Coherence

Coherence in writing refers to an interconnection among every idea within each sentence
and paragraph in a text. It makes the text logically organized and gives a clear progression
of the ideas presented in the text. So, readers can easily follow the line of arguments of
the writer. The coherence of a text mostly depends on your planning before writing the
text. To make a text coherent, firstly, you need to choose and select the ideas you are
planning to write. Then, organise those ideas into different paragraphs. Here, use
appropriate cohesive devices to connect the sentences and the paragraphs, so that all your
ideas stick together and contribute to a meaningful whole. Then, review the text, and
finally, edit your text. To express your ideas whether you write a paragraph or an essay
depends on the number of ideas you want to talk about. Let’s know more about a
paragraph and an essay.

Paragraph Unity
Every sentence in a body paragraph should relate directly to the main idea presented
by the topic sentence. A paragraph must stick to its announced subject; it must not drift
away into another discussion. In other words, a good paragraph has unity.
Examine the following unified paragraph; note that the topic sentence clearly states
the paragraph’s main point and that each sentence thereafter supports the topic sentence.
(1) Frank Lloyd Wright, America’s leading architect of the first half of the twentieth
century, believed that his houses should blend naturally with their building sites. (2)
Consequently, he designed several “prairie houses,” whose long, low lines echoed
the flat earth plane. (3) Built of brick, stone, and natural wood, the houses shared a
similar texture with their backgrounds. (4) Large windows were often used to blend
the interior and exterior of the houses. (5) Wright also punctuated the lines and
spaces of the houses with greenery in plant-
ers to further make the buildings look like
part of nature.

The first sentence states the main idea, that

Wright thought houses should blend with their
location, and the other sentences support this
© Richard A. Cooke/CORBIS

assertion:
Topic Sentence: (1) Wright’s houses blend
with their natural locations
(2) long, low lines echo flat prairie
(3) brick, stone, wood provide same texture
as location
(4) windows blend inside with outside Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater
House in Bear Run, Pennsylvania
(5) greenery in planters imitates the natural
surroundings
 Now look at the next paragraph, in which
the writer strays from his original purpose:
(1)Cigarette smoke is unhealthy even for people
who don’t have the nicotine habit
themselves.
(2) Secondhand smoke can cause asthmatics and

sufferers of sinusitis serious problems.

(3) Doctors
regularly advise heart patients
to avoid confined smoky areas because
coronary attacks might be triggered by
the lack of clean air.
(4) Moreover,having the smell of smoke in
one’s hair and clothes is a real nuisance.
(5) Evenif a per-son is without any health
problems, exhaled smoke doubles the
amount of carbon monoxide in the air, a
condition that may cause lung problems
in the future.

Sentence 4 refers to smoke as a nuisance

and therefore does not belong in a
paragraph that discusses smoking as a
health hazard to nonsmokers.
 Sometimes a large portion of a paragraph will drift into another topic. In the follow-
ing paragraph, did the writer wish to focus on her messiness or on the beneficial effects
of her engagement?

I have always been a very messy person. As a child, I was a pack rat,
saving every little piece of insignificant paper that I thought might
be important when I grew up. As a teenager, I filled my pockets with
remnants of basketball tickets, hall passes, gum wrappers, and other
important articles from my high school education. As a college stu -
dent, I became a boxer—not a fighter, but someone who cannot throw
anything away and therefore it winds up in a box in my closet. But my
engagement has changed everything. I’m really pleased with the new
stage of my life, and I owe it all to my fiancé. My overall outlook on
Note shift from the life has changed because of his influence on me. I’m neater, much more
topic of messiness cheerful, and I’m even getting places on time like I never did before. It’s
truly amazing what love can do.

This writer may wish to discuss the changes her fiancé has inspired and then use her for-
mer messiness, tardiness, and other bad habits as examples illustrating those changes;
however, as presented here, the paragraph is not unified around a central idea. On the
contrary, it first seems to promise a discussion of her messiness but then wanders into
comments on “what love can do.”

Also beware a tendency to end your paragraph with a new idea. A new point calls for
an entirely new paragraph. For example, the following paragraph focuses on the origins
of Muzak; the last sentence, on Muzak’s effects on workers, should be omitted or moved
to a paragraph on Muzak’s uses in the workplace.

Muzak, the ever-present sound of music that pervades elevators,

office buildings, and reception rooms, was created over seventy years
ago by George Owen Squier, an army general. A graduate of West Point,
Squier was also an inventor and scientist. During World War I he headed
the Signal Corps, where he began experimenting with the notion of
transmitting simultaneous messages over power lines. When he retired
from the army in 1922, he founded Wired Radio, Inc., and later, in 1934,
the first Muzak medley was heard in Cleveland, Ohio, for homeown-
ers willing to pay the great sum of $1.50 a month. That year he struck
upon the now-famous name, which combined the idea of music with the
brand name of the country’s most popular camera, Kodak. Today, experi-
Breaks unity ments show that workers get more done when they listen to Muzak.
 In general, think of paragraph unity in terms of the following diagram:

Topic Sentence

Supporting Details

© Canstock Images, Inc./

Index Stock Imagery
The sentences in the paragraph support the paragraph’s topic sentence; the para-
graph, in turn, supports the thesis statement.

Paragraph Coherence
In addition to unity, coherence is essential to a good paragraph. Coherence means that
all the sentences and ideas in your paragraph flow together to make a clear, logical point
about your topic. Your paragraph should not be a confusing collection of ideas set
down in random order. The readers should be able to follow what you have written and see
easily and quickly how each sentence grows out of, or is related to, the preceding
sentence. To achieve coherence, you should have a smooth connection or transition
between the sentences in your paragraphs.
There are five important means of achieving coherence in your paragraphs:

1. A natural or easily recognized order

2. Transitional words and phrases
3. Repetition of key words
4. Substitution of pronouns for key nouns
5. Parallelism

These transitional devices are similar to the couplings between railroad cars; they enable
the controlling engine to pull the train of thought along as a unit.

A Recognizable Ordering of Information

Without consciously thinking about the process, you may often organize paragraphs in
easily recognized patterns that give the reader a sense of logical movement and order. Four
common patterns of ordering sentences in a paragraph are discussed here.
 The Order of Time
Some paragraphs are composed of details arranged in chronological order. You might,
for example, explain the process of changing an oil filter on your car by beginning with the
first step, draining the old oil, and concluding with the last step, installing the new filter.
Here is a paragraph on black holes in which the writer chronologically orders the details:
A black hole in space, from all indications, is the result of the death of a star.Scientists
speculate that stars were first formed from the gases floating in the universe at the
beginning of time. In the first stage in the life of a star, the hot gas is drawn by the force
of gravity into a burning sphere. In the middle stage—our own sun being a middle-aged
star—the burning continues at a regular rate, giving off enormous amounts of heat and
light. As it grows old, however, the star eventually explodes to become what is called a
nova, a superstar. But gravity soon takes over again, and the exploded star falls back in
on itself with such force that all the matter in the star is compacted into a mass no larger
than a few miles in diameter. At this point, no heavenly body can be seen in that area of
the sky, as the tremendous pull of gravity lets nothing escape, not even light. A black
hole has thus been formed.

The Order of Space

When your subject is a physical object, you should select some orderly means of describ-
ing it: from left to right, top to bottom, inside to outside, and so forth. For example, you
might describe a sculpture as you walk around it from front to back. In the following
paragraph describing a cowboy, the writer has ordered the details of the description in
a head-to-feet pattern:
Big Dave was pure cowboy. He wore a black felt hat so big that it kept his face
in perpetual shade. Around his neck was knotted a red bandana stained with sweat
from long hot days in the saddle. An oversized blue denim shirt hung from his
shoulders to give him plenty of arm freedom, and his faded jeans were held up by a
broad leather belt with a huge silver buckle featuring a snorting bronc in full buck.
His boots, old and dirt-colored, kicked up little dust storms as he sauntered across
the corral.
Deductive Order
A paragraph ordered deductively moves from a generalization to particular details that
explain or support the general statement. Perhaps the most common pattern of all para-
graphs, the deductive paragraph begins with its topic sentence and proceeds to its sup-
porting details, as illustrated in the following example:
If a group of 111 ninth-graders is typical of today’s teenagers, spelling and social
science teachers may be in for trouble. In a recent experiment, not one of the stu-
dents tested could write the Pledge of Allegiance correctly. In addition, the results
showed that the students apparently had little understanding of the pledge’s mean-
ing. For example, several students described the United States as a “nation under
guard” instead of “under God,” and the phrase “to the Republic for which it stands”
appeared in several responses as “of the richest stand” or “for Richard stand.” Many
students changed the word “indivisible” to the phrase “in the visible,” and over 9
percent of the students, all of whom are Americans from varying racial and ethnic
backgrounds, misspelled the word “America.”

Inductive Order
An inductive paragraph begins with an examination of particular details and then con-
cludes with a larger point or generalization about those details. Such a paragraph often
ends with its topic sentence, as does the following paragraph on Little League baseball:
At too many Little League baseball games, one or another adult creates a minor
scene by yelling rudely at an umpire or a coach. Similarly, it is not uncommon to
hear adults whispering loudly with one another in the stands over which child
should have caught a missed ball. Perhaps the most astounding spectacle of all,
however, is an irate parent or coach yanking a child off the field after a bad play
for a humiliating lecture in front of the whole team. Sadly, Little League baseball
today often seems intended more for childish adults than for the children who
actually play it.
Transitional Words and Phrases
Some paragraphs may need internal transitional words to help the reader move smoothly
from one thought to the next so that the ideas do not appear disconnected or choppy.
Here is a list of common transitional words and phrases and their uses:
giving examples for example, for instance, specifically, in particular, namely,
another, other, in addition, to illustrate
comparison similarly, not only . . . but also, in comparison
contrast although, but, while, in contrast, however, though, on the other
hand, nevertheless
sequence first . . . second . . . third, finally, moreover, also, in addition,
next, then, after, furthermore, and, previously
results therefore, thus, consequently, as a result

Notice the difference the use of transitional words makes in the following paragraphs:
Working in the neighborhood grocery store as a checker was one of the worst
jobs I’ve ever had. In the first place, I had to wear an ugly, scratchy uniform cut at
least three inches too short. My schedule of working hours was another inconve -
nience; because my hours were changed each week, it was impossible to make plans
in advance, and getting a day off was out of the question. In addition, the lack of
working space bothered me. Except for a half-hour lunch break, I was restricted to
three square feet of room behind the counter and consequently felt as if I were no
more than a cog in the cash register.
The same paragraph rewritten without transitional words sounds choppy and childish:
Working in the neighborhood grocery store as a checker was one of the worst
jobs I’ve ever had. I had to wear an ugly, scratchy uniform. It was cut at least
three inches too short. My schedule of working hours was inconvenient. My hours
changed each week. It was impossible to make plans in advance. Getting a day off
was out of the question. The lack of working space bothered me. Except for a half-
hour break, I was restricted to three square feet of room behind the counter. I felt
like a cog in the cash register.
Although transitional words and phrases are useful in bridging the gaps between your
ideas, don’t overuse them. Not every sentence needs a transitional phrase, so use
one only when the relationship between your thoughts needs clarification. It’s also a
mistake to place the transitional word in the same position in your sentence each time. Look
at the paragraph that follows:
It’s a shame that every high school student isn’t required to take a course in first
aid. For example, you might need to treat a friend or relative for drowning during
 a family picnic. Or, for instance, someone might break a bone or receive a snakebite
on a camping trip. Also, you should always know what to do for a common cut or
burn. Moreover, it’s important to realize when someone is in shock. However, very
few people take the time to learn the simple rules of first aid. Thus, many injured or
sick people suffer more than they should. Therefore, everyone should take a first aid
course in school or at the Red Cross center.
As you can see, a series of sentences each beginning with a transitional word quickly
becomes repetitious and boring. To hold your reader’s attention, use transitional words
only when necessary to avoid choppiness, and vary their placement in your sentences.

Repetition of Key Words

Important words or phrases (and their synonyms) may be repeated throughout a para-
graph to connect the thoughts into a coherent statement:
One of the most common, yet most puzzling, phobias is the fear of snakes. It’s
only natural, of course, to be afraid of a poisonous snake, but many people are just
as frightened of the harmless varieties. For such people, a tiny green grass snake is
as terrifying as a cobra. Some researchers say this unreasonable fear of any and all
snakes is a legacy left to us by our cave-dwelling ancestors, for whom these reptiles
were a real and constant danger. Others maintain that the fear is a result of our
associating the snake with the notion of evil, as in the Garden of Eden. Whatever
the reason, the fact remains that for many otherwise normal people, the mere sight
of a snake slithering through the countryside is enough to keep them city dwellers
forever.
The repeated words “fear” and “snake” and the synonym “reptile” help tie one sentence
to another so that the reader can follow the ideas easily.

Pronouns Substituted for Key Nouns

A pronoun is a word that stands for a noun. In your paragraph you might use a key noun
in one sentence and then use a pronoun in its place in the following sentences. The pro-
noun “it” often replaces “shark” in the description that follows:
(1) The great white shark is perhaps the best equipped of all the ocean’s preda -

tors. (2) It can grow up to twenty-one feet and weigh three tons, with two-inch teeth
that can replace themselves within twenty-four hours when damaged. (3) The shark’s
sense of smell is so acute that it can detect one ounce of fish blood in a million
ounces of water. (4) In addition, it can sense vibrations from six hundred feet away.
Sentences 2, 3, and 4 are tied to the topic sentence by the use of the pronoun “it.”

Parallelism
Parallelism in a paragraph means using the same grammatical structure in several sen-
tences to establish coherence. The repeated use of similar phrasing helps tie the ideas
and sentences together. Next, for example, is a paragraph predominantly unified by its
use of grammatically parallel sentences:
 (1) The weather of Texas offers something for everyone. (2)If you are the kind who

likes to see snow drifting onto mountain peaks, a visit to the Big Bend area will sat-
isfy your eye. (3) If, on the other hand, you demand a bright sun to bake your skin a
golden brown, stop in the southern part of the state. (4) And for hardier souls, who
ask from nature a show of force, the skies of the Panhandle regularly release fero -
cious springtime tornadoes. (5) Finally, if you are the fickle type, by all means come to
central Texas, where the sun at any time may shine unashamed throughout the most
torrential rainstorm.
The parallel structures of sentences 2, 3, and 5 (“if you” + verb) keep the paragraph flowing
smoothly from one idea to the next.

Using a Variety of Transitional Devices

Most writers use a combination of transitional devices in their paragraphs. In the fol-
lowing example, three kinds of transitional devices are circled. See whether you canidentify
each one.
Transitions are the glue that holds a paragraph together.

These devices lead the reader from sentence to sentence, smoothing

over the gaps between by indicating the relationship between the

sentences. If this glue is missing, the paragraph will almost

inevitably sound choppy or childish, even if every sentence in

responds to a single topic commitment. However, transitions are

not substitutes for topic unity: like most glue, they are most

effective when joining similar objects, or, in this case, similar

ideas. For example, in a paragraph describing a chicken egg, no

could bridge the gap created by the inclusion of a

sentence concerned with naval losses in the Civil War. In other

words, transitions can call attention to the topic relationships

© Cengage Learning

between but they cannot create those

transitional repetition repetition

words of pronouns of key words

Avoiding Whiplash
The preceding example not only illustrates a variety of transitional devices but also makes
an important point about their use—and their limitations. Transitional devices show
connections between sentences, but they alone cannot create a logical flow of ideas if none
exists. For example, notice in the following sample the “disconnect” between the first three
sentences and sentence 4:
 (1) Despiteour growing dependency on computers, one of our most useful house- hold tools is still the
lowly pencil. (2) Cheap, efficient, and long-lasting, the pencil may be operated by children and adults
alike, without the necessity of a user’s manual or tech support. (3) According to the Incense Cedar
Institute, today’s pencil can draw a line 70 miles long, be sharpened 17 times, and write an average of
45,000 words. (4)Chinese factories don’t have to follow as many environmental regulations, and their
workers are paid less than their American counterparts. (5) Many pencils used
in this country are still manufactured in China because of the cheaper cost.

Did you suffer “reader’s whiplash” as your mind experienced the sudden jerk from the discussion of pencil
use to “Chinese factories”? No addition of a simple transitional word will fix this problem; the writer needs
to revise the paragraph’s internal logic and flow or perhaps even consider a new paragraph on cost or
production. In other words, don’t rely on transitional devices when deep-structure revision for coherence is
needed. Make your reader’s trip through your prose an enjoyable one by avoiding sudden stops and starts in
thought, and then smooth that ride with appropriate transitional devices when they are necessary.

Cohesive Devices

Cohesive devices are words and phrases that connect ideas among different parts of a text. If you read any
text carefully, you will notice ideas are already there in the text. But sometimes they remain isolated. The
cohesive devices connect those ideas with each other and help the readers understand what the writer is
saying in the text. So, the sole purpose of using cohesive devices is to build an interrelationship among
sentences or paragraphs and give a logical progression to the text.

For example, read the following sentence:

‘Kobita’s friend is a great swimmer and she couldn’t cross this small distance yesterday.’
As a reader, aren’t you confused? Definitely, you are. Because the first information that you have got is-
Kobita’s friend is a great swimmer. The writer has used and to tell the second idea, so you are expecting a
similar idea like - ‘May be she will easily cross a small distance’. But, the writer has just written the opposite
that ‘She couldn’t cross this small distance yesterday’. Here, the use of this cohesive device ‘and’ makes you
confused and eventually you have failed to understand the meaning of the text. But, by using the appropriate
cohesive devices, we can connect the ideas and make the meaning clear to the readers. The text can be
rewritten in the following way-

‘Normally, my friend is a great swimmer but yesterday she failed to cross this small distance.’

PARALLELISM

Problem

Parallelism, or parallel construction, means the use of the same pattern of words for
two or more ideas that have the same level of importance. When a sentence or
passage lacks parallel construction, it is likely to seem disorganized. The reader may
have to reread it to grasp the meaning or may misunderstand the relationship among
ideas.

Solutions
 KNOW WHEN PARALLEL STRUCTURE IS REQUIRED.

• For items in a list

• For words or phrases joined by a coordinating conjunction: and, but, yet, or, nor, for, so
• For words or phrases that follow each half of a correlative conjunction such as
both/and, not only/but also, (n)either/(n)or, whether/or
• For words or phrases introduced by a comparison word, usually than or as, to

PUT STRUCTURALLY EQUIVALENT WORDS OR PHRASES IN THE SAME PART OF

SPEECH.

Not parallel: The position required experience, friendly, and get up early.

Parallel (all nouns): The position required experience, friendliness, and a

willingness to get up early.

Parallel (all adjectives): They wanted someone who was experienced, friendly,
and willing to get up early.

Parallel (all verbs): They wanted someone who had experience, was friendly,
and liked to get up early.

PUT STRUCTURALLY EQUIVALENT VERBS IN THE SAME FORM.

Not parallel: Good health requires eating right and exercise regularly.

Parallel: Good health requires eating right and exercising regularly.

Parallel: I have always eaten right and exercised regularly.
Parallel: It is just as important to eat right as to exercise regularly.
Parallel: A person should not only eat right but also exercise
regularly.

Parallel: My overworked boss neither eats right nor exercises

regularly.

USE CLAUSES OR COMPLETE SENTENCES CONSISTENTLY.

Not parallel: Three reasons were given for the concert’s cancellation: the lead
singer was sick, low ticket sales, and because the drummer had left the
band.

Parallel Sentences: Three reasons were given for the concert’s cancellation: the
lead singer was sick, ticket sales were low, and the drummer had left
the band.

Not parallel: The county explained when the cleanup would begin and it would
 be funded by a referendum.

Parallel Clauses: The county explained when the cleanup would begin and
how it would be funded.

Parallel Clauses: The county explained that the cleanup would begin in June
and that it would be funded by a referendum.

As you work on the overall style or flow of your writing, CONSIDER USING
PARALLELISM TO STRENGTHEN THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG SENTENCES.

Here parallel sentence openings and participial clauses link examples:

Writing is a rigorous activity. It requires you to think deeply,

expending both mental and emotional energy. It also requires you
to pay careful attention to details, double checking both word
choice and punctuation.
For more information:

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers. New York: Longman,
2000. 387–398.

Hacker, Diana. A Writer’s Reference. 5th ed. Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003. 81–84.
 PRONOUN REFERENCES

As you learned in elementary school, pronouns take the place of nouns. Therefore,remember
these two simple rules:

1. Be sure that each pronoun in your sentences has an expressed antecedent, a noun for
which it is a substitute, and be sure that each pronoun can refer to the appropriate
noun only.

2. Be sure that each pronoun agrees in gender and number with the noun (or another
pronoun) to which it refers.

Ze-

TYPICAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH RULE 1

Ambiguous Antecedents

Whenever there is the possibility that the antecedent of a pronoun may not be
immediately and absolutely clear, repeat the appropriate noun, or express your idea
differently.

AMBIGUOUS: Sally told Mary that that she had won the door prize.

CLEARER: Sally told Mary that that Mary had won the door prize.

Sally had the pleasure of informing Mary that she was the winner
of the door prize.

AMBIGUOUS: The painting was encased in a highly ornate frame. It pleased

him.

CLEARER: The painting was encased in a highly ornate frame. The frame
pleased him. (OR) The painting pleased him. (OR) He was pleased
by the painting in its highly ornate frame. (OR) He waspleased by
the way the highly ornate frame complemented the painting.

© Susan M. Hubbuch 7-2001

 Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns--this, that, these, those—are legitimate parts of the English

language. But you must use them with care because, in some constructions, the
antecedents of these pronouns can be vague.

VAGUE:
It is not yet clear how the drug Raprime affects the body. Based on recent studies,
scientists speculate that the X-Y compound in the drug depresses the central nervous
system. This raises important questions

What raises important questions? To what grammatical unit does "this" refer?
• depressing the central nervous system?
• the possibility that the drug depresses the central nervous system?
• the lack of clarity about how Raprime affects the body?

CLARIFIED:

It is not yet clear how the drug Raprime affects the body. Based on recent studies,
scientists speculate that the X-Y compound in the drug depresses the central nervous
system. This potential effect of Raprime raises important questions.

If you use a demonstrative pronoun, remember rule 1: It must refer to one and only one
expressed noun.

In many situations, you would be better off turning the demonstrative pronoun into an
adjective. That is, repeat the noun that is the antecedent, or find an appropriate noun for the
concept you have in mind, and qualify it with this, that, these or those:

NOT this BUT this situation

this fact
this finding

Implied Antecedents and Possessive Forms of Nouns

Keep in mind that the antecedents of pronouns must be used in your text in a noun form, and
that nouns in their possessive form (Tom's, the book's ) do not constitute a legitimate
antecedent for a pronoun.

Various swimming exercises are included in this pamphlet. And, remember, it isa
great way to keep in shape.

If the it here is intended to refer back to swimming, this construction won't work because
swimming is being used an adjective.
NOT: In Shakespeare's history plays, he presents a Tudor view of the
War of the Roses.

INSTEAD: In his history plays, Shakespeare presents a Tudor view of the

War of the Roses.

NOT: The nobles feared the king's actions, whose maliciousness was
well known.

INSTEAD: The nobles feared the actions of the king, whose maliciousness
was well known.

(or, if maliciousness is a reference to the actions themselves):

The nobles feared the king's actions, the maliciousness of which

were well known.

TYPICAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH RULE 2

Collective Nouns and References to Organizations

Collective nouns are those that refer to a group of people as a collective whole: jury,
government, tribe, class, audience. When the name of a business or an organization isused
to represent that enterprise as a corporate entity, it also needs to be treated as a collective
noun.

Since these collective nouns represent a group of individuals taken as a whole, they
technically require a singular pronoun.

The government was firm in its response.

The audience expressed its approval.
The tribe resisted encroachment on its territory.
In a press release, Charity Hospital has stated that it intends to fight the lawsuit.

In many cases, however, writers have in mind not the group acting as a whole, but the
actions of members of such groups.

The committe was split in their views.

The use of a plural pronoun in such cases is generally deemed acceptable. But a fail-safe
alternative is this: if and when you want to make reference to actions of members of such
groups, do so by referring to them explicitly:

Committee members were split in their views.

Government officials have been reticent about expressing their opinions.
 Indefinite Pronouns, Generic Nouns, and Nonsexist Language

Perhaps the most problematic area of pronoun reference these days revolves around
generic nouns and indefinite pronouns. Generic nouns are those that make reference to
hypothetical individuals—a doctor, a teacher—in statements such as "A doctor must
always. . . ." Indefinite pronouns include the following:

anybody everybody somebody

anyone everything someone
anything nobody something
each none

These generic nouns and pronouns are singular, and therefore require a singular pronoun.

Anything will do as long as it is purple.

The difficulties arise when the reference is to a human being. Traditionally, the singular
pronoun used with generic nouns and indefinite pronouns was the masculine form of the
third-person singular (he, him, his). Because such usage is now considered sexist, the
typical alternative is either he/she or he or she.

Everybody must bring his or her lunch.

A doctor is expected to put his or her patient first.

The he or she construction, however, can become cumbersome or clumsy at times. In such
cases, the obvious alternatives are to use plural nouns, or to construct statements insuch a
way that third-person singular pronouns are not required.

Doctors are expected to put their patients first.

A doctor is expected to focus, first, on the patient.
Individuals who fail to meet these requirements will lose their licenses.
Anyone who engages in such behavior will have to accept its consequences.
Please plan to bring your own lunch.

Avoiding You as an Indefinite Pronoun

The last example in the previous section raises the issue of use of the pronoun you. In
ordinary conversation, when we are making the type of hypothetical statements that invite
use of generic nouns or indefinite pronouns, we usually use the second person (you, your).

If you expect to be a good doctor, you need to think of your patients first.
 While acceptable in informal situations, or in cases in which the writer is purposefully and legitimately addressing
readers, the second person should otherwise be avoided. Onealternative, of course, is the indefinite one.

When one is insulted, one should try to ignore the affront. If one's ego will nottolerate. . . .

Unfortunately, in English one has a very formal, "stuffy" feel to it.

In those situations in which you find yourself using you, the first thing to do is ask yourself what you are trying to
accomplish. Are you "lecturing" your readers? If so, is such lecturing appropriate to the purpose of the text? If, in fact, you are
making the sortsof generalized, hypothetical statements that call for indefinite pronouns and/or generic nouns, try those
solutions suggested in the previous section.

Linking Words (Conjunctions and Connectors)

Definition
Broadly speaking, conjunctions and connectors describe the relationship between two statements. These statements can
be written without linking words, but often more information can be succinctly conveyed using these words. Conjunctions
grammatically join two clauses (independent or dependent, depending on the conjunction) so that it reads as one
sentence. Connectors are used between two separate sentences.

Type of conjunctions
There are four types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, subordinating, and conjunctive adverbs (discussed
elsewhere). One sentence can contain multiple types of conjunctions, and often does.

Coordinating Conjunction

Definition These linking words give equal value to the two elements (nouns, adjectives, clauses, etc.)
which they coordinate

• And (addition) Note: For and so are sometimes mentioned as coordinating

• or (alternative) conjunctions, but modern English rarely uses them
Words used
(limited list) • but (contrastive)
anymore for that purpose. They are more commonly used
• yet (contrastive)
as subordinating conjunctions.
• nor (negative)
 • Conjunctions must go between two elements (nouns, clauses, etc.) they link
• Commas are optional EXCEPT for and and but:
o and: if there are more than 2 elements being described, a comma must follow
each element being connected. The and must come between the second to last
Grammar rules and last element it links. For only 2 elements, no comma is necessary
o but: a comma must always precede but
• When to use nor vs. or:
o or: links nouns, adjectives, adverb phrases, or positive verb phrases.
o nor: links a negative verb phrases.
▪ Nor is also often used with “neither.” See the last example sentence
below as well as the correlative conjunctions section for more details.

• The graduate student had to teach section and take classes.

• The graduate student had to teach section, take classes, and conduct research.
Example • The service animal was not a pony, but a miniature horse.
Sentences • He was exhausted yet very happy.
• Mary had not gone to the store nor had she visited the gym.
o Note: Notice here that “not” could be replaced with “neither” and have the same
meaning. This is a good way to check if you’ve used nor correctly.

Daria Huang @May 2015

Quick Practice:  The investigators found a hair clip a bottle of nail polish, and a credit card belonging tothe
correct the kidnapping victim.
sentences  She had a scholarship to ballet school but longed to be a doctor.
 Since you cannot swim, you are not allowed on the boat nor near the docks.

Correlative Conjunction

Definition These are pairs of coordinating conjunctions; these pairs must be used together. Like
coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions describe equal elements.

• both…and, not only…but also (combining or addition)

Words used
(limited list) • either…or, whether…or not (binary choice)
• neither…nor (negative)

• The first word of the conjunction must go directly before the first subject or clause; the
Grammar rules second word of the conjunction must go directly before the second.
• both…and can only be used with simple subjects
o However, not only…but also can be used with simple subjects and clauses

• The paper’s results were both impressive and innovative.

Example • I will not only grow the cells for the assay, but also interpret the results.
Sentences • The daughter bought not only a designer purse, but also a custom wallet.
• Harry will either go to the market or the mall this afternoon.
• I neither want to clean my room nor desire to go caroling.

Quick Practice:  Jill neither wanted or needed singing bass novelty.

correct the  The child both ate an entire cake and drank a liter of soda; she soon vomited.
sentences  Mark wanted either Cheerios and Raisin Bran.

Subordinating Conjunction

These linking words are often used to expand or further describe the main clause/element
Definition
(the explanation clause is subordinate).

• as, because, since (cause)

Words used • so, so that (purpose)
(limited list) • although, though (contrastive)
• after, before, until, while (temporal)
• if, unless, provided, whichever, whenever (conditional)

Grammar rules • The conjunction must go before the subordinating clause (the explanation clause)
• Commas must go at the end of the first clause, which can be either the subordinating or
main clause

• Before going to the game (subordinate), we often eat at the pub (main).
Example • Although very cute (sub), pandas are not suitable pets (main).
Sentences • Candice was feeling lonely (main), so she adopted another cat (sub).
• Peanut butter is delicious (main), provided you don’t have a nut allergy (sub).
  Mary was hungry while at the grocery store so she bought chips ice cream and an entire
Quick Practice:
correct the cake.
sentences  The cable TV is lagging, the internet is fast, though.
 Because the island was beautiful, it had an infestation of coconut crabs.

Types of connectors
We can think of connectors as functionally similar to coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, but the former connects
complete sentences (instead of) nouns, clauses, etc. Because connectors often use different words than conjunctions, we need
to be careful that we do not use a conjunction where a connector should be and vice versa. Below are some common
connectors and their corresponding conjunction. If you often struggle with run--‐on sentences, try replacing the
conjunction with the correct connector!

• Connectors must go between the two Conjunction Corresponding

statements which they connect. Connector
• Connectors can go before or after the
subject of the second sentence.
o Ex. Mount Kilimanjaro is on the and also, in addition,
Equator. It, however, has a additionally, moreover,
covering of snow and ice. furthermore
• A comma must follow a connector if it is
Grammar the 1st word in the sentence. If it’s not: however, even so, though,
rules o If the connector goes after the nevertheless, nonetheless,
but
subject of the sentence but before still, yet, in
the verb, use a comma before and contrast, on the other hand,
after the connector (see above). on the contrary
• Connectors can sometimes go after the therefore, thus,
subject and verb of the sentence, but they so, because consequently, hence, for
follow different grammar rules (not (cause--‐effect) this reason, as a result, that
discussed). Usually, though, these is why
connectors do not require commas.
so
similarly, likewise
(similarity)
• A ghost named Casper haunted the house.
before beforehand, before this,
It, though, was not friendly. first, then, next, afterwards
• We had to get to the beach early.
Example Otherwise, we have missed the sunrise. or alternatively, otherwise
Sentences • The windows were very old.
Consequently, the room was cold and
drafty. while meanwhile, at the same
(same time) time/moment
• Steph loves ice cream. Her sister,
likewise, adores gelato.

Quick  Meanwhile, Timmy had fallen in the well. Lassie was at the vet.
Practice:  The meadow seemed bucolic and innocuous. The people of the village nonetheless knew its dark
correct the secret.
sentences  PETA loves saving animals. They love shocking the public, also.
 When to use conjunction vs.
connector
Two main considerations should be taken into account:

1. When conjunctions are used, this implies that the statement after the
conjunction is relaying knowledgealready known to the reader.
Connectors are used when the information is presented in the
preceding sentences and is not assumed knowledge.

If it snows tomorrow, the city will send the plows. It may snow tomorrow. If so, the city will send the plows.

In the left example, the statement that follows the conjunction implies that the reader already knows that there
is a chance of snow. The example on the right must state first that it may snow and then the connector describes
the effect of the snow.

2. Joining the statement with a conjunction implies that they are part of
the same idea. By using a connector,the separation between two
statements allows their relationship to be more precisely defined,
which is especially important for professional writing.

Cars can be dangerous and they pollute. Cars can be dangerous. Moreover, they pollute.

The left sentence is structured so that “dangerous” and “pollute” are two equal points that emphasize one
broader message: cars are bad. The example on the right is structured to make two separate points, and
“moreover” indicates that “pollute” is more important.