FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Fuel
- It is any substance, natural or artificial which upon combustion releases heat energy.

Combustion
- It is synonymous to oxidation and is the union of oxygen with combustible materials.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
1. Solid Fuels
- such as coal, coke, wood, charcoal, bagasse, coconut shells, rice husks, and briquetted
fuels
2. Liquid Fuels
- such as crude petroleum and its distillates (gasoline, alcohol, kerosene, diesel,
bunker, and other fuel oils)
3. Gaseous Fuels
- such as natural uranium, thorium and artificial gas, blast furnace gas, liquified
petroleum gas (LPG), methane, acethylene, propane, …
4. Atomic Fuels
- such as natural uranium, thorium and artificially produced fuel like plotunium.
FORMULA ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROPERTIES OF FUELS
1. Analysis of Composition
a. Proximate Analysis – is an analysis of the composition of fuel which gives, on
mass basis, the relative amounts of moisture content, volatile matter, fixed
carbon and ash.
b. Ultimate Analysis – is an analysis of the composition of fuel which gives, on
mass basis, the relative amounts of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur
ash and moisture.

2. Specific Gravity

ρfluid ρwater
S . G. fluid= S . G. water=
ρwater ρfluid

Where:
ρ = density
S.G. = specific gravity

3. API and Baume gravity units

 141.5 140
° API = −131.5 ° Baume= −130
S . G .@ 15.6 C S . G. @15.6 C

Where:
ºAPI = American Petroleum Institute

4. Specific Gravity at temperature (t):

S . G.t =(S .G . @15.6)(Correction Factor)

S . G.t =(S .G . @15.6)(CF)
Where:
CF=1−0.00072 ( t−15.6 ) →t=℃
CF=1−0.0004 ( t−60 ) → t=℉

5. Heating Value or Calorific Value:

a. Higher Heating Value or Gross Calorific Value – is the heating value
obtained when the water in the products of combustion is in the liquid state.
b. Lower Heating Value or Net Calorific Value – is the heating value obtained
when the water in the products of combustion is in the vapor state.

Higher Heating Value of Solid Fuels

Dulong’s Formula:

Qh=33,820 C +144,212 H− ( O
8)+ 9,304 S →
kJ
kg
ASME Formula for Petroleum Products:
kJ
Q h=41,130+139.6 ( ° API ) →
kg
Bureau of Standards Formula:
2 kJ
Qh=51,716−8,793.8 ( S . G. ) →
kg

Lower Heating Value of Solid Fuels

kJ
Q L=Q h−9 H 2 ( 2,442 ) →
kg
Where:
Btu kJ kCal
1 =2.236 =0.5556
lb kg kg
% H 2=26−15 S . G .

COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS

 Theoretical Weight of Air:
The theoretical weight of air is the exact theoretical amount as determined from the
combustion reaction of air needed to burn a unit amount of fuel.
 If the Ultimate Analysis of coal is available, the theoretical weight of air required to
completely oxidize the fuel can be calculated as:
¿

Where:
Wta = ideal proportion of air to completely burn the fuel
C, H, O and S are proportions by weight of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sulfur per kg
of fuel from the ultimate analysis.

If the Ultimate Analysis of coal is not available, an approximate formula to obtain the
theoretical air-fuel ratio when the heating value of fuel is known:

(
A
) =W ta =
F t
( ) Qh

3117
( kJkg ) → kg air
kg fuel

(
A
) =W ta =
F t
( Qh ( kCal
745
kg )
→
kg
) air
kg fuel

(
A
) =W ta =
F t
( Qh ( Btulb
1340
))→
kgair
kg fuel

 Actual Weight of Air:

The weight of air supplied for combustion is necessarily in excess of what is theoretically
required. The volumetric analysis of the dry flue gas can be used to calculate the actual weight
air.

(
A
) =W aa=
F a
1 C∗N 2
32.72 CO 2 +CO (
→
kg air
kg fuel )
¿

Where:
Waa = actual weight of air including the excess
C = weight of carbon per kg of fuel from the ultimate analysis N2, CO2
and CO are percentages by volume of the component gases in the flue gas as obtained by
Orsat Analysis.
Orsat Analysis = A measurement of the oxygen, carbon dioxide, and carbon
monoxide in a mixture of gases, usually from the exhaust of combustion processes such
as boilers, furnaces, fired heaters, and combustion engines. Named after its inventor H.
Orsat in 1873, it involves absorption of the gases onto materials contained in pipette
tubes
 ANALYSIS OF FLUE GAS
Gaseous products of combustion are analyzed using gas analyzer known as the Orsat
apparatus. The combustion products contain CO2, SO2, N2, O2, CO, and water vapor.
The result of the analysis of dry flue gas by volume can be expressed by the equation:
CO 2+CO +O2 + N 2=100 %

The weight of gaseous products liberated during the combustion of fuel with air:
kg
W fg =W a +W f →
hr
The weight of dry flue gas formed per kg of fuel burned:
W dg=W aa +1−(SO2 + H 2 O+ Ash loss)
Where:
kgair
W aa=actual air−fuel ratio∈
kg fuel

2∗%S
S2 =
100

9∗%H
H 2 O=
100
%Ash
Ashloss=
100
Percent Excess Air:
W aa−W ta
%Excess=
W ta

COMBUSTION OF HYDROCARBON FUELS

HYDROCARBON FUELS consists mainly of combustible elements of Carbon and
Hydrogen. The chemical formula of hydrocarbons is CnHm , where value of the subscripts “m”
and “n” depends on the hydrocarbon family.

Typical Combustion Reaction of fuel with known Chemical Formula:

Fuel+ Air =Products of Combustion
C n H m + aO 2+ 3.76 aN 2=bC O2+ c H 2 O+ 3.76 a N 2

Fuel Air Product

Where:
a, b, and c represent number of moles.

COMPOSITION OF AIR
a. By volume
Air contains 21% by volume of oxygen and 79% of nitrogen.
3
moles N 2 79 mole N 2 ft of N 2
= =3.76 =3.76 3
1mole O2 21 mole O2 ft of O2
 O2 = 21%
N2 = 79%
100%

b. By weight:
Air contains 23.1% by weight of oxygen and 76.9% of nitrogen.
76.9lb of N 2 lb of N 2
=¿ 3.3
23.1 lb of O2 lb of O2
O2 = 23%
N2 = 77%
100%

MOLAL RATIO
The Molal Ratio or the ratio by volume of Nitrogen to Oxygen in air when both gases are
at the same temperature.
Moles N 2 79 %
= =3.76
Moles O2 21 %

COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY

C+ O2 → C O2
1+1 →1 mole basis
12+32 → 44 weight basis