about any aspect of the IoT
network, from historical reports, statistics, or trends to individual system states. The important aspect is that the
application processes the data to convey a view of the network that cannot be obtained from solely looking at the
information displayed by a single smart object.
• Control application: This type of application controls the behavior of the smart object or the behavior of an object
related to the smart object. For example, a pressure sensor may be connected to a pump. A control application increases
the pump speed when the connected sensor detects a drop in pressure. Control applications are very useful for
controlling complexaspects of an IoT network with a logic that cannot be programmed inside a single IoT object, either
because the configured changes are too complex to fit into the local system or because the configured changes rely on
parameters that include elements outside the IoT object.

Data Versus Network Analytics

Analytics is a general term that describes processing information to make sense of collected data. In the world of IoT, a
possible classification of the analytics function is as follows:
• Data analytics: This type of analytics processes the data collected by smart objects and combines it to provide
an intelligent view related to the IoT system. At a very basic level, a dashboard can display an alarm when a
weight sensor detects that a shelf is empty in a store. In a more complex case, temperature, pressure, wind,
humidity, and light levels collected from thousands of sensors may be combined and then processed to
determine the likelihoodof a storm and its possible path .
• Network analytics: Most IoT systems are built around smart objects connected to the network. A loss or
degradation in connectivity is likely to affect the efficiency of the system. Such a loss can have dramatic effects.
For example, open mines use wireless networks to automatically pilot dump trucks. A lasting loss of
connectivity may result in an accident or degradation of operations efficiency (automated dump trucks typically
stop upon connectivityloss). On a more minor scale, loss of connectivity means that data stops being fed to
your data analytics platform, and the system stops making intelligent analyses of the IoT system.

Data Analytics Versus Business Benefits

Data analytics is undoubtedly a field where the value of IoT is booming. Almost any object can be connected, and multiple

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types of sensors can be installed on a given object. Collecting and interpreting the data generated by these devices is where
the value of IoT is realized.

Smart Services
• The ability to use IoT to improve operations is often termed “smart services.” This term is generic, and in many
cases the term is used but its meaning is often stretchedto include one form of service or another where an
additional level of intelligence is provided.
• Smart services can also be used to measure the efficiency of machines by detecting machine output, speed, or
other forms of usage evaluation.
• Smart services can be integrated into an IoT system. For example, sensors can be integrated in a light bulb. A
sensor can turn a light on or off based on the presence of a human in the room.

IoT DATA MANAGEMENT & COMPUTE STACK

This model also has limitations. As data volume, the variety of objects connecting to the network, and the need
for more efficiency increase, new requirements appear, and those requirements tend to bring the need for data
analysis closer to the IoT system. These new requirements include the following:
• Minimizing latency: Milliseconds matter for many types of industrial systems, such as when you are trying to
prevent manufacturing line shutdowns or restore electrical service. Analyzing data close to the device that
collected the data can make a difference between averting disaster and a cascading system failure.
• Conserving network bandwidth: Offshore oil rigs generate 500 GB of data weekly. Commercial jets generate
10 TB for every 30 minutes of flight. It is not practical to transport vast amounts of data from thousands or
hundreds of thousands of edge devices to the cloud. Nor is it necessary because many critical analyses do not
require cloud-scale processing and storage.
• Increasing local efficiency: Collecting and securing data across a wide geographic area with different
environmental conditions may not be useful. The environmental conditions in one area will trigger a local
response independent from the conditions of another site hundreds of miles away. Analyzing both areas in the
same cloud system may not be necessary for immediate efficiency.

.
The Traditional IT Cloud Computing Model
IoT systems function differently. Several data-related problems need to be addressed:

• Bandwidth in last-mile IoT networks is very limited. When dealing with thousands/millions of devices, available
bandwidth may be on order of tens of Kbps per device or even less.
• Latency can be very high. Instead of dealing with latency in the milliseconds range, large IoT networks often introduce
latency of hundreds to thousands of milliseconds.
• Network backhaul from the gateway can be unreliable and often depends on 3G/LTE or even satellite links. Backhaul
links can also be expensive if a per-byte data usage model is necessary.
• The volume of data transmitted over the backhaul can be high, and much of the data may not really be that interesting
(such as simple polling messages).
• Big data is getting bigger. The concept of storing and analyzing all sensor data in the cloud is impractical. The sheer
volume of data generated makes real-time analysis and response to the data almost impossible.

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Fog Computing
The solution to the challenges mentioned in the previous section is to distribute data management throughout the IoT system,
as close to the edge of the IP network as possible. The best-known embodiment of edge services in IoT is fog computing.
Any device with computing, storage, and network connectivity can be a fog node. Examples include industrial controllers,
switches, routers, embedded servers, and IoT gateways. Analyzing IoT data close to where it is collected minimizes latency,
offloads gigabytes of network traffic from the corenetwork, and keeps sensitive data inside the local network.

The IoT Data Management and Compute Stack with Fog Computing

Fog services are typically accomplished very close to the edge device, sitting as close to the IoT endpoints as possible. One
significant advantage of this is that the fog node has contextual awareness of the sensors it is managing because of its
geographic proximity to those sensors. For example, there might be a fog router on an oil derrick that is monitoring allthe
sensor activity at that location. Because the fog node is able to analyze information from all the sensors on that derrick, it
can provide contextual analysis of the messages it is receiving and may decide to send back only the relevant information
over the backhaul network to the cloud. In this way, it is performing distributed analytics such that the volume of data sent
upstream is greatly reduced and is much more useful to application and analytics servers residing in the cloud.
Fog applications are as diverse as the Internet of Things itself. What they have in common is data reduction—monitoring
or analyzing real-time data from network-connected things and then initiating an action, such as locking a door, changing
equipment settings, applying the brakes on a train, zooming a video camera, opening a valve in response to a pressure
reading, creating a bar chart, or sending an alert to a technician to make a preventive repair.

The defining characteristic of fog computing are as follows:

• Contextual location awareness and low latency: The fog node sits as close to the IoT endpoint as possible
to deliver distributed computing.
• Geographic distribution: In sharp contrast to the more centralized cloud, the services and applications targeted
by the fog nodes demand widely distributed deployments.
• Deployment near IoT endpoints: Fog nodes are typically deployed in the presence of a large number of IoT
endpoints. For example, typical metering deployments often see 3000 to 4000 nodes per gateway router, which
also functions as the fog computing node.
• Wireless communication between the fog and the IoT endpoint: Although it is possible to connect wired
nodes, the advantages of fog are greatest when dealing with a large number of endpoints, and wireless access
is the easiest way to achieve such scale.
• Use for real-time interactions: Important fog applications involve real-time interactions rather than batch
processing. Preprocessing of data in the fog nodes allows upper-layer applications to perform batch processing
on a subset of the data.

Edge Computing

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Fog computing solutions are being adopted by many industries, and efforts to developdistributed applications and
analytics tools are being introduced at an accelerating pace. The natural place for a fog node is in the network device that
sits closest to the IoT endpoints, andthese nodes are typically spread throughout an IoT network

Note
Edge computing is also sometimes called “mist” computing. If clouds exist in the sky, and fog
sits near the ground, then mist is what actually sits on the ground. Thus, the concept of mist is to extend
fog to the furthest point possible, right into the IoT endpoint device itself.

The Hierarchy of Edge, Fog, and Cloud

It is important to stress that edge or fog computing in no way replaces the cloud. Rather, they complement each other, and
many use cases actually require strong cooperation between layers. In the same way that lower courts do not replace
the supreme court of a edge and fog computing layers simply act as a first line of defense for filtering, analyzing,
and otherwise managing data endpoints. This saves the cloud from being queried by each and every node for each event.

Distributed Compute and Data Management Across an IoT System

From an architectural standpoint, fog nodes closest to the network edge receive the data from IoT devices. The fog IoT
application then directs different types of data to the optimal place for analysis:
• The most time-sensitive data is analyzed on the edge or fog node closest to the things generating the data.
• Data that can wait seconds or minutes for action is passed along to an aggregation node for analysis and action.
• Data that is less time sensitive is sent to the cloud for historical analysis, big data analytics, and long-term
storage. For example, each of thousands or hundreds of thousands of fog nodesmight send periodic summaries
of data to the cloud for historical analysis and storage.
In summary, when architecting an IoT network, you should consider the amount of data to be analyzed and the time
sensitivity of this data. Understanding these factors will help you decide whether cloud computing is enough or whether
edge or fog computing would improveyour system efficiency. Fog computing accelerates awareness and response to events
by eliminating a round trip to the cloud for analysis. It avoids the need for costly bandwidth additions by offloading
gigabytes of network traffic from the core network. It also protects sensitive IoT data by analyzing it inside company walls.

SMART OBJECTS
Smart objects are any physical objects that contain embedded technology to sense and/or interact with their environment in
a meaningful way by being interconnected and enabling communication among themselves or an external agent.
Some of the fundamental building blocks of IoT networks are
• Sensors
• Actuators

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• Smart Objects
Sensors:

• A sensor does exactly as its name indicates: It senses.

• A sensor measures some physical quantity and converts that measurement reading intoa digital representation.
• That digital representation is typically passed to another device for transformation intouseful data that can be consumed
by intelligent devices or humans.
• Sensors are not limited to human-like sensory data.
• They are able to provide an extremely wide spectrum of rich and diverse measurementdata with far greater precision
than human senses.
• Sensors provide superhuman sensory capabilities.
• Sensors can be readily embedded in any physical objects that are easily connected to the Internet by wired or wireless
networks, they can interpret their environment and make intelligent decisions.
Sensors have been grouped into different categories
• Active or passive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they produce an energy output and typically require
an external power supply (active) or whether they simply receive energy and typically require no external power supply
(passive).
• Invasive or non-invasive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether a sensor is part of the environment it is
measuring (invasive) or external to it (non-invasive)
• Contact or no-contact: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they require physicalcontact with what they are
measuring (contact) or not (no-contact).
• Absolute or relative: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they measure on an absolute scale (absolute) or
based on a difference with a fixed or variable reference value (relative).
• Area of application: Sensors can be categorized based on the specific industry or verticalwhere they are being used.
• How sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on the physical mechanism usedto measure sensory input (for
example, thermoelectric, electrochemical, piezoresistive, optic, electric, fluid mechanic, photoelastic).
• What sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on their applications or what physical variables they
measure.

Sensors in a smart phone

Actuators:
• Actuators are natural complements to sensors.
• Figure below demonstrates the symmetry and complementary nature of these two types of devices.
• Sensors are designed to sense and measure practically any measurable variable in the physical world.
• They convert their measurements (typically analog) into electric signals or digital representations that can be consumed
by an intelligent agent (a device or a human).
• Actuators, on the others hand, receive some type of control signal (commonly an electric signal or digital command)
that triggers a physical effect, usually some type ofmotion, force, and so on.

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How Sensors and Actuators Interact with the Physical World

Much like sensors, actuators also vary greatly in function, size, design, and so on. Somecommon ways that they can be
classified include the following:
❖ Type of motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type of motion they produce (for example, linear, rotary,
one/two/three-axes).
❖ Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power output (for example, high power, low power, micro
power)
❖ Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on the number of stable- state outputs.
❖ Area of application: Actuators can be classified based on the specific industry or vertical where they are used.
❖ Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on their energy type.

Smart Objects
Smart objects are, quite simply, the building blocks of IoT. They are what transform everyday objects into a network of
intelligent objects that are able to learn from and interact with their environment in a meaningful way. A smart object, is a
device that has, at a minimum, the following four defining characteristics
❖ Processing Unit: A smart object has some type of processing unit for acquiring data, processing and analyzing
sensing information received by the sensor(s), coordinating control signals to any actuators, and controlling a variety
of functions on the smart object, including the communication and power systems.
❖ Sensor(s) and /or actuator(s): A smart object is capable of interacting with the physical world through sensors and
actuators. A smart object does not need to contain both sensors and actuators. In fact, a smart object can contain one
or multiple sensors and/or actuators, depending upon the application.
❖ Communication Device: The communication unit is responsible for connecting a smart object with other smart
objects and the outside world (via the network). Communication devices for smart objects can be either wired or
wireless.
❖ Power Source: Smart objects have components that need to be powered. Interestingly, the most significant power
consumption usually comes from the communication unit of a smart object.
❖ Trends in Smart Objects:
❖ The broad generalizations and trends impacting IoT are
❖ Size is decreasing: Some smart objects are so small they are not even visible to the naked eye. This reduced size
makes smart objects easier to embed in everyday objects.
❖ Power consumption is decreasing: The different hardware components of a smart object continually consume
less power. Some battery-powered sensors last 10 or more years without battery replacement.
❖ Processing power is increasing: Processors are continually getting more powerful and smaller.
❖ Communication capabilities are improving: It’s no big surprise that wireless speeds are continually increasing,
but they are also increasing in range. IoT is driving the development of more and more specialized
communication protocols covering a greater diversity of use cases and environments.
❖ Communication is being increasingly standardized: There is a strong push in the industry to develop open
standards for IoT communication protocols. In addition, there are more and more open source efforts to advance
IoT

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Sensor Networks:
A sensor/actuator network (SANET), as the name suggests, is a network of sensors that sense and measure their environment
and/or actuators that act on their environment. The sensors and/or actuators in a SANET are capable of communicating and
cooperating in a productive manner. SANETs offer highly coordinated sensing and actuation capabilities. Smart homes are
a type of SANET that display this coordination between distributed sensors and actuators.
For example, smart homes can have temperature sensors that are strategically networked with heating, ventilation, and air-
conditioning (HVAC) actuators. When a sensor detects a specified temperature, this can trigger an actuator to take action
and heat or cool the home as needed.
The following are some advantages and disadvantages that a wireless-based solution offers:
Advantages:
❖ Greater deployment flexibility (especially in extreme environments or hard-to-reach places)
❖ Simpler scaling to a large number of nodes
❖ Lower implementation costs
❖ Easier long-term maintenance
❖ Effortless introduction of new sensor/actuator nodes
❖ Better equipped to handle dynamic/rapid topology changes

Disadvantages:
❖ Potentially less secure (for example, hijacked access points)
❖ Typically, lower transmission speeds
❖ Greater level of impact/influence by environment

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)

Wireless sensor networks are made up of wirelessly connected smart objects, which are sometimes referred to as motes. The
following are some of the most significant limitations of the smart objects in WSNs:
❖ Limited processing power
❖ Limited memory
❖ Lossy communication
❖ Limited transmission speeds
❖ Limited power
These limitations greatly influence how WSNs are designed, deployed, and utilized. Figure below shows an example of such
a data aggregation function in a WSN where temperature readings from a logical grouping of temperature sensors are
aggregated as an average temperature reading. Also consider any trade-offs the communication protocol offers between
power consumption, maximum transmission speed, range, tolerance for packet loss, topologyoptimization, security, and so
on. Sensors often produce large amounts of sensing and measurement data that needs to beprocessed. This data can be
processed locally by the nodes of a WSN or across zero or more hierarchical levels in IoT networks. IoT is one of those
rare technologies that impacts all verticals and industries, which means standardization of communication protocols is a
complicated task, requiring protocol definition across multiple layers of the stack, as well as a great deal of coordination
across multiple standards development organizations.

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