Definition of a B-tree

• A B-tree of order m is an m-way tree (i.e., a tree where each

node may have up to m children) in which:
1. the number of keys in each non-leaf node is one less than the number
B-trees of its children and these keys partition the keys in the children in the
fashion of a search tree
2. all leaves are on the same level
3. all non-leaf nodes except the root have at least m / 2 children
4. the root is either a leaf node, or it has from two to m children
5. a leaf node contains no more than m – 1 keys
• The number m should always be odd

Source: Simon Garrett

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An example B-Tree Inserting into a B-Tree

26 A B-tree of order 5 • Attempt to insert the new key into a leaf

containing 26 items
6 12 • If this would result in that leaf becoming too big, split the leaf
into two, promoting the middle key to the leaf’s parent
• If this would result in the parent becoming too big, split the
42 51 62
1 2 4 7 8 13 15 18 25 parent into two, promoting the middle key
• This strategy might have to be repeated all the way to the top
• If necessary, the root is split in two and the middle key is
promoted to a new root, making the tree one level higher
27 29 45 46 48 53 55 60 64 70 90

Note that all the leaves are at the same level

3 4

Constructing a B-tree Constructing a B-tree (contd.)

• Suppose we start with an empty B-tree and keys arrive in the 8

following order:1 12 8 2 25 5 14 28 17 7 52 16 48 68
3 26 29 53 55 45
• We want to construct a B-tree of order 5 1 2 12 25

• The first four items go into the root: 6, 14, 28 get added to the leaf nodes:
1 2 8 12 8

• To put the fifth item in the root would violate condition 5

• Therefore, when 25 arrives, pick the middle key to make a 1 2 6 12 14 25 28

new root
5 6

1
1
Constructing a B-tree (contd.) Constructing a B-tree (contd.)
Adding 17 to the right leaf node would over-fill it, so we take the Adding 68 causes us to split the right most leaf, promoting 48 to the
middle key, promote it (to the root) and split the leaf root, and adding 3 causes us to split the left most leaf, promoting 3
8 17 to the root; 26, 29, 53, 55 then go into the leaves
3 8 17 48

1 2 6 12 14 25 28

7, 52, 16, 48 get added to the leaf nodes 1 2 6 7 12 14 16 25 26 28 29 52 53 55 68

8 17
Adding 45 causes a split of 25 26 28 29

1 2 6 7 12 14 16 25 28 48 52 and promoting 28 to the root then causes the root to split

7 8

Constructing a B-tree (contd.) Inserting into a B-Tree

17
• Attempt to insert the new key into a leaf
• If this would result in that leaf becoming too big, split the leaf
into two, promoting the middle key to the leaf’s parent
3 8 28 48
• If this would result in the parent becoming too big, split the
parent into two, promoting the middle key
• This strategy might have to be repeated all the way to the top
1 2 6 7 12 14 16 25 26 29 45 52 53 55 68
• If necessary, the root is split in two and the middle key is
promoted to a new root, making the tree one level higher

9 10

Exercise in Inserting a B-Tree Removal from a B-tree

• Insert the following keys to a 5-way B-tree: • During insertion, the key always goes into a leaf. For deletion
• 3, 7, 9, 23, 45, 1, 5, 14, 25, 24, 13, 11, 8, 19, 4, 31, 35, 56 we wish to remove from a leaf. There are three possible ways
we can do this:
• Check your approach with a neighbour and discuss any • 1 - If the key is already in a leaf node, and removing it doesn’t
differences. cause that leaf node to have too few keys, then simply remove
the key to be deleted.
• 2 - If the key is not in a leaf then it is guaranteed (by the
nature of a B-tree) that its predecessor or successor will be in
a leaf -- in this case can we delete the key and promote the
predecessor or successor key to the non-leaf deleted key’s
position.
11 12

2
2
Removal from a B-tree (2) Type #1: Simple leaf deletion

• If (1) or (2) lead to a leaf node containing less than the

Assuming a 5-way
minimum number of keys then we have to look at the siblings B-Tree, as before... 12 29 52
immediately adjacent to the leaf in question:
– 3: if one of them has more than the min’ number of keys then we can
promote one of its keys to the parent and take the parent key into our
lacking leaf
– 4: if neither of them has more than the min’ number of keys then the
2 7 9 15 22 31 43 56 69 72
lacking leaf and one of its neighbours can be combined with their
shared parent (the opposite of promoting a key) and the new leaf will
have the correct number of keys; if this step leaves the parent with too
Delete 2: Since there are enough
few keys then we repeat the process up to the root itself, if required keys in the node, just delete it

Note when printed: this slide is animated

13 14

Type #4: Too few keys in node and

Type #2: Simple non-leaf deletion its siblings

12 29 56
52 Delete 52 12 29 56

Join back together

7 9 15 22 31 43 56 69 72 7 9 15 22 31 43 69 72
Too few keys!
Delete 72
Borrow the predecessor
or (in this case) successor

Note when printed: this slide is animated Note when printed: this slide is animated

15 16

Type #4: Too few keys in node and

its siblings Type #3: Enough siblings

12 29 12 29
Demote root key and
promote leaf key

7 9 15 22 31 43 56 69 7 9 15 22 31 43 56 69

Delete 22

Note when printed: this slide is animated Note when printed: this slide is animated

17 18

3
3
Type #3: Enough siblings Exercise in Removal from a B-Tree

• Given 5-way B-tree created by these data (last exercise):

12 31 • 3, 7, 9, 23, 45, 1, 5, 14, 25, 24, 13, 11, 8, 19, 4, 31, 35, 56

• Add these further keys: 2, 6,12

7 9 15 29 43 56 69
• Delete these keys: 4, 5, 7, 3, 14

Note when printed: this slide is animated

19 20

Analysis of B-Trees Reasons for using B-Trees

• The maximum number of items in a B-tree of order m and • When searching tables held on disc, the cost of each disc
height h: transfer is high but doesn't depend much on the amount of
root m–1 data transferred, especially if consecutive items are transferred
level 1 m(m – 1)
– If we use a B-tree of order 101, say, we can transfer each node in one
level 2 m2(m – 1) disc read operation
. . .
– A B-tree of order 101 and height 3 can hold 1014 – 1 items
level h mh(m – 1) (approximately 100 million) and any item can be accessed with 3 disc
• So, the total number of items is reads (assuming we hold the root in memory)
(1 + m + m2 + m3 + … + mh)(m – 1) = • If we take m = 3, we get a 2-3 tree, in which non-leaf nodes
[(mh+1 – 1)/ (m – 1)] (m – 1) = mh+1 – 1 have two or three children (i.e., one or two keys)
– B-Trees are always balanced (since the leaves are all at the same level),
• When m = 5 and h = 2 this gives 53 – 1 = 124 so 2-3 trees make a good type of balanced tree
21 22

Comparing Trees

• Binary trees
– Can become unbalanced and lose their good time complexity (big O)
– AVL trees are strict binary trees that overcome the balance problem
– Heaps remain balanced but only prioritise (not order) the keys

• Multi-way trees
– B-Trees can be m-way, they can have any (odd) number of children
– One B-Tree, the 2-3 (or 3-way) B-Tree, approximates a permanently
balanced binary tree, exchanging the AVL tree’s balancing operations
for insertion and (more complex) deletion operations

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