Experiment:4

Aim: to plot input-output characteristics of ce config.

SATYAM KR. TIWARI

ROLL:99
ECD BATCH-B
ECE DIV II
Date: 24.02.2022

Theory
Objectives

At the end of the module the student would be able to explain

1. Explain structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor
2. Explain Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor
3. Explain Common Emitter characteristics of a BJT

Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor

A bipolar junction transistor, BJT, is a single piece of silicon with two back-to-back P-N
junctions.BJTs can be made either as PNP or as NPN.

Figure 1: Structures, layers and circuit symbol of NPN transistor

They have three regions and three terminals, emitter, base, and collector represented by E, B,
and C respectively. The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the current in the
emitter when the transistor is conducting normally. An easy way to remember this is NPN
stands for "Not Pointing iN".

Figure 2:Structures, layers and circuit symbol of PNP transistor

Emitter (E):It is the region to the left end which supply free charge carriers i.e., electrons in
n-p-n or holes in p-n-p transistors.These majority carriers are injected to the middle region
i.e. electrons in the p region of n-p-n or holes in the n region of p-n-p transistor. Emitter is a
heavily doped region to supply a large number of majority carriers into the base. Base (B):It
is the middle region where either two p-type layers or two n-type layers are sandwiched.
The majority carriers from the emitter region are injected into this rgion.This region is thin
and very lightly doped.
Collector (C):It is the region to right end where charge carriers are collected.The area of this
region is largest compared to emitter and base region . The doping level of this region is
intermediate between heavily doped emitter region and lightly doped base region.

Note

1. In digital electronics applications,the transistors are used as a switch.

2. Most bipolar switching circuits use NPN transistors.
Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

Figure 3:Four Operating Conditions

Cutoff Region: Base-emitter junction is reverse biased. No current flow.

Saturation Region: Base-emitter junction is forward biased and Collector-base junction is
forward biased.
Active Region: Base-emitter is junction forward biased and Collector-base junction is reverse
biased.

Breakdown Region: ICIC and VCEVCE exceed specifications and can cause damage to the

transistor.

Cut-Off Region

In Cut-Off region both junctions are reverse biased, Base-emitter junction is reverse biased

(VBE<0VBE<0)and also Collector-Base junction is reverse biased(VCB>0VCB>0).With

reverse biasing, all currents are zero.There are some leakage currents associated with reverse
biased junctions,but these currents are small and therefore can be neglected. Application: Open
switch

Forward Active Region

In Forward Active region Base-emitter junction is forward biased(VBE>0VBE>0) and

Collector-Base junction is reverse biased(VCB>0VCB>0). In this case, the forward bias of the
BE junction will cause the injection of both holes and electrons across the junction. The holes
are of little consequence because the doping levels are adjusted to minimize the hole current.
The electrons are the carriers of interest. The electrons are injected into the base region where
they are called the minority carrier even though they greatly outnumber the holes.
Application:Amplifier in analog circuits

IC=−αF×IE+ICOIC=−αF×IE+ICO

where,

αFαF is the forward current transfer ratio ICOICO

is Collector reverse saturation current

Saturation Region

In Saturation region both junctions are Forward biased,Base-emitter junction is forward

biased(VBE>0VBE>0) and also Collector-Base junction is forward biased(VCB<0VCB<0).
Maximum currents flows through the transistor with only a small voltage drop across the
collector junction.The transistor also does not respond to any change in emitter current or
baseemitter voltage.
Application:Closed switch

Reverse Active Region

In Reverse Active region Base-emitter junction is reverse biased(VBE<0VBE<0) and

Collector-Base junction is forward biased(VCB<0VCB<0).The operation is just the same as

the forward active region, except all voltage sources, and hence collector and emitter currents,
are the reverse of the forward bias case. The current gain in this mode is smaller than that of
forward active mode for which this mode in general unsuitable for amplification. Application:In
digital circuits and analog switching circuits.

IE=−αR IC+IEOIE=−αR IC+IEO

where,

αRαR is the reverse current transfer ratio\newline IEOIEO is the Emitter reverse saturation
current

This configuration is rarely used because most transistors are doped selectively to give
forward current transfer ratios very near unity, which automatically causes the reverse current
transfer ratio to be very low.

BJT -Common Emitter Circuit

The DC behavior of the BJT can be described by the Ebers-Moll Model. The equations for the
model are:

IF=IES×(expVBEVT−1)IF=IES×(expVBEVT−1)

IR=ICS×(expVCBVT−1)IR=ICS×(expVCBVT−1)
where,

IESIES is base-emitter saturation currents,

ICSICS is base-collector saturation currents
VT=k×TqVT=k×Tq

where,
k is the Boltzmann’s constant ( k = 1.381 e-23 V.C/ K ),
T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin, and q is
the charge of an electron (q = 1.602 e-19 C).

βF=αF1−αFβF=αF1−αF

βR=αR1−αRβR=αR1−αR

where,

βFβF is large signal forward current gain of common-emitter configuration, βRβR

is the large signal reverse current gain of the common-emitter configuration
αF=βF1+βFαF=βF1+βF αR=βR1+βRαR=βR1+βR

where,

αRαR is large signal reverse current gain of a common-base configuration, αFαF

is large signal forward current gain of the common-base configuration.
IC=αF×IF−IRIC=αF×IF−IR

IE=−IF+αR IRIE=−IF+αR IR IB=(1−αF)×IF+(1−αR)×IRIB=(1−αF)×IF+(1−αR)×IR

The forward and reverse current gains are related by the expression
αR×ICS=αF×IES=ISαR×ICS=αF×IES=IS

where,

ISIS is the BJT transport saturation current.

The parameters αRαR and αFαF are influenced by impurity concentrations and junction

depths.

The saturation current, ISIS , can be expressed as

IS=JS×AIS=JS×A

where,
A is the area of the emitter and

JSJS is the transport saturation current density

Input Characteristics

The most important characteristic of the BJT is the plot of the base current, IBIB, versus the
base-emitter voltage,VBEVBE, for various values of the collector-emitter voltage,VCEVCE

IB=ϕ(VBE,VCE)forconstantVCEIB=ϕ(VBE,VCE)forconstantVCE
 Figure 4: Input Characteristics Circuit

Output Characteristics

The most important characteristic of the BJT is the plot of the collector current, IC, versus the
collector-emitter voltage,VCE, for various values of the base current, IB as shown on the circuit
on the right.

IC=ϕ(VCE,IB)forconstantIBIC=ϕ(VCE,IB)forconstantIB

Figure 5: Output Characteristics Circuit

Procedure
Experiment

1. BJT Common Emitter - Input Characteristics

1. Initially set rheostat Rh1 = 1 Ω and rheostat Rh2 = 1 Ω
2. Set the Collector-Emitter Voltage(VCE) to 1 V by adjusting the
rheostat Rh2
3. Base Emitter Voltage(VBE) is varied by adjusting the rheostat
Rh1.
4. Note the reading of Base current(IB)in micro Ampere.
5. Click on 'Plot' to plot the I-V characteristics of
CommonEmitter configuration. A graph is drawn with VBE
along X-axis and IB along Y-axis.
6. Click on 'Clear' button to take another sets of readings
7. Now set the Collector-Emitter Voltage(VCE) to 2 V, 3 V, 4 V

Figure:1
2 BJT Common Emitter - Output Characteristics

1. Initially set rheostat Rh1 = 1 Ω and rheostat Rh2 = 1 Ω

2. Set the Base current(IB)15 uA by adjusting the rheostat
Rh1
3. Vary the Collector-Emitter Voltage(VCE)is varied by
adjusting the rheostat Rh2.
4. Note the reading of Collector current(IC).
5. Click on 'Plot' to plot the I-V characteristics of
Common-Emitter configuration. A graph is drawn
with VCE along X-axis and IC along Y-axis.
6. Click on 'Clear' button to take another sets of
readings
7. Now set the Base Current(IB) to 20 uA