Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Course code: BBOC407 IV Semester

Module 1

CELL: BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Introduction
Structure and functions of a cell
Stem cells and their application
Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids.
Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins and hormones.

Introduction

Biology is the branch of science that primarily deals with the structure, function, growth,
evolution, and distribution of organism. As a science, it is a methodological study of life and
living things. It determines verifiable facts or formulates theories based on experimental findings
on living things by applying the scientific methods. An expert in this field is called a biologist.

Importance of Biology:
There are numerous indications of the importance of biology. Biology is primarily concerned with
studying life. In addition, it offers a thorough scientific explanation of how all living and non-
living things interact with one another. It provides information about various life forms.
Additionally, biology includes various areas of study concerned with the sustainability of life,
such as the study of the human body and the environment, the ecosystem, the quality of food, the
causes of disease, and the discovery of new medications.

The study of life has influenced how the world is today. It has also provided a multitude of
reliable and credible explanations for why things occur more scientifically.

Introduction to Cells:
 Cells are the fundamental units of life, representing the smallest structure capable of exhibiting
all the properties of living organisms.
 They range in size from microscopic bacteria to complex, multi-cellular animals like humans.

Types of cells:
Prokaryotic cells: Simple cells lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Examples
include bacteria.
Eukaryotic cells: Complex cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Examples
include plant and animal cells.

Importance of Cells:
 Cells are the building blocks of life and form the basis of all living organisms.
 Understanding cells is crucial for engineers in various fields, including biotechnology,
biomedical engineering, and bioinformatics.
 Engineers apply principles of cell biology to develop technologies and solutions for medical
diagnostics, therapeutics, and environmental remediation.
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell:

Scope of cell biology for Engineers:

 Cell biology provides engineers with essential knowledge about cellular structure, function,
and behaviour.
 Engineers utilize this knowledge to design and optimize processes involving cells, such as
bioprocessing, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine.
 Cell biology also intersects with other disciplines, such as materials science, nanotechnology,
and robotics, offering interdisciplinary opportunities for innovation.
Interdisciplinary collaboration:
 Collaboration between biologists and engineers is essential for advancing research and
development in cell biology and related fields.
 Engineers bring expertise in design, analysis, and optimization, while biologists contribute
insights into biological systems and experimental techniques.
 Interdisciplinary teams can address complex challenges more effectively and accelerate the
translation of scientific discoveries into practical applications.
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Conclusion:
 An understanding of cells as the basic unit of life is essential for engineers working in
biologically inspired fields.
 By integrating principles of cell biology with engineering methodologies, engineers can
contribute to advancements in healthcare, biotechnology, and environmental sustainability.
 Collaboration between engineers and biologists fosters innovation and enables the development
of solutions to address pressing global challenges.

Structure and functions of a cell

Structure of a Cell:

Source: Biology Experts Notes

1. Cell membrane (Plasma membrane):

 Cell membrane is the outer boundary of the cell. It is present both in plant and animal cells.
 It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins.
 It functions as the selectively permeable membrane, by permitting the entry of selective
materials in and out of the cell according to the requirement, maintaining internal balance
(homeostasis).
 In an animal cell, the cell membrane functions by providing shape and protect the inner
contents of the cell.

2. Cytoplasm:
 The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells. They are gel-like substance filling the
cell's interior.
 They are mainly composed of water, organic and inorganic compounds.
 It contains organelles, dissolved nutrients, enzymes, and other molecules necessary for
controlling the entire cellular process (metabolic activity/chemical reactions).

3. Nucleus:
 Nucleus is the largest organelle, which functions as the control centre of the cell and is the
storehouse of the cell’s genetic material (DNA) organized into chromosomes.
 It is found in all eukaryotic cells and is protected by a double membrane.
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

 By structure, it is the dark, round and surrounded by a nuclear membrane, which is a porous
membrane (like cell membrane) and forms a wall between cytoplasm and nucleus.
 Within the nucleus, there are tiny spherical bodies called nucleolus.
 Nucleus regulates gene expression and controls cellular activities through the synthesis of
messenger RNA (mRNA).

4. Cell Organelles:

Source: Byjus

Mitochondria: Powerhouses of the cell, responsible for generating ATP through cellular
respiration. It is a double membrane-bound, sausage shaped organelle, found in almost all
eukaryotic cells. They usually vary in size and found either round or oval in shape. Mitochondria
have their own circular DNA, RNA molecules, ribosomes, and few other molecules that help in
protein synthesis.

Mitochondria

Source: Byjus
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals

filled with fluid. They are the transport system of the cell, involved in transporting materials
throughout the cell. There are two types of ER:
1. Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis and processing and are
found throughout the cell.
2. Smooth ER: They are the storage organelle associated with the production of lipids,
steroids, and also detoxify drugs and poisons.

Source: Byjus

Ribosomes: Ribosomes are non-membrane bound and important cytoplasmic organelles found in
close association with the endoplasmic reticulum. They are found in the form of tiny particles in a
large number of cells. They are named as the 70s (found in prokaryotes) or 80s (found in
eukaryotes). The letter S refers to the density and the size, known as Svedberg’s Unit. The
primary function of the ribosomes includes protein synthesis in all living cells that ensure the
survival of the cell.
Ribosome

Source: Byjus
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Golgi apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport within the cell or
secretion. Golgi apparatus

Source: Biology online

Lysosomes: Contain enzymes for intracellular digestion and recycling of cellular waste.
Vacuoles (in plant cells): Store water, ions, and nutrients, providing structural support.

Chloroplasts (in plant cells): Chloroplasts are double membrane bound organelles, which
usually vary in their shape to spherical, discoid, oval and ribbon. They are present in leaves and
are the site of photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy (glucose).
Chloroplasts also contain double-stranded circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, and enzymes which are
required for the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins.

Source: GFG
Functions of a cell:
1. Metabolism: Chemical processes that sustain life, including energy production, biosynthesis of
molecules, and nutrient breakdown.
2. Transport: Movement of molecules across the cell membrane through passive diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and active transport
3. Protein synthesis: Involves transcription of DNA into mRNA in the nucleus, followed by
translation of mRNA into proteins on ribosomes.
4. Growth and reproduction: Cells grow and divide to produce new cells through processes like
mitosis and meiosis.
5. Cell signalling: Cells communicate with each other through chemical signals, allowing them to
coordinate activities and respond to changes in their environment. Signal transduction pathways
relay information from the cell surface to the nucleus, triggering appropriate cellular responses.
6. Homeostasis: Regulation of cell internal environment to maintain stable conditions necessary for
survival.

Understanding the structure and functions of cells is fundamental to biology, medicine, and
engineering. It provides insights into the mechanisms underlying life processes and facilitates the
development of novel therapies, technologies, and solutions to address various challenges.
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Stem cells and their application

Stem Cells:
1. Definition: Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the ability to differentiate into
specialized cell types. They can self-renew, meaning they can replicate themselves to produce
more stem cells.

2. Types of Stem Cells:

Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs): Derived from the inner cell mass of early-stage embryos. They
are pluripotent, i.e. capable of differentiating into any cell type in the body.
Adult Stem Cells (ASCs): Found in various tissues throughout the body, such as bone marrow,
adipose tissue, blood, muscle, skin, heart, and liver tissues. Multipotent or sometimes unipotent,
capable of differentiating into a limited range of cell types.
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs): Adult cells that have been reprogrammed to exhibit
pluripotency. Generated by introducing specific transcription factors or genes.

Applications of Stem Cells:

1. Regenerative medicine:
 Stem cells hold great promise for regenerating damaged or diseased tissues and organs.
 They can differentiate into the specific cell types needed for tissue repair, such as neurons for
spinal cord injuries or cardiomyocytes for heart disease.

2. Disease modelling:
 Stem cells provide valuable tools for studying diseases in vitro.
 iPSCs derived from patients with genetic disorders can be differentiated into relevant cell
types, allowing researchers to investigate disease mechanisms and screen potential
therapeutics.

3. Drug discovery and screening:

 Stem cell-based models can be used to screen potential drugs for efficacy and safety.
 They offer more physiologically relevant systems compared to traditional cell lines, providing
insights into drug responses and toxicity.

4. Cell replacement therapy:

 Stem cells can be used to replace damaged or dysfunctional cells in patients.
 Examples include hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for treating blood disorders and
retinal pigment epithelial cell transplantation for age-related macular degeneration.

5. Tissue engineering:
 Stem cells are integral to tissue engineering approaches aimed at creating functional,
transplantable tissues and organs.
 They can be combined with biomaterials and growth factors to generate three-dimensional
structures that mimic native tissue architecture.

6. Understanding developmental biology:

 Studying stem cells provides insights into the processes of embryonic development and tissue
regeneration.
 It enhances our understanding of cell fate determination, lineage specification, and
morphogenesis.
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Source: MedAccess

Challenges and considerations:

1. Ethical Concerns:
 The use of embryonic stem cells raises ethical debates due to the destruction of human
embryos.
 Ethical guidelines and regulations govern the use of stem cells in research and therapy.
2. Tumorigenic Potential:
 Pluripotent stem cells, particularly ESCs and iPSCs, have the potential to form tumors if not
properly controlled.
 Strategies to mitigate tumorigenicity include rigorous cell characterization, differentiation
protocols, and genetic modification.
3. Immunological Compatibility:
 Allogeneic stem cell therapies may elicit immune responses in recipients.
 Strategies to minimize rejection include immunosuppressive drugs, patient-specific iPSCs, and
gene editing techniques.

Stem cells offer versatile tools for basic research, therapeutic development, and regenerative
medicine. Continued advancements in stem cell biology and technology hold promise for
addressing various medical challenges and improving patient outcomes
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Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, Nucleic acids.

Biomolecules:

Definition: Biomolecules, also called biological molecules, that are essential for life processes
and are produced by cells and living organisms. They include a wide range of organic molecules,
such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Importance of Biomolecules: Biomolecules serve various functions in cells, including providing

structural support, storing and transmitting genetic information, catalysing biochemical reactions,
and serving as energy sources.

Types of Biomolecules: The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids.

Source: GFG

1. Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates (also referred to as ‘saccharides’) or carbs are organic molecules made up of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. They are essential energy sources (e.g., glucose)
and structural components (e.g., cellulose in plant cell walls) of all life, cell recognition molecules
(e.g., glycoproteins on cell surfaces).

They are among the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are also known as saccharides,
the word saccharides come from Greek word sakcharon which means sugar. Along with proteins
and fats, carbohydrates are one of three main nutrients found in foods and drinks. They are built
from four types of sugar units—monosaccharaides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and
polysaccharides. The carbohydrates which are soluble in water and sweet in taste are called
‘sugars’. Our body utilizes this sugar as a source of energy for the cells, tissues and organs. The
extra amount of energy or sugar is stored in our muscles and liver for further requirement.

There are three major classes of carbohydrates:

1. Monosaccharides: The monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones

which cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis to give simpler carbohydrates. e.g. Glucose, fructose,
Galactose etc.
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2. Oligosaccharides: The oligosaccharides (Oligo: few) are carbohydrates which yield a definite
number (2-9) of monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis.

a) Disaccharides - Which yield two monosaccharides molecules on hydrolysis. Which have

molecular formula is C12H22O11 e.g., Sucrose, maltose, Lactose etc

b) Trisaccharides - Which yield three monosaccharides molecules on hydrolysis and have

molecular formula is C18H32O16.

c) Tetrasaccharides - Which yield four monosaccharides molecules on hydrolysis and have

molecular formula C22H42O21. E.g., Stachyose [gal(α1→6)gal(α1→6)glu(α1↔2β)fru]

3. Polysaccharides: The carbohydrates which have higher molecular weight, which yield many
monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. e.g., Starch, glycogen, Dextrin, Cellulose etc.

In general mono and oligosaccharides are crystalline solids, soluble in water and sweet to taste,
and are collectively known as sugars. The polysaccharides on the other hand are amorphous,
insoluble in water and tasteless, and are called non-sugars.
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Difference between monosaccharaides, oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides:

Character Monosaccharaides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

No. of sugar molecules 1 2-9 More than 9
Glycoside bond Absent Present Present
Molecular Weight Low Moderate High
Taste Sweet Minimally sweet taste No taste
Solubility Soluble Soluble Insoluble
Nature Always reducing sugar May or may not be Always non reducing
sugar
Example Glucose, fructose, Sucrose, Maltose Starch, Glycogen,
Galactose Dextrin, Cellulose

Functions of carbohydrates:
 Carbohydrates are helpful in performing many functions such as breakdown of protein
molecules, dehydration as well as eliminating ketosis.
 They serve as primary energy sources.
 They help in the regulation of blood glucose.
 They provide the carbon skeleton for the synthesis of some non-essential amino acids.

2. Lipids:
Another key biomolecule of living organisms, lipids are a broad group of naturally occurring
molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E &
K), mono-glycerides, di & tri-glycerides, phospholipids and others.
Lipids fulfil a variety of roles, including serving as a source of stored energy and acting as
chemical messengers. They also form structural components of cell membranes, which separate
cells from their environments and compartmentalize the cell interior, giving rise to organelles,
such as the nucleus and the mitochondrion, in higher (more complex) organisms.
Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the amphiphilic nature
of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, multilamellar/unilamellar liposomes, or
membranes in an aqueous environment.

Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or
"building-blocks": ketoacyl and isoprene groups. Using this approach, lipids may be divided into eight
categories: fatty acyls, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids, and
polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids & prenol lipids
(derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).

A biological membrane is a form of lamellar phase lipid bilayer. The formation of lipid bilayers is an
energetically preferred process when the glycerophospholipids described above are in an aqueous
environment. This is known as the hydrophobic effect. In an aqueous system, the polar heads of lipids
align towards the polar, aqueous environment, while the hydrophobic tails minimize their contact with
water and tend to cluster together, forming a vesicle; depending on the concentration of the lipid, this
biophysical interaction may result in the formation of micelles, liposomes, or lipid bilayers.

Some of the applications of lipids are, within the body, lipids function as an energy reserve, regulate
hormones, transmit nerve impulses, cushion vital organs, and transport fat-soluble nutrients. Fat in
food serves as an energy source with high caloric density, adds texture and taste, and contributes to
satiety (fullness). Lipid obtained from food waste was used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel
production using both a chemical catalyst and a biocatalyst.
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Lipids

Source: Cleveland clinic

3. Proteins:
Protein is found throughout the body, in muscle, bone, skin, hair, and virtually every other body
part or tissue. It makes up the enzymes that power many chemical reactions and the haemoglobin
that carries oxygen in our blood.

Talking more about proteins based on biomolecule concept, proteins are large biomolecules and
macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. In other words,
proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. There are 20 different amino acids
that can occur within a protein; the order in which they occur plays a fundamental role in
determining protein structure and function. Proteins themselves are major structural elements of
cells. They also serve as transporters, moving nutrients and other molecules in and out of cells,
and as enzymes and catalysts for the vast majority of chemical reactions that take place in living
organisms. Proteins also form antibodies and hormones, and they influence gene activity.

Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by
the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a specific
3D structure that determines its activity. The genetic code is a set of three-nucleotide sets called
codons and each three-nucleotide combination designates an amino acid.

The process of synthesizing a protein from mRNA (messenger RNA) template is known as
translation. The mRNA is loaded onto the ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time by
matching each codon to its base pairing anticodon located on a tRNA (transfer RNA) molecule,
which carries the amino acid corresponding to the codon it recognizes. The enzyme aminoacyl
tRNA synthetase "charges" the tRNA molecules with the correct amino acids. The growing
polypeptide is often termed the nascent chain. Proteins are always biosynthesized from N-
terminus to C-terminus.
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Source: Biology Dictionary

4. Nucleic acids: Among biomolecules, nucleic acids are one of the four major types of
macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. The nucleic acids consists of two
major macromolecules, namely Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA) that
carry genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known
organisms and viruses. They have the unique function of storing an organism’s genetic code—the
sequence of nucleotides that determines the amino acid sequence of proteins, which are of critical
importance to life on Earth. Both consist of polymers of a sugar-phosphate-sugar backbone with
organic heterocyclic bases attached to the sugars.

The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, while in RNA it is ribose. DNA contains four bases, cytosine
& thymine (Pyrimidine bases) and guanine & adenine (Purine bases). RNA uses the same
nitrogenous bases as DNA, except for Thymine. Thymine is replaced by Uracil (U) in RNA. The
DNA in vivo consists of two antiparallel strands intertwined to form the iconic DNA double-
stranded helix. The RNA is single stranded but may adopt many secondary and tertiary
conformations not unlike that of a protein.

The core structure of a nucleic acid monomer is the nucleoside, which consists of a sugar residue
+ a nitrogenous base. Adenosine, cytidine, uridine, and guanosine are examples for nucleosides.
When one or more phosphate groups are attached to a nucleoside at the 5’ position of the sugar
residue, it is called a nucleotide. Apart from serving as a structural unit of nucleic acids,
nucleotides may also serve as sources of chemical energy (e.g., adenosine triphosphate or ATP).
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

Source: ThoughtCo

Difference between DNA & RNA

Source: Byjus
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Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins and

hormones.

Enzymes:
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms. They are
crucial for various physiological processes, including metabolism, digestion, and cellular
signalling. Enzymes also help us with, breathing, building muscles, nerve functions and removing
toxins from our body. The nomenclature of enzymes is derived from their substrates or the
catalysed chemical reactions, and "ase" is usually added as a suffix. E.g., Lactase, cellulase,
protease etc.

Source: Adobe Stock

Source: National Human Genome Research Institute

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Main characteristics/properties of enzymes:

1. Protein nature:
 Enzymes are proteins and therefore, get destroyed by heating.
 The unique structure of each enzyme determines its specificity and catalytic activity.
2. Active site:
 Enzymes have a specific region called the active site where substrate molecules bind and
catalysis occurs.
 The active site has a complementary shape to the substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate
complex.
 Enzyme-substrate interactions are highly specific, and enzymes typically catalyse only one
particular reaction or a set of closely related reactions.
3. Specificity:
 Enzymes exhibit high substrate specificity, meaning they catalyse specific reactions with
specific substrates.
 This specificity is due to the precise arrangement of amino acid residues in the active site,
which allows for optimal binding and catalysis.
4. Temperature and pH sensitivity:
 Enzyme activity is influenced by factors such as temperature and pH.
 Each enzyme has an optimal temperature and pH at which it functions most efficiently.
 Extreme temperatures or pH levels can denature enzymes, causing loss of their three-
dimensional structure and thus loss of activity.
5. Cofactors and Coenzymes:
 Some enzymes require non-protein molecules called cofactors or coenzymes to function
properly.
 Cofactors can be metal ions (e.g., Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺) or organic molecules (e.g., vitamins) that
assist in catalysis.
 Coenzymes are organic molecules that bind loosely to the enzyme and participate in the
catalytic reaction. Examples include NAD⁺, FAD, and coenzyme A.

Functions of Enzymes:
1. Catalysis:
 The primary function of enzymes is to catalyse biochemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy required for the reaction to proceed.
 Enzymes accelerate reaction rates without being consumed in the process, allowing cells to
maintain metabolic pathways and respond to changes in their environment.
2. Metabolism:
 Enzymes play key roles in cellular metabolism, including the breakdown (catabolism) and
synthesis (anabolism) of molecules.
 Catabolic enzymes facilitate the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones,
releasing energy in the process (e.g., digestive enzymes).
 Anabolic enzymes are involved in the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler
precursors, requiring energy input (e.g., enzymes involved in protein synthesis).
3. Digestion:
 Enzymes produced by the digestive system break down food molecules into smaller,
absorbable components.
 For example, amylase breaks down carbohydrates into sugars, proteases hydrolyse proteins
into amino acids, and lipases cleave fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
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4. Cell signalling:
 Some enzymes are involved in cell signalling pathways, transmitting signals from the cell
surface to the nucleus and regulating gene expression.
 Protein kinases, for example, phosphorylate target proteins, altering their activity and
initiating cellular responses to extracellular signals.

Vitamins:
Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for various physiological functions in the body.
They serve as coenzymes, precursors for hormones, antioxidants, and regulators of gene
expression.

Source: Medlife

Properties of Vitamins:
1. Organic compounds:
 Vitamins are organic compounds essential for various physiological functions in the body.
 They are required in small amounts for normal metabolism, growth, and development.
2. Micronutrients:
 Vitamins are classified as micronutrients because they are needed in smaller quantities
compared to macronutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
 Despite their small requirement, vitamins play crucial roles in maintaining health and
preventing deficiency diseases.
3. Classification:
Vitamins are divided into two groups based on their solubility.
 Water-soluble Vitamins: These include vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins (e.g., B1,
B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12). They dissolve in water and are not stored in the body in
significant amounts. Excess water-soluble vitamins are excreted in urine.
 Fat-soluble Vitamins: These include vitamins A, D, E, and K. They dissolve in fat and are
stored in the body's fatty tissues and liver. Fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate to toxic
levels if consumed in excess.
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4. Chemical structure:
 Vitamins have diverse chemical structures and functions.
 For example, vitamin A exists in various forms such as retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid,
while vitamin C is an antioxidant with the chemical name ascorbic acid.
5. Sources:
 Vitamins are obtained from a variety of food sources, including fruits, vegetables, grains,
dairy products, meats, and fish.
 Some vitamins can also be synthesized by the body or obtained through supplementation.

Functions of Vitamins:
1. Coenzymes and Cofactors:
 Many vitamins serve as precursors or components of coenzymes, which are necessary for
enzyme catalysis in metabolic pathways.
 Coenzymes facilitate chemical reactions by transferring functional groups between
molecules. For example, vitamin B6 is a precursor for the coenzyme pyridoxal phosphate,
which is involved in amino acid metabolism.
2. Antioxidant activity:
 Some vitamins, such as vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and vitamin E (tocopherol), act as
antioxidants, protecting cells from damage caused by free radicals.
 Antioxidants neutralize free radicals, unstable molecules that can cause oxidative stress and
damage to cellular structures, including DNA, proteins, and lipids.
3. Bone health:
 Vitamins D and K are essential for bone health and mineral metabolism.
 Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption in the intestine and helps maintain proper levels of
calcium and phosphate in the blood, crucial for bone mineralization.
 Vitamin K is involved in the synthesis of proteins that regulate calcium deposition in bones
and prevent calcification of soft tissues.
4. Vision:
 Vitamin A (retinol) is essential for vision, particularly in low-light conditions.
 It is a component of rhodopsin, a pigment found in the retina of the eye that is involved in
the perception of light.
5. Immune function:
 Several vitamins, including vitamin C, vitamin D, and vitamin E, play roles in supporting
immune function and protecting against infections.
 Vitamin C is involved in the production and function of immune cells, while vitamin D
modulates immune responses and reduces the risk of autoimmune diseases.
6. Neurological function:
 B-complex vitamins, such as thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), and cobalamin
(B12), are important for neurological function and the synthesis of neurotransmitters.
 Deficiencies in these vitamins can lead to neurological disorders, including peripheral
neuropathy, cognitive impairment, and mood disturbances.

Hormones:
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and released into the
bloodstream to regulate physiological processes and maintain homeostasis in the body.
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Source: Endocrine kids

Endocrine hormones
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Properties of Hormones:
1. Chemical nature:
 Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and released into the
bloodstream.
 They can be classified into different chemical categories, including peptides, steroids, and
amino acid derivatives.
2. Transport:
 Hormones are transported throughout the body via the bloodstream.
 Once released into the bloodstream, hormones travel to target cells or tissues, where they
exert their effects by binding to specific receptors.
3. Target specificity:
 Hormones exert their effects on specific target cells or tissues that possess receptors for the
hormone.
 The specificity of hormone action is determined by the presence of specific receptors on
target cells, which bind to the hormone with high affinity.
4. Regulation:
 Hormone secretion is tightly regulated by various factors, including feedback mechanisms,
neurotransmitters, and other hormones.
 Feedback mechanisms involve the monitoring of hormone levels in the bloodstream and the
subsequent modulation of hormone secretion by endocrine glands.
5. Half- life:
 Hormones have different half-lives, which influence their duration of action.
 Some hormones, such as peptide hormones, have short half-lives and exert rapid but
transient effects, while others, such as steroid hormones, have longer half-lives and exert
more prolonged effects.

Functions of Hormones:
1. Regulation of metabolism:
 Hormones play key roles in regulating metabolic processes such as energy production,
storage, and utilization.
 For example, insulin, produced by the pancreas, promotes the uptake of glucose by cells and
stimulates glycogen synthesis in the liver, thereby lowering blood glucose levels.
 Thyroid hormones (e.g., thyroxine) regulate basal metabolic rate and influence energy
expenditure and nutrient metabolism.
2. Growth and development:
 Hormones are crucial for growth and development from infancy through adulthood.
 Growth hormone, produced by the pituitary gland, stimulates growth by promoting cell
division, protein synthesis, and bone growth.
 Sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen, regulate secondary sexual characteristics
and reproductive function during puberty and adulthood.
3. Reproduction:
 Hormones play essential roles in reproductive processes, including gamete production,
sexual differentiation, and pregnancy.
 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), produced by the hypothalamus, stimulates the
release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the
pituitary gland, which regulate ovarian and testicular function.
 Oestrogen and progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle and pregnancy in females, while
testosterone regulates spermatogenesis and male reproductive function.
 Sambhram institute of Technology – Biology for Engineers (CSE)

4. Stress response:
 Hormones are involved in the body's response to stress, helping to mobilize resources and
adapt to challenging situations.
 The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis plays a central role in the stress response,
with hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline (epinephrine) mobilizing energy stores and
increasing heart rate and blood pressure.
5. Homeostasis:
 Hormones help maintain homeostasis by regulating various physiological parameters,
including blood glucose levels, electrolyte balance, and fluid balance.
 For example, parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the
blood by stimulating calcium release from bones and increasing renal reabsorption of
calcium.
6. Behaviour and mood:
 Hormones can influence behaviour, mood, and emotional responses.
 For example, serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine are neurotransmitters that also act as
hormones, regulating mood, motivation, and cognitive function.

Understanding the properties and functions of hormones is essential for comprehending the
complex regulatory mechanisms that maintain physiological balance in the body. Dysregulation of
hormone levels can lead to various disorders and diseases, highlighting the importance of
hormonal balance for overall health and well-being.