Filters
Basic Realization & Circuit Design
Introduction of Filter
Filter is a broad area of electronics also an
independent subject
Oldest Technology: Filter with inductor &
capacitor called passive LC filter
LC filter works well in high frequency
Low frequency application : DC to 10 KHz
required inductors are bulky and provide
non ideal characteristics
So, filter design without inductor is an
interesting issue
Introduction of Filter
Passive LC Filter
Active RC Filter
Op-amp based RC filter
Switch Capacitor Filter
Filter Transmission
Filter transfer function
<Transfer function >
<Transfer function with phase>
<Gain function>
<Attenuation function>
Pass band: Passing signal whose frequency spectrum
lies within magnitude of transmission
Stop band: Frequency band over which transmission is
zero
Filter Types
Specifications for physical filter
circuit
Physical circuit can not realize the idealized
characteristics
Physical Circuit can not provide constant transmission
at all the pass band frequencies
Also physical circuit can not provide zero transmission
at all the stop band frequencies i.e. some transmission
over stop band
Transmission of physical circuit can not change abruptly
at the edge of the pass band.
Transmission band extends from the pass band edge ωP
to stop band edge ωS.
ωS /ωP is measured to understand the sharpness of
the low pass filter response called Selectivity Factor
Filter Specifications (Low pass)
Realistic specification for the transmission characteristics of
low pass filter
Stop band signal
must be attenuated
by at least Amin
Maximum
deviation in
passband
transmission
Pass-band edge ωP
Maximum allowed variation in pass-band transmission Amax
Stop-band edge ωS
Maximum required stop-band attenuation Amin
Towards Ideal Filter (Low Pass )
Selectivity ratio ωS /ωP towards unity
Lower Amax
Higher Amin
To achieve the above specification filter circuit should be
higher order and complex and expensive
Filter design must be complicated if both the magnitude
and phase specified
Ripple peak at pass band as well as stop band must be
equal called equi-ripple characteristics
Filter Transfer function
(1)
The degree of the denominator, N, is the filter order
For the filter circuit to be stable, the degree of the numerator must
be less than or equal to that of the denominator M ≤ N
Numerator and denominator coefficients, a0, a1, . . . , aM and b0, b1, . . . ,
bN−1, are real numbers.
(2)
The numerator roots, z1, z2, . . . , zM, are the transfer function
zeros, or transmission zeros
Denominator roots, p1, p2, . . . , pN, are the transfer function poles,
or the natural modes
Each transmission zero or pole can be either a real or a complex
number
Complex zeros and poles, however, must occur in conjugate pairs.
Filter transfer function (LP)- ‘Zeros’
Zeros are usually placed on the jω axis at stopband frequencies
Infinite attenuation (zero transmission) at two stopband frequencies:
ωl1 and ωl2.
The filter then must have transmission zeros at s = +j ωl1 and s =
+jωl2
Since complex zeros occur in conjugate pairs, there must also be
transmission zeros at s = −j ωl1 and s = −j ωl2.
Thus the numerator polynomial of this filter will have the factors
(s + j ωl1)(s − j ωl1)(s + j ωl2)(s − j ωl2)
Can be written as (s2 + ωl12)(s2 + ωl22) If, S=jω, then ω=ωl1 &
ω=ωl2
Filter transfer function (LP)- ‘Zeros’
Transmission decreases toward -∞ as ω approaches ∞.
Thus the filter must have one or more transmission zeros at s
= ∞.
Number of transmission zeros at s = ∞ is the difference
between the degree of the numerator polynomial, M, and the
degree of the denominator polynomial, N, of the transfer
function
N − M zeros at s = ∞
Filter transfer function (LP)- ‘Poles’
For a filter circuit to be stable,
all its poles must lie in the left
half of the s plane, and thus p1,
p2, . . . , pN must all have negative
real parts.
Assumed that filter is of fifth
order (N = 5).
Two pairs of complex-conjugate
poles and one real-axis pole, for
a total of five poles.
All the poles lie in the passband
that gives the filter its high
transmission at passband
frequencies.
The five transmission zeros are
at s = ∞, ± j ωl1, ±jωl2,
Filter Transfer function (BP)
Filter Transfer function (BP)
Filter Transfer function (BP)
Bandpass filter
Transmission zeros are at s = ± j ωl1
and S=±jωl2
one or more zeros at s = 0 and one
or more zeros at s = ∞ because the
transmission decreases toward 0 as
ω approaches 0 and ∞
Assuming that only one zero exists
at each of s = 0 and s = ∞, the filter
must be of sixth order
Transfer function (All Pole Filter)
Low-pass filter
No finite values of ω at which the
attenuation is infinite (zero
transmission).
Thus it is possible that all the
transmission zeros of this filter are
at s = ∞.
All-pole filter
Problem 1
A second order filter has its poles at s = [-1/2 ±j(√3/2)].
The transmission is zero at w=2 rad/s and is unity at DC
(w=0). Find the transfer function
Problem 2
A forth order filter has zero transmission at w=0, w=2 rad/s
and w=∞. The natural modes are -0.1±j0.8 and -0.1±j1.2 find
T(s).
Filter Approximations
Butterworth Approximation: Maximally flat
response in pass band.
Chebyshev Approximation: Pass band ripple
and sharp cut-off.
Elliptical Approximation: Pass band and stop
band ripple and very sharp cut-off
Bessel Approximation: No signal distortion in
pass band.
Filter Approximations
Butterworth Filter
Flat pass band.
This filter exhibits a monotonically decreasing transmission with
all the transmission zeros at ω = ∞
All-pole filter
Design specifications:
• Amax
• passband edge ωp
• Amin
• stop band edge ωS
ℇ: To determine maximum
deviation in pass band
Butterworth Filter
Amax
Amin
Fix the value of ℇ, ωS
for Amax=3 dB, ℇ=1
Fix the order N for A(ωs)≥Amin
Butterworth Filter
The degree of passband flatness increases as the order N is
increased
N is increased the filter response approaches the ideal brick-
wall type of response
DC Gain normalized at 1
Butterworth Filter: Graphical
Construction
The natural modes of an Nth-order Butterworth filter can
be determined from the graphical construction
Natural modes lie on a circle of radius ω0 = ωp(1/ε)1/N
Spaced by equal angles of (П/N)
First mode at an angle (П/2N) from the +jω axis
P1, P2…PN are poles, K is setting any DC gain
Graphical construction for determining
the poles of Butterworth Filter
Graphical construction for determining
the poles of Butterworth Filter
Problem 3
Find the Butterworth transfer function that meets the
following low-pass filter specifications: fp = 10 kHz, Amax = 1
dB, fs = 15 kHz, Amin = 25 dB, dc gain = 1.
Problem 3
Solution:
Amax = 1 dB; ε = 0.5088
If, N = 8, A( ωs) = 22.3 dB
If, N = 9 , A( ωs) = 25.8 dB. Select N = 9
The poles all have the same radius: ω0
=ωp(1/ε)1/N
ω0 = 6.773 × 104 rad/s
p1 = ω0(−cos80° + j sin80°)
= ω0(−0.1736 + j0.9848)
First-Order and Second-Order
Filter Functions
Simplest filter transfer functions: first and second
order.
These functions are useful in the design of simple
filters. First- and second-order filters can also be
cascaded to realize a high-order filter.
Cascade design is one of the most popular
methods for the design of active filters (utilizing
op amps and RC circuits).
First Order Filter
The general first-order transfer function is given by
First-order filter with a natural mode at s = −ω0
Transmission zero at s = -a0/a1
High-frequency gain that approaches a1
The numerator coefficients, a0 and a1, determine the type of
filter
Active realizations provide considerably more versatility than
their passive counterparts; in many cases the gain can be set to
a desired value
The output impedance of the active circuit very low, making
cascading easily possible.
The op amp limits the high-frequency operation of the active
circuits.
Low pass (LP)
Bode Plot
Low pass (LP) with load
Low pass (LP) with load
High pass (HP)
Bode Plot
High pass (HP)
High pass (HP)
General
General
All Pass Filter
An important special case of the first-order filter
function
Transmission zero and the natural mode are
symmetrically located relative to the jω axis
Transmission of the all-pass filter is (ideally) constant at
all frequencies
Phase shows frequency selectivity
All-pass filters are used as phase shifters and in
systems that require phase shaping
All Pass Filter
All Pass Filter
All Pass Filter
Second-Order Filter Functions
Second-order or biquadratic filter
ω0 and Q determine the natural modes
Radial distance of the natural modes
(from the origin) is equal to ω0 (pole
frequency)
Second-Order Filter Functions
Pole quality factor or pole Q
Parameter Q determines the distance of the
poles from the jω axis
Higher the value of Q, the closer the poles
are to the jω axis, and the more selective the
filter response
An infinite value for Q locates the poles on
jω axis and can yield sustained oscillations in
the circuit realization
A negative value of Q implies that the poles
are in the right half of the s plane, which
certainly produces oscillations
Second Order Filter(s)
Transmission zeros of the second order filter are
determine by numerator coefficient a0, a1 and a2
Seven special case of second order filter functions
are demonstrated depending on the numerator
coefficient
ω0 and Q are same for all the seven cases
Peak occurs only when Q>1/√2.
At Q=1/√2, Butterworth approximation and
maximally flat response.
Second Order Filter(s)
Second Order Low Pass Filter
Zeros are at ∞
Q>1/√2
Extra: Second Order Low Pass Filter:
Calculation of │Tmax │and ωmax ω = ω
0 p
The transfer function
The gain of the second-order
low-pass filter is the magnitude
A & B positive constants and u is a function of angular
frequency ω
To maximize the gain with respect to frequency, minimize
the denominator, i.e., set u=0
Maximum gain is given by
Extra: Second Order Low Pass Filter:
Calculation of │Tmax │and ωmax
Extra: Second Order Low Pass Filter:
Calculation of │Tmax │and ωmax
Second Order High Pass Filter
Zeros are at 0
Q>1/√2
Extra:Second Order High Pass Filter:
Calculation of │Tmax│and ωmax
The transfer function
The gain of the second-order
low-pass filter is the magnitude
Extra: Second Order High Pass Filter:
Calculation of │Tmax│and ωmax
Second Order Band Pass Filter
Zeros are at S=0 (dc) and S=∞ (HF)
Magnitude response peak at ω=ω0 :
Center frequency
Selectivity measured from 3 dB band
width
Extra: Second Order Band Pass Filter:
Calculation of │Tmax│and ωmax
Second Order Notch
Zeros are located at complex conjugate location on jω axis
Location ±jωn
ω=ωn known as notch frequency
ωn=ω0 General Notch
Second Order Low Pass Notch
ωn>ω0 Low Pass Notch
Second Order High Pass Notch
ωn<ω0 High Pass Notch
Second Order All Pass Filter
