Name:___________________________

RADIOACTIVITY

“The atomic bomb made the prospect of future war unendurable. It has led
us up those last few steps to the mountain pass; and beyond there is a
different country.”

J. Robert Oppenheimer
 Ions and Isotopes
The learning outcomes of this lesson are to be able to…

Notes & Keywords

 Big Picture
The Parts of an Atom
The three main parts of an atom are protons and neutrons in the nucleus, with electrons
orbiting. You need to know their relative charges and masses.

Name Symbol Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton p 1 +1
Neutron n 1 0
Electron e 0 (1/2000) -1

Atomic Notation
The periodic table is incredibly useful. The guide below shows what each part of the
symbol means.
How to calculate the number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in an atom
X is the symbol found in the periodic table for the element.

𝐴 A is the mass number. This is the total number of protons and

𝑋
neutrons that are found in the nucleus

Z is the proton number but is sometimes called the atomic

𝑍 number. This is the number of protons found in the nucleus.

Since atoms are neutral, this is also the number of electrons
orbiting the nucleus.

The number of neutrons can be calculated by taking the

proton number from the mass number. N = A – Z
What’s An Ion?
An ion is an atom with an overall positive or negative charge. The only way for an
atom to become charged is to lose or gain electrons. If an atom loses one electron
it is an ion and has a charge of +1 (1 more proton than electrons). At atom that
gains two electron would be an ion with a charge of -2 (2 more electrons than
protons).
What’s An Isotope?
An isotope is an atom of the SAME ELEMENT which has a
different number of neutrons. It’s the same element so the
proton number has to be the same, the different number of
neutrons means that the mass number is not the same.
Look at the example of the carbon isotope to the right.
Z = 6 in both therefore they must both be carbon.
A = 12 or 14 the only thing that could add mass and not
change the element is neutrons.
For 6 12C N = A - Z = 12 - 6 = 6 neutrons.
For 614C N = A - Z = 14 - 6 = 8 neutrons.
 Questions: Ions and Isotopes
Q1 What do A and Z mean below?

A is:
𝑨
𝒁𝑿 Z is:

Q2 If you know A and Z, how can you work out the number of neutrons in a nucleus?

Q3 Complete the table for the following neutral atoms:

𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟒 𝟐𝟒
𝟔𝑪 𝟗𝟐𝑼 𝟔𝑪 𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈

Number of
protons
Number of
neutrons
Number of
electrons
Q4 Which of the atoms in Q3 are isotopes of each other? Why?

Q5 What is the definition of an isotope?

Q6 What is an ion?

Q7 Why aren’t all the mass numbers in the periodic table whole numbers? You can’t have
half a proton!

Stretch and Challenge

How do scientists make very large nuclei?
Why do they bother?
If protons are positive and neutrons are neutral, what is stopping the static charge forcing
the protons apart? Explain why bigger atoms need more neutrons.
 Exam Question
(a) Complete the table below to show the relative mass and charge of a neutron and an
electron.
The relative mass and charge of a proton have already been done for you.

PARTICLE RELATIVE MASS RELATIVE CHARGE

proton 1 +1

neutron

electron
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(b) The diagrams below show the nuclei of four different atoms A, B, C and D.
Key: – proton – neutron

nucleus A nucleus B nucleus C nucleus D

(i) State the mass number of C. ..............................................................

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(ii) Which two are isotopes of the same element? .................... and ....................
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Explain your answer.

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In the nucleus of an aluminium atom are:13 protons and 14 neutrons.
(c) Complete these sentences.
(i) The mass number of the aluminium atom is ...................................... .

(ii) In an atom of aluminium there are ....................................... electrons.

(2)
(d) Why is an aluminium atom electrically neutral?

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(e) Complete the table for the element fluorine.
NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF
PARTICLE PROTONS NEUTRONS ELECTRONS

Fluorine atom 9 9

Fluoride ion 10

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Effort Target
 Alpha, Beta and Gamma
The learning outcomes of this lesson are to be able to…

Notes & Keywords

 Big Picture
What is Radioactivity?
Radioactivity is the process by which an unstable nucleus becomes more stable. In other
words, some nuclei are unstable, the nucleus needs to throw something out to become
more stable.

The decay is random we don’t know when it will happen. You will learn more about the
properties next lesson.

Alpha α
Mass = 4 Charge = +2 Ionizing? Highly
Description:
An alpha particle is made up from two protons and two neutrons. Each
of these nucleons has a mass of 1, therefore the total mass is 4. The two
protons give it a charge of +2. Due to its large mass and charge it is
highly ionizing. An alpha particle is actually a Helium nucleus, check
you understand why by looking at the periodic table.

Beta β
Mass = 0 (1/2000) Charge = -1 Ionizing? Mildly
Description:
A beta particle is high energy electron. It has almost no mass (actually,
relative mass = 1/2000) and a charge of -1.

Gamma γ
Mass = 0 Charge = 0 Ionizing? Weakly
Description:
Gamma is an electromagnetic wave. It is not a particle. It has no mass,
no charge and is weakly ionizing. It is a wave that has very high
frequency and energy.

Observing Alpha α, Beta β and Gamma γ

The properties of the three types of
radioactive decay can be deduced
by analysing their paths when in the
presence of an electric field or
magnetic field.
ALPHA α – Has a +2 charge and
therefore is repelled away from the positive plate and
towards the negative or neutral plate.
BETA β – Has a charge of -1 and is attracted to the positive
plate.
GAMMA γ – An electromagnetic wave with no charge,
therefore its path is not altered by the presence of an
electric field, it travels straight through.
NOTE: Alpha is only deflected by a small amount as it has a large mass compared to its
charge (remember F=ma). Beta has a very small mass compared to its charge so is
deflected by a large amount. Since gamma has no charge, it passes through the field
without deviation.
 Questions: Alpha Beta Gamma
Q1 Where does alpha, beta and gamma radiation come from?

Q2 Complete the following tables:

What is it made of? How ionising?

Alpha

Beta

Gamma

Symbol Relative mass Relative charge

Alpha

Beta

Gamma

Q3 Which type of radiation is the fastest? Explain your answer.

Q4 Identify the radiation labelled a, b and c. Give a reason for each of your choices.

a
b

Stretch and Challenge

How are charged particles deflected in a magnetic field?
How could you measure the charge to mass ratio of a particle e.g. the electron?
How was the charge of an electron finally measured?
How is the motion of charged particles in magnetic and electric fields used at CERN?
 Exam Question
Some types of food are treated with gamma radiation. Low doses of radiation slow down the
ripening of fresh fruit and vegetables while higher doses of radiation kill the bacteria that
make the food go off.
(a) (i) What is gamma radiation?

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(ii) A suitable source of gamma radiation is the isotope caesium 137.
Complete the following sentence by choosing the correct word from the box.

electrons neutrons protons

An atom of caesium 137 has two more .............................................. than an atom of caesium
135.
(1)
(b) The diagram shows how a conveyor belt can be used to move food past the
radioactive source.

(i) How do the concrete walls reduce the radiation hazard to workers outside the food
treatment area?

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(ii) Suggest one way that the dose of radiation received by the food could be
increased other than by changing the radioactive source.

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(c) Some people may not like the idea of eating food treated with radiation.What
evidence could a food scientist produce to show that food treated with radiation is
safe to eat?

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Effort Target
 Background Radiation and
decay equations
The learning outcomes of this lesson are to be able to…

Notes & Keywords

 Big Picture
Background Radiation
Radiation is around us all the time, thankfully it is not at harmful levels. It can be detected
with a Geiger counter, you need to be aware of a combination of natural and man-
made sources of Background Radiation. Radon is the largest natural contributor to
Background Radiation it is naturally occurring in rocks and soil and is sometimes found as
gas underground. Medical procedures are the largest source of manmade Background
Radiation. Radiation can be measured using a Geiger-Muller tube which counts the
number of particles that are ionised by radiation.

People who work in an occupation that involves being exposed to additional radiation
constantly have their exposure monitored. Scientists at CERN wear a badge that tracks
the accumulated levels of radiation they are exposed to in a month.

Nuclear Equations
Nuclear equations are just like any other, both sides having to balance. With nuclear
equations we don’t use an equal’s sign we just consider what’s there before and after
a decay. Total mass before decay must equal total mass after decay; the same is true
for proton number. First we need to understand how to correctly use notation for α
and β (gamma is not required). When proton number changes it is now a different
element!
4
2𝛼 Alpha has a proton number (atomic number) of 2 and a total mass of 4.

When Uranium decays it emits an alpha particle and becomes Thorium, look at your
periodic table.
Mass is conserved 238 = 234 + 4
Proton number is conserved 92 = 90 + 2
0
−1𝛽 Beta has a proton number of -1 because a neutron changes to a proton to cause
its emission, its mass is 0. When Carbon 14 decays via a beta emission it turns to
Nitrogen.

Mass is conserved: 14 = 14
Proton number is conserved: 6 = 7 + -1
 Questions
Q1 Complete this table:
Type of radiation Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons
Alpha

Beta

Gamma
Q2 Complete these decay equations:

238 ….. …..

92𝑈 → …..𝑇ℎ + …..𝛼
230 ….. …..
88𝑅𝑎 → …..𝐴𝑐 + …..𝛽
….. 230 …..
90𝑇ℎ → …..𝑅𝑎 + …..𝛼
230 ….. …..
…..𝐴𝑐 → 90 𝑇ℎ + …..𝛽
Q3 State three sources of background radiation.

Q4 Describe the link between background radiation and altitude.

Q5 What causes the effect you described in Q4?

Q6 What proportion of background radiation is from radon gas?

Stretch and Challenge

Explain how a Geiger-Müller tube works. Use diagrams to help you.
What is Cherenkov radiation? How is it used to detect cosmic rays?
Are there other ways to study cosmic rays?
 Exam Question
(a) Describe the structure of alpha particles.

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(b) Describe how beta radiation is produced by a radioactive isotope.

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(c) Some types of job increase the radiation dose a worker receives in addition to
background levels. People working as aircrew receive an increased radiation dose due
to flying at high altitude.
(i) The radiation dose from which source of background radiation is increased by
flying?

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(ii) The following table gives the average additional radiation dose received by
aircrew flying to various destinations from London.
Flight time Average additional radiation dose in
Destination
in hours millisieverts (mSv)
Edinburgh 1 0.004
Istanbul 5 0.025
Toronto 8 0.050
Tokyo 13 0.075

What is the relationship between flight time and average additional radiation
dose?

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(d) The following table gives the effects of different radiation doses on the human body.
Radiation dose in mSv Effects
10000 Immediate illness; death within a few weeks
1000 Radiation sickness; unlikely to cause death
100 Lowest dose with evidence of causing cancer

A businessman makes 10 return flights a year from London to Tokyo.Explain whether the
businessman should be concerned about the additional radiation dose received during the
flights.

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Effort Target
 Half-Life
The learning outcomes of this lesson are to be able to…

Notes & Keywords

 Big Picture
Half-Life λ
The process of radioactive decay is completely
random, we don’t know when a particular atom will
decay. However, the amount of radioactive decay
we detect over time is predictable. Half-life is a
measure of time; its unit could be seconds, weeks,
months or years. Its symbol is Lambda λ. There are
two ways to define half-life but they both mean the
same thing:

• Half-life is the time taken for the count rate of a

radioactive source to decrease by half.
• Half-life is the time taken for the number of
radioactive nuclei to decrease by half.
HALF LIFE IS CONSTANT FOR A GIVEN SOURCE

Calculating Half Life λ

You will usually be asked to calculate half-life from a
graph, the graph could use either of the
definitions above.
After one half-life you will have half as much as
when you started, after two half live you’ll have
a quarter of what you started with and so on...

1st Half Life:

The graph to the right has a count rate of 80 to
begin with, after 1 half-life the count rate will be
40. You can see from the arrows that this takes 2
days. λ = 2 days
2nd Half Life:
The next half-life will take us to ¼ of what we
started with, check for yourself that this takes a further 2 days.

3rd Half Life:

After 3 half-lives the count rate will be 1/8th of what you started with. In this case 10
counts/min. The half-life was 2 days, this happened 3 times so the time taken for 3 half-
lives is 3 x 2 days = 6 days.

The Right Half-Life λ for the Job

Choosing the right half-life is very important:
SHORT HALF-LIVES (e.g. up to 1 hour): Good for medical tracers. Being exposed to
radioactivity for a long period of time is dangerous as it damages cells, therefore risk is
reduced.
LONG HALF-LIVES (e.g. 100 years): Good for long term appliances such as smoke
detectors or industrial appliances such as thickness control, we need the source to be
active for as long as the machine is working.
 Questions
Q1 Can you predict when a radioactive nucleus will decay and emit radiation?

Q2 What is half-life?

Q3 Calculate the half-lives of these radioactive sources as accurately as possible:

Q4 What half-life would you look for in an isotope to be used as a medical tracer? Explain
your answer.

Stretch and Challenge

Find the equation which describes radioactive decay and half-life. What do all the terms mean?
Are there other nuclear interactions other than the emission of alpha, beta and gamma radiation?
 Exam Question
In 1986, a nuclear reactor exploded in a power station at Chernobyl in the Ukraine.
The table gives information about some of the radioactive substances released into the air
by the explosion.
Radioactive Type of radiation
Half-life
substance emitted
beta and
Iodine-131 8 days
gamma
Caesium-134 2 years beta
Caesium-137 30 years beta

(a) How is the structure of a caesium-134 atom different from the structure of a caesium-
137 atom?

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(b) What is a beta particle and from which part of an atom is a beta particle emitted?

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(c) Once a radioactive substance is dissolved in rainwater, it can enter the food chain.
Following the Chernobyl explosion, some milk supplies were found to be radioactive.
If one litre of milk contaminated with iodine-131 gives a count rate of 400
counts/second, how long will it take for the count rate to fall to 25
counts/second?
Show clearly how you work out your answer.

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Time taken = ................................................. days

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(d) After 20 years, the caesium-137 emitted into the atmosphere is a more serious
problem than the iodine-131.
Explain why.

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Effort Target
 Properties, Uses and Safety
The learning outcomes of this lesson are to be able to…

Notes & Keywords

 Big Picture
Penetration and Range
ALPHA α – The least penetrating of all the three types of radiation. Alpha will only
travel about 5cm through air and is stopped by materials like thin paper or skin.
BETA β – Can travel through skin but is stopped by a few millimetres or aluminium.
GAMMA γ – The most penetrating of the three types of radiation, it is an
electromagnetic wave and can only be stopped by thick lead and concrete.

The Dangers of Alpha α, Beta β and Gamma γ

Alpha α
Relative Mass = 4 Relative Charge = +2 Ionizing? Highly
Dangers: Highly ionizing, with large mass and charge, damages cells. Cannot penetrate skin
so is only dangerous if it gets inside the body.
Control Measures: Protective clothing, breathing apparatus, stored in lead lined box.
Beta β
Relative Mass = 0 (1/2000) Relative Charge = -1 Ionizing? Mildly
Dangers: Can penetrate skin and cause ionization, damaging cells although not as drastically
as alpha.
Control Measures: Protective clothing, breathing apparatus, store in lead lined box. Monitor
levels of exposure.
Gamma γ
Relative Mass = 0 Relative Charge = 0 Ionizing? Weakly
Dangers: Can penetrate through aluminium, very difficult to stop. Weakly ionizing but still have
the potential to damage cells.
Control Measures: Stored in lead lined box. Monitor levels of exposure. Gamma emitters are
often sealed in lead line concrete cases underground.

Applications of Radioactivity
By understanding the properties and potential dangers of the three types of
radioactive decay you should be able to select an appropriate source for a job.
Below is the type of example and explanation you would be expected to give in an
exam.
Doctors use radioactive tracers and detectors for look for blockages in the digestive
system. Explain which type of emitter should be used and why...
A gamma emitter should be used as it is only weakly ionizing, it can pass through the
body to an external detector, thereby reducing the risk to the patient.
 Questions: Properties and Uses
Q1 List the three types of nuclear radiation from most ionising to least ionising.

Q2 List the three types of nuclear radiation from most penetrating to least penetrating.

Q3 Describe and explain one use of alpha radiation.

Q4 Describe and explain one use of beta radiation.

Q5 Describe and explain one use of gamma radiation.

Q6 Which type of radiation is most dangerous if the source is inside the body? Explain your
choice.

Q7 Explain how radiation badges are used to reduce the risks to people working with
radioactive sources.

Stretch and Challenge

Explain what a neutrino is and why it was originally postulated – what problem does it solve?
What experiments are going on into the properties and behaviour of neutrinos?
Find out what radiation sickness really is. What is happening inside a patient’s body in this case?
Explain how police were able to investigate the murder of Alexander Litvinenko.
 Exam Question
The table gives the properties of some radionuclides (radioactive isotopes).

Main type of
Radionuclide Half life
radiation emitted

Radon-220 54.5 seconds Alpha

Americium-241 433 years Alpha

Phosphorus-32 14 days Beta

Strontium-90 28 years Beta

Technetium-99 6 hours Gamma

Cobalt-60 5 years Gamma

(i) Which radionuclide would be best for monitoring the thickness of aluminium foil?

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Explain the reason for your answer.

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(ii) Which radionuclide would be best for acting as a tracer inside the human body?

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Explain the reason for your answer.

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(iii) Which radionuclide would be best for sterilising surgical equipment in a hospital?

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Explain the reason for your answer.

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Effort Target