1.

Nowaday sident
if
icat
ion and appli
cat
ion ofappropri
ateinf
ormati
on systems has
vi
rtual
lybecomeanessent i
alacti
vi
tyofanybusinessorgani
zati
onssi
ncei nf
ormati
on
systems arefound t
o hav e st
rat
egicimport
ance forthe l
if
e and success ofan
or
ganizati
on.

Inaddit
iontoit
sapplicati
ontoachieveorgani
zat
ionalgoals,i
nfor
mationsyst
emswi l
l
all
ow fi
rmstogaincompet it
iveadvant
ageinmanyway s.Thisbecomespossibl
eonly
when organi
zat
ions select
,design,and putint
o operati
on appropr
iat
einformat
ion
systems.

Theov
eral
lobj
ecti
veofsyst
em analysisanddesi
gnistherefore,
tomakeusfamil
i
arand
gui
deushowwe canappl ythediscipli
nedi
nfor
mat i
onsy stemsdevel
opmentprocess
wit
heff
ect
ivepr
ojector
gani
zati
onandi mplementat
iontechniques.

2.
Thet
wot
ypesofst
agesofdesi
gnar
e

1.ConceptualDesi gn:Thisstageinvolv
esbr ai
nstor
ming and cr
eati
ng a hi
gh-
level
design concept for the inf
ormat
ion system.I tfocuses on underst
andi
ng the
requir
ements,objecti
ves,and constr
aints ofthe syst
em,and comi ng up wi
tha
conceptualf
ramewor kthatout
li
nest
heov eral
lst
ruct
ureandfunct
ional
i
ty.

2.Det ail
edDesign:Oncet heconcept ualdesignisfi
nalized,thedetail
eddesi gnst age
begins.Thisstageinvolvest r
anslat
ingtheconceptualdesigni nt
oamor edet ai
ledand
technicalbluepri
nt.I
ti ncludesspeci f
ying t
hehardwar eand sof twarecomponent s,
designingthedatabasest r
ucture,creat
inguserint
erfaces,anddef i
ningthepr ocedures
andpr otocol
st obefoll
owed.Thedet ai
leddesignst
agepr ovidesacompr ehensiveplan
forimplement i
ngtheinformationsystem.

3.
Thecomponent
sofacomput
ersy
stem t
ypi
cal
l
yincl
ude:

1.CentralProcessi
ngUnit(CPU)
:Alsoknownast hepr
ocessor
,iti
sresponsi
blef
or
execut
inginstr
ucti
onsandperf
ormingcal
cul
ati
ons.

2.Memor y:Thisincl
udesbothpri
marymemor
y(RAM)andsecondar
ymemor y(har
d
dri
vesorsoli
d-st
atedri
ves)t
hatst
oredat
aandi
nst
ruct
ionsf
ort
heCPUtoaccess.

3.InputDevi
ces:Theseall
ow userstoenterdataandinst
ruct
ionsi
ntot
hecomput
er,
suchaskeyboards,
mice,scanner
s,andmicrophones.
4.OutputDev
ices:Thesedispl
ayorpresenti
nfor
mati
onpr
ocessedbyt
hecomput
er,
suchasmonit
ors,pr
int
ers,
speaker
s,andproj
ect
ors.

5.Mother
board:I
tisthemaincir
cui
tboardthatconnect
sandal
l
owscommuni
cat
ion
bet
weenallt
heothercomponent
softhecomputersyst
em.

6.PowerSuppl
yUni
t(PSU)
:Itpr
ovi
desel
ect
ri
calpowert
oal
lthecomponent
soft
he
comput
ersyst
em.

7.Stor
ageDevices:Theseincl
udeharddr
ives,sol
i
d-st
atedr
ives,andopt
icaldr
ives
(CD/
DVD/Bl
u-r
ay )t
hatstor
edataandpr
ogr
ams.

8.Graphi
cs Pr
ocessi
ng Uni
t(GPU):I
tisr
esponsi
blef
orr
ender
ing and di
spl
ayi
ng
gr
aphicsandi
magesonthemonit
or.

9.Expansion Cards:Thesear
eopt i
onalcar
dst
hatcan beadded t
o enhancet he
funct
ional
it
yoft hecomputersyst
em,suchassoundcar
ds,v
ideocaptur
ecar ds,or
networkcards.

10.Oper
ati
ngSystem:Thesoft
waret
hatmanagesandcontr
olsthecomput
ersy
stem,
al
lowi
nguser
stointer
actwi
thhar
dwar
eandsoft
wareappl
icat
ions.

4.i
nfor
mat
ionuser
srequi
rement
sincl
udes

Easyaccess:
Thesy
stem mustbeabl
etot
imel
yaccessdat
aandmani
pul
ati
onsuppor
ts.

The sy stem:The sy stem mustbe sol id and st

able,bei
ng abl
et o meetst af
fs
requir
ement sandprovideaccurateinf
ormati
on,easytomaint
ainandrest
ruct
ure,
quick
i
ni denti
fyingandcor
rectingmistakes;

Int
erf
ace:Suit
ablewit
hwor ki
ngstyl
eofuser
s,stabl
e,easyt
ocont
roldat
a,i
ndependent
andfl
exi
ble,enabl
inguser
st oappr
oachi
ndif
ferentways.

5.Typesofdat
amodel
s

1.Anexternaldat
amodel-torepr
esenthoweachuser
'sv
iewofdatasomet
imescal
l
ed
theUni
verseofDiscour
se.i
.e.
.howeachuserseest
heport
ionoft
hesyst
em wi
thwhich
heint
eract
s.

2.Aconceptualdatamodel :itistheorganizati
on-wideviewoftheentir
edat abasei
.e.
,
thebi
gpict
urelisti
ngalldataelementsandt herelati
onshipsbet
weenthem independent
of i
mplementation detai
ls,such as t he targetDBMS,appl i
cat
ion pr ogramming
l
anguagesoranyot herphysicalconsi
derati
ons.Itisalsoknownaslogicaldatamodel
3.Aninter
naldatamodeli
tisalow-l
evelv
iewofthedat
abasedescri
binghowt hedata
areactual
l
ystoredandaccessed.I
tusual
lydeal
swithrecor
dlayout
s,defi
nit
ions,and
addr
essesofdataelement
s.

6.Exampl
esofent
it
yty
pei
ncl
udes

1.Per
son:Thisenti
tyty
per epr
esent
si ndi
vi
dual
swhoi
nter
actwi
tht
hecomput
ersy
stem,
suchasusers,admini
str
ators,
orcustomers.

2.Product:Thi
senti
tytyperepresent
sphysicalordi
git
algoodsorservi
cest
hatar
e
managedorsol dthroughthecomput ersystem,suchasinvent
oryit
ems,soft
war
e
l
icenses,
oronli
nesubscri
pti
ons.

3.Or der
:Thi
sent i
tytyperepr
esentsatransacti
onorr equestmadebyaper sonto
purchaseaproductorserv
icethr
oughthecomput ersy
st em,incl
udi
ngdet
ail
ssuchas
ordernumber
,date,i
temsorder
ed,andpay
menti nfor
mation.

7.
✔ User
s ✔ Pr
ogr
ammer
s ✔ Sy
stemsdesi
gner
s

✔ Management ✔ Oper
ati
onsper
sonnel ✔ Sy
stemsanal
yst
s

✔ Audi
tor
s,qual
i
tyassur
ancepeopl
e,and'
standar
dsbear
ers"

8.
1.Tr ansact
ion Pr
ocessi
ng Systems (
TPS):These syst
ems areresponsi
blefor
processi
ngandrecordi
ngday
-to-
daytr
ansact
ions,
suchassal
es,
inv
ent
oryupdat
es,and
customerorder
s.

2.ManagementI nfor
mati
onSy st
ems( MIS):Thesesyst
emsprovi
demanagementwit
h
report
sandi nfor
mationt
osuppor tdeci
sion-maki
ngandplanni
ng.Theyanal
yzedat
a
from var
ioussour
cesandpresenti
tinaformatthati
suseful
formanager
s.

3.Deci
si
onSuppor tSyst
ems(DSS)
:Thesesystemsassisti
nmaki ngcompl
exdecisions
byanalyzi
ng dataand prov
idi
ng model
s,simulat
ions,and scenar
iosto hel
p users
eval
uat
ediffer
entopti
ons.

4.ExpertSy
stems:Thesesystemsusearti
fi
ciali
ntel
l
igencetechni
quest
omimichuman
expert
ise i
n speci
fi
c domains,provi
ding advi
ce and recommendati
ons based on
predef
inedrul
esandknowledge.
9.
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomel
fthegui
del
i
nesf
orpr
ocedur
edesi
gn:

*St
andar
dizepr
ocedur
eswhenev
erpossi
ble.

*Besurenewprocedur
esar
ecompat
ibl
ewi
thexi
sti
ngpr
ocedur
es,
notconf
li
cti
ngor
count
erpr
oduct
ive.

*Guardagai
nstpr
ocedur
est
hatwi
l
lev
oker
esi
stanceornegat
iver
eact
ionsf
rom
empl
oyees.

*Avoi
dassigni
ngasi
ngl
eindi
vi
dual
responsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
wopr
ocedur
est
hatar
esi
mil
ar,
yetdi
ff
erent
.

*Al
l
owf
orf
eedbackandev
aluat
ion.

10.
Thephasesofdesi
gnt
ypi
cal
l
yincl
ude:

1.Resear
chandAnal
ysi
s 6.Ref
inementandI
ter
ati
on

2.I
deat
ion 7.Fi
nal
i
zat
ionandDocument
ati
on

3.ConceptDev
elopment 8.I
mpl
ement
ati
onandPr
oduct
ion

4.Desi
gnI
mpl
ement
ati
on 9.Mai
ntenanceandEv
aluat
ion

5.Test
ingandEv
aluat
ion

11.
Thef
undament
alsofi
nfor
mat
ionsy
stemsi
ncl
ude:

1.Dat
a 6.Pr
ocedur
es

2.I
nfor
mat
ion 7.Net
wor
ks

3.Har
dwar
e 8.Secur
it
y

4.Sof
twar
e 9.I
ntegr
ati
on

5.Peopl
e 10.Management
12.
1St
ruct
uredAppr
oach

thestruct
uredapproachisadevelopmentst
rategybasedontheconceptthatasystem
shouldbeseparatedintotwoas:Data(modeledusingadatamodel)andFunctionalit
y
(Modeledusingprocessmodeling).I
nthị
sappr oachwedevelopappl
icat
ionsinwhi ch
datai s separ
ated fr
om behav i
orin botht he desi
gn modeland i nthe system
i
mpl ementati
on(i.
e.progr
am).

2Obj
ect-
Ori
ent
edappr
oach

Thi
sapproachi
sbasedont
heconceptt
hatsy
stemsshoul
dbebui
l
tfr
om t
hecol
l
ect
ion
ofr
eusabl
e

componentscall
edobject
s.Unlikethestr uctur
edappr oach,inthisappr
oach,syst
em is
defi
nedasacol l
ect
ionofinter
actingobject s,i
.e.thefunct
ionali
ti
esandobjectsarenot
separat
ed.(
Thismeansdat aisnotsepar atedfr om behavi
or).Asaresul
t,t
hisapproach
off
ersusmanyadv ant
agesov erthestr
uct uredappr oachesli
ke:

I
ncr
eased r eusabi
li
ty,incr
eased ext
ensi
bil
i
ty,i
mpr
oved qual
i
ty, and r
educed
mai
ntenanceburden,et
c.

13.
A.Hi
erar
chi
cal
Dat
aModel

B.Net
wor
kDat
aModel

C.TheRel
ati
onal
Dat
aModel

14.
Anysy
stem i
schar
act
eri
zedbyhav
ingt
hef
oll
owi
ngcomponer
nts:

✔ Boundar
y:di
vi
dessy
stem f
rom env
ironment

✔I
nput
s:dat
afr
om env
ironmentt
osy
stem

✔ Out
put
:dat
afr
om sy
stem t
oenv
ironment

✔ Component
s:subpar
tsofsy
stemsoper
ati
ngi
ndependent
ly(
alsocal
l
edsubsy
stem)

✔I
nter
rel
ati
onshi
ps:
associ
ati
onsbet
weencomponent
sofasy
stem Et
c..
15.
wecandi
vi
deal
lsy
stemsi
ntot
wocat
egor
ies:

nat
ural
syst
emsandman-
madesy
stems

Nat
ural
syst
ems

Thereareal
otofsy
stemsthatarenotmadebypeopl
e:t
heyexi
sti
nnat
ureand,byand
l
arge,ser
vet
hei
rownpurpose.Exampl
esofthi
sar
e,Sol
arsy
stems,
Gal
axi
es,andsoon.

Manmadesy
stems

Thesear esystemscr eatedbyahumanbei ng.Theyarecr eat

edt oachiev
esome
predefi
ned obj
ecti
vest hatar erequi
red t
o meetsome t y
pesofhuman need.For
example,or
ganizat
ions,legalsyst
emsandt r
ansportsy
stems,andf i
nancesyst
emsare
systems,whicharecr eatedbyhumanst oachiev
esomepr edefi
nedgoals.Mostof
thesesyst
emsi ncl
udecomput er
s.