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Resources
World War I Depth Study Notes
for Cambridge IGCSE
History
(0470)

Authored by
abu foofoo

1st edition, for examination until 2026

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These notes are specific only to Depth Study: Option A ‘’The
First World War, 1914-18’’ on the following key points:

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WHY WAS THERE A STALEMATE ON THE WESTERN FRONT?
WHY DID THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN FAIL?
German chief of staff, Count Alfred von Schlieffen, designed the plan in 1905. It aimed to avoid
a war on two fronts, France and Russia after their alliance in 1894. The plan was supposed to
go as following:
● Schlieffen assumed Russia would take six weeks to mobilize, despite its dangerousness.
● France had to be defeated before Russian mobilization.
● 10% of the German army would be kept to defend against Russia.
● 90% of the German army (1,500,000 men) would move by rail through Belgium, Holland
and Luxembourg to invade France.
● German northern forces would be 8x stronger than its southern ones due to long
distances to be traveled.
● The army would swing around the French army to encircle Paris, knocking France out of
the war.
However, Helmuth von Moltke was made new chief after Schlieffen’s death in 1906. He made
some modifications to the plan:
● Two divisions were withdrawn to defend against the French.
● A direct route through Belgium would be taken.
Unfortunately for the Germans, Russia mobilized in two weeks and attacked Germany. This
took her by surprise, and two German army corps were sent to fight the Russians.
BELGIUM’S REACTION TO SCHLIEFFEN PLAN:
In Belgium, stronger opposition was met despite the German army outnumbering the Belgian
army. It took her 13 days to capture the fortress town of Liege. Brussels was occupied on the
20th of August. Due to this, the Belgians destroyed bridges, flooded the land, put up barricades
and blocked roads. Another reason that slowed the Germans were exhaustion, supply
problems and casualties. The Belgian opposition delayed the Germans so much that the BEF
arrived in time to fight the Battle of Mons.
BATTLE OF MONS:
23rd of August. 70,000 British soldiers with 300 heavy guns fought 160,000 soldiers with 600
guns. The Germans pushed forward and the British retreated to the south of the river Marne,
outside Paris. By the end of August, Moltke thought the war was almost won, due to the

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Belgians being defeated. France implemented Plan 17 but failed. However, Moltke’s forces
were no longer strong enough to encircle Paris and instead moved directly south-east.
BATTLE OF MARNE:
6-12 September 1914. BEF and 150,000 French soldiers counter attacked successfully as the
Germans were about to attack Paris. Germany was so close to victory that the Eiffel Tower
could be seen, however, 6000 French reserve troops were brought to the front line from Paris
in 600 taxis which helped them prevent France from collapsing.

On the 8th of September, another French attack forced the Germans to retreat 65 km to the
river Aisne. The victory at Marne was strategic to the Allies as the Germans were pushed back
and lost ground. With this, the Schlieffen Plan had failed.
At river Aisne, Germans dug a defensive system of trenches. In late September 1914, the Allied
armies were unsuccessful in forcing the Germans back. Germany wanted to capture the
Channel ports and cut off supplies to Britain. This became known as the ‘’Race to the Sea’’.
Fighting and weather conditions became worse, and soldiers dug trenches that stretched 470
km from the English Channel to Switzerland.

FIRST BATTLE OF YPRES:

19 October – 22 November 1914. A 56km salient was held by the BEF along a ridge outside
Ypres. The Allies wanted to retake Lille, France and Brussels, Belgium. The Germans had their
eye on the ports of Dunkirk, Calais and Boulogne. The Germans attacked first, and they fought
the BEF, French and Belgian troops.
Cavalry and machine guns failed to break through. Heavy losses were met by both sides. The
BEF had almost been wiped out, and now relied on volunteers.

WHY DID A DEFENSIVE WAR EMERGE BY THE END OF 1914?

It was clear that defense was easier than attacking. Trenches could be defended by machine
guns. Germans dug deep to strengthen their trenches. The Germans saw that moving forward
was not an option, as they had already captured lots of territory. However, the Allies needed to
push the Germans back. The trenches at Hooge, near Ypres were 15m apart. In other places,
they were 1 km apart.

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Generals on both sides were yet to understand the new nature of warfare. British commanders
still insisted that cavalry breakthroughs would win the war, even when conditions made it
impossible to use horses.

WHAT WAS LIVING AND FIGHTING IN TRENCHES LIKE?

Soldiers did not spend all their time fighting in trenches. Rather, they were split into platoons
of 60 men. Each platoon would spend four days in the front line before rotating around. They
spent 4 days in reserve trenches, and finally four days resting behind the front line. However,
some soldiers spent more than two weeks in the front line before being relieved.
Conditions in trenches were difficult. Trenches in northern France were dug in chalky ground.
In Ypres, the ground was wet. German trenches were dug on higher ground and were deeper
than Allied trenches. There were several problems in living in the trenches:
● Rats thrived in the corpses of men, discarded food and other waste.
● Lice lived in soldiers’ clothing and sucked their blood.
● Not washing for days or weeks, limited toilet facilities and little fresh water meant that
kidney infection and dysentery were common.
● Poor weather conditions worsened matters. Trenches were flooded after heavy rain. At
Passchendaele, thousands of men disappeared in the mud. Trench foot was brought
which led to gangrene. During winter, frostbite affected thousands of soldiers. In
summer, the heat made the smell of decayed bodies, horse manure and soldiers’ latrines
unbearable.
● Shell shock was common between soldiers. They experienced mental breakdowns often.
● Boredom spread quickly, due to long waits between major battles. This made trench life
tedious.

A soldier's daily routine was generally repetitive. Half an hour before dawn, they were ordered
to ‘stand to’ – stand on guard on the firestep in case of enemy attack. During the day, soldiers
took turns to keep watch, while others collected supplies, rebuilt trenches or fortified
defenses. Platoons were in action at night, Sentries stood on duty or went out into no man’s
land to repair barbed wire or for raiding parties. Snipers and machine gunners fired at anything
that moved. ‘’Star shells’ were used by both sides to illuminate no man’s land at night.
When attacking, the attacking army would use heavy artillery to bombard enemy trenches.
This aimed to destroy barbed-wire defenses and enemy trenches, kill many soldiers and reduce

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survivors’ morale. These bombardments may last for several days, but when they stopped
attacking soldiers would go ‘’over the top’’. They carried rifles with bayonets fixed onto the
barrel.

Artillery bombardments were often unsuccessful. Many shells did not explode and damage
done to defenses were minor. The Germans reinforced their bunkers with concrete. Shrapnel
shells exploded above ground, which sprayed deadly metal fragments across the battlefield.
This killed more men than anything on the Western Front. Those who made it across no man’s
land were caught in barbed wires, making them easy targets for enemy machine gunners.
When enemy trenches were captured, they were often abandoned or recaptured due to
reinforcements taking time to arrive.

HOW IMPORTANT WERE THE NEW METHODS OF WARFARE?

TANKS
First used by the Allies at the Battle of Flers-Courcelette in September 1916. In France, 17 tanks
broke down before they reached the battlefield. Nevertheless, the sight of tanks scared the
Germans. The first tanks were slow, unreliable and dangerous for the men operating them.
Despite this, Sir Douglas Haig was persuaded to supply another 1000 tanks. Tanks aimed to
destroy enemy machine-gun posts to clear the way for infantry. German commander Erich
Ludendorff considered the tank to be the German army’s most dangerous enemy.
MACHINE GUNS
Each gun could fire 400-600 rounds of ammunition per minute, with a deadly range of over
1km. They were responsible for one-third of the casualties during the war. Germans were
equipped with 8 machine guns per battalion, 6 more than the British. Early models were large
and heavy, meaning a team of men were required to operate them. By the end of the war, the
British Lewis and Vickers machine guns were mobile, making them useable as offensive
weapons.
AIRCRAFTS
Initially meant for observing enemy troops, but without radios, messages could not be passed
on immediately. Fighter aircrafts were sent up to scare planes observing the front line. Early in
the war, pilots fired pistols at each other in midair. In 1915, machine guns were mounted on
the upper wings of biplanes. The Germans developed a machine gun that could be fired by
aiming the propeller at the enemy. British planes like Sopwiths and SE5s enabled the Royal
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Flying Corps to take control. The first air raid was conducted by German Zeppelins in Paris on
30 August. They bombed London, killing seven people and causing huge damage. However,
Britain soon developed planes that could shoot them down. Furthermore, blackouts,
searchlights and night fighter planes limited the effects of raids. Aircrafts were too small and
lightly armed to damage targets. Larger planes were expensive and could not carry enough
bombs. Overall, fighting in the air had no significant impact on the war. Britain also bombed
German cities.
GAS
Poison gas was used at Ypres. It remained a deadly weapon until the end of the war. Gas could
be released and allowed to drift towards the enemy if the wind was in the right direction. Gas
shells which opened upon impact were also used. Early gas masks were ineffective, but later
designed to be more effective. There were 3 types of glasses:
● Chlorine gas: killed over 1,100 soldiers. First used at Ypres.
● Phosgene gas: caused less coughing. Effects showed up to 48 hours after inhalation.
● Mustard gas: Mortality rate was around 3%.
Over 1 million soldiers were affected by poison gas. Over 90,000 were killed on all sides.
Phosgene gas was estimated to be responsible for around 85% of deaths.
However, gas was not a decisive weapon. It could blow the wrong way. Attackers had to wear
gas masks, which reduced visibility and movement. Gas only accounted for 4% of war deaths.

WHAT WAS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BATTLES OF VERDUN AND THE SOMME?
Germany launched a tactic of attrition, whereas Britain hoped for a major breakthrough. Both
attacks were catastrophic failures, killing over a million men on both sides.
BATTLE OF VERDUN, FEBRUARY-DECEMBER 1916
Longest battle fought. Germany believed the French were close to collapse, and so the new
chief of general staff Erich von Falkenhayn chose to attack the French fortress town of Verdun.
This fortress was a symbol of French military strength and Falkenhayn believed that the French
pride would never allow them to surrender it. His aim was to kill as many French soldiers and
destroy the French Army's morale. He expected the French to surrender and Britain to
withdraw.

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 ● 21st February: Germans began shelling the French front line. Gas attack was launched,
which was followed by 140000 German soldiers. Fort Douaumont was captured early in
the battle. Despite outnumbering the French, the Germans were unable to make a
significant breakthrough.
● 25th February: General Phillipe Petain was put in charge to defend Verdun. He
strengthened French resistance and the only French route into the city was widened and
repaired after German bombardment. This caused the city to receive around 4000
tonnes of supplies weekly and 20,000 reinforcements daily.

The British launched the Battle of the Somme to relieve the pressure on the French and
distract the Germans. Falkenhayn ended the Verdun offensive on the 11th of July and
transferred his men to the Somme. Fighting continued until December but nothing was gained
by either side.
Verdun showed that as long as the defending side could sustain casualties, trench warfare
would be proven useless and lengthy to the war. It was the most significant use of attrition
during the war. Germany did not launch another major offensive on the Western Front.
BATTLE OF THE SOMME, JULY-NOVEMBER 1916
Everyone in Britain believed that a victory on the Western Front could be a turning-point in the
war. To support this, conscription was introduced in January 1916 and 100,000 reinforcements
were arriving every month. The British army numbered almost 1.3 million men by spring 1916.
On 1 July, the British commander Sir Douglas Haig launched a massive attack on German
trenches at the river Somme. The plan was as follows:
1. Heavy shelling for seven days, to destroy German defenses, inflict heavy casualties and
clear barbed wire. Five large mines would detonate beneath the German trenches.
2. Infantry advance at 10.30 a.m. on 1 July. Soldiers to walk slowly and clear remaining
Germans from front line trenches.
3. Second wave of attack, including cavalry, would sweep through.
The attack failed and it became the worst day in British military history. The reasons for failure
were:
● Bombardment did not destroy German barbed wire.
● German soldiers survived by sheltering in deep, well-supplied concrete bunkers.
● Germans knew an attack was coming after the shelling stopped.

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The British suffered 57,540 casualties on the first day. 40,000 of them were wounded. Most of
these casualties were suffered in the first 20 minutes. After the attack ended in November,
11km of land had been gained. After the battle, German forces on the Western Front retreated
to the Hindenburg Line, a 145 km line of well-built fortifications protected by extensive areas
of barbed wire, underground bunkers and tunnels, heavy artillery positions and concrete
machine-gun posts. They remained there until March 1918.

VIEWPOINTS ON HAIG
Haig was severely criticized for his leadership and tactics. Some evidence suggests that he
deserves his nickname, the ‘’Butcher of Somme’’.
● His poor planning.
● He continued his attacks even after it was clearly failing. This led to hundreds of
thousands of additional casualties.
● He was inflexible, unimaginative and did not learn from his mistakes. He ordered
another attack at Passchendaele. In three months of muddy fighting, 6.5km was
captured. He continued to believe cavalry would win the war and failed to appreciate
the potential of the tank.
● He refused to consider a unified Allied Command, and failed to cooperate with French
generals.
● The war was won on the Western Front, not through Haig’s ‘’Big Push’’ tactics but with
surprise attacks without massive bombardments – tactics learnt from the Germans.
Other evidence shows that Haig does not deserve this reputation.
● The Battle of Somme was planned at short notice. Haig originally planned a major battle
near Ypres but was forced to rethink after the German attack on Verdun.
● He was given only half the forces that he believed he needed to win at the Somme.
● Most other First World War commanders used the same tactics as Haig, as they all failed
to understand how warfare had changed.
● Haig’s tactics did wear down the German forces which contributed to their defeat in
1918.
● Haig was a caring man and his private papers express his sorrows at the loss of his men.

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TO WHAT EXTENT WAS IT A WORLD WAR?
HOW IMPORTANT WAS THE ROLE OF TROOPS FROM THE BRITISH EMPIRE ON THE
WESTERN FRONT?
Recruiting campaigns in 1914 and 1915 helped to increase the size of Britain’s armed forces,
which was tiny in 1914. Conscription was introduced in 1916. However, without the 3 million
recruits from Britain’s empire it would have been impossible to fight the campaigns of 1915-18.
Many of these troops served in Africa and the Middle least, but large numbers also fought on
the Western Front.

INDIAN TROOPS
The Indian government sent two infantry and two cavalry divisions to the Western Front after
war broke out. These men were not trained to use the British equipment and had no winter
clothing. Nevertheless, they took part in the First Battle of Ypres, holding a key part of the front
line. Indian troops made up one-third of the British forces on the Western Front. By the end of
1915, they had taken part in the Battle of Neuve Chapelle, Second Battle of Ypres and at
Aubers Ridge and Loos.
The cavalry remained on the Western troops while the Indian infantry units were sent to the
Middle East. They took part in the Battle of Sommes, Flers-Courcelette and Cambrai before
being sent to Egypt in 1918. 140,000 Indian soldiers did service in France and Belgium, and
almost 9,000 of them died.

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CANADIAN TROOPS
Canada sent the CEF (Canadian Expeditionary Force) to the Western Front at the beginning of
the war. Canadians fought in most of the major battles such as at Neuve Chapelle, Second
Battle of Ypres and the Somme. They suffered terrible losses. At the Somme, 800
Newfoundlanders went into battle and only 68 were at roll call the next morning. At
Passchendaele, 15,650 Canadian troops became casualties.
Vimy Ridge (9-12 April 1917) marked the first time all four Canadian divisions fought together.
The battle was carefully planned, with extensive mines, reconnaissance from the air and trench
raiding in advance. Despite the German resistance, Canadians used tanks, a creeping barrage
and effective infantry tactics to capture the ridge. 10,600 casualties and the Germans may have
had as high as 85,000.
Canadian troops played a significant role in the Hundred Days offensives of 1918. By that time,
the Canadians amounted to over 100,000 men. The Canadians led the attacks in this final
period of war, suffering over 30,000 casualties. More than 60,600 Canadian soldiers died
during the war.

WHAT WAS THE CONTRIBUTION OF INDIAN AND SOUTH AFRICAN TROOPS IN

AFRICA?
GERMAN EAST AFRICA
Huge colony that included modern-day Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania. It bordered British,
Belgian and Portuguese colonies. The German forces led by General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck
were small. Lettow-Vorbeck assembled a force of German officers and askaris, who were local
soldiers that served in the armies of the European colonial powers. These 20,000 men began
harassing British forces in Uganda and Kenya, by guerilla tactics that forced the British to
commit significant resources to Africa which later drew them away from Europe.
Britain sent two brigades of troops to take on the Germans in East Africa. The resulting Battle
of Tanga (3-5 November 1914) was a disaster for the Allies. The poorly trained British and
Indian troops who although outnumbered the Germans 8:1, suffered 850 casualties and large
amounts of equipment was lost as they retreated. The guns and ammunition captured kept the
guerilla campaign going until South African forces arrived.
40,000 South African, Portuguese and Belgian divisions pursued Lettow-Vorbeck and his 16,000
men as they retreated south. The askaris fought when concerned but always escaped. The

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European armies, unlike the askaris, were not used to the conditions in Africa which caused
many deaths due to diseases.
The Allies employed nearly 1 million people to fight against Lettow-Vorbeck and his army. No
major battles occurred, but some victories were there that included the capture of Kilwa and
Kibata by Indian, South African and British troops. By 1918, the British Empire forces lost over
10,000 men. Lettow-Vorbeck was the only German military leader to successfully invade British
Empire territory, where he was welcomed a hero in Germany in early 1919.
SOUTH WEST AFRICA
Now Namibia contained three powerful radio transmitters used to direct the German navy
against British shipping. Because of this, the British government asked the South African army
to capture them. Not all South Africans agreed and there was an uprising. However, in early
1915, it had been suppressed and the prime minister of South Africa, Louis Botha, ordered an
attack.
Around 60,000 South African volunteers surrounded the 6,000 German soldiers in the capital,
Windhoek. Limited fighting occurred, but the capital was captured in May. There was strong
resistance further north and the Germans did not surrender until July 1915. This was one of
the first major Allied victories of the war with only around 500 South African and 1,000
German casualties.

WHAT WAS THE CONTRIBUTION OF JAPAN TO THE ALLIED VICTORY?

Germany controlled the port of Tsingtao. Britain had been allies with Japan since 1902 and the
British government accepted a Japanese offer of assistance to fight Germany in the Pacific on
the 7th of August 1914. Japan wanted to extend its Pacific empire and entered the war siding
with Britain in return for control of Germany’s territory in the region at the war’s end. Japan
sent an ultimatum on the 15th but neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary responded. Japan
declared war on the Central Powers.
THE SIEGE OF TSINGTAO
Japan and British navies began a blockade in the Pacific on the 27th. On the 2nd of September,
23,000 Japanese soldiers landed at Lungkow, China which caused protests.. From 4th of
September, Japan began air raids against German forces. Japanese forces quickly occupied
German territories and surrounded Germany’s port and naval base at Tsingtao, which was
guarded by around 4,000 German troops and several battleships. 1,500 soldiers were sent to
assist the Japanese, making a combined force of 50,000 men. Japan made effective use of

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artillery and trench warfare tactics to weaken the German, who surrendered on 7th November
due to being out of ammunition, exhaustion and outnumbered.
The siege of Tsingtao was the only major land battle in the Asia-Pacific theater during the First
World War. It was also the first Anglo-Japanese operation. However, many small-scale battles
took place in this region. In September and October of 1914, the Japanese navy seized
Mariana, Caroline and the Marshall Islands who were all German colonies. Germany wanted to
sign a separate peace treaty with Japan which was refused. They also sent medical teams to
Europe and escorted ANZAC troop ships on their way to Egypt in late 1914. Marines based on
Japanese ships at Singapore helped to suppress a mutiny against the British government by
Indian troops.
SECURING SEA LANES
The British again requested naval assistance from Japan in December 1916. Japan sent
destroyers to South Africa and the Mediterranean, which was a very important area for Allied
supplies. It was the shortest route to the Suez Canal and the Indian and Pacific regions of the
British Empire. It was also the main sea route connecting Allied troops in MENA with ports in
Europe.
The Japanese navy acted as escorts through the Mediterranean more than 300 times,
protecting over 700 Allied transport ships from German and Austrian submarine attacks. When
the Allied navies were seriously threatened by Central Powers’ in 1917 and 1918, Japanese
involvement was vital in maintaining the security of vital supply routes.

HOW IMPORTANT WAS THE ARAB REVOLT?

The Ottoman Empire controlled huge areas of south-east Europe, northern Africa and western
Asia for over 700 years. However, the empire was in decline under the rule of the ‘’Young Turk’’
by the early 20th century. This benefited European empires years before the First World War.
Nationalism and demands for independence in the Balkans led indirectly to the outbreak of the
war, and the Arab people were also campaigning for autonomy.
Ottoman leaders didn’t want to give Arab nationalists the chance of independence. Hussein ibn
Ali, a noble with the title of Sharif of Mecca, discussed mounting an uprising against the
Ottoman Empire with Britain in July 1915.
By the time an agreement had been reached, in March 1916, Britain had been defeated at
Gallipoli and was concerned about losing access to the Suez Canal. In fact, Britain had been
negotiating with the French government and London-based leaders of the Jewish leaders
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simultaneously. This led to British leaders signing three agreements, each making contradictory
promises.

● The Hussain-McMahon agreement (October 1916) promised to support Arab

independence in certain parts of the Ottoman Empire in return for assistance in the war
against the Ottomans.
● The Sykes-Picot agreement (January 1916) was a secret treaty with France, with the
agreement of Russia and Italy. It promised that after the defeat of the Ottomans, the
Middle East would be divided between Britain and France. Some areas would be under
the influence while others would be under direct control. A small international zone
would be made.
● The Balfour Declaration (November 1917) was written in a letter from Lord Balfour,
British Foreign Secretary. It promised British support for a ‘’national home for the Jewish
people’’ in Palestine, once the Ottomans were defeated.

THE ARAB REVOLT

Began in June 1916, where a 70,000 strong Arab army attacked the Ottoman base at the holy
city of Medina. They captured Aqabah and the Hejaz railway, a link between Damascus and
Medina. This allowed British advancement into Palestine and Syria. By September 1916,
assisted by the nomadic Bedouin tribesmen and British naval and air support, the Arabs
captured a number of Red Sea ports, the holy city of Mecca and several key centers.
However, the Arab Revolt began to fail. In June 1916, Britain and France sent some officials to
help. One of these men, Captain T.E. Lawrence became famous as ‘’Lawrence of Arabia’’ for his
role in working with the Arab forces. Gertrude Bell, a British writer and archaeologist who
knew the area well, advised British officials.
Lawrence, Bell and other Allied officials coordinated British support for the Revolt from
October 1916. The Ottomans counterattacked in December 1916, but the British provided
weapons and ammunition, armored cars, food and gold to ensure the Arab troops kept
fighting.
The Arab Revolt became part of the Palestine Campaign in 1917-18. This involved hundreds of
thousands of troops from France, Italy and the British Empire. The campaign involved major
battles for control of Gaza, Jaffa, southern Hudea, Jerusalem and Damascus. By September
1918, the Ottoman Empire fell and the war in the Middle East was over.

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The new Bolshevik government in Russia made the terms of the Sykes-Picot agreement public.
Britain was making false promises, the Arabs resented the post-war arrangements in the
region. Having made huge contributions to the defeat of the Ottomans, the Arabs were
sidelined in the peace.

HOW IMPORTANT WERE OTHER FRONTS?

WHO WON THE WAR AT SEA?
THE ROYAL NAVY
Britain’s navy was the strongest in the world and it was vital to the creation and strength of the
British Empire. Other Great Powers had begun to develop large, powerful navies. Germany’s
naval construction programme sparked an arms race with Britain which increased tensions
significantly. Both sides built as many Dreadnought battleships as possible.
The First World War did not present many major naval engagements. However, Britain’s ability
to control the English Channel and North Sea played a key role in its victory. Britain’s priority
was to continue establishing trade with partners by keeping supply lines open, and between
France. She also aimed to blockade Germany.
When war broke out, the Royal Navy expected major battles with the German High Seas Fleet.
The Germany Dreadnought-class battleships were too valuable to lose, so they were mainly
used as a deterrent, to carry out small attacks on the Royal navy, to bombard English seaside
towns or to lay mines. The German navy utilized submarines more than surface ships.
BATTLE OF JUTLAND AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
This was the only major sea battle that took place on 31 May 1916. It lasted three days and
involved 250 ships and 100,000 men.
General Admiral von Scheer aimed to tempt the British Grand Fleet from its base at Rosyth,
trap it and destroy as many ships as possible. The plan aimed to reduce British numerical
advantage and end the blockade of German ports.
Admiral Jellicoe, Commander of the Grand Fleet, was aware of the plan. He sailed out of port
earlier than Sheer’s expectations and lay in wait. Jellicoe outnumbered Scheer, with faster and
better armed ships. Fighting was intense, and Scheer realized he was sailing into a trap hence
deciding to set out for home as night fell using his submarines for cover. The result was
indecisive and both sides claimed victory.

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SUBMARINES, THE U-BOAT CAMPAIGN, AND THE CONVOY SYSTEM
The Royal Navy blockaded Germany after 1916, causing severe food and supplies shortages.
Germany was attempting to blockade Britain at the same time. In 1914, 60% of Britain’s food
was imported, meaning a blockade would pose serious problems. German U-boats were
effectively used which were able to sink three British warships in September 1914.
At first, Germany avoided targeting non-military ships, especially those from neutral countries.
However, Germany turned to a campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare, which targeted
military and merchant ships.
The campaign had devastating effects on Britain. Germany had 120 submarines at sea, and she
believed that 600,000 tons of shipping monthly would be enough to collapse Britain. During
spring and summer 1917, Britain and its allies lost 1505 merchant sailors and 2.78 million tons
of shipping. Britain was forced to introduce food rationing, but it refused to surrender. Instead,
it came up with different strategies:
● Q ships were ships disguised as merchant vessels, but with guns hidden under fake
lifeboats and funnels. They were used to draw submarines to the surface, where they
could be attacked. 23 Q ships were sunk by U-boats, compared to the 6 U-boats sunk by
Q ships.
● Mines were laid which accounted for almost a quarter of all U-boat losses.
● David Lloyd George ordered the navy to sail battleships in convoys with merchant ships.
Only 168 merchant ships out of a total of 16,539 were sunk in the Atlantic.
The Germans had lost more than 50 submarines and the danger was over. The failed tactic
provoked international outrage when a German U-boat sank the British passenger liner
Lusitania, in which 128 American lives were lost. Pressure on the US government to declare
war increased after the US liner, the Arabic, was sunk in August 1915. The unrestricted
submarine warfare was what brought the USA into the war.

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WHY DID THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN OF 1915 FAIL?
The British government disagreed on whether the war must be won on the Western Front (the
‘’Westerners’’) and that a breakthrough would come in the East (the ‘’Easterners’’). The
‘’Easterners’’ were led by Winston Churchill. Churchill persuaded the government that a naval
attack on the Turkish capital, Constantinople, would force the Ottomans to surrender. The
British government wanted to send military aid to Russia through the Dardanelles Straits.
The Royal Navy bombarded Turkish forts along the Straits in March 1915. Old British and
French battleships were converted into minesweepers and operated by civilians, were
expected to clear the straits of mines and easily destroy Turkish defenses.
The minesweepers failed and the Turkish guns remained unharmed. The Allies lost six ships
alone on 18 March 1915. With this attack, the Ottomans sent 70,000 new Turkish troops to
defend the peninsula as they expected a major offensive.
EVENTS OF THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN
The Allies were led under Sir Ian Hamilton. The land campaign was badly planned.
● The British did not know how many Turkish troops were in the area.
● Inaccurate maps were given.
● They relied on old tourist guidebooks for intelligence.
● The Greek military told Hamilton that 150,000 men were needed. Lord Kitchener
disapproved and instead sent 5 divisions totaling 78,000 men.
● The troops were inexperienced from ANZAC, British and French colonial divisions.
● The Allies took 5 weeks to prepare, and the Ottomans used this to strengthen
themselves.
At Cape Helles, the British consisting of 70,000 men suffered 20,000 casualties. Many occurred
at V Beach, where Turkish machine gunners had a direct line of fire on the troops as they
landed. 21 of the 200 men survived out of the first ship.
The landing of the ANZACS failed as well. This was due to the strong currents that made them
land 1km away from their destined drop-off point. They also faced narrow bache, high cliffs
and well-trained Turkish defenders. 2000 Australians became casualties on the first day of
landing.
Hamilton commanded the invasion from a ship, and poor communication meant the plan could
not be modified and contacting the men was difficult. Junior officers who were inexperienced,
missed many opportunities to advance inland before the Ottomans could reorganize
themselves. The Allies underestimated the Turks, who were brave and effective especially after
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Mustafa Kemal's appointment. The Allied troops dug in and waited for orders while the
Ottomans reinforced their positions. Gallipoli was at a deadlock stage.
In August 1915, the Allies landed 20,000 more men at Suvla Bay. This was also a failure, as they
had failed to break through Turkish defenses. Shortage of fresh water and food supplies caused
malnutrition. Flies, unburied bodies and poor sanitation led to disease. The men suffered the
intense summer heat, the torrential autumn rain and the winter frostbite and snow.
Hamilton was sacked and the new commander decided to withdraw the entire force, which
was the only successful part of the plan as no life was lost by January 1916.

THE RESULTS OF THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN

More than a million men fought in the Gallipoli campaign, with over one-third being casualties,
The Allies lost over 250,000 men. The Easterners’ had failed. The Ottomans lost a similar
number, but they fought on. The head of the Royal Navy resigned, and Winston Churchill
resigned from the government. Herbert Asquith resigned as prime minister and was replaced
by David Lloyd George.

HOW IMPORTANT WAS THE EASTERN FRONT?

Battles that took place here were between Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany. The war
started well for Russia, as it had been able to mobilize its troops far quicker than what
Germany and Austria-Hungary expected. Despite its early successes, it became clear that the
Russian army had some significant weaknesses:
● The Russian commanders Samsonov and Rennenkampf failed to cooperate.
● The Russian army was short of rifles, ammunition and boots.
● Despite the army’s bravery, they lacked training in modern tactics or weapons.
● Germans could read the Russian wireless messages as they were not encoded.
The Russians suffered two major defeats by the end of 1914:
● The Battle of Tannenberg (23-30 August 1914), Russian losses were 170,000 and 350 big
guns. The Germans suffered 20,000 casualties.
● First Battle of Masurian Lakes (7-14 September 1914), Russians lost another 125,000
while the Germans lost 10,000. Russian commander, Samsonov, disappeared into the
forest and shot himself.
The Russian army fared better against Austria-Hungary, despite this war going badly by 1915.
Over 1 million men had been killed and 1000km were retreated by the Russians. The

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government was unsuccessful in organizing war efforts. There were shortages of shells and
poor coordination on the front line. When the army’s commander resigned, Tsar Nicholas II
appointed himself as commander-in-chief. Now every military issue was attributed to the tsar
himself.
THE DEFEAT OF RUSSIA
In 1916, General Alexei Brusilov planned a major attack, which was to last 3 months, to knock
Austria out of the war and divert German forces before the Somme offensive in July 1916.
Initially it was a success, as the Russians advanced 30km and took 400,000 prisoners. The
Austrian army never recovered, but the Russians lost over 1 million men and could not launch
another offensive. The campaign helped relieve the pressure on the Allies as Germany now
had to send in troops to support Austria.
The war had a serious impact on all aspects of life in Russia:
● Russia’s military campaign was disastrous, as 25% of its army had been killed, wounded
or captured by the beginning of 1915.
● Russia’s economy took a huge blow, and inflation rose by up to 900% for some foods.
● Millions were affected by the fighting and the 13 million conscripts created labor
shortages which in turn resulted in food shortages.
● The war reflected badly on the government and the Russian royal family.
The revolution in February 1917 forced Nicholas II to abdicate. A provisional government was
established but was overthrown by the Bolshevik Revolution in November 1917. The
Bolsheviks signed an armistice with Germany, removing her from the war. With this success,
the Germans now transferred to the Western Front for their Spring Offensive in 1918.

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WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF WAR ON CIVILIAN POPULATIONS?
The First World War had an impact on the civilian populations of many countries around the
world, even those not directly involved in the fighting.

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WHY DID GERMANY ASK FOR AN ARMISTICE IN 1918?
The end of the war on the Eastern Front enabled Germany to move 1 million men to France.
Germany could not find this advantage as by 1918, the British naval blockade caused starvation
and the war was increasingly unpopular at home. The USA had also joined the war and
thousands of fresh US troops were arriving.

WHAT WAS THE IMPORTANCE OF AMERICA’S ENTRY INTO THE WAR?

Many Americans wanted the USA to remain neutral. President Woodrow Wilson won much
support by promising to keep the USA out of the conflict. However, by 1917, there was growing
support in joining the Allied side. There were several reasons for this:
● By 1917, the USA had lent a total of $7 billion to Britain, France and Italy which would be
lost if Germany won.
● The USA did not want to see Europe dominated by a single power, especially an
autocratic one.
● Unrestricted submarine warfare created popular anger, as four US ships were sunk by
U-boats.
● The British intercepted a telegram from German foreign minister Arthur Zimmerman to
Germany’s ambassador in Mexico. The Zimmerman telegram stated that Mexico would
be promised US territory by the end of the war if it sided with Germany and attacked the
USA. The British showed the telegram to the US government, which caused outrage.
● There was sympathy for Britain and France, as democratic countries fighting autocratic
empires.
On 6 April 1917, Wilson declared war on Germany. Initially, 300,000 men were sent to France
and they had little impact. They were not prepared for trench warfare and their casualty rates
were high. Eventually, 1.25 million US soldiers served in Europe. This large number provided a
huge psychological boost to the Allies. The commander of US forces allowed the Allied
commander to use US soldiers as reinforcements during 1918.

WHY WAS THE GERMAN OFFENSIVE OF 1918 UNSUCCESSFUL?

The US entry led the German High Command to launch the Ludendorff Offensive. This was a
surprise attack in the early morning of 21 March 1918. The Germans bombarded a 60km line
of British trenches with 3.5 million shells in just five hours. They used ‘’storm troopers’ armed
with light machine guns, trench mortars, grenades and flamethrowers. They employed
creeping barrages and poison gas in devastating and highly coordinated surprise attacks.
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THE SPRING OFFENSIVE
Four German attacks were launched between March and July:
● 21-30 March: The Somme Offensive. The Germans advanced 65 km in 3 weeks and
inflicted 250,000 casualties and lost almost 240,000 men. Haig and Petain were unable
to cooperate. Because of this, Marshall Foch was appointed supreme commander of all
Allied forces in France.
● 9-30 April: German attack in Belgium cost the Allies and herself over 100,000 men.
Although the Allies were under pressure, the help of 300,000 US soldiers arriving just in
time helped them survive. The Germans failed to breakthrough.
● 27-30 May: German attack advanced 18 km in one day on the road to Paris, and both
sides suffered over 100,000 casualties.
● 9-12 June: German attacks pushed the Allies back within 50km of Paris, with the Allies
losing over 200,000 men.
German casualties from the offensives reached over 1 million. These highly trained men were
replaced by ones not as food. The Germans failed their main intention, to split the French and
British forces. The Ludendorff Offensive failed for several reasons:
● The Germans abandoned their biggest advantage by leaving the Hindenburg Line.
● Operation Michael, the first phase of the Offensive, transformed the war into one of
movement. Although the Germans were more adapted for this, they were outnumbered
by the Allies who had more men, tanks and aircraft.
● As the Germans attacked further into enemy territory, it became harder to supply her
soldiers. The salient made it difficult to defend against counterattacks.
● Troops from the Eastern Front were unprepared to fight on the Western Front. They
arrived exhausted with low morale. Alcoholism and desertion were common. Half a
million German soldiers had the flu by August, making 11 out of 13 divisions unfit for
offensive action.
THE ALLIED COUNTERATTACK
The counterattack began with huge success, as the French stopped further German
advancement.
Foch’s major counter-offensive began near Amiens on 8 August 1918. British, French, Canadian
and ANZAC troops launched a surprise attack, with creeping barrages, tanks and aircraft
supporting infantry advances. The Allies’ intelligence was precise and their attacks were
extremely effective. The German army collapsed and 75,000 men were lost with 50,000 taken
as prisoners. The Germans retreated to the Hindenburg Line, with the Allies advancing 11km.
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Foch launched a final assault on 29 September. The Hindenburg Line was broken for the first
time after the Allies attack at the St Quentin Canal. Ludendorff’s confidence was gone, and he
turned to the new German chancellor, Prince Max of Baden, to request an armistice.

WHY DID A REVOLUTION BREAK OUT IN GERMANY IN OCTOBER 1918?

The blockade caused over 750,000 civilian deaths. Rationing and food shortages affected
workers in towns and cities the most. Worsening working conditions, hours had increased,
wages had fallen, price had risen and strikers were conscripted and sent to the front. 30,000
people attended peace demonstrations and socialist groups passed a Peace Resolution to call
for an end to the fighting without punitive terms.
Taxes did not cover the costs of the war, making the German government taking loans. The
national debt had risen to 250 billion marks. 500,000 people went on strike in Berlin
demanding political change.
Hindenburg and Ludendorff persuaded the Kaiser to appoint a civilian government under
Prince Max of Baden. This would hopefully create an image of a democratic government, in
hopes of the Allies being more lenient in dealing with them than with the kaiser or the army.
This step was also to avoid blame on the new government.
THE KIEL MUTINY AND THE GERMAN REVOLUTION
The German Revolution occurred in two stages:
13-26 October 1918: The political stage. Prince Max asked President Wilson for an armistice,
Wilson refused to negotiate with the generals or the kaiser. The Kaiser therefore passed the
October reforms, transferring power to the Reichstag, creating a parliamentary monarchy.
28 October-9 November: The military stage. Wilhelm II and the head of the German navy
ordered the German fleet to launch a huge naval assault. Angered at being sent when the war
was being clearly lost, German sailors at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven mutinied. Inspired by this,
Workers’ and Soldiers’ Councils seized major cities in a wider revolution. Protests, food riots
and strikes followed in Berlin and other cities, causing the kaiser to abdicate and flee to
Holland.
On 9 November, Max of Baden gave Friedrich Ebert, leader of the largest party in the
Reichstag, control of the government. Ebert asked for a ceasefire immediately.

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WHY WAS THE ARMISTICE SIGNED?
The armistice was signed at 5 a.m. on 11 November 1918. It came into effect at 11 a.m.
Germany surrendered unconditionally. The terms were as follows:
● Germany would evacuate all occupied territories.
● Treaties negotiated with Russia and Romania were annulled.
● Germany to hand over military equipment, including its submarine fleet.
● Germany’s surface fleet would go to the British naval base at Scapa Flow in Scotland.
There, the German commanders scuttle their ships rather than hand them over.
Many Germans thought the terms were harsh, but the government signed the armistice
anyway as they wanted peace.

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INDIAN TROOPS:
🡪 Also known as the IEF, which was made up of troops from the Indian army.
🡪Made up 1/3 of the British forces.
🡪Led by General Sir James Willcocks.
🡪140,000 did service in Britain and France but 9,000 died.

🡪Government sent two infantry and two cavalry divisions, which arrived in France in September
1914.
🡪Deployed after the British retreated at Mons.

🡪Cavalry remained on the Western front but the infantry was moved to the Middle
East/Mesopotamia in 1915. Moved to Egypt in 1918. There, they fought the Ottoman Empire.
🡪Were not used to winter weather and British weapons.

🡪More than 1,000,000 did service and more than 60,000 died in total.
🡪Fought at:

● First Battle of Ypres.

● Passchendaele/Second Battle of Ypres.
● Aubers Ridge
● Loos
● Cambrai
● Flers-Courcelette
● Battle of Neuve Chapelle
● Battle of Sommes
● The advance to the Hindenburg Line (Battle of Amiens)

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CANADIAN TROOPS:
🡪Earned a signature at Versailles due to their contribution.
🡪Also known as the CEF, which consisted of troops from the Canadian Army.
🡪At the Somme, 800 Newfoundlanders went to war and only 68 were at roll call the next
morning.
🡪At Passchendaele, 15,650 became casualties.
🡪Vimy Ridge, was 7 km long and overlooked Allied lines, (9-12 April 1917) was significant:
● First time all four divisions fought together
● Carefully planned, with extensive mines and reconnaissance from the air
● Canadians used tanks and effective infantry tactics to overcome tough German
resistance and capture the ridge, which the Allies had failed miserably such as thousands
of French soldiers dying.
● 10,600 Canadian casualties while the Germans may have had as high as 85,000
🡪Battle of Amiens, March 1918, also significant:
● Cavalry and motorized machine guns of the Canadian Corps helped hold the line when
Germans launched their last offensive, the Ludendorff offensive, which failed. They
played an important part which led to the defeat of Germany.
🡪Amounted to over 100,000 men. More than 30,000 casualties occurred during the final
periods of the war, and more than 60,600 soldiers died during the war.
🡪Captured French town of Lens during Battle of Hill 70.
🡪Approximately 70 Canadians were awarded the Victoria Cross for their bravery.
🡪Fought at:
● Battle of Neuve Chapelle
● Passchendaele/Second Battle of Ypres
● Battle of Sommes
● Vimy Ridge
● Hundred Days offensive
● Battle of Beaumont-Hamel
● Gallipoli Campaign

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SOUTH AFRICAN TROOPS:
🡪Over 250,000 did service, and over 7,000 were killed while roughly 19,000 were casualties.
🡪German South-West Africa (Now Namibia) Campaign, 1914-1915, was significant:
Britain ordered South African troops to capture 3 powerful radio transmitters that were used
to direct the German navy against British Shipping.
Not all agreed and an uprising occurred due to conditions such as difficult desert terrain and
the Maritz-Rebellion which caused disruption within South Africa. This was suppressed later on
by Prime Minister Louis Botha who ordered an attack.
Botha’s forces achieved significant victories, by capturing key towns and railway lines. Around
60,000 South African volunteers surrounded the 6,000 Germans at Windhoek, which was
captured in May. Up north was stronger German resistance, which they did not surrender until
July 1915.
South Africa wanted to incorporate the territory into the Union, but the League only granted it
a Class C mandate until ready for self-government.
First major Allied victories of the war, with around 500 South African from the 70,000+ and
1,000 German casualties.
🡪Battle of Delville Wood (July 15-19 1916) was significant:
Objective was to capture Delville Wood which was a key German defensive position near
France. The South African Brigade received orders to attack and secure the wood, which was
met with stiff German resistance.
Despite heavy artillery fire and machine gun resistance, they were able to secure a portion of it
by the end of July 15. However, the Germans launched relentless counterattacks which when
combined with fierce artillery barrages, heavy casualties were inflicted on both sides.
Hand-to-hand fighting was common.
The South Africans lacked reinforcements, supplies and relief. This endured severe hardships
such as thirst, exhaustion and constant German attacks.
The South Africans held the Brigade until the Brits arrived. Of the 3,000 South Africans who
entered the wood, 2,500 were killed, missing or wounded.
The Delville Wood Memorial, located near the site of the battle, serves as a permanent tribute
to those who fought and died there.

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🡪Fought at:
● Battle of Sommes
● Battle of Delville Wood
● Arras
● First Battle of Ypres
● Menin
● Passchendaele/Second Battle of Ypres
● Mont Kemmel
● Cambrai

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ARAB REVOLT:
The Ottoman Empire controlled a huge portion of land for over 700 years. These included the
Balkans, Mesopotamia and North Africa. However, the empire was in decline after the Young
Turks came to power, which benefited Europe and especially the Arabs who were campaigning
for autonomy.
The Ottoman leaders did not want to give the Arab nationalists independence. However, the
Sharif of Mecca Hussein ibn Ali discussed mounting an uprising with Britain in July 1915. By this
time, Britain had already signed 2 agreements and this third one would result in all agreements
making contradictory promises.
Sykes-Picot agreement, January 1916: Secret agreement between Britain and France which
outlines the spheres of influences in the Middle East after the defeat of the Ottomans. Some
would be under direct control, while others would be under indirect control. A small
international zone would be made as well.
The Hussein-McMahon agreement, October 1916: Promised to support Arab independence in
return for assistance in the war against the Ottomans.
The Balfour Declaration, November 1917: Written by Lord Balfour which promised British
support for a ‘’national home for the Jewish people’’ in Palestine after the defeat of the
Ottomans.
EVENTS:
🡪1916:
The revolt begins where a 70,000 strong Arab army attacked the Ottoman base at Medina,
capturing Aqabah and the Hejaz railway which allowed British advancement into Syria and
Palestine. The Hejaz railway disrupted Ottoman supply lines and weakened their control over
territories. Captain T.E. Lawerence arrives on site and quickly becomes a key figure in
organizing and advising the Arab forces, giving him the nickname of Lawrence of Arabia.
Arab forces raid Ottoman garrisons and outposts with the help of British air support. This
expanded their territory in the Arab Peninsula. The British kept supplying ammunition,
armored cars, food and gold to ensure the Arabs kept fighting
🡪1917:
More skirmishes and ambushes occur in the Sinai Peninsula and southern Palestine, all which
further divert the Ottomans and support British military operations in the region. In November,
a major Arab offensive was launched in Ottoman-held towns in Levant. The Arabs achieved

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victories and continued to advance forward despite stiff resistance. The Revolt became part of
the Palestine Campaign (1917-1918) which involved thousands of troops from France, Italy and
the British Empire. The Campaign involved major battles for the control of Gaze, Jaffa,
Jerusalem, Damascus and southern Hudea.
🡪1918:
Arab forces captured the strategic town of Tafileh in Jordan with the support of the Brits. This
strengthened their control over the region and helped in advancements towards Damascus.
This was proven when another major offensive was launched in northern Syria. They captured
key towns and supply depots which weakened the Ottoman and hastened the collapse of their
rule. The Ottomans signed the Armistice of Mudros which ended its involvement in WW1. This
led to the dissolution of the Empire.
🡪1919-1920:
The Emir Faisal declares the independent Arab kingdom in Syria. This was short-lived due to
the French intervening and suppressing Arab nationalist movements in the region. In March,
the San Remo conference ratified the division of former Ottoman territories between Britain
and France. This infuriated the Arabs as Britain was making false promises such as the
Hussain-McMahon agreement.

The Arab Revolt during World War I holds immense significance. Firstly, it played a pivotal role
in weakening the Ottoman Empire. By diverting Ottoman resources and attention away from
other fronts of the war, the revolt contributed significantly to the empire's collapse and
dissolution. This weakening of Ottoman authority created opportunities for Arab nationalists to
assert their claims to independence.

Secondly, the Arab Revolt created crucial alliances between Arab nationalists and the Allied
powers, particularly Britain. This alliance provided vital military support and logistical
assistance to the revolt and caused cooperation against the Central Powers. The support of the
Allies was significant in achieving strategic objectives in the Middle East and ultimately
contributed to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire.

Moreover, the Arab Revolt caused nationalist sentiments across the Arab world. It served as
the origination for the emergence of modern Arab nationalism, fueling desires for
independence and self-determination. The revolt laid the groundwork for the establishment of
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independent Arab nation-states and played a pivotal role in shaping the political trajectory of
the region.

Despite the promises of independence made by the Allies to Arab leaders during the revolt,
the post-war settlement fell short of fulfilling Arab expectations. Agreements like the
Sykes-Picot Agreement and subsequent mandates divided the former Ottoman territories
between European colonial powers, leading to widespread disappointment and resentment
among Arab nationalists. Nevertheless, the Arab Revolt left a lasting legacy of resistance and
struggle against colonialism and foreign intervention in the Middle East.

GERMAN EAST-AFRICA:
Nowadays Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania. It bordered British, Belgian and Portuguese colonies.
The Germans along with the askaris, who were 20,000 in total, were under the command of
General Lettow-Vorbeck. He hoped to fight a defensive guerilla campaign by threatening the
British Uganda Railway.
The Askaris in Neu Moshi seized Taveta. The ones on Lake Tanganyika raided Belgian facilities
and fought the IEF. The Germans were unsure of the intentions of Portugal, and a diplomatic
incident happened when German troops attacked Portuguese outposts across the Rovuma on
24 August. The Battle of Tanga occurred (3-5 November 1914), which was a huge disaster for
the Allies. Despite outnumbering Lettow-Vorbeck 8:1, they suffered 850 casualties and large
amounts of equipment such as guns and ammunition were captured while they retreated. The
German naval power was limited to the Kingani, which caused minor damage and was
extremely noisy. This was trapped by the British armed streamliners. British command of Lake
Victoria was no longer in dispute. The Brits had to wait for an army of 40,000 men to arrive,
who were from Belgium, Portugal and mainly South Africa to pursue the Germans southwards.
The campaign was challenging for the IEF as they were poorly trained when they left India and
fought the moment they arrived. Moreover, communication was difficult and supplies were
often delayed. This caused diseases such as malaria and Blackwater fever to spread. This made
conditions very challenging. They were also attacked by wild animals, which disrupted many of
their military operations. However, successes include the capture of Kilwa and Kibata.
Lettow-Vorbeck was the only German Lieutenant to successfully invade British territory, where
he was welcomed a hero in Germany in early 1919.

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