Cell

Introduction:
Cells are the basic units of life and discovered by Robert Hooke.

Cells are the structural and functional units of all living organisms. The major
parts of cells are nucleus and cytoplasm. Based on the presence or absence of
the true nucleus, cells are two types. They are,

i. Prokaryotic cells

ii. Eukaryotic cells

i. Prokaryotic cells:

These cells do not have nucleus, nuclear membrane and sub cellular
organelles. These are smaller in size and present in prokaryotes. e.g. Bacteria
and blue green algae.

ii. Eukaryotic cells:

These cells have nucleus, nuclear membrane and sub cellular organelles.
These are larger in size and present eukaryotes. e.g. Animals, plants and fungi.

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 Differences between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus It has no nucleus. It has a true nucleus,
bounded by double
membrane.
DNA arrangement It has a circular loop. It is linear.

Size Small cells ( < 5 µm) Large cells ( < 10 µm)

Cell Always unicellular Mostly multi-cellular

Cell wall Usually present; chemically complex in When present, chemically

nature simple in nature
Protein It does not contain protein in its DNA. It contains proteins in the
DNA to form chromatin.

Ribosome It contains small ribosomes. It contains large ribosomes.

Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton Always have cytoskeleton
Cell division Cell division is by binary fission Cell division is by mitosis

Reproduction Reproduction is always asexual Reproduction is asexual or

sexual
Flagella Consist of two protein building blocks It is complex in nature and
consist of multiple
microtubules
Mesosomes They perform functions of golgi-bodies Not present
and mitochondria, and also help in
separation of chromosomes.
Plasma membrane Sterols and carbohydrates, both are Sterols and carbohydrates,
absent both are present

Example Bacteria and Archaea Animal cells and plant cells

Plant cell parts:

• Cell Wall – It is a stiff covering that protects plant cells

• Cytoplasm - Gel like substance found in the cell and it hosts sub cellular
organelles.

• Nucleus – Present at the center of the cell and controls the cell.

• Nucleolus – Present at the center of the nucleus and controls the nucleus.

• Nucleus Membrane: It is present around the nucleus and protects the

nucleus.

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 • Mitochondria - Present in cytoplasm and produces energy to the cell

• Chromosomes – Present in nucleus and provides direction for cell to

follow

• Golgi apparatus – Packages and secretes waste. It is present in

cytoplasm

• Endoplasmic Reticulum – Present in cytoplasm and provides

transportation network

• Ribosomes – Makes proteins and present in cytoplasm

• Vacuole - Present in cytoplasm and used as storage sac for food, water
and waste

• Cilia – Short hair like projections used for movement

• Flagella – Long whip like tail used for movement

• Chloroplast - It is a green structure in plants and makes food by using

sun energy.

• Plastids - Stores extra food in Plant cells

Animal cell parts:

• Cell membrane – It surrounds the cell material

• Cytoplasm – Gel like substance found in the cell and it hosts sub
cellular organelles.

• Nucleus – Present at the center of the cell and controls the cell.

• Nucleolus – Present at the center of the nucleus and controls the nucleus.

• Nucleus Membrane – It is present around the nucleus and protects the

nucleus

• Mitochondria – Present in cytoplasm and produces energy to the cell

• Chromosomes – Present in nucleus and provides direction for cell to

follow

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 • Golgi apparatus – Packages and secretes waste. It is present in
cytoplasm

• Endoplasmic Reticulum – Present in cytoplasm and provides

transportation network

• Ribosomes – Makes proteins and present in cytoplasm

• Vacuole – Present in cytoplasm and used as storage sac for food, water
and waste

• Cilia – Short hair like projections used for movement

• Flagella – Long whip like tail used for movement

Differences between Animal cell and Plant cell

S.No Animal cell Plant cell

1 There is no cell wall They have rigid, non – living cell wall that
lies outside the cell and is made up of
cellulose.
2 Chloroplasts are absent Chloroplasts are present

3 Plastids are absent Plastids are present

4 Lysosomes are present Lysosomes are absent

5 Centrosomes are present near the Centrosomes are absent

nucleus
6 Contains small and few vacuoles Contains large and central vacuoles

Cytoplasm and its organelles:

Cytoplasm is the internal volume bounded by the plasma membrane. The
clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm is called cytosol. In which sub cellular
organells are suspended.

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Seven important organelles that are suspended in the cytoplasm are:

• Nucleus
• Mitochondria
• Golgi apparatus
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Ribosomes
• Lysosomes
• Peroxisomes

1. Nucleus:
• The nucleus is spherical in shape and situated near the center of the cell.
The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope. The space enclosed
by the nuclear envelope is called nucleoplasm, within this the nucleolus is
present. Nucleolus is an organized structure of DNA, RNA and protein
that is involved in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA.

• Nucleus function is storage of DNA, replication and repair of DNA,

transcription and post tranacriptional processing.

• Nucleolus function is synthesis of rRNA and formation of ribosomes.

2. Mitochondria:
• It is also called as power house of the cell. It is a double membrane
organelle. The membranes are,

• Outer membrane

• Inner membrane

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Outer membrane:

• It forms smooth envelope. It is freely permeable for most metabolites.

Inner membrane:

• It is folded to form cristae, which give it to a large surface area and are
the site of oxidative phosphorylation. The space with in the inner
membrane is called mitochondrial matrix.

• Mitochondria function is ATP synthesis, fatty acid oxidation, oxidative

phosphorylation, site for TCA cycle, part of urea cycle and part of heme
synthesis.

3. Golgi Apparatus:
• It is present in all cells except red blood cells. It is situated near the
nucleus and is closely related to the endoplasmic reticulum. Its function is
posttranscriptional modifications and sorting of proteins and export of
proteins.

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

Endoplasmic reticulum is the interconnected network of tubular and flat
vesicular structures in the cytoplasm. It transports material and sends messages
to all parts of cell. It forms the link between nucleus and cell membrane. It is
two types. They are,

• Rough endoplasmic reticulum

• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

• Rough endoplasmic reticulum:

It contains minute particles of ribosomes are attached to the outer surface of

the endoplasmic reticulum. Its function is used for protein synthesis and
secretion.

• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:

It has no attached ribosomes. Hence it is called as smooth endoplasmic

reticulum. Its function is used for synthesis of steroid hormones, phospholipids
and metabolism of foreign compounds.

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 5. Ribosomes:
These are the protein builders or the protein synthesizers of the cell. They are
like construction guys who connect one amino acid at a time and build long
chains. Ribosomes are special because they are found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.

6. Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are vesicular organelles formed from Golgi apparatus and
dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. Lysosomes function is intracellular
digestion of macromolecules and hydrolysis of nucleic acids, proteins,
glycosaminoglycans, glycolipids, sphingolipids.

7. Peroxisomes:
These organelles are resemble the lysosomes in their appearance, but they
differ both in function and in their synthesis. These functions are
metabolism of hydrogen peroxide and oxidation of long chain fatty acids.

Cytoskeleton:
The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells contains network of protein
filaments. Such an extensive intracellular network of protein has been
called Cytoskeleton.

Cytoskeleton consists of three primary protein filaments:

• Microfilaments

• Microtubules

• Intermediate filaments.

1. Microfilaments:
Thin solid cylinders (5 nm)

• To help muscle contraction

• To maintain the shape of the cell

• To help cellular movement.

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2. Microtubules :
• These are thin hollow cylinders, 20 to 25 nm in diameter. They are made
up of protein tubulin. They provide stability to the cell. They prevent
tubules of ER from collapsing. These are the major components of axons
and dendrites.

3. Intermediate filaments:
• These are intermediate between microfilaments (5 nm) and of
microtubules (25 nm) and their diameter is 10 nm.
• Intermediate filaments are formed from fibrous protein.
• They provide strength and rigidity to axons.
Functions of cytoskeleton:

1. The cytoskeleton gives shape, muscle contraction and cellular movement.

2. It provides stability to the cell and prevents the collapse of tubules of ER.
3. It provides strength and rigidity to axons.
4. It is also responsible for the separation of chromosomes during cell
division.
5. Support structure of cell and transport materials/organelles throughout the
cell.
6. The highway of the cell.

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 Biochemical functions of sub cellular organelles of eukaryotic cell
Sub cellular organelles Functions

Plasma Membrane: It is athin layer which Transport of molecules in and out of Cell,
envelopes the cell is called cell membrane or receptors for homones and neurotransmitters
plasma membrane.

Lysosome: These are vesicular organelles formed Intracellular digestion macro molecules and
from Golgi apparatus and dispersed throughout the hydrolysis of nucleic acid, protein
cytoplasm. glycosaminoglycans, glycolipids, sphingolipids

Golgi apparatus: It is present in all cells except Post-transcriptional modification and sorting of
red blood cells. It is situated near the nucleus and proteins and export of proteins
is closely related to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum: It contains Biosynthesis of protein and secretion

minute particles of ribosomes are attached to the
outer surface of the endoplasmic reticulum.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: It has no Biosynthesis of steroid hormones and

attached ribosomes. Hence it is called as smooth phospholipids, metabolism of foreign compounds
endoplasmic reticulum.

Nucleus: The nucleus is spherical in shape and Storage of DNA, replication and repair of DNA,
situated near the center of the cell. transcription and post-transcription processing

Peroxisomes: These resembles the lysosomes in Metabolism of hydrogen peroxide and oxidation
their appearance, but they differ both in function of long-chain fatty acids
and synthesis.

Nucleolus: It is present within the nucleus and Synthesis of rRNA and formation of ribosomes
organized structure of DNA, RNA and protein.

Mitochondrion: It is a double membrane ATP synthesis, site for tricarboxylic acid cycle,
organelle contains outer and inner membrane. fatty acid oxidation, oxidative phosphorylation,
Outer membrane is smooth envelope and freely part of urea cycle and part of heme synthesis
permeable for most metabolites. Inner membrane
is folded to form cristae and the space within the
inner membrane is called mitochondrial matrix.

Cytosol: The clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm Site for glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway,
is called cytosol. In which sub cellular organells part of gluconeogenesis, urea cycle and heme
are suspended. synthesis, purine and pyrimidine nucleotide
synthesis

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 Cell Fractionation

Cell fractionation is the process of producing pure fractions of cell components

and it involves in two basic steps

• Disruption of the tissue and lyses of the cells.

• Centrifugation.

Cell fractionation:

To obtain the purified organelles, the tissue is first carefully broken up in a

homogenizing apparatus and the homogenate is Centrifuged by using isotonic
0.25 M sucrose solution. Why sucrose solution used because it is not
metabolized in most tissues and does not pass through the membranes readily
and thus, does not cause inter organelles to swell.

• Depending upon their size and specific gravity, the sub cellular organelles
will sediment at different rates and can be isolated from the homogenate
by differential centrifugation.

• The dense nuclei are sediment first, followed by the mitochondria, and
finally the microsomal fraction at the highest forces. After all the
particulate matter has been removed, the soluble remnant is the cytosol.

• Organelles of similar sedimentation coefficient obviously cannot be

separated by differential centrifugation. For example, mitochondria
isolated in this way are contaminated with lysosomes and peroxisomes.
These may be separated by isopycnic centrifugation technique.

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Marker enzymes:

The marker enzymes are the enzymes that are located exclusively in a particular
fraction and thus become characteristic of that fraction.

The purity and degree of contamination of isolated sub cellular fraction with
other organelles is assessed by the analysis of Marker enzymes.

Eg: Isolated mitochondria have a high specific activity of cytochrome oxidase

but low catalase and acid phosphatase, the catalase and phosphatase activities
being due to contamination with peroxisomes and lysosomes respectively.

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 Marker enzymes of subcellular fractions
Fraction Enzymes
Plasma Membrane 5 Nucleotidase, Na+-K+-ATPase
Nucleus DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase
Endoplasmic reticulum Glucose-6-phosphatase
Golgi bodies Galactosyl transferase
Lysosomes Acid phosphatise, β-glucuronidase
Mitochondria Succinate dehydrogenase Cytochrome C-oxidase
Peroxisomes Catalase
Cytosol Lactate dehydrogenase Glucose-6-phosphate
dehydrogenase

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