Development

[12] Studies
MODULE 6: Population

Masunga Senior Secondary School

 MODULE 6: POPULATION, HEALTH AND development;

EDUCATION -discuss the impact of HIV/AIDS on Botswana’s

economic development;
TOPIC GENERAL SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
-discuss how the health system is addressing the
OBJECTIVES
HIV/AIDS scourge in Botswana;
Learners should be Learners should be able to:
able to:
-demonstrate the ability to analyse and interpret
Population Develop an -explain the concept of population; health statistics.
understanding and
Education Appreciate the role of -explain the concept of education;
appreciation of the -explain the stages of the Demographic Transition
education in
effects of population Model;
development in -discuss modern and traditional formal, non-formal
on development.
Botswana and informal education;
-account for the different population structures
presented by different population pyramids;
-describe the structure of the formal and non-formal
education in Botswana;
-describe and interpret population pyramids for
developing and developed countries;
-discuss alternative approaches to the provision of
education in Botswana including vocational
-discuss the main factors which influence population
education and job shadowing;
distribution and population density in the world;
-discuss the impact of information technology
-discuss prospects and challenges presented by rapid
education on the development of Botswana;
population growth in Botswana and suggest possible
solutions;
-discuss the role of environmental education on
development of Botswana;
-explain the impact of the population growth on
-explain the role of education in addressing the
Botswana’s development;
problems of HIV/AIDS.
-demonstrate the ability to collect, analyse and
present population statistics;

-discuss the impact of HIV/AIDS on the population

structure of Botswana;

-explain the effects of overpopulation on the

environment.

Health Explain the role of -explain the concept of health;

health in development.
-discuss factors that influence good health such as
the provision of clean water, sanitation, nutrition,
entertainment, education, availability of personnel,
stress and poverty;

-discuss preventative and curative primary and

secondary health care, traditional and modern health
systems;

-discuss the impact of the health on Botswana’s

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies MODULE 6: POPULATION Page 1

 POPULATION  Doubling Time is the number of years required for a population of
an area to increase two folds its present size, given the current rate
 Population refers to a group of people in an area at a given time. of population growth.

 Population Growth Rate is the percentage increase in the number  Overpopulation is the state of available resources being
of people in a country. inadequate to support the number with a reasonable standard of
living.
 Population explosion is the rapid increase in the number of
people.  Demographic Transition Model is a diagram which shows how
population changes over time.
 Depopulation is the decrease in the number of people.
 Population Pyramid is the structure which shows the age-sex
 Demography is the study of population. composition of a group of people.

 Dependency Ratio is the proportion of the unproductive aged  Rapid Population Growth is the fast increase of the size of a
people (0-14 and 65+) to people of economically active ages (15- group of people.
64)
 Under Population is when people are too few in an area, or when
 Old/Ageing population is a group of people with relatively high the available resources exceed the demand of a group of people.
proportion of aged people. This kind of a population has low
growth potential.  Optimum Population is when available resources give rise to
maximum output per head.
 Young population is a group of people with relatively high
proportion of children, adolescents and young adults. This kind of THE SOURCES OF POPULATION DATA
a population has high growth potential.
CENSUS is an enumeration of people. It usually details such characteristics
 Sex Ratio is the number of males per 100 females in a population. as age, occupation, sex etc.

 Population Policy is the explicit or implicit measure institute by a TYPES OF CENSUS

government to influence the size, growth, distribution and
composition of a group of people.  De-factor Census, which is the actual enumeration of people in a
given territory on the census day.
 Population Density is the number of people per unit of land.
 De-jure Census, which is the enumeration of people who belong
 Population distribution is how people are spread or settled over to a given area, whether or not they are present during the census
an area. day.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies MODULE 6: POPULATION Page 2

 THE FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF A CENSUS POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY
The patterns of distribution and density are influenced by:
 Each individual is enumerated separately, and the characteristics of
each person separately recorded. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

 The census covers a clearly defined area, and every person within  Physical or Relief
the area.  Climate
 Vegetation
 The population is enumerated with respect to a well-defined point  Soil Fertility
of time.  Disease and Pests
 Availability or lack of natural resources such as water, minerals,
 Census is carried out at regular intervals. sources of energy, etc.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CENSUS SOCIO-POLITICAL FACTORS

 Slave Trade
 It helps in development planning, for fair distribution of resources.  Colonialism
 Wars and conflicts
 It enables government to prioritise, for example, if a large portion  Political instability
of the population is below 15years of age, government’s priority  Cultural or linguistic segregation
might be to build schools.  Racial Discrimination
 Peace and stability, etc
SAMPLE SURVEY is a method of data collection through using selected
groups of the population. The information will then be used to inter-trend ECONOMIC FACTORS
for larger segment or the entire population.  Good infrastructure
 Job opportunities

THE REGISTRATION OF VITAL EVENTS THE PROSPECTS OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH

Vital events such as births, marriages, divorce and deaths are usually These are the benefits of rapid population growth:
registered at the Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs, as they occur.
 Increased market base.
Poor quality data, which is available mostly in developing countries, may be
due to non-reporting, lack of trained staff, lack of money to carry out the  Increased provision of labour.
exercise, incomplete coverage, cultural and linguistic barriers, among other
factors.  Advanced technology.

 Increased military or security superiority

 Increased understanding of man’s behaviour and a positive

development of humanism as human ideology.

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 THE CHALLENGES OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH  Providing serviced land, for example, in urban areas through such
programs as Accelerated Land Servicing Program.
These are the problems associated with rapid population growth:  Establishing rainwater and runoff harvesting measures such as
building more dams.
 Depletion of natural resources.  Improving schemes aimed at reducing poverty, especially in rural
areas, such as the Drought Relief Programme.
 Food shortage and malnutrition or starvation.  Train more doctors and nurses who might improve medical
technology.
 Shortage of houses and high rentals, high prices for land and  Train more teachers and lecturers to improve local educational
building materials. technology.
 Establishing more industries to create more job opportunities.
 Shortage of water.
 Implementing population policies to control population growth.
POPULATION POLICY
 Increased in illiteracy rate due to shortage of schools and lowered
educational standards.
The Advantages include:
 Shortage of medical facilities.
 Reduction in poverty since it allows development to keep pace
with population growth.
 Pollution, for example, due to dysfunctional sewage systems.
 It can lessen inflation.
 Rapid spread of communicable diseases.
The Disadvantages include:
 Increased unemployment rate or poverty or underemployment.
 It restricts people’s freedom of choice [in regards to the family
 Shrinking energy reserves. size]
 Increased crime rate.  Women may be forced to have abortion, which might endanger
their health.
 Scarcity-induced inflation.
 Strict policies can result in an unbalanced population in terms of
THE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS OF RAPID the sex composition.
POPULATION GROWTH
THE IMPACT OF HIV AND AIDS ON THE POPULATION
 Improving agricultural production. STRUCTURE OF BOTSWANA
 Creating new settlements, for example, towns, villages, cities.  Fewer children or reduced birth rates or narrow base.

 Establishing agencies and schemes to help decrease the cost of  Reduced working-age group.
building houses, for example, BHC and SHHA.
 Reduced life expectancy.

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 STAGE 3: Late expanding -Birth rate rapidly decline, but is still higher
 High infant mortality rate. than death rate, which continues to decrease, further accelerating population
growth.
 Increased orphan-hood.
STAGE 4: Low fluctuating- Both birth and death rates are low and
 High dependency ratio. fluctuating, resulting in a steady population growth [the population
increases at a comparatively slow pace]
 Increased death rates.
STAGE 5-Birth rate remains low, while death rate steadily increases,
 Reduced population growth rate or population decrease. leading to a decline in population growth.

THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL [DTM] THE REASONS FOR HIGH BIRTH RATE MAY INCLUDE:

 Lack of knowledge and improper use of contraceptives and poor

family planning methods.

 A lot of children were needed for old age security, to provide

labour, as a sign of prestige, to replace those who are dying, to
continue the family name, for religious purpose, etc.

 Early marriages also led to high birth rates.

 Low levels of literacy also led to high birth rates.

THE REASONS FOR HIGH DEATH RATE MAY INCLUDE:

 Lack of clean water or flood.

 Poor nutrition
 Poor hygiene and sanitation
Fig.1  Poverty
 Wars
INTERPRETATION  Overcrowding

STAGE 1: High fluctuating-Birth rate and death rate high and fluctuating,
resulting in a low population growth. THE REASONS FOR DECLINING BIRTH RATE MAY INCLUDE:

STAGE 2: Early expanding -Birth rate remains high while death rate  The couples preferring smaller families
rapidly declines, leading rapid population growth.
 Improved knowledge and proper use of contraceptives and family
planning methods.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies MODULE 6: POPULATION Page 5

 (a)(i) Description of population structure shown by the pyramid.
 Low infant mortality rate –no need to replace the dying children. Ideas such as:
- Many youth or high number of young people
 Introduction of government schemes such as old-age pension fund, - Few members of the work force or few economically active people
secures old-age life, hence needless to have a lot of children as old- - Fewer women than men among the workforce
age security. - Few old people
- More old women than men
THE REASONS FOR DECLINING DEATH RATE MAY INCLUDE:
(ii) Why Botswana could be viewed as a developing country.
 The provision of clean water to reduce water borne diseases such Ideas such as:
as cholera. - Botswana pyramid has a wider base or high birth rate
- Botswana pyramid has a reducing middle section
 The provision of good nutrition, for example, supplementary - Botswana pyramid has very narrow top or apex or low life
feeding for babies in clinics such as Tsabana, cooking oil and expectancy
beans. - Botswana pyramid has a triangular shape
- Botswana pyramid has concave sides
 The provision of improved hygiene and sanitation prevent the - High dependency ratio
spread of diseases.
(b)(i) Ways by which rapid population growth may promote development
 The provision of better health care, for example, training of more Ideas such as:
doctors and nurses. - Increased demand or market for goods and services
- Attraction of investors (Foreign Direct Investment)
 The improved literacy levels, for example, building of more - Enjoyment of the benefits of economies of scale or promotion of
schools and training of teachers. large scale production which is more efficient
- Full utilisation of transport or communication networks
POPULATION PYRAMIDS - Power, water and other services can be operated at a low cost so
the government will establish them
- Availability of cheap labour

(ii) Strategies which governments may use to reduce population growth.

Ideas such as:
- Law restricting number of children per couple
- Offer of incentives for families with few children
- Family planning programme or contraceptives
- Promotion of general education
- Public education on population issues or sex education
- Provision of old age pension
- Increasing marriageable age
- Women empowerment

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 Assignment 1: Draw a population pyramid for Peru. Assignments 2: Draw a population Pyramid for the UK

Fig.3
Fig.2
This is a population pyramid for typical developed country. It can also be
referred to as a Mature population.
This is a population pyramid for a typical developing country. It can also
be called an Early Expanding Population Pyramid. INTERPRETATION-It has a narrow base, expanding column or middle, a
thick or broad apex or top.
INTERPRETATION: It has a broad base, steep or contracting column or
middle, and a thin or narrow apex or top. ANALYSIS-Low birth rate is indicated by a smaller number of children,
the middle aged group has a large number of people, indicating low death
ANALYSIS: The population has a high birth rate, shown by a large number rate.
of children; the death rate is also high, indicated by smaller number of those
in the middle and old ages. The elderly are also many, indicating high life expectancy.
Life expectancy is also low, shown by an even smaller number of the The dependency ratio is low, hence the population is referred to as a
elderly. productive one.
Assignment 3-Draw a population pyramid for Singapore
This kind of a population is a dependent one, for example, the dependency
ratio is high

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies MODULE 6: POPULATION Page 7

 Fig.4

This is a population pyramid for a typical New Industrialised Country. It

can also be referred to as Late Expanding.

INTERPRETATION- It has a narrow base, expanding column, and a thin

or narrow apex or top.

ANALYSIS- Low birth rate is shown by a small number of children, a

large number of people in the middle ages indicate low death rate, and a
smaller number of the elderly shows low life expectancy.

The pyramid is that of a productive population since the dependency ratio is

low.

Masunga Senior Secondary School Development Studies MODULE 6: POPULATION Page 8

 Check Your Progress

1 (a).Define population density.

(b) State three problems for the natural environment that may result from
overpopulation.

2(a) What is meant by ‘population distribution’?

(b) Describe three factors which influence population distribution.

3. Study Fig. 2 which shows a population pyramid for a country and use it to answer
Question 3(a) below.

Fig.2

(a)What is a demographic transition model?

(b)Which stage has the lowest birth rate?

(c) Suggest reasons for the falling death rate at stage 2.

(d) Describe three benefits for a country of having a large population.

(e) Suggest three ways by which governments can achieve low population growth
rates.

Fig.1

(a)(i) Describe the shape of the pyramid.

(b) Suggest reasons for the shape of the pyramid you have described above.

4. Study Fig. 2 which shows a demographic transition model and use it to answer the
questions that follow.

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5. Study Fig.3, and use it to answer questions (a)(i) and (ii).
(b)(i) How have HIV and AIDS affected the population of Botswana?

Ideas such as:

 Fewer children/narrow base(0-5 years)/fewer children born/reduced birth
rate
 Fewer 15-49 age bracket because they are the most affected/reduced
working age group/ loss of breadwinners
 Reduction in life expectancy
 Fewer women in the population composition especially in the middle
because they are the most affected
 High infant mortality rate
 Increased orphanhood
 High dependency ratio
 Reduction in population/increased death rate
(ii) Describe attempts made by the government of Botswana to reduce the
Fig.3 effects of HIV and AIDS in society.

(a)(i) Give reasons for high birth rates in stage 1. Ideas such as:
 Education programmes, for example, Talk back
Ideas such as:  Commemoration of World AIDS Day/ Month of youth against Aids
 Lack of contraceptives  Free Antiretroviral drugs
 IMR is high so there is need to have more babies  Food rations given
 Provision of labour/children used as source of labour in agriculture  Prevention of Mother to child transmission (PMTCT) programme/
 Religious beliefs, for example, Children are a gift from God Provision of free milk for babies
 Low levels of literacy  BOTUSA(Botswana United States of America)
 Traditional beliefs and customs/ children as a form of prestige  Research towards National Aids Co-ordination Agency (NACA)
 Old age security  Infusion of HIV and AIDS in the curriculum
 Early marriages  Guidance and counselling in schools/ hospitals
 Chasing for a boy/girl  Free distribution of condoms
 Poverty so children expected to work for their families/parents expecting  Routine testing for HIV
bride price

(ii) Describe the problems faced by a country in stage 2.

Ideas such as:

 Unemployment/underemployment/poverty
 Pressure on social services such as school , water and hospitals/clinics
 Depletion of resources
 Overcrowding/shortage of land
 Crime increases
 Spread of diseases/ high morbidity
 Starvation/hunger

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6.Study Fig.4 which shows the Demographic Transition Model. (b)(i) Describe actions that hospitals and clinics take to fight HIV and AIDS.

Ideas such as:

-Health talks on HIV and AIDS at hospitals and clinics/ public education
-Display of HIV and AIDS posters in hospitals and clinics/ surrounding areas.
-Counselling of HIV and AIDS victims and the affected family members.
-Testing people for HIV and AIDS
-Proper disposal of used hospital equipment e.g. needles
-Provision of Anti Retro Viral Drugs (ARVs) to HIV and AIDS patients
-Running the Prevention of Mother To Child Transmission (PMTCT) programme to
protect unborn children
-Distribution of free condoms
-Encourage/ conduct male circumcision

(ii) Explain the negative effects of HIV and AIDS on economic development in
Fig.4 Botswana.

Ideas such as:

(a)(i) Describe the relationship between the death rate and the birth rate from - Death of skilled manpower.
Stage 1 to Stage 4. -Loss of production time as people spend time in funerals and caring for the sick.
-High government expenditure on health which means that funds are diverted from
Ideas such as: development projects to support health care
-Less tourists visit the country for fear of HIV and AIDS.
-In stage 1 they are both high. -Low productivity at work because people are sick or stressed by HIV and AIDS
-In stage 2 the death rate drops while the birth rate remains high. -High expenditure by families on funerals
-In stage 3 the birth rate begins to drop while the death rate is low.
-In stage 4 they are both low. 1. (a) (i)Describe the factors which contribute to rapid population
(ii) Suggest reasons for the high death rate in Stage 1 of the Demographic growth.
Transition Model.
Ideas such as:
Ideas such as:
 Lack of birth control/family planning method/lack of contraceptives
 Need for children as labour in agriculture
-Outbreak of killer diseases such as polio.
-Poor diets/famine/low calorie intake  Religious beliefs
-Poor medical technology/ lack of health facilities/ poor health/ lack of  Balancing boys and girls/ desire for either boys or girls
immunisation programme.  Polygamy
-Lack of safe water supplies  Early marriages/teenage pregnancy
-Low levels of formal education.  Children viewed as security for the aged/ bride price
-Wars  High infant mortality rate/ parents replacing dead children
-Poor sanitation/ hygiene (Allocation of marks: 5/5 6/4 4/6)  Immigration
 Lack of education/illiteracy
 Traditional beliefs/prestige

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(ii) Explain the measures which can be adopted by a country to slow down
population growth. 8.Study Fig. 3, which shows a population pyramid for Botswana in 2001.

Ideas such as:

 One child per couple policy
 Legalizing abortion
 Offering contraceptives freely/ family planning/ birth control/ sterilization
 Formal education/ Educating the society
 Giving incentives to smaller families/ fining larger families
 Maternity leave policy which discourages having many children
 Making children items expensive
 Laws against chid labour
 Encourage adoption
 Health education
 Empowering women

(b)(i) What are the problems faced by countries in controlling high population
growth?
Ideas such as:
 Low education levels in rural areas
 Unavailability of contraceptives in some areas Fig.5
 Apathy/negative attitude towards family planning programmes
 Conservative culture/religions which encourage large families/ cultural
rigidity (a)(i) Describe the population characteristics shown by the pyramid.
 Abuse of drugs/ alcohol
 Child labour Ideas such as:
 Lack of funds to implement family planning programmes
-High birth rate
(ii) Discuss the impacts of HIV and AIDS on the population of Botswana. -Birth rate is beginning to reduce
Ideas such as: -High death rate
Negative effects: -Low life expectancy/ few old people
 Reduced life expectancy -Life expectancy for females is higher than that of males/ more old females than
males
 High infant mortality rate
-High dependency ratio.
 Loss of skilled manpower/ breadwinners/working class
-More females than males
 High death rate
 Reduced population (ii) The 0-4 age group is similar than the 5-9 and 10-14 age groups. Suggest
 More women die than men reasons for this reduction.
 Low birth rates
 Increase in orphans/ high dependency ratio Ideas such as:
Positive effects:
 Population growth rate is controlled -Increased use of contraceptives/family planning/provision of free contraceptives.
 Fewer people for the resources available/ fewer mouths to feed -More women are educated so they are empowered/ are aware of their reproductive
health.

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-More career women so they lack time to care for babies. -Land redistribution/resettlement programmes.
-People are afraid of pregnancy because of HIV and AIDS -Welfare programmes/food baskets for the destitute/ government help the poor with
-High infant mortality rate due to HIV and AIDS/ Other diseases basic needs.
-High cost of living discouraging birth rate/Highly ambitious people control birth -Women empowerment/ skilled manpower
rate to maintain high living standards.
-Laws against child labour/ improved technology (Allocation of marks: 5/5 6/4 4/6)
-Change of traditional mindsets on the size of the family.
-Reduced infant mortality rate/ improved health facilities
-Government pension reduces the need for a large family 9.Study Fig. 6, which shows population characteristics in Botswana in 1981, 1991
and 2001.
(Rule: Award once for issues on high Infant Mortality Rate. Marks allocation 5/5
6/4 4/6) Population Characteristcs Census 1981 Census Census 2001
1991
(b)(i) Describe the problems that Botswana is experiencing as a result of its Dependency Ratio (per 110 93 71.5
population structure. 1000)
Crude Birth Rate (per 1000) 47.7 39.3 28.9
Ideas such as: Crude Death Rate (per 13.9 11.5 12.4
1000)
-High taxation of workforce to cater for many youth/ too many dependants/ Infant Mortality Rate (per 71 48 56
government burdened on welfare programmes. 1000)
-Overload of social services e.g. schools and hospitals. Life expectancy (in years) 56.5 65.3 55.6
-Unemployment due to expanding population. General Fertility Rate (per 6.5 4.2 3.27
-Deforestation due to high demand for trees (from expanded population)/ depletion woman Aged 15-49)
of natural resources. Urban % 9 45.7 54.2
-Poor sanitation/ littering/pollution.
-Starvation/ hunger/ poverty
Source: National Development Plan 9
-Shortage of farm land /grazing land/ land
Fig.6
(ii) Suggest actions that the government of Botswana could take to solve
problems resulting from its population structure.
(a)(i) Describe the changes in population characteristics between 1991 and 2001.
Ideas such as: (ii) Suggest reasons for the increase in life expectancy from 1981 to 1991.
-Introduce family planning/ birth control/ contraceptives/ few children/ one child
(b)(i) Describe the factors that could have caused the high general fertility rate in
policy.
1981.
-Law restricting number of children.
-Promote formal education to change the traditional mind set on large family. (ii) Suggest actions that the government of Botswana can take to reduce the
-Improve health service to reduce death rate or increase life expectancy. dependency ratio.
-Improve agricultural methods to ensure high yields from small fields/ agricultural
extension service.
-Encourage reforestation/ afforestation
-Introduce environmental laws
-Train people for self-employment/employment creation/financial assistance
-Recognition of the informal sector by the government.
-Provide more social services to reduce overload(on social services)

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10. Fig. 7 Shows the Demographic Transition Model.
(a)(i) Describe the actions that the government of Botswana is taking to address the
problem of high infant
Mortality rate.

Ideas such as:

- Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT) programme to stop

or curb mother to child HIV infection/ provision of milk
formula/ART/HAART
- Monitoring of under 5 years growth, for example, provision of
supplementary feeding such as Tsabana, vaccination of babies against
killer diseases such as polio and measles, weighing
- Medical care for pregnant mothers/ antenatal care
- Education of mothers/parents/guardians on baby care
- Public education, for example clean environment, delivering at health
facilities, boiling water before giving to child
- Training/employing specialists/health personnel such as nurses and
doctors
Fig.7 - Provision of health facilities

(a)(i) Name Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model. (ii) Apart from HIV and AIDS, suggest other reasons why Botswana had a low life
expectancy in 2012.
(ii) At what stage does the total population start to rise?
Ideas such as:
(b) Give two reasons for the high death rate in Stage 1.
- High incidents of alcohol consumption/smoking/drug abuse/life
(c) Give three reasons for the high birth rates in developing countries. threatening habits
- Poor nutrition/people eating unbalanced diets/underfeeding/starvation
(d) Suggest three measures that developing countries can use to reduce their birth - People drinking contaminated water
rates. - People living passive lives/lack of exercise
- People stressed by challenges of life
11. Study Fig. 1, which is an extract on population characteristics of Botswana - Shortage of health facilities/medication
in 2012. - Ignorance or lack of cooperation resulting in missing medical check ups
- Poor sanitation/hygiene
The World Economic Forum (2012) reports that in 2012, Botswana’s life - Back-breaking jobs
expectancy was 53.1 years and that the country was at position number 132 out of - High rate road accidents.
144 countries. Infant mortality rate was 36.1 per 1000 live births, putting Botswana
at position number 104 out of 144 countries.

Fig.8

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(b)(i) Describe how HIV and AIDS might affect the population structure of
Botswana.

Ideas such as:

- Reduced Birth Rate as people fear unprotected sex/ fewer babies/reduced

youth
- Increased Death Rate/reduced population
- Few old people/ low life expectancy
- Reduced workforce/bread winners/death of active members as they are at
the highest risk
- Few women in the workforce group
- More orphans

(ii) Suggest challenges faced by hospital and clinics in the fight against HIV and
AIDS.

Ideas such as:

- Lack of funds/high expenses of purchasing Anti -Retroviral (ARVs)
- Stigmatisation of HIV/AIDS
- Traditional practices that promotes HIV and AIDS such as a brother
inheriting a dead brother’s wife regardless of HIV status and polygamy
- Overcrowding in health facilities, for example, shortage of beds
- Shortage of the health personnel or overworked health personnel
- Ignorance/illiteracy, for example, people ignore the PMTCT programme
or refuse to use condoms
- Culture/Religion which counter HIV/AIDS fight, for example, which
discourages open talk about sex especially children
- Poor disposal of clinical waste/health personnel at risk.

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