Integration and Application of Food Technology

Preface
Short description lecture guide
How to use lecture guide
Problem sets and submission

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FOOD LAWS: LEGISLATION, REGULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION

Outline:

Introduction and Overview

Food Safety Act
Summary and Definitions
Mandates and Responsibilities
Food Technology Act

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Summary and Definition of Terms
Seal of the Food Technology Board
Duties and Responsibilities of Food Technologists

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International Food-Related Agreements and the Codex Alimentarius
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) Agreement
Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreement
Overview of the Codex and the Codex Alimentarius Commission

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Food Hygiene (CXC 1-1969)
Food Additives (CXS 192-1995)
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Contaminants and Toxins in Feed and Food (CXS 193-1995)
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CXM 2- (Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) and Risk Management
Recommendations (RMRs) for Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Foods)
Local Requirements for Food Production
cGMP Concept (AO153 S. 2004)
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Food Packaging and Labeling (AO 2014-0030)

ASIN Law and Food Fortification Law
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Microbiological Standard Limits (FDA Circ 2022-012)

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Food Additives (AO 88-A 1984/ BC 2006-2016)

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Introduction and Overview

● “Food legislation (or food law) is the complete body of legal texts (laws, regulations
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and standards) that establish broad principles for food control in a country, and that
governs all aspects of the productions, handling and trade of food as a means to
protect consumers against unsafe food and fraudulent practices” (FAO, 2006)
○ In the Philippines, food laws are composed of national and adopted international
texts.
■ “Codex standards shall be adopted except when these are in conflict
with what is necessary to protect consumers and scientific justification
exists for the action taken” [Article IV Section 9 of the Philippine Food
Safety Act (RA 10611)]
■ The Philippines is also a signatory of various international treaties which
guide its food laws (ex. SPS and TBT Agreements as a member of the
World Trade Organization )

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 ■ Local food laws include, but are not limited to, the following:
● Republic Acts
● Administrative Orders
● Circulars and Memorandums

Food Safety Act

Summary and Definitions

● Formally known as Republic Act No. 10611, “An Act To Strengthen The Food Safety
Regulatory System In The Country To Protect Consumer Health And Facilitate
Market Access Of Local Foods And Food Products, And For Other Purposes”

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○ Otherwise known as “Food Safety Act Of 2013.”
● Objectives:

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○ a) Protect the public from food-borne and water-borne illnesses and
unsanitary, unwholesome, misbranded or adulterated foods
○ b) Enhance industry and consumer confidence in the food regulatory
system

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○ c) Achieve economic growth and development by promoting fair trade

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practices and sound regulatory foundation for domestic and international
trade
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● Measures to be implemented:
○ 1) Delineate and link the mandates and responsibilities of the government
agencies involved
○ 2) Provide a mechanism for coordination and accountability in the
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implementation of regulatory functions;

○ 3) Establish policies and programs for addressing food safety hazards and
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developing appropriate standards and control measures

○ 4) Strengthen the scientific basis of the regulatory system
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○ 5) Upgrade the capability of farmers, fisherfolk, industries, consumers and

government personnel in ensuring food safety.
● Definition of terms:
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○ Adulteration: Production of food which:

■ a) can cause harm,
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● Ex. contains harmful substances or excessive additives, prepared

in unsanitary conditions, packed in unfit packaging,
■ b) is otherwise unfit for human consumption, and/or
● Ex. made with unacceptable raw materials or prepared in ways
not in accordance with acceptable manufacturing practice
■ c) misleads consumers with regards to quality
● Ex. Use of fillers, dyes, and similar ingredients to improve
apparent quality
○ Contaminant: substances not intentionally added to food
○ Food: any substance intended for human consumption (includes drinks, chewing
gum, water, and processing aids)

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 ○ Food business: private or public undertaking with activities related to any stage
of the food supply chain
○ Food hygiene: conditions necessary to control foodborne hazards
○ Food safety: assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it
is prepared or eaten according to its intended use
○ Primary production: production/rearing/growing of primary products (i.e.
agricultural raw materials)
○ Post-harvest: minimal transformation of plant and animal foods
○ Risk analysis: process consisting of three (3) interrelated components
■ Risk assessment: scientific evaluation of health effects of human

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exposure to hazards.
■ Risk management: process of weighing policy alternatives to accept,
minimize or reduce assessed risks with selection and implementation of

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necessary prevention and control measures
■ Risk communication: interactive exchange of information and opinions
during the course of risk analysis on the hazards and risks among risk
assessors and managers and different stakeholders

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Mandates and Responsibilities
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● Article V - Responsibilities on Food Safety
○ Food Business Operators: ensure that their food products and production
activities is compliant with food laws
■ Knowledgeable and compliant with laws
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● Micro and small industries should be assisted

■ Initiate procedures to withdraw any potentially harmful food and inform
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the relevant FSRAs (“food recall”)

■ Collaborate with and allow inspection by FSRA
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○ Food Safety Regulatory Agencies (FSRAs)

Agencies are responsible for all foods (foods locally produced or imported) in
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their given categories;

■ Department of Agriculture (DA)
Primary production and post-harvest stages
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● Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI)

○ Animal derived foods (incl. eggs and honey)
● National Dairy Authority
○ Milk production and post-harvest
● National Meat Inspection Service (NMIS)
○ Meats
● Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR)
○ Fresh fish and seafoods (caught and cultured)
● Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI)
○ Plant foods
● Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority (FPA)

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 ○ Pesticides and fertilizers for food produciton
● Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA)
○ Fresh coconut
● Sugar Regulatory Administration (SRA)
○ Sugarcane production and marketing
● National Food Authority. (NFA)
○ Rice, corn, and other grains
■ Department of Health (DOH)
● Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
○ Processed and prepackaged foods
○ Implementation of performance-based food safety control

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management system
○ Conduct of monitoring and epidemiological studies on

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food-borne illnesses
● Center for Food Regulation and Research (CFRR)
● Bureau of Quarantine (BOQ)
○ provide sanitation and ensure food safety in both domestic

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and international ports and airports of entry including in-

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flight catering, and food-service in sea and air vessels
● National Epidemiology Center (NEC), the Research Institute of
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Tropical Medicine (RITM) and the National Center for Disease
Prevention and Control (NCDPC)
○ conduct and document epidemiological monitoring studies
on food borne illnesses
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● National Center for Health Promotion (NCHP)

○ advocating food safety awareness
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○
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DA and DOH
● Capacitate LGUs and provide necessary technical assistance in
the implementation of their food safety functions
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○ Ex. training and assessment

● Cooperate with LGUs to monitor and trace the presence of
contaminants in the food supply chain
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■ Local Government Units (LGUs)

● Enforce PD 856 (Sanitation Code)
● Food safety in food businesses
● Street food sale
● may be called upon by the DOH and the DA to assist in the
implementation of food laws
■ Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG)
● (in collaboration with DA, DOH, and relevant agencies)
● supervise the enforcement and inspection for compliance with
food safety and sanitary rules and regulation
■ BFA Food Development Center (FDC)

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 ● provide scientific support in testing, research and training.
■ Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Product Standards (BAFPS)
● develop food safety standards for fresh foods
■ Undersecretary for Policy and Planning, R&D and Regulation
● Supervise the FDC and BAFPS and serve as coordinator for
Codex activities at the DA and the Codex Contact Point

● Article VI - Food Safety Regulation Coordinating Board (FSRCB)

○ Coordinate FSRAs (DA, DOH, DILG, LGUs) for food safety regulations
○ Identify responsible FSRAs in cases of overlap
○ Coordinate crisis management and planning during food safety emergencies;

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○ Evaluate food safety programs
○ Report to Congressional Committees on Health, Agriculture and Food, and Trade

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and Industry
○ Accept grants and donations from local and international sources.
● Research
○ The government and academe shall develop and implement a program of

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research on cost effective technologies and codes of practice for assisting

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farmers, fisherfolk, MSMEs and other stakeholders to enable them to comply
with food safety regulations.
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Food Technology Act

Summary and Definition of Terms

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● Official Title: Republic Act No. 11052 (Food Technology Act)

● Long title: An Act Regulating the Practice of Food Technology in the Philippines,
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Creating for the Purpose the Board of Food Technology, and Appropriating Funds
Therefore
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● Definition of terms
○ Food- any substance or product whether processed, partially processed or
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unprocessed that is intended for human consumption. It includes drinks, chewing

gum, water and other substances, which are intentionally incorporated into such
substances or products during the process of manufacturing, preparation, and
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treatment
○ Food Technology- the application of the physical, biological, and behavioral
sciences to the conversion of raw materials into safe, stable, palatable, and
nutritious foods. It includes the processes of handling, storage, processing,
packaging, distribution, and utilization of food
○ Food Technologist-refers to a person qualified to practice food technology as
provided in this Act and who is a holder of a valid certificate of registration and a
valid professional license to practice issued by the Professional Regulatory
Board of Food Technology and the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC)
○ Microbiological certification- refers to a certification of the microbiological,
physical, chemical, sensory, and functional properties of food.

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Seal of the Food Technology Board

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● Representation

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○ Triangle

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■ 3 Characteristics and taxonomy of education, Knowledge, skills and
values that are expected of Food Technologists
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■ Symbolic of doorway or opening to birthing of wisdom
○ Three panicles of rice
■ Origin of food and initial stage of food supply chain
○ Fork and Spoon
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■ Final stage in the food supply chain (consumers, market)

■ Collectively with the 3 panicles of rice represent farm-to-fork scope of
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food technology
○ Flask
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■ Science and technology as well as processes where foods are developed

or formulated
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○ Green color
■ Good properties and sustaining power of food
○ Yellow color
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■ Representative of Philippine Association of Food Technologists, INC. to

signify the origins of the profession

Duties and Responsibilities of Food Technologists

● Scope and Practice of Food Technology
○ Refer to LG 1, Introduction to Food Technology

INTERNATIONAL FOOD-RELATED AGREEMENTS AND THE CODEX ALIMENTARIUS

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) Agreement

Introduction

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 ● The “Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures”
● A World Trade Organization (WTO) international treaty established during the Uruguay
Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1995
● Philippines joined the WTO on 1 January 1995
● The SPS Agreement
● sets out basic food safety rules, as well as animal and plant health standards
● allows countries to set their own standards, as long as they are based on
science and extend to only what is necessary
● standards should not discriminate between countries
● Objective: maintain the right of governments to provide the level of ‘health protection’ it

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deems appropriate (“Appropriate Level of Protection” (ALOP)) without leading to
unnecessary barriers to international trade.
● ‘health protection’ = protection of the health of human (sanitary) and animal or plant

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life (phytosanitary) from certain risks
○ Sanitary = Human life = Food Safety
■ Pathogenic microbial contaminants, pesticides, inspection, labelling

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○ Phytosanitary = animal or plant life
■ Imported pests or diseases
● Specific aims
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● to protect consumers from hazards in any aspect, including food safety.
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● to protect their consumers, wildlife, and vegetation from food safety hazards
that could be brought about by global trade
● to ensure that control measures under the agreement are fair to all parties
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involved, backed by scientific data, and do not prohibit free trade.

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Principles of the SPS Agreement

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● Seven key provisions

○ 1. Non-discrimination
■ must not unjustifiably discriminate between Members
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● i.e. SPS measures must not be designed to specifically include or

exclude members as trade partners
○ 2. Scientific justification
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■ 2.1. Harmonization
● developed based on any relevant international standards*,
guidelines or recommendations
● Relevant standards for food = Codex Alimentarius Commission
■ 2.2. Risk assessment
● based on risk assessment method developed by relevant
international organizations
■ 2.3. Consistency
● must be applied consistently, avoiding arbitrary distinctions in
judgment between different situation
■ 2.4. Least trade-restrictiveness

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 ● must be as least trade-restrictive as possible to reach ALOP
○ 3. Equivalence
■ Members shall accept SPS measures of other members as equivalent
○ 4. Regionalization
■ Should be adapted to the SPS characteristics of the area of both the
origin and the destination
● “area” may mean all of a country, part of a country, or all or parts
of several countries
○ 5. Transparency
■ SPS measures of members must be freely available and any changes

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notified to the other members
○ 6. Technical assistance / special treatment
■ Provision of technical assistance to developing country members must be

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facilitated
■ Preparation and application of SPS measures must also take account of
the special needs of developing country
○ 7. Control, inspection, and approval procedures

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■ Methods, requirements, schedules, fees, and other relevant SPS-related

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procedures must also follow the above provisions
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Assistance through SPS Agreement
● The SPS Agreement encourages WTO members to provide technical assistance to
each, especially to developing countries either bilaterally or through appropriate
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international organizations.
● This allows for upgrades on relevant infrastructure and capacities to implement
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SPS measures.
● This takes into account special needs of developing countries such as phased
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introduction of new SPS measures and longer time-frames for compliance.

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International Organizations
● The SPS Agreement encourages its members to harmonize based on these three
international organizations:
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Codex Alimentarius Commission

● The Codex Alimentarius is a collection of standards, guidelines, and codes of practice.
○ provides the structure and the process on how governments and organizations
can come up with a consensus on issues concerning food and food safety
● Made to:
○ To protect the health of consumers
○ To ensure fair practices in the food trade
○ To promote coordination of all food standards work undertaken by government
and non-government organizations

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World Organization for Animal Health
● Sets international standards, guidelines, and recommendations for animal health
● Main duties of the OIE include:
● Informs governments of the occurrence and control of animal diseases worldwide
● Coordinates studies on surveillance and control of animal diseases
● Facilitates trade in animals and animal products

International Plant Protection Convention

● set international standards, guidelines, and recommendations for plant health.
● Aims:

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● Preventing the spread and introduction of pests of plants and plant products
● Cooperating in controlling pests of plants and plant products

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 ● The SPS Agreement is also closely related to the TBT Agreement
● Philippine enquiry point =
Department of Agriculture SPS Focal Group (DA SPS FG)

Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreement

Introduction
● Ensures that technical regulations, standards, and conformity assessment procedures
are non-discriminatory and do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade
● agreement encourages its members to base measures on the international standards

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● aims to make a predictable trading environment through transparency

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Background
● Established by WTO
● History
● Standards Code: a code originally formed in the 1979 Tokyo Round Agreement

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● laid down rules for TBT Agreement today

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● had rules for the "preparation, adoption, and application of
technical regulations, standards, and conformity"
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● The TBT Agreement was signed on January 01, 1995 during the Uruguay Round
● strengthened and clarified previous "Standards Code"
● The agreement follows the fundamental principles of other agreements, being
● non-discrimination
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● promoting predictability of access to markets

● providing technical assistance and special and differential treatment for
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developing countries in implementing Agreement

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Purpose
● To avoid unnecessary obstacles to trade
● To allow regular autonomy to protect legitimate interests of a country
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Scope
● TBT covers: agricultural and industrial goods
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● TBT does NOT cover:

● services
● purchasing specifications or consumption requirements of governmental bodies
● measures under the SPS Agreement
● Key Difference = SPS is primarily for health and safety related concerns, TBT is
for avoiding unnecessary trade obstacles
● Philippine TBT enquiry point =
Bureau of Philippine Standards - Department of Trade and Industry

Definitions of important terms

1. Technical Regulations

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 ● Lays down specific product characteristics and related processes and production
methods
● e.g. size, shape, design, function, labelling, packaging
● Compliance is mandatory
● Includes applicable administrative provisions

● There are three criteria that ascertain if a technical regulation for something
exists:
1. requirements should apply to identifiable product/group of products

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2. specify one or more characteristic of product — can be intrinsic to
product, related to product, or imposed onto product
3. compliance (with product characteristics) is mandatory

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2. Standards
● Provides guidelines or characteristics for products or related processes and

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production methods
● Document that is approved by a large number of recognized entities
(governmental or non-governmental)
● Compliance is voluntary th
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● Used as a basis for technical regulations and conformity assessment procedure
● Difference between technical regulation and standard:
○ compliance: technical standards are mandatory, standards are not
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mandatory
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3. Conformity Assessment Procedure

● Technical procedures that determine if (1) technical regulations or (2) standards
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were fulfilled
● Can give confidence and integrity to a product
● Includes testing, inspections, and certification procedures
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Objectives
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● Protection of human safety or health

● several technical regulations and standards aim to protect human safety or
health
● e.g. labelling products that can be harmful to health
● Protection of animal and plant life or health
● includes regulations that ensure endangered animal or plant species do not
become extinct
● Protection of the environment
● includes regulations that aim to protect the environment
● e.g. recycling paper and plastic
● Prevention of deceptive practices

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 ● regulations that protect consumers through information via labeling requirements
● Other objectives
● quality
● e.g. size of vegetable and fruit products
● technical harmonization
● such as in telecommunications
● trade facilitation

Overview of the Codex and the Codex Alimentarius Commission

● Codex Alimentarius ('Food Code')

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a collection of international standards, codes of practice, guidelines, and other
recommendations published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) and developed and maintained by the Codex Alimentarius Commission

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(CAC)
● Codex Alimentarius Commission
Intergovernmental body for implementing the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards

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Programme.
○ Two main goals:

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■ Protect consumer health (food safety),
■ Ensure fair trade practices in the international food trade
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● The CAC is not a regulatory authority, and the Codex is only a voluntary reference
guide
○ Despite this, various national standards (incl. the Philippines’) and international
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treaties (incl. SPS) adopt Codex standards

● Joint FAO/WHO expert panels provide advice to Codex
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○ Two long standing panels

■ Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives and
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Contaminants (JECFA)
■ Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR)
○ Other ad hoc panels are convened as needed
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■ Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meetings on Microbiological Risk (JEMRA)

■ Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Foods Derived from
Biotechnology – Safety Assessment of Foods Derived from Genetically
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Modified Microorganisms (GM Food Risk Assessment)

● Three types of Codex texts
○ Codex standards (CXS)
voluntary standards which may be translated and adapted into
national/international regulations
■ Definition of products
■ Food safety limit values
■ Quality standards
○ Codex guidelines (CXG)
recommendations and suggestions on various areas to help members fulfill
the standards, examples include (but at are not limited to):

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 ■ Nutritional information
■ Physicochemical and microbiological quality
■ Claims and labels
○ Codes of Practice (CXC)
recommendations and suggestions for practical use by members in abiding
by Codex standards and guidelines

Food Hygiene (CXC 1-1969)

● General Principles Of Food Hygiene
● Food Business Owners (FBOs) and authorities must follow general principles, for food

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safety and suitability
○ Some specific recommendations cannot be applicable to all FBOs, so it is
important to determine if it's necessary/appropriate

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○ Competent authorities should make legislation, regulation, and guidance in
accordance with the general principles
● Follows the Five Keys to Safer Food (by WHO)
○ keep clean

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○ separate raw and cooked
○ cook thoroughly
○ keep food at safe temperatures th
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○ use safe water and raw materials
● Objectives:
○ Guide application of Good Hygienic Practices (GHPs) in the food value chain to
produce safe food
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○ Guide application HACCP Principles

○ Clarify relationship between GHPs and HACCP
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○ Provide basis for establishment of product/sector-specific codes of practice

● Scope:
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○ outlines necessary hygiene and food safety controls to be implemented along the
food value chain to provide safe food
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○ includes production (including primary production), processing, manufacturing,

preparation, packaging, storage, distribution, retail, food service operation and
transport of food
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● General Principles:
○ 1. Control of food safety using a science-based preventive approach
○ 2. PRPs (including GHP) as the foundation of effective HACCP
○ 3. Awareness by FBOs regarding relevant hazards associated with ingredients,
processes, and the food processing or handling environment, such as:
■ Water quality (various biological, chemical, and physical hazards)
■ Fecal contamination (biological hazards)
■ Food handler practices and hygiene (biological hazards)
■ Food contact surfaces: (biological and chemical hazards)
○ 4. GHPs and additional control at CCPs should be applied to control hazards
depending on risk

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 ○ 5. Scientific validation of food safety control measures
○ 6. Monitoring, corrective actions, verification, and documentation for application
of control measures
○ 7. Review of food hygiene systems done periodically or in cases of significant
changes (ex. changes in production, new scientific knowledge)
● Provides recommendations for GHP:
○ GHPs are very important in controlling hazards and making sure food is
produced safely
○ GHPs manage food hazards that can contaminate food product
■ hazards include:
● control of water quality

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● control of faecal contamination
● control of food handler practices and hygiene

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● control of food contact surfaces by cleaning
■ food hazards examples:
● persons handling food at harvest, during manufacturing, and
during prep

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● raw materials, other ingredients

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● cleaning and maintaining work environment
● storage and display
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■ Some GHPs may need more attention
■ e.g. increased monitoring and/or verification of disinfection of food contact
surfaces
○ GHP section gives guidance for effective implementation. The section includes
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guidelines on:
■ Primary Production
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■ Establishment (Facilities)
■ Training and Competence
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■ Establishment Maintenance, Cleaning and Disinfection, and Pest Control

■ Personal Hygiene
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■ Control of Operation
■ Product Information and Consumer Awareness
■ Transportation
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Control Measures
● FBO should determine whether GHP is enough, or if control measures are
needed
● for when GHP procedure is not enough to ensure food safety
● Has to be identified at one or more steps
● at that point, a HACCP system will be necessary
○ Transportation

● Provides general guidelines for application of HACCP

○ Five preliminary steps + Seven HACCP Principles

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 ○ HACCP Section of the document includes the following:
■ Section 17: The Principles
■ Section 18: General Guidance in Applying HACCP System
■ Section 19: How to Apply It In 12 Successive Steps (also considering
flexible approaches depending on circumstances)

Principles
Principle 1. Conduct a hazard analysis and identify control measures
Principle 2. Determine the critical control points (CCPs).
Principle 3. Establish validated critical limits.

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Principle 4. Establish a system to monitor control of CCPs.
Principle 5. Establish the corrective actions to be taken when monitoring
indicates a deviation from a critical limit at a CCP has occurred.

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Principle 6. Validate the HACCP plan and then establish procedures for
verification to confirm that the HACCP system is working as intended.
Principle 7. Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records

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appropriate to these principles and their application.

General Guidance in Applying HACCP System th

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● Prerequisite programs
● FBOs need prerequisite programs like GHPs in place before applying
HACCP
● GHPs, Codex code of practices, etc
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● should be well-established, fully operational, and verified

● Critical Control Points (CCP)
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● HACCP focuses putting control measures for CCPs

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● Corrective actions are made when limits aren't met

● HACCP approach should be customized to each food business
● hazards will differ for each business
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● control measures for CCPs, critical limits, monitoring, corrective actions,

and verification will also differ for each business
● (read more at 18.2)
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● HACCP should have periodic reviews

● HACCP should be reviewed periodically or when a significant change is
applied
● Must check the impact of changes on the potential hazards and/or control
measures
● For small and less developed businesses who lack resources and expertise, it's
encouraged to take flexible approaches in applying the 7 principles

Application (Five preliminary steps + Seven HACCP Principles)

● Assemble HACCP team and identify scope (Step 1)

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 ● assembling multidisciplinary team that has knowledge and expertise in
different field for making HACCP system
● expertise in e.g. production, maintenance, quality control,
cleaning, disinfection
● other sources of expertise:
● trade and industry associates, independent experts, competent
authority, HACCP literature, HACCP guides
● team is tasked with identifying scope of HACCP system
● Describe product (Step 2)
● include composition, physical/chemical characteristics, processing

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methods/technologies, packaging, durability/shelf life, storage conditions,
and method of distribution
● Identify intended use and users (Step 3)

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● describe use and expected use for next FBO or for consumer
● Construct flow diagram (Step 4)
● should cover all steps in production of the product

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● indicate inputs (ingredients, food contact materials, water, air) and

●
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outputs (end products, intermediate products, waste, by-products)
● should be clear, accurate, and sufficiently detailed
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On-site confirmation of flow diagram (Step 5)
● performed by person/s with sufficient knowledge of processing operation
● List all potential hazards that are likely to occur and associated with each step,
conduct a hazard analysis to identify the significant hazards, and consider any
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measures to control identified hazards (Step 6/Principle 1)

● identify hazards
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● identify hazards at each step

● specify hazard, e.g. metal fragments
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● include source of hazard

● Annex 3 of document in includes an example of a Hazard Analysis
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Worksheet
● analyze to determine significant hazards,
● consider the likelihood of occurrence, severity, and acceptable
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limits
● also consider intended use and known unintended uses
● and consider control methods
● create control methods for identified hazards where prevention,
elimination, or reduction is essential for food safety
● Determine the critical control points (CCPs) (Step 7/Principle 2)
● CCPs: significant hazards where control is essential for food safety
● needs control measure at that particular process step
● not a CCP if there is another control measure to control the
hazard at another step, or if the control measure can also be used
later in the process

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 ● Identification of CCPs can be done using worksheets at Annex 4
● Establish validated critical limits for each CCP (Step 8/Principle 3)
● measurable or observable limits to be able to tell if CCP is being
controlled
● includes identifying minimum and/or maximum values of CLs
● Establish a monitoring system for each CCP (Step 9/Principle 4)
● to detect deviations at a CCP relative to the critical limits
● frequency of monitoring should depend on the nature of the hazard (e.g.
temperature drops that can be rapid or gradual)
● Establish corrective actions (Step 10/Principle 5)

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● corrective actions developed when deviations occur in CCP
● any product that produced when a deviation occurs with the critical limit at
the CCP, then the product is potentially unsafe, hence need for corrective

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actions
● actions include: product is reprocessed, diverted to other use, or
destroyed

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● any corrective actions performed should be documented
●
● Validation of HACCP plan
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Validation of the HACCP plan and verification procedures (Step 11/Principle 6)

● to ensure the plan is capable of controlling significant hazards

Ka
● can be performed during development of HACCP plan, and can
include review of literature and research
● Verification procedures
n,

● HACCP plan should have procedures confirming the system is

working effectively
ia

● includes observations, auditing, calibration, sampling and

testing, and records review
qu

● also includes periodic review of the adequacy or when a change

occurs
●
sa

Establish documentation and record keeping (Step 12/Principle 7)

● HACCP system should have record keeping of its application
● Documentation examples:
Pa

● CCP determination
● validation of control measures
● modifications to HACCP plan
● Examples of records:
● CCP monitoring activities
● verification procedures performed
● Records of documentation should be appropriate to nature and size of
operation.
● Serves as continuous verification of HACCP Plan.
● Training
● instructions and procedures should be developed as part of HACCP plan

18

2431193
 ● define tasks of operating personnel in charge at CCPs

● Also highlighted in the document:

○ Importance of cooperation between different stakeholders (industry,
government, and academe)
○ Acknowledgement of limitations and recommendations for flexibility for
small and/or less developed food businesses (SLBs)

Food Additives (CXS 192-1995)

General Standard for Food Additives

ye
● Scope
○ Food additives listed are those recognized as suitable for use in foods and have
been assigned an “Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)” and was determined to be safe

Ka
by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
■ Acceptable daily intake - an estimate of the amount of food additive that
can be ingested daily over a lifetime without appreciable health risks
○ The standard sets the conditions where a food additive may be used in a food

y
product. It also list down food categories where the use of food additives is not
acceptable
th
○ The standard also sets the “Maximum Use Levels (MUL)” of the food additives
Ka
■ Maximum use level - highest concentration of the additive considered to
be functionally effective in a food. Does not correspond to the optimum,
recommended, or typical level of use
● General Principles
n,

○ Only food additives that are deemed to have no appreciable health risks to
ia

consumers at the use levels proposed are included

○ The use of additives is only justified when its use has an advantage and does not
qu

pose any health risks

■ Preserve nutritional quality of the food
■ Provide necessary ingredients for foods manufactured for consumers with
sa

special dietary needs

■ Enhance the quality and stability of the food product
■ Improve its organoleptic properties without changing the nature or quality
Pa

of the food
■ Provide manufacturing and processing aid provided that its use is not to
disguise the use of undesirable or faulty ingredients
○ The use of food additives shall be under the conditions of GMP
■ Quantity is limited to the lowest possible level necessary to accomplish its
desired function
■ Quantity of additive that becomes a component of the product as a results
of its use as a manufacturing or processing aid is reduced to the extent
reasonably possible
■ Additive is of food grade quality and is handled the same way as any
other food ingredient

19

2431193
 ○ Food additives should be of appropriate food grade quality and should always to
conform with the applicable Specifications of Identity and Purity
● Carry-over of Food Additives
○ Additives may be present in a food product as a result of carry-over from raw
materials provided that
■ The additive is acceptable for use in the raw material
■ Amount of additive in the raw material does not exceed MULs specified
■ Food into which the additive is carried over will not exceed ADI
○ Carry-over food additives from raw materials is NOT acceptable for infant
formulas, follow-up formulas, or complementary foods for infants and young

ye
children
● Maximum use levels (MULs) and acceptable daily intakes (ADIs)
○ MULs and ADIs can be found on Annex A of the Standard

Ka
Contaminants and Toxins in Feed and Food (CXS 193-1995)
General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed
● Scope

y
○ Deals with the contaminants and toxins in food and feed

th
○ Lists down the maximum levels (MLs) and associated sampling plans of
contaminants and natural toxicants
Ka
○ Only includes maximum levels of contaminants and toxins in feed for cases
where the contaminant can be transferred to food and be relevant for public
health
● Principles Regarding Contaminants in Food and Feed
n,

○ General contamination can pose a risk to human health, animal health, and have
a negative impact on food and feed quality
ia

■ Contamination can come from different causes and processes

○ Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and GMP can reduce contamination
qu

■ Risk assessment measures must be applied if health hazards can occur if

the contaminated food is consumed
sa

○ Measures on food and feed contaminants shouldn’t be unnecessary barriers to

international trade
○ Broad approach for all contaminants will be applied to assess risks and
Pa

developing recommendations and control measures

○ Maximum levels will only be set for food in which the contaminant may be found
in amounts that are significant for the total exposure of the consumer
■ Consumer should always be adequately protected
■ Be as low as reasonably achievable
○ Specific criteria
■ The following should be considered when developing MLs and other
measures
● Toxicological information
● Analytical data
● Intake data

20

2431193
 ● Technological considerations
● Risk assessment and risk management considerations

LOCAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FOOD PRODUCTION

cGMP Concept (AO153 S. 2004)

Revised Guidelines On Current Good Manufacturing Practice In Manufacturing, Packing,
Repacking, Or Holding Food
● Scope:
person(s) or establishment(s) that manufacture, package, repack or hold food

ye
products to ensure quality and safety.
● General Guidelines:

Ka
○ Organization, Qualification, and Responsibilities
■ production and the quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC)
functions are managed independently (different persons in-charge)
■ Production head:

y
Full authority and management over production of food products

th
● Manage production of products, covering all aspects of personnel,
area, equipment, and records
Ka
■ QA/QC head:
Full authority and responsibility in QA/QC duties; such as establishment,
verification, and implementation of all QC procedures. These duties
include:
n,

● Approval of all food components (raw materials, packaging,

finished products)
ia

● Approval of foods from third-parties

■ Shared responsibility between QA/QC and production head:
qu

● establish and authorize written procedures

● Review production and QC records
● Approval of procedures related to product quality or specifications
sa

○ monitoring and control of plant environment

○ cleanliness validation,
Pa

○ Calibration
○ Training
○ Approval of supplies
○ Protection of products against spoilage and deterioration
○ Maintenance of records
○ Training
■ Training should be regular and conducted by qualified individuals
■ GMP training should be in accordance with written programs and
approved by production and QA/QC heads
■ Training records to be maintained
■ Performance after training should be assessed
○ Premises

21

2431193
 ■ protect grounds against weather, flood, ground seepage, and pests
and vermin
● keep grounds free of litter and waste
■ Plant structures should:
● Be of adequate size
● Be documented by a “Master Plan” diagram showing:
○ Outline of production areas
○ Entry, exit, and overall traffic of personnel, vehicle, and
goods
○ Water catchment areas (rivers, canals, ponds, etc)
○ Potential problem points

ye
○ Waste collection areas and waste utilities (ex. Waste
treatment)

Ka
○ Usual wind direction
○ Definition of main areas
○ Cleaning plans for each area
● Have floors which are:

y
○ Water-proof
○ Non-absorbent
○ Easily-washableth
Ka
○ Non-slip
○ With sufficient sloping for liquids to drain properly
● Have walls which are:
○ Water-proof
n,

○ Non-absorbent
○ Easily-washable
ia

○ Smooth and free of crevices

○ Light-colored
qu

○ Sealed and sloped in angles between floors and ceilings

● Have ceilings which:
sa

○ Do not accumulate dirt

○ Minimize condensation
○ Minimize mold growth
Pa

○ Do not flake
○ Are easily-washable
● Have windows which:
○ Do not accumulate dirt
○ Have insect-proof screens which are easily washable and
in good conditions
○ Internal window sills (if any) should be sloped to prevent
use as shelves
● Have doors which are:
○ Non-absorbent
○ Smooth and free of crevices

22

2431193
 ○ Self-closing and tight-fitting (if applicable)
● Drains should be of adequate size with traps
● Stairs, lift cages, and other auxiliary structures should not cause
contamination
● Separate spaces for
○ Food processing
○ Non-food processing
○ Cleaning mobile equipment
○ Cleaning material storage
● Locker/Gowning rooms are directly connected but separated

ye
from processing areas
● Toilets should not be open to production areas and have
adequate water and ventilation

Ka
● Define areas for:
○ Locker/Gowning rooms
○ Receiving of materials
○ Quarantine of incoming goods

y
○ Pre-sampling

th
○ Storage of approved materials
○ Storage of rejected materials
Ka
○ QA/QC facilities
○ Material preparation
○ Processing
○ Equipment washing
n,

○ Equipment storage
○ Repair and maintenance
ia

○ Cleaning materials
○ Bulk product staging/storage
qu

○ Packaging and labeling

○ Quarantine of finished goods
sa

○ Storage of finished goods

○ Canteen
● Adequate lighting
Pa

○ If artificial: use shatter-proof or otherwise protected light

fixtures to prevent contamination in cases of glass
breakage
● Adequate ventilation
○ should minimize contamination of food
○ with screens in openings that:
■ are easily removable/washable
■ Protect against pests
■ Equipment
● Material should be easy to clean and maintain
● Food contact surfaces shall be:

23

2431193
 ○ Non-toxic
○ Corrosion resistant
○ Sufficiently durable for intended use
○ Free of sharp or rough seams which can allow for
accumulation of food or filth
● Installed and located to eliminate cross-contamination and
facilitate cleaning
○ At least one (1) meter apart from each other
● Equipment for time-temperature control should be maintained
accurate and in good operating condition
● Should not have glass parts unless parts are shatter-proof

ye
● Should not be lacquered or painted
● Should allow for sampling and assessment of product quality

Ka
■ Sanitation and hygiene
● Overall sanitation shall be supervised by one or more competent
individuals
● Food-handling personnel should

y
○ be excluded from food handling in cases of illnesses, open

th
lesions, or other possible source of microbial
contamination
Ka
○ Conform to hygienic practices
■ Suitable personal protective equipment (PPE)
■ Maintain personal cleanliness
■ Wash hands thoroughly and regularly
n,

■ Remove or secure all unsecured objects (jewelry

and other accessories)
ia

■ Maintain gloves in sanitary condition

● Each plant should have adequate sanitary facilities, which can
qu

include:
○ Separate supply of potable and non-potable water
sa

○ Efficient and adequate effluent and waste disposal

○ Changing facilities
○ Toilets
Pa

○ Hand-washing facilities near processing areas

○ Disinfection facilities
○ Contained waste storage facilities
○ Eating facilities
● Maintenance and sanitation
○ Keep establishments in appropriate state of repair and
cleanliness
○ Cleaning and sanitizing supplies should be safe and
effective
■ Food-grade for food contact surfaces
■

24

2431193
 ○ Have defined cleaning and maintenance programs
○ Control vermin and pest by:
■ Preventing access
■ Reducing availability of food, water, and shelter
■ Constant monitoring and detection
■ Eradication of any examples found (ex. Through
preventive poisons or traps)
■ Production and process controls
● Follow sanitation principles along food process chain
● Use Critical Control Points (CCPs) for food safety and Control

ye
Points (CPs) for consistency
● Raw materials should be:
○ Segregated and inspected as suitable prior to receiving

Ka
○ Stored properly to prevent contamination and deterioration
○ In proper containers
○ Be of adequate microbial quality for intended use
■ I.e. based on further processing

y
○ Material scheduled for reprocessing (“rework”) should be

th
separated and identified
● Manufacturing operations should:
Ka
○ Use materials and equipment which are appropriately
cleaned and maintained as detailed above and exclusively
used for manufacturing human food
○ Be carefully controlled and monitored to ensure
n,

parameters; such as as time, temperature, humidity, aw,

pH, pressure, and flow rate; are within limits
ia

○ Prevent cross-contamination
○ Involve suitable means, as necessary, to prevent inclusion
qu

of metals and other extraneous material

○ Use potable water, steam, and ice for food contact
sa

applications
○ Take precautions for critical allergens
■ Quality control
Pa

● QC systems should ensure products contain the correct quality,

safety, and quantity
● Should involve sampling and analysis of materials along the
food process chain; including raw materials, work-in-process,
intermediate, bulk, and finished products.
● Should also involve batch documentation, sample retention,
stability studies, complaint monitoring, product recalls, and
specification verification, as applicable to the product.
● Any methods for reprocessing should be evaluated to not
affect safety or quality
○ Reprocessed finished products should similarly be retested

25

2431193
 ● Returned products should be:
○ Identified and stored in a separate area
○ Tested as necessary before being released
○ Rejected and appropriately disposed if non-compliant
○ Documented and records maintained
● QC Laboratories should be:
○ Well-designed and sufficient for facility needs
○ Separated physically from production areas
■ Documentation
● Maintain, periodically review, and revise as necessary all

ye
procedures and specifications related to food manufacturing
operations
● Records to be used for monitoring, traceability, and

Ka
improvement of compliance
■ Quality Audits
● Examination and assessment of all or specific parts of a food
control system to improve food hygiene compliance

y
● May be conducted by independent third-party specialists or an
internal audit team
th
● May also be extended to suppliers and contractors
Ka
● Audit reports will serve as basis for corrections and
improvements
■ Warehousing and Distributions
● Warehouses, storage areas, and delivery vehicles shall:
n,

○ Be kept clean, orderly, and in good repair

○ Disinfected as necessary
ia

○ Free of pests and vermin

○ Not be used to store potentially-contaminating materials
qu

near food
○ Secured to prevent theft or tampering
sa

○ Use a First In-First Out (FIFO) or First Expiry - First Out

(FEFO) system.
■ Product Complaints and Recall
Pa

● Record and investigate all quality-related complaints according

to a detailed procedure
● Establish procedures for recall according to FDA 2016-012
Guidelines on Product Recall
● Conditions for which a recall should be considered must be
defined by a written procedure.
● All concerned local and national authorities should be
coordinated with for serious or potentially life-threatening
situations
● Mock recalls (or equivalent) should be conducted to test recall
procedures

26

2431193
 ■ Retention of Samples
● Sufficient quantity of a finished batch product shall be kept for
necessary analysis as retained samples
○ Should be identified, recorded, and stored in prevailing
market conditions
○ used to investigate complaints and aid in traceability
■ Sub-contracting of manufacture
● The conditions and scope should be clearly agreed-upon and
defined and stated in the contract
● Specify all aspects such that products conform to standards of

ye
safety, quality, and suitability
● Food safety duties and responsibilities should be agreed upon
and clearly-defined by both parties

Ka
Food Packaging and Labeling (AO 2014-0030)
Revised Rules and Regulations Governing The Labeling of Prepackaged Food Products Further
Amending Certain Provision of Administrative Order No. 8-B s. 1984 or the "Rules and

y
Regulations Governing the Labeling of Pre-packaged Food Products Distributed in the
Philippines," and For Other Purposes.
● Objectives: th
Ka
○ Set rules and guidelines with revised labeling guidelines of prepackaged food
products, and provide info and education for consumers to facilitate sound
choices
○ Establish provisions on exemption to requirements of labeling prepackaged food
n,

products that were processed, labeled, or repacked at places other than where it
was originally processed/packed
ia

● General Rules and Regulations:

○ Should NOT have false, misleading, or deceptive info, or is likely to create
qu

erroneous impressions
○ Should NOT have any labelling information (words, pictorial, or other devices)
sa

where food might be confused to have a connection with any other product
○ Food packages shall be labeled with the required information
○ Label or labeling shall be printed legibly and likely to be understood
Pa

○ If label or labeling is so small that letters must be reduced

■ Reduced size of letters may be used, provided they are still visible and
legible, and the space is proportional to the size of the package
■ If package cannot accommodate label info, then only brand name and
product name may be indicated, but shall not be sold separately/not for
retail sale
■ Claims should follow necessary guidelines
● Guidelines in the Use of Nutrition and Health Claims in Food
(Bureau Circular 2007-002)
● Codex Guidelines for Use of Nutrition and Health Claims (CAC/GL
23-1997)

27

2431193
 ● Codex General Guidelines on Claims (CAC/GL 1-1979 revised in
1991)
■ Claims other than health and nutrition that isn't covered in the above shall
be evaluated
● Specific Guidelines:
○ Mandatory label information
■ Product Name/Name of Food
● Specific, not generic
■ Use of Brand Name and/or Trademark
■ Complete List of Ingredients
■ Net Contents and Drained Weight

ye
■ Name and Address of Manufacturer, Repacker, Packer, Importer, Trade,
and Distributor

Ka
■ Lot Identification
■ Storage Condition
■ Expiry of Expiration Date/Use-by-date/Consume Before Date
(recommended last consumption date)

y
■ Food Allergen Information

th
■ Direction/Instruction(s) for Use
■ Nutrition Facts/Nutrition Information/Nutrition Value
Ka
○ Other Requirements
■ Alcoholic beverages
● Shall include alcohol content in terms of percentage volume or
proof units
n,

■ Language
● English or Filipino, or a combination of both
ia

● If exporting, should be language acceptable in importing country

○ Should include English translation
qu

■ Irradiated Foods
● Follows AO No. 152 s. 2004 (“Prescribing Regulations for
sa

Irradiated Food”)
● Shall contain international logo for irradiated food
● Has the statement “treated by irradiation” or equivalent
Pa

● Posted and/or conspicuously displayed on shelves where non pre-

packaged irradiated food is displayed for sale
● Should be accompanied with the following documents:
○ Irradiation facility where the products were treated and its
address
○ License number of the facility and its validity period
○ Date of irradiation
○ Purpose of irradiation
■ Additional information
● Declaration of other needs such as Halal, Kosher, organic, etc
● Assigned food authorization number must be printed clearly

28

2431193
 ■ Labeling of Food Additives
● According to Codex Standard 107-1981 (General Standard for the
Labeling of Food Additives)
● Misleading Declaration/Representation/Prohibited Claims
○ Specified claims that, if stated, constituted as misleading, deceptive, and
untruthful declarations
○ The specific claims can be found in the Administrative Order for food
manufacturers to use as reference
● Exemptions from Labeling Requirements
○ Food will be served in restaurants/served in airline catering for immediate

ye
consumption
○ Bulk food materials not intended for retail sale (e.g., for further processing,
repacking, catering)

Ka
○ Available space is less than 10 cm2 (e.g. pack of gum, individually wrapped
candies), provided the secondary packaging has all required labeling information
○ Other exemptions may be granted after determination by FDA Director General

y
ASIN Law
An Act for Salt Iodization Nationwide (ASIN) of 1995
● Objectives: th
Ka
○ Contribute to eliminating micronutrient malnutrition specifically iodine deficiency
disorders through salt iodization
○ Requires all producers/manufacturers of food-grade salt to iodize their salt
products
n,

○ Provide mechanisms for and incentives to salt industry for iodized salt
○ Ensure sustainability of salt iodization program
ia

● Standards for Iodized Salt

○ Iodization Process:
qu

■ Salt may be iodized using potassium iodate (KIO3) or potassium iodide

(KI)
sa

■ Allowable methods:
● Dry mixing if salt is in powdered form
● Drip feeding or spray mixing if salt is in crystal form
Pa

● Submersion of salt crystals in iodated brine

○ Essential Composition and Quality Factors
■ Purity
● Salt to be iodized must comply with the requirements:
○ Moisture: 4% (refined) or 7% (unrefined)
○ Sodium chloride, min: 97% (dry basis)
○ Calcium or magnesium, max: 2%
○ Water insolubles, max: 0.2%
○ Heavy metal contaminants, max:
■ Arsenic: 0.5 mg/kg
■ Cadmium: 0.5 mg/kg

29

2431193
 ■ Lead: 2.1 mg/kg
■ Mercury: 0.1 mg/kg
■ Naturally present secondary products and contaminants in raw salt
● May contain natural secondary products depending on origin and
method of production
● May include calcium, potassium, magnesium, and sodium
including their sulphates, carbonates, and bromides salts
○ Iodine Level
■ Production site:
● Bulk (>2kg): 70 - 150 mg/kg
● Retail (<2kg): 60 - 100 mg/kg

ye
■ Port of Entry
● Bulk (>2kg): 70 - 150 mg/kg

Ka
● Retail (<2kg): 60 - 100 mg/kg
■ Retail Site
● Bulk (>2kg): >50 mg/kg
● Retail (<2kg): >40 mg/kg

y
○ Food Additives

th
■ Allowable additives are anticaking agents, emulsifiers, and processing
aids
Ka
■ Must be of food-grade quality and conforms to JECFA
○ Packaging
■ Allowable packaging:
● Woven polypropylene bags
n,

● Clean and unused jute bags

● Non-porous material with high density polyethylene lining
ia

○ Labeling
■ Must follow labeling guidelines set by the FDA
qu

■ Additional guidelines:
● Name of the product “IODIZED SALT” must be printed in bold
sa

capital letters
● Iodine compound used
○ Storage, Transport, and Display at Retail
Pa

■ Product shall not be exposed to any of the following:

● Direct sunlight exposure or near source of strong light
● High temperature and humidity
● Contamination with moisture
● Contamination with dust or filth

Food Fortification Law (RA 8976)

An Act Establishing the Philippine Food Fortification Program and For Other Purposes
● Objectives:
○ Establish a food fortification program in the Philippines
○ Provide rules and regulations on the fortification of food products in the country

30

2431193
 ● The Philippine Food Fortification Program
○ Covers the fortification of both imported and locally processed foods for sale and
distribution
○ Does not cover dietary supplements
○ Fortification can either be mandatory or voluntary
■ Mandatory Food Fortification
● Fortification of staple foods are mandatory:
○ Rice - with iron
○ Wheat flour - with Vit A and iron
○ Refined sugar - with Vit A
○ Cooking oil - with Vit A

ye
● National Nutrition Council will recommend the fortification amount
based on findings of national nutrition surveys

Ka
● Imported has the responsibility of ensuring the fortification of said
food products
○ May be required from the producer/manufacturer
○ Importer fortifies the product prior to distribution and sale

y
■ Voluntary Food Fortification

th
● Under the Sangkap Pinoy Seal Program
● Manufacturers can voluntarily fortify their food products with
Ka
nutrients based on the rules and regulations of the DOH and the
FDA
n,

Microbiological Standard Limits (FDA Circ 2022-012)

FDA Circular 2022-012: Guidelines on the Microbiological Requirements and Assessment of
ia

Certain Prepackaged Processed Food Products Repealing FDA Circular No. 2013-010 entitled
“Revised Guidelines for the Assessment of Microbiological Quality of Processed Foods”
qu

● Objectives:
○ Revise and update FDA 2013-010 to align with local and international standards
sa

○ Provide guidelines in assessing microbiological quality of processed foods

● Scope and Limitations:
○ Microbiological specifications only
Pa

○ Imported and locally produced prepackaged processed foods under FDA

jurisdiction only
○ Nonconformity leads to product being deemed adulterated, misbranded, and/or
mislabelled with sanctions according to RA 9711 or RA 10611
● Composed of 14 Tables corresponding to 14 general product categories
● Uses attribute sampling for microbiological limits
○ Requires batch/lot evaluation of products
○ A number of samples (n) is collected and analyzed from each lot
○ Each sample can either be
■ Acceptable
if the test parameter is less than the limit for marginal acceptability m

31

2431193
 ■ Unacceptable
if the tested parameter is greater than the limit for unacceptability M
■ Marginally acceptable
if the tested parameter is greater than the m but less than M
○ The entire lot is to be rejected if:
■ Any sample tested is found Unacceptable, or
■ The number of marginally acceptable samples exceeds the
maximum allowable number c
○ Specifications can be made more strict by increasing sample number n ,
decreasing the allowable number of marginally acceptable samples c, or

ye
decreasing thresholds for marginally acceptable m and unacceptable
samples M

Ka
y
th
Ka
n,

Sample table from FDA 2022-012 and the parts of each table
● Reference criteria: Specific microbiological test for a certain microorganism (or group of
ia

microorganisms)
○ FDA 2022-012 uses over 20 test microorganisms as reference criteria
qu

○ Can be classified into three

■ Commercial Sterility
sa

● Defined as “absence of microorganisms capable of growing in

the food at normal storage conditions”
● used for thermally-processed, hermetically-sealed, low-acid
Pa

(pH>4.6) foods for room temperature storage (i.e. low acid

canned foods (LACF))
● Tip 1: For Commercial Sterility, threshold for rejection is
always zero
○ Maximum allowable number c = 0
○ Reflects very stringent safety requirements for
commercially sterile foods
■ Pathogens
● Microorganisms which can cause disease when consumed
● Further described by presence in food products and risk of
foodborne disease (FBD) (pathogenicity & virulence)

32

2431193
 ● Tip 2: For pathogens, the threshold for rejection is dictated
by the risk of disease
○ More strict for:
■ More severe pathogens
■ Food for vulnerable consumers (infants, elderly)
■ High-risk foods (Ready-to-eat without further
processing)
○ Less strict for:
■ low-risk foods (Food where further processing is
expected, ex. fresh and frozen seafood, meat,

ye
vegetables)
● For high-risk pathogens, threshold for rejection is always
zero

Ka
○ Not detected in a certain amount (usually 25 g) for all
samples)
○ Ex. 1: Severe pathogens
■ Salmonella spp.,

y
■ Listeria monocytogenes

th
○ Ex 2: Vulnerable consumers
■ Cronobacter spp. in infant formula
Ka
○ Ex 3.: High-risk foods
■ Campylobacter jejuni in RTE meat,
■ Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Faecal streptococci
in bottled water
n,

● For medium to low risk pathogens, the thresholds are highly

dependent on the food product
ia

○ m = usually 10 - 102 cfu/g

○ M = usually 103 - 104 cfu/g
qu
sa

Breakdown of some of the pathogens used as Reference Criteria in FDA 2022-012

Pa

33

2431193
 ye
Ka
y
■ Indicators
th
● General groups of microorganisms used to indicate
Ka
microbiological quality of food
● Tip 3: For indicators, the thresholds depend heavily on type
of foods
○ Thresholds for Coliforms are generally more strict than
n,

Aerobic Plate Count

○ Yeast and Mold Count are generally only required for low
ia

aw foods
○ Aerobic Plate Count are not applicable for most fermented
qu

foods

Breakdown of some of the

sa

common indicators used as

Reference Criteria in FDA 2022-
Pa

012

Food Additives (AO 88-A 1984/BC 2006-2016)

Regulatory Guidelines Concerning Food Additives and Updated List of Food Additives
● General Guidelines
○ The principles and guidelines for the use of food additives in the Philippines is
based on the General Standard for Food Additives (CXS 192-1995) of the Codex
Alimentarius
● List of Permissible Food Additives
○ Only the additives approved by the Philippine FDA is permissible and legal to use

34

2431193
 ○ Every food additive included in the list must meet the specification for identity and
purity set in either of the following:
■ US Code of Federal Regulations
■ Food Chemical Codes
■ JECFA specifications
○ Use of additives shall be in accordance with the specified restrictions

ye
Ka
y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

35

2431193
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN FOOD TECHNOLOGY

Outline:

Introduction and Overview

ISO 14000 Family
Air Management
Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999.
Sources of Air Pollution
Types of Air Pollutant Controls

ye
Water Quality Management
Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004
Management of Water Bodies and Pollutant Sources

Ka
Wastewater Treatment
Solid and Hazardous Waste Management
The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2001
Types of Food-Related Solid Waste

y
Elements and Strategies of a Solid Waste Management System
Waste Management Hierarchy
Food Recovery Hierarchy th
Ka
Valorization in the Food Value Chain
Byproduct utilization
Waste Conversion and Processing
n,

Valorization in the Food Value Chain

Byproduct utilization
ia

Waste conversion and processing

qu

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

● Food systems and environmental impacts

sa

○ The production, processing, consumption, and waste management of food

systems create various environmental impacts that need to be addressed.
Pa

■ These impacts can affect land utilization, water quality, biodiversity, and
soil degradation, and may also contribute greenhouse gas emissions
○ Addressing impacts of food systems require informed and robust management
strategies.
■ Strategies can be used to improve sustainability practices and
environmental responsibility in food systems by addressing consumer
behaviors, industry initiatives, and adherence to international and local
government regulations.
○ Common Environmental Issues in the Food Industry
■ Food processing loss
■ Food wastage

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 ■ Packaging
■ Energy Efficiency
■ Transportation
■ Water Consumption
■ Waste Management

● ISO 14000 Standards

○ The ISO 14000 series are a step-by-step guide for organizations to establish and
achieve environmentally-friendly objectives and help them manage their systems
and processes efficiently while minimizing environmental effects.
○ These standards cover aspeccts of manement practices inside facilities, their

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immediate environment surrounding facilities, and during the life cycle of their
actual product, from the raw materials into finished products.

Ka
○ The following are the key standards in ISO 14000:
■ ISO 14001 and 140002: These standards outline the requirements for an
environmental management system (EMS). ISO 14001 provides the
framework for organizations to develop and implement an EMS, while

y
ISO 14002 offers guidance for applying the principles outlined in ISO
14001.
th
■ ISO 14004: This standard provides guidelines for the establishment,
Ka
implementation, maintenance, and improvement of an environmental
management system. It offers more detailed explanations and practical
examples to support the implementation of ISO 14001.
■ ISO 14015, 14016, and 14017: These standards focus on environmental
n,

assessment at the organization level (ISO 14015), environmental aspects

in product standards (ISO 14016), and environmental aspects in product
ia

standards for developing countries (ISO 14017).

■ ISO 14020, 14021, and 14024: These standards cover environmental
qu

labeling and declarations. ISO 14020 provides general principles, ISO

14021 specifies self-declared environmental claims, and ISO 14024
sa

outlines the requirements for third-party certification of environmental

labels and declarations.
■ ISO 14030 and ISO 14031: ISO 14030 provides guidelines for the
Pa

development and use of environmental performance evaluation (EPE)

systems, while ISO 14031 offers guidance on environmental performance
evaluation.
■ ISO 14040, 14041, 14042, and 14043: These standards constitute the
ISO 14040 series on life cycle assessment (LCA). ISO 14040 provides
principles and framework, ISO 14041 outlines goal and scope definition,
ISO 14042 covers inventory analysis, and ISO 14043 addresses impact
assessment and interpretation.
○ ISO 14000 can be achieved when an accredited auditor verifies that all
requirements are met for a specific certification.

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 ○ Environmental Management Systems help identify, manage, monitor and control
organization’s environmental issues in a holistic manner.
■ 5 Main phases of EMS
1. Environmental Policy - commitment of management to regulatory
compliance, pollution prevention and continual improvement in
environmental performance
2. Planning - identification of all important environmental aspects and
their associated impacts
3. Implementation - application of plans to achieve the environmental
policy commitments

ye
4. Monitoring and measurement - processes to ensure monitoring
and maintenance of environmental parameters, performance and
progress

Ka
5. Review - periodic review to assess whether any changes are
needed to reflect the top management commitment
■ Benefits of EMS in the food industry systems
● Continual improvements in pollution prevention

y
● Reduction of environmental risks
● Better cost management
th
● Assured regulatory compliance
Ka
● Improved staff morale
● Improved public perception
n,

AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT

ia

● Emissions from food systems specifically from production, transportation, processing of

the food supply chain have significant influence on air quality.
qu

● Poor air quality can affect public health, emphasizing the need for proper and informed
air management.
●
sa

Emissions can also contribute to worsening climate conditions and ecosystem

degradation.
Pa

Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 (RA 8749)

An act that provides for the creation of a national program for air pollution management focusing
primarily on pollution prevention; for the promotion of mass media communication in order to
create social awareness and active participation in air quality planning and monitoring.
● Scope
○ Encompasses measures to prevent and control air pollution from all emission
sources.
● Objectives
○ Focuses on safeguarding public health, preserving the quality of the atmosphere,
and promoting sustainable development.
● Important terms and concepts

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 ○ Air pollutant - Any substance in the atmosphere excluding natural gases like
oxygen and nitrogen, that harms health or the environment. This includes smoke,
dust, gases, and radioactive materials.
○ Air quality standards - Concentrations of air over specific periods meant to
safeguard health and public welfare, used for managing air quality, tracking
trends, and taking actions to prevent pollution.
○ Emission - Any unwanted substance or sound released into the atmosphere from
a known source.
○ Greenhouse gases - Gases potentially causing global warming, like carbon
dioxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons.
○

ye
Ozone-depleting substances - Substances that harm the ozone layer like
chlorofluorocarbons.
○ Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) - Organic compounds persisting in the

Ka
environment, accumulating through the food chain, posing risks to health and the
environment.
○ Pollution control standards - Allowable amount or limit of pollutants that a specific
pollution source, such as an industrial facility or vehicle, is permitted to release

y
into the environment within a defined period.

● Sources of Air Pollution th

Ka
○ Industrial emissions - This includes emissions from factories, manufacturing
plants, and industrial processes that release pollutants into the air.
○ Vehicle emissions - Refers to emissions from vehicles such as cars, trucks,
n,

motorcycles, and other transportation means powered by internal combustion

engines.
○
ia

Agricultural activities - Certain farming practices, particularly those involving

burning of crop residues, can contribute to air pollution.
qu

○ Waste burning - Emissions resulting from the burning of waste materials,

including open burning of trash and other waste disposal practices.
○ Stationary sources - This category encompasses emissions from fixed or
sa

stationary sources such as power plants, refineries, and other facilities that emit
pollutants into the air.
○ Construction activities - Dust and particulate matter generated from construction
Pa

sites and building activities are recognized sources of air pollution.

○ Household emissions - This includes emissions from household activities such as
cooking, heating, and the use of certain types of fuels indoors.

● Air Pollutant Controls

○ Emission Standards: Set specific limits for allowable emissions from various
sources, and in the context of food systems, from processing, cooking,
packaging, and transportation. These standards establish maximum allowable
concentrations for various pollutants.

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 ○
Pa
sa
qu
ia
n,
Ka
th
y
Ka
ye

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 ye
Ka
y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu

○ Compliance Measures: Outlines mechanisms for compliance, such as emission

sa

testing, monitoring, and reporting.

■ Mandates industries, vehicles, and other sources of pollution to undergo
regular emissions testing to verify compliance with established standards.
Pa

■ Requires regulated entities to monitor their emissions regularly and

submit reports to environmental agencies as part of compliance
measures.
■ Sets penalties and sanctions for entities failing to comply with emission
standards and reporting requirements, encouraging strict adherence to
regulations.
○ Cleaner Production Practices
■ Adoption of cleaner and more environmentally friendly production
processes in industries to minimize the generation of pollutants
○ Pollution Control Devices: Encourages the use of appropriate technologies for
pollution control.

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 ■ Technological Upgrades: Encourages industries to invest in and
implement cleaner technologies, such as scrubbers, filters, and catalytic
converters, to reduce harmful emissions.
○ Vehicle Emission Testing
■ Requires regular inspection and testing of vehicle emissions through
accredited centers to ensure compliance with set standards.
■ Encourages vehicle owners to maintain their vehicles to meet emission
standards and contribute to better air quality.
○ Public Awareness: Stresses the importance of public education and awareness
regarding air quality issues.
■ Promotes public awareness campaigns on air quality issues, emphasizing

ye
the impact of air pollution on health and the environment.
■ Encourages public participation in initiatives aimed at improving air

Ka
quality, such as tree planting, carpooling, and reducing personal
emissions.
■ Encourages public support for stricter regulations and compliance
measures by fostering understanding and concern for air quality issues.

y
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT th
Ka
● Clean water is crucial in food production, processing, and sanitation to prevent
contamination and ensure safe consumption.
● Maintaining water quality supports healthy ecosystems, which is essential for retaining
n,

biodiversity, agriculture, fisheries, and overall environmental balance.

● Access to clean water ensures the well-being of local communities, reducing waterborne
ia

diseases and promoting public health.

● Proper management minimizes pollution runoff, protecting water bodies from harmful
qu

chemicals and pollutants.

● Adhering to water quality standards ensures compliance with environmental regulations
sa

and sustainability goals.

Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (RA 9275)

Pa

This Act provides for the abatement and control of pollution from land based sources, and lays
down water quality standards and regulations.
● Scope
○ The Act shall apply to water quality management in all water bodies: fresh,
brackish and marine waters.
● Objectives
○ Prevent, control and abate pollution of the country’s water resources
○ Promote environmental strategies for the protection of water resources
○ Formulate a national program of water quality management
○ Promote commercial and industrial processes and products that are environment
friendly and energy efficient

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● Management guidelines
○The Act establishes the following guidelines and provisions for water quality
management:
■ The creation of the Water Quality Management Fund to provide financial
assistance for water quality management programs and projects.
■ The designation of Water Quality Management Areas (WQMA) based on
hydrological, hydrogeological, meteorological, or geographic conditions.
● The WQMA shall have a governing board composed of
representatives from relevant agencies, local government units,
and stakeholders.

ye
■ The formulation and implementation of a Water Quality Management
Framework for each WQMA, which shall include the identification of water
quality issues and problems, the setting of water quality objectives and

Ka
targets, the selection of appropriate management strategies and
measures, and the allocation of resources and responsibilities.
■ Implementation of a national program on sewerage and septic
management, which requires all local government units to prepare and

y
submit a septage or sewerage management program and to connect

th
existing sewage line found within the areas to available sewerage system
■ The development and enforcement of standards for water quality and
Ka
effluent for different water bodies and sources of pollution.
● The standards shall take into account the beneficial uses of the
water bodies, the classification of the water bodies, the best
n,

available technology, and the economic and social factors.

■ The regulation and monitoring of discharges of pollutants into water
ia

bodies through a system of permits and compliance monitoring.

■ The promotion of public participation and information dissemination in
qu

water quality management and monitoring.

■ Imposition of water pollution charges and fines for any person who
violates or fails to comply with the provisions of the Act, the implementing
sa

rules and regulations, the terms and conditions of the permits, and the
orders and decisions of the DENR Secretary or the Pollution Adjudication
Board.
Pa

● Sources of water pollutants

○ Point sources refer to identifiable pollution sources that discharge directly into a
specific water body via channels, pipes, sewers, or containers.
■ Industrial effluents - Effluents discharged from manufacturing, processing,
and production facilities.
■ Domestic wastewater - Discharges from residential areas, municipal
wastewater treatment plants, and improper sanitation systems.
■ Mining wastewater - Wastewater and leachate from mining activities.
■ Solid waste disposal - Improper disposal of solid waste, especially in
open dumps and landfills.

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 ○ Non-point sources denote pollution origins that are not traceable to specific
points but include runoff from fields or rainfall collecting pollutants from
agricultural and urban areas.
■ Agricultural runoff - Runoff carrying pesticides, fertilizers, and animal
waste.
■ Urban runoff - Urban runoff carrying debris, oils, and other pollutants from
streets and paved surfaces during rain events.
■ Household activities - Household activities contributing to water pollution.
■ Hazardous substances - Discharge of substances categorized as
hazardous, toxic, or persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

ye
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

Ka
● Proper waste management in food systems prevents soil contamination and protects
ecosystems. This also reduces health risks associated with soil and water pollution.
● Furthermore, sustainable waste management allows for recycling and reusing

y
resources, reducing raw material demands.
●
th
Adhering to waste management laws ensures responsible industry practices.
Ka
The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2001 (RA 9003)
An Act providing for an Ecological Solid Waste Management Program, creating the necessary
Institutional Mechanisms and Incentives, declaring certain Acts prohibited and providing
Penalties, appropriating funds therefore, and for other purposes.
n,

● Scope
○ This Act facilitates effective management of solid waste, reducing its volume,
ia

ensuring eco-friendly disposal methods like composting, recycling, and reuse. It

governs the collection, treatment, and environmentally sound disposal of solid
qu

waste in proper facilities, enabling correct segregation, transport, storage, and

treatment.
● Objectives
sa

○ To establish an effective solid waste management program.

○ To reduce, reuse, and recycle solid waste to minimize its adverse impact on the
Pa

environment.
○ To ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment, and
disposal of solid waste.
● Important Guidelines and Provisions
○ Waste Segregation at Source: Mandates the segregation of solid waste into
biodegradable, recyclable, and residual waste.
○ Waste Reduction Strategies: Encourages waste minimization, recycling, and
composting.
○ Establishment of Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs): Requires LGUs to
establish MRFs for the recovery of recyclable materials.
○ Prohibition of Open Dumping and Open Burning: Encouraging sanitary landfill
and other proper waste disposal methods.

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 ○ Creation of Special Bodies: Creation of Solid Waste Management Boards
(SWMB) in LGUs to oversee implementation of the Act.

● Types of Food-Related Solid Waste

○ Biodegradable Waste - Food scraps, leftovers, and organic materials that
naturally decompose. Includes fruit and vegetable peels, kitchen scraps, food
processing residues, etc.
○ Non-biodegradable Food Packaging Waste - Packaging materials and non-food
items used in food storage, delivery, or consumption. Plastics, wrappers,
containers, and other non-degradable materials associated with food packaging

ye
and handling.
○ Hazardous Food Waste - Certain food-related waste may contain hazardous
components. Examples include expired food products containing toxic or harmful

Ka
substances, chemicals used in food processing, etc.
○ Expired or Spoiled Food Waste - Food products reaching their expiration date or
unsellable surplus from food establishments, such as expired canned goods,
spoiled perishable items, and food no longer suitable for consumption.

y
○ Food Processing residuals - Waste generated during food processing or

th
manufacturing. Includes residuals like peels, seeds, shells, and other by-products
from food production processes.
Ka
● Elements and Strategies of a Solid Waste Management System
○ Waste Segregation: Mandates separating waste into categories like
n,

biodegradable, recyclable, and residual at the point of generation.

○ Waste Collection: This involves the gathering of solid waste from sources or
ia

collection points and the transport of the waste to processing or disposal

facilities. The strategies include providing proper containers, segregating different
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types of waste, enforcing ordinances, and training workers.

○ Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs): Establishing centers to recover and
segregate recyclable materials from the waste stream and encouraging the reuse
sa

and recycling of materials to reduce the volume of waste sent to landfills.

○ Waste Reduction at Source: This involves the reduction of the amount and
toxicity of solid waste generated at the source. The strategies include resource
Pa

conservation, re-use, product design, materials substitution, packaging

restrictions, and waste minimization audits.
○ Waste Treatment and Disposal Facilities: Developing facilities for the treatment
of biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste and emphasizing proper waste
disposal methods, including sanitary landfills or controlled dumps.
○ Composting and Recycling Programs: Implementing programs to compost
biodegradable waste and recycle materials like plastics, paper, glass, and metals
and promoting the use of recycled materials and compost for various
applications.

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 ○ Public Awareness and Education: Conducting campaigns to educate the public
about waste segregation, reduction, and proper disposal practices and fostering
community involvement and participation in waste management initiatives.
○ Regulatory Framework: Enacting legislation, guidelines, and regulations to
govern waste management practices. Establishing agencies or bodies
responsible for overseeing and enforcing waste management policies.
○ Monitoring and Evaluation: Regular assessment of waste management systems
to measure effectiveness and identify areas for improvement. Monitoring
compliance with regulations and goals set for waste reduction and recycling.

● Waste Management Hierarchy

ye
○ The waste management hierarchy outlines a prioritized approach to managing
waste, emphasizing prevention and reduction strategies before resorting to

Ka
disposal methods. The hierarchy typically follows this order:
■ Prevent - This involves reducing the generation of waste at the source. It
includes practices like reusing items, opting for products with minimal
packaging, and employing efficient manufacturing processes.

y
■ Reduce - This step involves practices such as recycling, composting, and

th
recovering materials from waste streams to reduce the volume of waste
sent for disposal.
Ka
■ Reuse - This can involve repairing, refurbishing, or donating items to
avoid disposal and extend their lifespan
■ Recycle - Involves converting waste materials into new products to
n,

prevent the extraction of raw materials and reduce energy consumption. It

includes processes like sorting, processing, and remanufacturing.
■ Recover - This step involves extracting useful materials or energy from
ia

waste through processes like energy recovery or converting waste to fuel.

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■ Dispose - When waste cannot be reused, recycled, or recovered, this is

performed to reduce its volume or hazardousness. This can include
biological, chemical, or physical methods.
sa

■ Landfill/Incineration- - The last resort in waste management and involves

safely disposing of waste in landfills or incineration facilities designed to
minimize environmental impact and potential harm to human health.
Pa

● Food Recovery Hierarchy

○ The Food Recovery Hierarchy is a prioritized framework that outlines actions to
manage food waste effectively, focusing on reducing waste generation and
maximizing its value.
■ Source reduction - Avoiding or minimizing the creation of food waste. This
is the best way to conserve resources, money, and prevent pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions.
■ Feed hungry people - Giving away edible food that is excess or unsold to
organizations that provide food for people who are in need. This prevents

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 food and the resources used to produce it from being wasted, and it helps
reduce food scarcity and hunger.
■ Feed animals - Redirecting food scraps or leftovers that are not suitable
for human consumption to animals, such as farm animals, pets, or
wildlife.
■ Industrial uses - Transforming food waste into useful products, such as
biofuels, biogas, compost, or other materials. This extracts energy or
materials from food waste, and they lessen the environmental impacts of
disposal.
■ Composting - Breaking down food waste into a soil-like substance that

ye
can be used as a fertilizer or soil enhancer. This helps restore nutrients
and organic matter to the soil.
■ Landfill/Incineration- Getting rid of food waste in landfills or incinerators,

Ka
with or without energy recovery.This is the least preferred option, since it
uses valuable resources, consumes land and energy, and causes
pollution and emissions.

y
● Valorization in the Food Value Chain
○ th
Valorization: Process of converting Processing Waste and By-products intro
Ka
valuable products with the objective of reduction of food loss and promotion of
sustainable food systems
○ Byproduct Utilization
■ Upcycled component:Secondary products from food processing that have
n,

potential for reuse. Also can be considered as processing waste.

■ Includes non-edibles (Fruit peels, vegetable trimmings, milling fractions)
ia

and edibles (Non-conforming products)

● Non-conforming can be reassessed to undergo reworking
qu

○ The process of repurposing or recycling instead of

discarding
sa

■ Converted via further processing methods to food or food ingredients

● Fermentation for a new product or specific substrate
●
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Bioactive compound extraction

● Drying and Milling for accessory powders
● Pressing for liquid extract or oil
■ Can also be used to generate as substrates for non-food application
● Biorefineries for production of biofuel, industrial enzymes, etc.
○ Waste conversion and processing
■ Highly reliant on processing method used, requires full understanding of
product lifecycle in order to maximize production of valorized products

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 ● Requires proper understanding of waste type, volume, waste
physicochemical characteristics and targeted end products.

ye
Ka
y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

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FOOD SAFETY
Outline:

Introduction to Food Safety

Basic Concepts and Definition of Terms
Types of Food Safety Hazards
Food Safety Throughout the Food Value Chain
Systems to Ensure Safety in Food Processing
Prerequisite Programs (PRPs)

ye
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)
ISO 22000 and Food Safety Management Systems

Ka
Introduction to Food Safety

Basic Concepts and Definition of Terms

y
●
th
Food safety, according to the Philippine Food Safety Act of 2013 (RA 10611), is defined
as “assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared or
Ka
eaten according to its intended use
● Food safety is ensured by preventing both contamination and proliferation of hazards
○ The former is prevented with proper sanitation and food handling practices
○ The latter is controlled with proper time-temperature control during cooking and
n,

storage
○ Foodborne diseases can be caused by the proliferation of foods with various
ia

hazards and/or the proliferation of biological hazards

○ Two or more cases of the same disease from a common food constitutes a
qu

foodborne disease outbreak (FBDO)

● Various food safety guidelines exist for ensuring food safety at the consumer level
○ USDA Four Steps to Food Safety
sa

■ Clean:
● Wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20* seconds
Pa

before, during, and after preparing food and before eating

○ *active scrubbing time only
● Wash utensils, cutting boards, and countertops with hot soapy
water after preparing food
● Rinse fresh fruits and vegetables under running water
■ Separate:
● Prevent cross-contamination between raw and ready-to-
eat/cooked foods, which can occur through:
○ Direct contact
○ Drippings from raw meat, poultry, and seafood
○ Use of shared food contact surfaces (ex. utensils,
chopping boards, containers)

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 ○ Washing raw meat, poultry, and seafood in the sink can
spread germs
■ Cook:
● Cook foods at high enough temperature and long enough periods
of time to ensure germs are sufficiently killed
○ This is ensured using a food thermometer or through visual
indicators
○ Temperatures are taken at the slowest heating point

Food Time-Temperature Conditions /

ye
Visual Indicators

Fish 145°F / 63 °C

Ka
Cook until flesh is opaque and flaky.

Shellfish (Crustaceans) Cook until flesh is opaque white

Shellfish (Bivalves) Cook until shells open naturally

y
Whole meats

Ground meats and sausages th

145°F / 63 °C, rest for 3 minutes

160°F / 71° C
Ka
Eggs & egg dishes 160°F / 71° C,
Cook eggs until yolk and white are firm
n,

Poultry products 165°F / 74° C

ia

Leftovers (for reheating) 165°F / 74° C

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■ Chill:
● Microorganisms multiply rapidly in the temperature danger zone
sa

○ Do not hold foods within 40-140 °F / 5-60 °C for more than

2 hours
● Set refrigerators at 40 °F / 4 °C or below and freezers at 0 °F / -18
Pa

°C
● Use smaller food portions to accelerate chilling
● Thaw frozen food properly in the refrigerator, in cold running
water, or by heating in the microwave
○ WHO Five keys to safer food
■ Keep clean
■ Separate raw and cooked
■ Cook thoroughly
■ Keep food at safe temperatures
■ Use safe water and raw materials
○ WHO "Golden Rules" for Safe Food Preparation,

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 ■ Choose foods processed for safety
■ Cook food thoroughly
■ Eat cooked foods immediately
■ Store cooked foods carefully
■ Reheat cooked foods thoroughly
■ Avoid contact between raw foods and cooked foods
■ Wash hands repeatedly
■ Keep all kitchen surfaces meticulously clean
■ Protect foods from insects, rodents, and other animals
■ Use safe water
●

ye
In general, be aware of different food safety hazards and how they can be controlled

Types of Food Safety Hazards

Ka
● Biological Hazards
○ Microorganisms that can cause harm when consumed
■ Includes bacteria, viruses, parasites, and prions

y
● fungi are sometimes included but are often discussed as Chemical

th
Hazards due to their production of mycotoxins
○ Controlled by proper sanitation, food handling practices, and time-temperature
Ka
control
○ Refer to the module on Food Microbiology for the factors affecting the growth of
microorganisms in food
● Physical Hazards
n,

○ Hard and/or sharp objects which can cause damage to the mouth and
gastrointestinal throat or presents risk of choking upon consumption
ia

○ May be unintentionally introduced to food products throughout the food value

chain or be naturally-present in food (ex. bones in meat, shells of nuts)
qu

○ Many GMP practices are designed to prevent, detect, and eliminate physical
hazards
sa

■ Prevent:
● Covers or special non-breakable materials are used for lighting in
food processing facilities
Pa

● Personnel are prevented from wearing items which may be

introduced to food (ex. Jewelry, contact lenses, watches)
■ Detect:
● Metal detectors are used in many food processing facilities due to
the prevalence of metal parts
● More modern systems can use X-rays or ultrasound to detect
various physical hazards
● Visual inspection, among others, looks out for physical hazards
which may be left in the food before packing
■ Eliminate:

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 ● Depending on the type of food; magnets, filters, screens, and
sieves can be used to remove physical hazards prior to packing
● Specific plant personnel may also be assigned to manually look
out for and remove potential physical hazards
● Chemical Hazards
○ Chemical substances which can cause various health problems when ingested
○ Many chemical hazards cannot be addressed by further processing
○ May be naturally-occuring, intentionally-added, or unintentionally added
■ Naturally-occuring
● Toxins produced by plants, animals, or microorganisms
○ Solanines are naturally-present in potatoes and eggplants

ye
but can be present in dangerously high amounts in green
potatoes

Ka
■ Very toxic in small doses (3 to 6 mg per kg of body
weight can be fatal), causing gastrointestinal and
neurological disorders.
○ Tetrodotoxin are found in pufferfish (locally known as

y
‘botete’) and related fish

th
○ Histamine in spoiled fish cause scombroid fish poisoning
■ Symptoms resemble that of an allergic reaction
Ka
○ Various molds produce mycotoxins which can become a
problem when grains come from diseased crops or are
improperly stored
■ Intentionally added
n,

● Food additives can become chemical hazards when they are used
beyond their safe, intended use
ia

○ Most often occurs when food additives exceed acceptable

qu

limits
● Chemical hazards may also be intentionally added in cases of
food fraud/terrorism
sa

■ Unintentionally added
● Chemicals can accidentally contaminate foods through raw
materials, processes, or the environment
Pa

○ Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) are set for pesticides and

veterinary drugs in plant and animal products, respectively
○ Unwanted chemicals can migrate from food contact
surfaces such as processing equipment and packaging
○ Improperly-cleaned sanitation and maintenance chemicals
can make their way into food
○ Allergens can be considered chemical hazards but are sometimes put in its own
category altogether

Food Safety throughout the Food Value Chain

● Food safety is everyone’s business’

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 ○ Food safety can only be ensured with measures implemented throughout
the entire food value chain (i.e. from farm to fork)
■ Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) in agricultural production
■ Good Distribution Practices (GDP) in storage, transport, and
distribution
■ Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) in food processing
■ Safe food handling practices at the consumer level
○ Food safety lapses at any point of the value chain can compromise the
final product
● The government; through the development and enforcement of food legislation,

ye
oversees food safety guidelines for the different players in the food value chain
○ Guidelines and legislation should be based on science-based risk
analysis

Ka
■ Interrelated components of:
● risk assessment
● risk management
● risk communication

y
○ Some local legislations and guidelines which cover food safety include:

th
■ PD 856 : Code of Sanitation of the Philippines
● Defines mandates of the DOH, regulates clean water and
Ka
food establishments
■ RA 7160: Local Government Code
● Defines powers of Local Government Units (LGUs) with
regards to regulation of food establishments
n,

■ RA 7394: Consumer Act of the Philippines

● Protects the interests and general welfare of consumers
ia

■ RA 7911: Food and Drug Administration Act

● Renames and redefines the mandate of the Bureau of
qu

Food and Drugs (BFAD)

■ RA 10611: Philippine Food Safety Act
sa

■ FDA Circular FDA 2022-012: Revised Guidelines for the

Assessment of Microbial Quality of Processed Foods
○ International guidelines include:
Pa

■ The Codex Alimentarius, with specific standards such as:

■ CX/MRL-2-2021: MAXIMUM RESIDUE LIMITS (MRLs) AND RISK
MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS (RMRs) FOR RESIDUES
OF VETERINARY DRUGS IN FOODS
■ CODEX STAN 192-1995: GENERAL STANDARD FOR FOOD
ADDITIVES
■ CXG 62-2007: Working Principles for Risk Analysis for Food
Safety for Application by Governments
■ CXG 69-2008: Guidelines for the Validation of Food Safety
Control Measures

53

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 ● Consumers play a key role as the final part of the food value chain, ensuring that
food products are handled according to their intended use and providing
pressure to the government and FBOs
○ Household food handling is the last line of defense in food safety
● Food business operators (FBOs) are primarily responsible for for ensuring safety
of their food products according to RA 10611
○ All FBOs are required to employ a DA/DOH-recognized food safety
compliance officer (FSCO)

Systems to Ensure Safety in Food Processing

ye
● Due to the challenges of high volume production, modern food processing uses various
systematic approaches to ensure food safety.

Ka
● These range in complexity from basic Prerequisite Programs (PRPs) to more
comprehensive management systems like Hazard Analysis and Critical Control
Points (HACCP) and ISO 22000.

y
Prerequisite Programs (PRPs)

● th
PRPs provide basic environmental and operational conditions that are necessary for the
Ka
production of safe food
○ PRPs are often more general in scope and can be adapted to a variety of food
processing facilities.
○ PRPs serve as the foundation of more comprehensive food safety management
n,

systems
○ Generally covered by the application of cGMPs
ia

○ Prerequisite programs define characteristics such as (but not limited to):

■ Design of food processing facilities
qu

● Prevent cross-contamination
● Use food-safe materials
● Permit regular cleaning and maintenance
sa

● Prevent access and harborage by pests

■ Operation controls
Pa

● Supply of clean water, raw materials, and packaging

● Maintenance of equipment
● Monitoring and control of time and temperature
■ Hygiene
● Personnel hygiene
● Cleaning and sanitation
● Pest control
● Waste management
■ Adequate documentation and training to maintain all of the above
○ Common PRPs include Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), Standard
Sanitation Operating Procedures (SSOPs), Good Hygiene Practices (GHPs), and
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs)

54

2431193
 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)
● food safety management system that proactively identifies and prevents different food
safety hazards
○ Problems which only cause quality concerns are not explicitly covered by
HACCP
● enables potential hazards in a food process chain to be identified, assessed, and
controlled or eliminated
● Hazards: biological, chemical, or physical agent that is reasonably likely to cause harm if
not controlled
●

ye
HACCP Plans/Analyses are exclusive to a single operation or facility
○ HACCP can vary significantly even in two facilities producing similar products
● HACCP

Ka
● Involves seven main principles with five preliminary tasks:
● Five preliminary HACCP steps
○ 1. Assemble the HACCP Team
■ Must consist of individuals with specific knowledge and expertise

y
appropriate to the product and process.

th
○ 2. Describe the food and its distribution
■ General description of the finished food product, raw materials, and
Ka
processing steps involved
■ Method of distribution, whether product is shelf-stable or must have time-
temperature control (i.e. whether refrigerated or frozen)
○ 3. Describe the intended use and consumers of the food
n,

■ Intended use: How to store, prepare, and consume.

■ Consumers: Target market (general population, children, elderly, etc)
ia

○ 4. Develop a flow diagram which describes the process

■ Clear outline of all steps in the process directly controlled by the
qu

establishment
○ 5. Verify the flow diagram
sa

■ On-site review to validate accuracy and completeness of flow diagram

● Seven principles of HACCP
○ 1. Conduct a hazard analysis.
Pa

■ Involves two stages

● 1.1. Hazard identification
○ Develop list of potential hazards and their locations in the
developed flow diagram
● 1.2. Hazard evaluation
○ Potential hazards are evaluated based on their overall risk
○ Risk = likelihood of the hazard occurring vs. severity of
safety issue if the hazard occurs
■ After identification and evaluation, the final hazards are listed with the
corresponding process flow step along with any measures taken to
control the hazard.

55

2431193
 Sample excerpt from hazard analysis summary table of a lean ground beef product
Process Potential Justification To be Control
Flow Step Hazard addressed in Measure(s)
the HACCP
plan?

3. Mincing Metal Malfunctions with Yes Visual

contamination mechanical grinders inspection,
can contaminate lean metal detectors
ground beef with metal

ye
pieces which can
cause physical harm to

Ka
consumers

○ 2. Determine critical control points

■ Step in the process flow where ______ can be applied and is essential to

y
remove or reduce hazards to an acceptable level

th
■ Determined by adequate review of experts
● May be aided by the use of CCP decision trees (example shown
Ka
below)
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

Sample CCP decision tree,

■ Sample CCPs may include:
● time-temperature during cooking and chilling (biological hazards),
● testing of raw materials for chemical residues (chemical hazards)
● X-ray inspection for foreign objects (physical hazards)

56

2431193
 ■ As with HACCP plans in general, CCPs can vary significantly between
food processing operations/facilities
○ 3. Establish critical limits
■ Measurable parameters and their maximum/minimum values are set to
assess safety at each CCP
● Must be science-based
○ Ex. ≥60°C for at least 3.5 minutes for pasteurization of

liquid whole eggs (based on 5D reduction of Salmonella

spp.)
○

ye
○ 4. Establish monitoring procedures
■ Detailed plan to assess whether each CCP is under control

Ka
● What parameters to monitor for each CCP?
● How to monitor each parameter?
● When (how often) to monitor and who is in charge of monitoring?
■ Three main purposes, determining:

y
● …if a process is trending towards a loss of control

th
● …whether there are CCP deviations requiring corrective action
● …verification in the form of written documentation
Ka
○ 5. Establish corrective actions
■ What to do when there is non-compliance?
● 1. determine and correct the cause
n,

● 2. determine characteristics of non-compliance

● 3. document the corrective actions that have been taken
ia

■ Corrective actions must be determined before a HACCP plan is

qu

implemented (proactive)

○ 6. Validation of HACCP plan and verification procedures

sa

■ Validation vs Verification
● Validation
○ Accomplished before implementation
Pa

○ “Double-checking”
● Verification
○ Accomplished after implementation in actual operation
○ All activities, other than monitoring, that effectivity of a
HACCP plan, confirms:
■ HACCP is being followed
■ Absence of hazards
○ Should be carried out by those not in-charge of monitoring
and corrective actions (prevent bias)
■ Done periodically (ex. through reviews) and when there is a specific need
(ex. Cases of failure, changes in product or process)

57

2431193
 ■ Must have a detailed schedule (similar to monitoring procedures), with
details such as but not limited to:
● Verification activity
● Frequency of activity
● Person-in-charge for activity
● Secondary reviewer of activity

○ 7. Establish record-keeping and documentation procedures

■ This principle should be integrated into the entirety of HACCP planning\
■ Generally, a HACCP plan would involve documentation and record-

ye
keeping of at least the following:
● Listing of the HACCP team and assigned responsibilities.
● Description, distribution, intended use, and consumer of the food

Ka
product
● Verified process flow diagram.
● HACCP Plan Summary Table that includes information for:
○ CCPs in the process flow diagram

y
○ Hazard(s) of concern in each CCP

th
○ Critical limits
○ Plans for
Ka
■ Monitoring
■ Corrective actions
■ Verification
■ Documentation and Record-keeping
n,

● Like other management systems, HACCP implementation only begins with the HACCP
plan. Continued effectiveness requires commitment from top management with
ia

continuous training and reinforcing of HACCP principles to relevant personnel.

qu

ISO 22000 and other Food Safety Management Systems

sa

● ISO 22000 is an outcome-focused voluntary food safety international standard that

defines the requirements for a proper food safety management system (FSMS)
○ Combines HACCP with organizational management using two Plan-Do-Check-
Pa

Act (PDCA) Cycles

○ Also introduces additional concepts like Operational Prerequisite Programs
(OPRPs) into HACCP
■ OPRP: More specific prerequisite programs which reduce the likelihood
of a significant hazard occurring but is not yet a CCP
● i.e. can still be controlled later in the process
● significance of OPRPs are between PRPs and CCPs
● relatively safe products can still be produced without OPRP
monitoring
■ OPRPs are treated like CCPs but without the establishment of critical
limits

58

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 ○ References other Codex guidelines such as CXC 1-1969 (General Principles of
Food Hygiene) and CXG 69-2008 (Guidelines for the Validation of Food Safety
Control Measures)

ye
Ka
y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu

Integration of two PDCA cycles (one for organizational management and one for HACCP)
sa

● Hazard Analysis and Risk-Preventive Controls Controls (HARPC) system

○ A generally more stringent updated version of HACCP
Pa

○ HARPC is based on the US Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA).

○ Differences of HARPC to HACCP include:
■ Special inclusion of radiological hazards along with more defined
subcategories of physical, chemical, and microbiological hazards
■ Mandatory supplier verification
■ Requires written recall plan if hazards are identified

59

2431193
FOOD PACKAGING

Outline:
Introduction to Food Packaging
Packaging Materials
Labeling Requirements

Introduction to Food Packaging

ye
Definitions
○ Packaging - a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution,
storage, retailing, and end-use

Ka
○ Food Contact Material - any material that is intended to, or that can resonably be
expected to, come into contact with food during production, storage, transport, or
consumption
● Functions of Packaging

y
○ Containment

th
■ Material handling tool containing food product
■ Facilitate the assembly of several units into aggregates
Ka
○ Protection
■ Protect contents from environmental effects
■ Part of the preservation process
● Hermetic closure
n,

○ Container that is sealed completely against the ingress of

gases and vapors, also impervious to microorganisms,
ia

dust, etc.
○ Flexible packages are usually not hermetic
qu

■ Conserves energy used during production and processing

■ Functions of the package is product specific
○ Convenience
sa

■ Packages are designed to respond to lifestyle changes of consumers

■ Apportionment function
Pa

■ Shape with respect to convenience

■ Ease of handling, storage, distribution, and warehousing
○ Communication
■ Gives the consumer information about the product it contains
■ “A package must protect what it sells, and sells what it protects”
● Elements of a package
○ Structure - the material in which the package is made from
○ Aesthetics - appearance of the package/visual impact
○ Style - total impression of the shape, color, texture, and typography of the
package
○ Communication - how the package communicates with the consumers

60

2431193
 ○ Legal Requirements - proper labeling according to requirements of the country
where the product will be used
● Levels of packaging
○ Primary - first layer of packaging that is in direct contact with the food material
○ Secondary - packaging that groups together several primary packaging for easier
handling, transportation, or storage
○ Tertiary - packaging primarily used for bulk transport of multiple products
● Issues and concerns
○ Waste Management (Refer to discussion on Solid and Hazardous Waste
Management in Environmental Sustainability Module)
○ Migration

ye
■ Transfer of substances from the package to the food due to direct contact
■ Can cause changes in the sensory attributes of the food

Ka
■ Migrated compounds can be considered as health hazards
■ Possible migrating compounds
● Paper - inks, adhesives, residuals
● Metals - aluminum, tin, lead

y
● Plastics - plasticizers, stabilizers

Packaging Materials th
Ka
● Paper and Paperboard
○ Non-specific terms that are related to material caliper (thickness) or grammage
(weight)
n,

○ Paperboard is thicker than paper and has a higher weight

○ Paper over 200 g/m2 is defined by ISO as paperboard or board
ia

○ Disadvantage: limited barrier properties, can be fragile

○ Examples: cereal boxes, greaseproof, glassine, parchment, sack kraft, tissues
qu

○ Corrugated boxes
■ Commonly used to carry heavier products
■ Used as bulk shipper that contains smaller products in their own package
sa

■ Widely used flute configurations are known as A, B, C, and E

Pa

61

2431193
 ye
Ka
■
○ Processing of paper
■ Trees → pulp → cellulose fiber

y
■ Chemical Digestion

Sulfate Process (Kraft) th Sulfite Process

Ka
All main types of wood Softwood
n,

Caustic soda and sodium sulfide Ca or Mg bisulfite and sulfurous acid

ia
qu

Long undamaged fibers Short fibers

sa

Brown paper Light colored pulp

Strongest chemical pulp Not as strong as Kraft
Pa

Deteriorates with time

Corrugated box, shipping containers, Finer papers

food boards

● Glass packaging
○ Amorphous inorganic product that has been cooled to a rigid condition without
crystallizing
○ Only widely-used food packaging with the status of GRAS
○ Container of choice for high moisture food products

62

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 ○ Integrity of seal ensures stability and safety of the product
○ Closures must be matched with appropriate containers

○ Major raw materials for glass

Raw Material Glass Component Main Function

Sand Silica Forms structural network of

glass

Alkali fluxes Sodium or potassium Melt glass at moderate

ye
carbonates temperature

Limestone and Dolomite Calcium and Gives stability, hardness,

Ka
magnesium carbonate viscosity

Feldspar Alumina Makes glass harder and

more resistant to abrasion;

y
Add luster

Cullet
th
Recycled glass Acts as reflux, reduces
material cost
Ka
○ Types of glass
■ Soda-lime
● Soda-lime-silica
● Glass container for food
n,

● 90% of manufactured glass

■ Borosilicate
ia

● Engineered glass
● Silica-boron trioxide
qu

● Resistant to thermal shock

○ Manufacture
sa

■ Mixing and melting - ________________________

■ Forming process
Pa

63

2431193
 ye
Ka
■
■ Annealing - removal of stress
■ Surface treatments

y
○ Classification of glass defects

th
■ Class A (critical) - cracks, broken, contaminants
■ Class B (major) - weight, dimensions
Ka
■ Class C (minor) - slight off-color, rough mold lines
○ Bottle recycling
■ Glass is 100% recyclable and its quality never depreciates
■ It takes less energy to melt recycled glass than to melt virgin raw
n,

materials
■ Average glass bottles contain only 25% recycled glass
ia

■ Types of glass that cannot be recycled

● Windows, windscreen, and picture frame glass
qu

● Heatproof glass (ex. Pyrex)

● Spectacles and sunglasses
● Drinking glasses
sa

● Light bulbs
● Any bottles you cannot see through
Pa

● Metal container
○ Raw materials
■ Steel - low carbon steel, converted into tinplate or tin-free steel
■ Aluminum - for light metal packaging
■ Recycled packaging material
○ Types of metal plates for cans
■ Tin plate - cold-reduced, low carbon steel plate coated on both sides with
a very thin layer of tin
■ Tin-free steel (TFS) - cold-reduced steel plate with a thin coating of
phosphate-chromatic films, chromium/chromium oxide; can is always
lacquered

64

2431193
 ■ 2CR plate - double cold-reduced steel plate; rolled twice with resulting
greater strength despite a 25-50% reduction in thickness

ye
○ Coatings

Ka
■ Properties
● Imparts no odor or flavor to food
● Non-toxic

y
● Protects the can and contents during shelf-life
● Must not flake off the plate during can manufacture and storage
th
● Must withstand all temperatures encountered during processing
Ka
and storage
■ Types
Phenolic Vinyl Epoxy phenolic Acrylic
n,

-greater -good adhesion -resistant to acids -good color

permeability and and flexibility -high heat stability retention and
ia

chemical -free from odor -good flexibility heat resistance

resistance and flavor -fruits, fruit juices, -provides
qu

-minimum -not very heat vegetables, internal

flexibility resistant soups, meats protection as
-not softened by -often used as a hard white
animal fats second layer if coatings with an
sa

-have tendency can is lacquered attractive

to impart flavor -used in beers, ceramic
and odor wine, carbonated appearance
Pa

-used on beverages,
seafood, certain cakes, sweets
meat products,
pet foods
■ Functions of lacquers/enamels
● Protect metal from contents
● Avoid contamination of the product by metal ions from the
package
● Facilitate manufacture
● Provide basis for decoration
● Barrier to external corrosion/abrasion

65

2431193
 ● Plastics
○ Organic macromolecular compound obtained by polymerization reactions using
lower molecular weight molecules or by chemical alteration of natural
macromolecular compounds
○ Types

PET HDPE PVC LDPE PP PS Other

(polyethyl (high (poly vinyl (low (polypropy (polystyre
ene density chloride density lene ne)

ye
terephthal polyethyle ) polyethyle )
ate ne ne
) ) )

Ka
y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

○ Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantage Disadvantage

66

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-low cost -thermal limit
-have good barrier properties -permeable
-heat sealable -odor pick-up, off flavors
-have wet and dry strength -distortion
-easy to handle and convenient -monomer migration
-lightweight
-easy to shape and color
-shatter resistant
-safe and hygienic
-resistant to chemicals and water

ye
○ Thermal limit exceptions
■ Certain plastics can meet the needs of a wide temperature range

Ka
● Deep frozen processing - -40C
● Frozen storage - -20C
● Retort sterilization - 121C
● Microwave heating - 100C

y
● Radian heat - 200C
○ Problems associated with plastics
■ Effects on human health th
Ka
■ Effects on environment
■ Disposal of waste
■ Problems with recycling
■ Drain on Earth's resources
n,

■ Cost linked to oil price

●
ia

Novel packaging
○ Flexible packaging
qu

■ Pouches
● Versatile packages that can stand upright on shelves
● Have airtight closures
sa

● Easy to pack and place on shelves

● Feature significant visibility capabilities and are fully customizable
● Single-use
Pa

● Made up of metal foil, plastic, and sometimes paper

■ Types

Stand-up Pouches Gusseted Pouches Pillow Pouches

67

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-usually have "tear-off" tab -variation of stand-up -used in snack foods
that allows package to be pouches -good choice for simple,
sealed and reopened as -with semi-oval shaped effective and environmentally
needed indents on both sides of the effective packaging solutions
-made for liquid packaging pouch which make for a
applications square or rectangle base

ye
○ Edible films and coatings

Ka
■ Primary packaging made from edible materials
■ Application through immersion, spraying, or drenching
■ Edible films - obtained as solid laminates then applied to food

y
■ Coating - applied in liquid form

■ Edible films
● Polysaccharide-based
th
Ka
○ Pectins, alginates, carrageenan, gum xanthan, starch
○ Not toxic and widely available compounds in nature
○ Types
n,

■ Animal origin - chitin and chitosan

■ Plant origin - cellulose and its derivatives, starch,
ia

pectin
■ Microbial - alginate, carrageenan
qu

■ Marine origin - gellan, xanthan gum

■ Edible coatings
● Lipid-based
sa

○ Oils and fats

○ Waxes
Pa

○ Resins
○ Plasticizers
○ Emulsifiers
● Protein-based
○ Collagen
○ Gelatin
○ Wheat gluten
○ Corn zein
○ Soy protein
○ Whey protein
○ Casein
○ Active and Smart packaging

68

2431193
 ■ Active packaging
● Packaging that actively changes condition to extend shelf-life of
product or improve sensory properties while maintaining food
quality
● Types and examples:

Gas absorbing / Moisture Controlled Selective Microwave

emitting control agents release permeable susceptors
packaging packaging films

-absorbs or -desiccants -used as delivery -breathable films -metallized

ye
emits gasses -internal system to that control polyester-based
humidity release active permeation of structures
controllers compounds such oxygen water -interacts with

Ka
as vapor, CO2, microwaves to
antimicrobials, ethylene gas provide
enzymes, crispness and
flavors, etc browning

y
■ Smart or intelligent packaging th
Ka
● Packaging system that senses and measures variations in the
environment or the package and its contents and communicates
to an observer
● Examples:
n,
ia

Time-temperature Freshness Indicators Temperature Control

Indicators
qu

-exploit a change in physical -signals product quality -self-heating

or physicochemical property directly -self-cooling
to produce irreversible -visible indicator tags such as -self-venting
sa

evidence of exceeding color change

predetermined temperature -detects volatile and non-
threshold volatile compounds
Pa

● Safety and regulatory aspects

○ Considered as indirect additives
■ inclusion of ingredients that are not meant to have
any impact on the food inside the packaging but
which due to the migration of certain volatile
molecules
○ Toxicology, specific migration limits, and overall migration
limits should be assessed

69

2431193
 ○ Sensors should be positioned on the ____________ of the
package

Labeling Requirements

● Paper and Paperboard

○ Non-specific terms that are related to material caliper (thickness) or grammage
(weight)

ye
Ka
y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

70

2431193
POSTHARVEST HANDLING AND TECHNOLOGY

Outline:

Introduction to Post-Harvest Handling

Scope and Definition
Elements and Interactions
Plant Commodities
Respiration and Transpiration
Growth and Development

ye
Morphological and Anatomical Factors
Climacteric vs Non-Climacteric
Effects of Storage and Handling

Ka
Sample Post-Harvest Defects in Plant Commodities
Animal Commodities
Meat and Fish
Biochemical Processes in Meat Post-Mortem

y
Post-Harvest Changes in Other Animal Products
Effects of Storage and Handling
th
Sample Post-Harvest Defects in Animal Commodities
Ka
Processing Technology
Minimal Processing
Temperature/ Atmospheric Packaging
n,

Grading/ Criteria analyses

ia

Introduction to Post-harvest handling

qu

● Post-harvest handling
○ Scope and Definition
sa

■ Post-harvest essentially starts at the process of harvesting, immediately

post-production.
Pa

■ Postproduction- Handling of commodities from harvest or slaughter to

consumer, divided into Primary and Secondary processing
● Primary processing - Preparation of commodity for use of
manufacturers, processors or consumers with intent for further
processing
○ If the commodity is intended for food processing, the
appropriate term is Raw material handling
○ Still recognizable as the original commodity from harvest,
with exception to minimally processed fruits and
vegetables which have undergone peeling, slicing, cutting
and pre-packaging to be consumed directly or indirectly

71

2431193
 ○ Processing varies whether the commodity is perishable or
durable.
■ Perishables require higher attention and conditions
of handling due to their comparatively higher
delicate nature as compared to durables.

Parameters Durable crops Perishable crops

Shelf-life or usability Approximately 1 year in Weeks to months

proper storage conditions

ye
Moisture content 10-15% 50-95%

Unit weight Typically less than 1 g 5 g to 5 kg

Ka
Respiration rate low High to very high

Heat generation low High to very high

y
Durability Hardy texture, not easily Soft texture, easily damaged
damaged
th
Ka
Cause of Losses External Agents such as Both external (bacteria and
mold, insects and pests fungi) and internal
(senescence, sprouting,
respiration)
n,

● Secondary Processing- postproduction activities involved in

ia

conversion of commodities into final products, most likely for end-

user or consumer use.
qu

○ Mainly Processing of commodities through thermal or non-

thermal processing methods to produce final products with
appropriate packaging (Refer to LG 2)
sa

○ Elements and Interactions

■ Since post-harvest actually starts from harvest, the elements of Post-
harvest incorporates Pre-harvest conditions until consumer consumption
Pa

● Pre-harvest and Harvest period factors

○ Genetic factors, mainly cultivar/breed susceptibility to
disease, damage and resilience in different conditions
○ Climatic factors associated with harvest affect post-harvest
quality are highly affected by environmental interaction
■ Temperature
■ Light
■ Wind
■ Relative humidity
■ Rainfall

72

2431193
 ○ Commodity protection factors such as bagging, pesticide
spray and their lingering effects during harvest
○ Harvesting/slaughter methods of qualifying for selection
■ Detection method for qualifying as ready for
harvest/slaughter
■ Selection/segregation method for slaughter
■ Detachment or exsanguination
■ Collection of commodities from the slaughter
process
■ Separation by maturity/primal cuts
■ Handling prior to transport

ye
● Pre-transport and transport of harvested commodities
○ Sanitation and cleanliness of commodities and containers

Ka
used as transport of vessels from site of harvest up to
logistic transfer
○ Ensure that reduction of field heat is prioritized through
shade and temperature reduction activities

y
○ Logistic transport should have both Temperature and

th
relative humidity controlled prior and during transport
from farm to first area for primary processing if not
Ka
primarily processed during harvest
○ Transport conditions should be modified and appropriated
to the commodity being transported such that there is a
reduction of mechanical damage and contamination
n,

from outside elements

● Pre-storage and storage of harvested commodities
ia

○ Handling from unloading from transport from initial site up

qu

to initial sorting center should follow proper hygienic

practices to minimize further losses.
○ Storage of commodities should follow specifications that
sa

dictate utmost safety and geared towards maximum shelf-

life.
○ Activities should be kept to a bare minimum during the
Pa

process of storage transfer to minimize avenues for

transport injury as these will persist during storage or may
get worse.
○ When storing commodities ensure that proper
segregation is observed such that storage conditions are
appropriate for the group of commodities placed.

Plant Commodities

● Respiration and Transpiration

○ Respiration- is the process where sugars are converted into energy, which
continues post-harvest, affecting shelf life.

73

2431193
 ○ Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from plant parts, which can lead to wilting
and weight loss after harvest.

Parameter Respiration Transpiration

The metabolic process of

breaking down sugars to The process of water vapor
release energy, CO2, and loss from plant parts, mainly
Definition water. through stomata.

ye
Provides energy for cellular Regulates plant temperature
activities and maintenance and allows for nutrient uptake

Ka
Primary Function post-harvest. from roots.

- Temperature management - Maintaining high humidity

(cooling) levels

y
Key Elements for
- Modified atmosphere - Proper packaging to reduce
Control
th
packaging (reducing O2 levels) water loss
Ka
- Chemical treatments (e.g., 1- - Minimizing exposure to
MCP) warm temperatures
n,

High respiration rates can lead Excessive transpiration can

Impact on Post-Harvest to faster spoilage and reduced cause wilting, weight loss,
ia

Life shelf life. and reduced quality.

qu

Environmental Factors - Temperature - Humidity

sa

- Oxygen concentration - Temperature

- Ethylene exposure - Air movement

Pa

Measured as CO2 production

Measurement rate. Measured as water loss rate.

Involves careful handling to Involves careful water

Post-Harvest avoid damage that can management to prevent
Management increase respiration. dehydration.

74

2431193
● Growth and Development
○ Plant growth and development encompass the processes of cell division,
elongation, and differentiation, which determine the size, shape, and functionality
of plant organs.
○ Understanding the stage of development at harvest is crucial for predicting the
shelf life and quality of produce (i.e. immature fruits-never ripen properly, over-
mature fruits -spoil quickly)
○ Hormones such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid
play significant roles in regulating growth and developmental processes.
■ Post-harvest handling must consider the hormonal state of the

ye
produce, as it can affect ripening and senescence (i.e. ethylene
production can promote ripening in climacteric fruits.)
○ Environmental factors, including light, temperature, water, and nutrients,

Ka
influence plant growth and development throughout the lifecycle.
■ After harvest, controlling environmental factors like temperature and
humidity can help maintain quality and extend the shelf life of produce by
slowing down metabolic processes.

y
○ Genetic factors also determine the growth rate, final size, and quality attributes of
plant commodities.
th
■ Selective breeding and genetic modification have led to varieties with
Ka
improved post-harvest qualities, such as longer shelf life or enhanced
resistance to bruising.
○ The physiological maturity of a plant at the time of harvest affects its ability to
withstand post-harvest stress and storage conditions.
n,

■ Proper timing of harvest is essential to ensure optimal quality; for

example, harvesting at full physiological maturity can maximize flavor
ia

and nutrient content while maintaining structural integrity.

○ Post-harvest handling practices, such as curing of tubers and roots, can enhance
qu

the storage life of certain commodities by allowing the development of protective

layers.
sa

■ Curing processes (aka wound healing) induce the formation of a thicker

skin in potatoes and sweet potatoes, reducing moisture loss and
improving resistance to pathogens during storage.
Pa

○ Stress responses, such as the production of protective compounds in response

to wounding or infection, can be triggered by post-harvest handling.
■ Gentle handling and proper sanitation can minimize stress and
damage, thereby reducing the incidence of disease and spoilage during
storage and transport

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● Morphological and Anatomical factors
○ External structure and form of plant commodities, such as size, shape, and color,
can influence their marketability and susceptibility to damage during post-harvest
handling.
■ Thin-skinned fruits like tomatoes are more prone to bruising and require
gentle handling and protective packaging.
○ Internal structure, including tissue composition and cellular organization, which
affect the texture, taste, and shelf life of produce.
■ Root vegetables with denser cell structures, like carrots, tend to have a
longer shelf life compared to those with more air spaces, like lettuce.
○ The thickness and composition of the plant cuticle and epidermis play a role in

ye
water retention and barrier protection against pathogens.
■ A thick cuticle, as found on apples, provides a natural barrier to water loss

Ka
and microbial invasion, aiding in preservation during storage.
○ The arrangement and type of vascular tissues, such as xylem and phloem,
influence the transport of water and nutrients, impacting post-harvest physiology.
■ In leafy greens, a well-developed vascular system is essential for

y
maintaining turgor pressure and preventing wilting after harvest.

th
○ Fruit and vegetable skin or rind characteristics, such as the presence of waxes or
oils, can affect transpiration rates and gas exchange, critical for post-harvest
Ka
storage.
■ Citrus fruits have oil-containing flavedo that contributes to their aroma and
provides a natural protective coating.
○ The presence of specialized storage tissues, such as parenchyma cells in tubers,
n,

determines the storage potential and nutritional value of the commodity.

■ Potatoes have starch-storing parenchyma cells that enable them to be
ia

stored for long periods under optimal conditions.

●
qu

Climacteric vs. Non-climacteric fruits

○ Climacteric commodities are fruits that continue to ripen after being harvested
due to an increase in ethylene production and respiration rate. The ripening
sa

process in climacteric fruits involves softening, color change, and development of

flavor and aroma, which are all influenced by ethylene.
■ Post-harvest handling of climacteric fruits often includes controlled
Pa

atmosphere storage with low oxygen and high carbon dioxide levels to
slow down the ripening process.
○ Non-climacteric commodities, do not continue to ripen once removed from the
plant because they do not exhibit an increase in ethylene production post-
harvest.Non-climacteric fruits generally have a longer shelf life than climacteric
fruits because they are less sensitive to ethylene and have a lower respiration
rate.however, ethylene exposure should be minimized as it can lead to unwanted
softening or senescence without the benefit of ripening.
■ Handling non-climacteric fruits post-harvest focuses on maintaining
quality by preventing mechanical damage and decay, as they will not
improve in quality after harvest.

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 ○ Ethylene control is crucial for climacteric fruits; delaying ripening during transport
and storage can be achieved by using ethylene inhibitors or by storing the fruits
in an environment with reduced ethylene concentration.
■ Ethylene production can be managed by using ethylene absorbers or
scavengers in storage and packaging, which is especially beneficial for
mixed storage of climacteric and non-climacteric commodities.
■ The use of ethylene absorbers in packaging can help to prevent the
premature ripening of climacteric fruits and the deterioration of non-
climacteric fruits when stored together.
○ Temperature management is also a key factor in post-harvest handling for both

ye
types of commodities, as lower temperatures can reduce respiration rates and
ethylene sensitivity.
■ Refrigeration is commonly used to extend the shelf life of both climacteric

Ka
and non-climacteric fruits, though the optimal storage temperature may
vary depending on the specific commodity.

Differentiation of Climacteric and Non-climacteric fruits

y
Aspect Climacteric Fruits th Non-Climacteric Fruits
Ka
Ripening Continue to ripen after harvest. Do not ripen after harvest.

Produce a significant amount of

n,

ethylene during the ripening Produce little to no ethylene after

Ethylene Production process. harvest.
ia

Maintain a steady or gradually

qu

Exhibit a peak in respiration rate declining respiration rate post-

Respiration Rate (climacteric rise) during ripening. harvest.
sa

Often harvested mature but unripe

Storage and and ripened during transport or Typically harvested when fully
Transport before sale. ripe, as they will not ripen further.
Pa

Often have a longer shelf life

Generally have a shorter shelf life since they are less prone to
Shelf Life due to active ripening processes. changes post-harvest.

Sensitive to temperature; ripening Less sensitive to temperature

Temperature can be accelerated or decelerated changes in terms of ripening, but
Sensitivity based on temperature. quality can still be affected.

Apples, bananas, tomatoes, Grapes, citrus fruits, strawberries,

Examples avocados, peaches, pears. bell peppers, cucumbers.

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 ● Effect of Storage and Handling

Each plant commodity varies in specific storage conditions however there are some similarities
or ranges of application

Key Handling Estimated Temperature

Commodi Key Storage Concerns Temperature Notes Examp
ty Type Concerns conditions les

ye
Climacter - Ethylene - Minimize 0°C to 15°C Specific Apples
ic Fruits management to bruising to (32°F to 59°F) temperatures ,

Ka
prevent over- prevent depend on the Banan
ripening accelerated fruit type; some as,
ripening tropical fruits Avoca

y
like bananas dos,
require higher Tomat
- Temperature
control to delay
- Careful
handling to
th temperatures. oes
Ka
climacteric peak reduce spoilage

Non- - Temperature - Prevent 0°C to 10°C Citrus and Grape

Climacter control to prevent mechanical (32°F to 50°F) berries prefer s,
n,

ic Fruits decay injury the higher end Citrus

of the range to fruits,
ia

- Less concern - Maintain avoid chilling Berrie

for ethylene appearance injury. s
qu

management and prevent

quality loss
sa

Leafy - High humidity to - Packaging to 0°C to 4°C High humidity is Lettuc

Vegetabl prevent wilting reduce moisture (32°F to 39.2°F) also necessary e,
Pa

es loss to prevent Spinac

wilting. h, Kale
- Temperature - Avoid ethylene
control to delay exposure from
senescence other
commodities

Grains - Moisture control - Minimize 13°C to 15°C Dry conditions Wheat

to prevent mold mechanical (55°F to 59°F) are crucial; , Rice,
damage lower Corn

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 temperatures
- Pest control to - Maintain grain can be used for
prevent integrity and long-term
infestations germination storage.
capacity

Root - Temperature - Avoid skin 4°C to 10°C Sweet potatoes Potato

Crops control varies by damage (39.2°F to 50°F) require curing at es,
and crop 25°C to 30°C Carrot
Tubers (77°F to 86°F) s,

ye
- Humidity - Handle gently before storage. Sweet
balance to to prevent Potato
es

Ka
prevent shriveling bruising
and decay

Bulbs - Temperature - Prevent 0°C to 4°C Onions and Onion

y
and light control bruising and (32°F to 39.2°F) garlic prefer s,
to prevent
sprouting
damage
th cooler
temperatures;
Garlic,
Shallot
Ka
avoid freezing. s
- Minimize - Maintain dry
ethylene conditions to
exposure to prevent decay
n,

maintain
dormancy
ia
qu

● Sample Post-harvest defects in commodities

○ Physiological Disorders:
■ Senescence and wilting in leafy vegetables (e.g., lettuce, spinach) due to
sa

water loss.
■ Chilling injury in tropical fruits (e.g., bananas, mangoes) stored at too low
temperatures.
Pa

■ Ripening disorders in climacteric fruits (e.g., tomatoes, avocados), such

as uneven ripening or failure to ripen.
○ Mechanical Damage:
■ Bruising in apples and pears from rough handling during harvest and
transport.
■ Compression damage in tomatoes and peaches from overstacking or
tight packaging.
○ Pathological Issues:
■ Decay and rot caused by fungal infections such as Botrytis cinerea in
strawberries or Penicillium expansum in apples.
■ Bacterial soft rot in potatoes and carrots caused by Erwinia spp.

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 ■ Mold growth on citrus fruits due to high humidity or condensation, often
caused by Penicillium digitatum.
○ Insect Infestation and Rodent Damage:
■ Damage from weevils in stored grains like wheat and maize.
■ Fruit fly infestations in fruits like oranges and apples.
■ Rodent attacks leading to contamination and loss of commodities such as
stored rice and corn.
○ Shrinkage and Weight Loss:
■ Dehydration and loss of weight in root crops (e.g., carrots, beets) and
tubers (e.g., potatoes) during prolonged storage.
○

ye
Sprouting and Premature Germination:
■ Sprouting in potatoes and onions due to inappropriate temperature or
ethylene exposure.

Ka
○ Nutritional Losses:
■ Reduction in vitamin C content in fruits like oranges and bell peppers over
time or due to improper storage conditions.

y
Animal Commodities

● Meat and Fish th

Ka
○ Animal protein obtained from non-plant, non-microbial sources
○ Primary Processing for animals
■ Slaughter: This is the process of killing animals for food. It is done in a
manner that aims to be humane and causes the least amount of stress
n,

and pain to the animal. Slaughtering involves stunning the animal to

render it unconscious, followed by exsanguination (bleeding out) to cause
ia

death. The process is regulated by laws and guidelines to ensure food

safety, animal welfare, and worker safety.
qu

■ Bleeding: The process of removing blood from the animal’s body

immediately after slaughter. Conducted via major artery incision while
sa

allowing the heart to pump out the blood

● Functions:
● It helps to ensure the meat is free of excess blood, which can spoil
Pa

the meat and affect its taste

● Reduces the risk of bacterial growth and contamination
● Necessary for the meat to be considered halal or kosher in certain
religious practices.
■ Evisceration: The process of removing the internal organs from the
animal’s body cavity.
● Done carefully to avoid contaminating the carcass with intestinal
contents, which can contain bacteria and other pathogens.
● The removed organs, known as offal or viscera, can be further
processed for consumption or used in other industries, while the
remaining carcass is prepared for secondary processing or sale.

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 ■ Dressing: The process of removal of undesirable parts, washing and
further preparation of cuts.
● Involves removal of outer coat (either pelt, feather, hair, shell, skin
or scales) while keeping the carcass intact
● Trimming also involves the removal of undesirable, damaged and
excess parts for improving appearance and quality of the carcass
○ Secondary Processing
■ After primary processing, meat can be subjected to further secondary
processing for extending shelf-life, ensuring safety and improving quality.
■ These processes are associated with Thermal and Non-thermal methods

ye
of processing (refer to LG 2)
● Biochemical processes in meat Post-mortem
○ Glycolysis and pH Decline

Ka
■ Muscle cells switch to anaerobic metabolism post-mortem, producing
lactic acid.
■ pH drops from neutral (~7.2) to acidic (~5.5 or lower).
■ Influenced by muscle glycogen at slaughter; stress and activity can

y
deplete glycogen.
○ Rigor Mortis
th
■ Muscle stiffening due to actin and myosin filament locking.
Ka
■ Occurs when ATP is depleted post-mortem.
■ Onset and resolution affect meat tenderness.
○ Proteolysis and Tenderization
■ Enzymes like calpains and cathepsins break down muscle proteins.
n,

■ Enzyme activity is pH and temperature-dependent.

■ Critical for post-mortem meat tenderization.
ia

○ Factors Affecting biochemical processes in Meat

■ Stress
qu

● Pre-slaughter stress can lead to DFD meat with higher pH.

● Stress hormones like cortisol impact muscle metabolism.
sa

■ Temperature
● Carcass chilling rate affects pH decline and rigor mortis.
● Rapid chilling can cause cold shortening; slow chilling is better for
Pa

tenderization.
■ Animal Factors
● Breed, age, sex, and genetics influence muscle composition and
enzyme activity.
● Pre-Slaughter Handling
■ Transport, lairage, and stunning methods can induce stress.
● Affects glycogen reserves and meat quality.
■ Electrical Stimulation
● Can accelerate rigor mortis onset.
■ Enhances proteolytic enzyme activity, improving tenderness.
○ Impact on Meat Quality

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 ■ Tenderness: Linked to proteolytic enzyme activity.
■ Color: Affected by pH decline rate and oxygen exposure.
■ Flavor: Develops from breakdown of fats and proteins during aging.
● Breakdown into amino acids and fatty acids which contribute to
flavor
■ Shelf-life: Influenced by pH, temperature, and microbial growth.
● High pH leads to increased susceptibility to spoilage
■ Water-holding capacity: affected by pH and protein structure
● Lower pH = drier, less juicy meat
● Post-harvest changes in Other Animal Products
○ Eggs

ye
■ Relatively long shelf-life compared to other perishable foods
■ Proper storage at cool temperatures (< 7 °C) can extend shelf-life from

Ka
weeks to months
■ Consists of Mainly two phases: Egg yolk and Egg white
● Egg white exists as both thick and thin layers which degrades
during the course of shelf-life

y
● Egg yolk is rounded and firm but enlarges throughout storage

th
leading to weakening of the membrane
■ Changes in odor and flavor occur slowly in eggs in low temperature
Ka
conditions
● 3-4 weeks at 21 °C, 6-7 weeks at 10 °C
■ Quality is greatly affected by temperature, humidity, air movement and
storage time
n,

● Primarily affects moisture migration from inside the egg to the

surrounding environment causing loss in weight
ia

● Control of moisture migration through food-grade coating, low

qu

temperatures and high humidity can reduce moisture loss

○ -1 °C and 80-85% relative humidity
○ <10 °C but higher than -1 °C, 75-80% relative humidity
sa

○ Ensure humidity does not exceed 85% to avoid growth of

molds on surface
■ Eggs when laid are usually sterile
Pa

● Spoilage organisms are associated with egg washing wherein

water used for washing introduces spoilage microorganisms to the
egg via shell penetration
● Spoilage is therefore minimized through ensuring surface is kept
dry at all times
● Quality is graded based on a combination of factors
○ Use of a chart based on USDA standards for grading
○ Combination of results with break-out test wherein an egg
is cracked open and observed on an opaque surface for
quality characteristics

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 Pa
sa
qu
ia
n,
Ka
th
y
Ka
ye

83

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 Pa
sa
qu
ia
n,
Ka
th
y
Ka
ye

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 ○ Milk and Dairy Products
■ Milk - normal mammary secretion of milking animals obtained from one or
more milkings without either addition to it or extraction from it, intended
for consumption as liquid milk or for further processing.
● Immediately filtered then stored in properly designed containers
○ Sealed containers to avoid introduction of contaminants
and minimizes growth of Micro-organisms
○ Avoidance of any unnecessary contact
○ Immediately chilled at < 4 °C or if unable, for delivery to
processing centers within certain time limits.
○ Depending on the desired product, milk may undergo

ye
different downstream processing prior to pasteurization
○ Creaming with through mechanical forcing (50-

Ka
60°C) for fat separation
○ Homogenization for fat globule size reduction and
uniformity (60-65°C)
○ Pasteurization prior to aseptic storage is a common

y
practice in milk which varies depending on the process
schedule
th
Ka
Time Temperature

Ultra High 125 °C 5 secs

Temperature
(UHT)
n,

High 72 °C 15 secs
ia

Temperature
Short time
qu

process (HTST)

Low temperature 60 °C 30 mins

long time
sa

process (LTLT
○ Immediately followed by aseptic storage at <4 °C
Pa

○ Storage at 5-10 °C or depending on packaging may be

shelf-stable for storage in room temperature.
■ Cheese- Fermented dairy product obtained from processing of milk
● Induced coagulation or solidifying through enzymatic or microbial
action
○ Enzymatic action involves the use of rennet by 1% of
weight of milk
○ Microbial starter culture using 2% weight of milk
○ Post addition, a setting time is allotted (10-30 mins)
● Resulting curd is then exposed to heat to thoroughly firm the curd
(approximately 40 °C, 20 min with variations depending on type of
cheese)

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 ● Excess water is then removed then stored for ripening with or
without a waxy cover.
● Variations in production include curdling process using fruit acid
(kesong puti)
■ Butter
● Obtained from mechanical agitation (churning) of cream at near
refrigerated temperatures (18°C) until separated from buttermilk
● Can be converted to ghee via further removal of water through
heating. This further removes water and concentrates the end-
product
■

ye
Fermented Milks
● Fermented via heating of milk at HTST followed by cooling to 40-
45°C with inoculation of fermenting organisms at 2-3% culture to

Ka
volume of milk.
○ Curd - Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus spp.
○ Yoghurt- Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophilus

y
● Allowed to ferment depending on conditions available, followed by

○ Honey
cooling to 4 °C
th
Ka
■ High sugar syrup produced by Bees used as sweeteners
● Contains mostly Fructose (38%), Glucose (31%), water (17%) and
disaccharides (8%).
● Ranges in color from water white to dark brown or black
n,

● Difficult to standardize due to differences in area of production and

botanical diversity of area of collection (i.e. tropical honey tends to
ia

have a higher pollen content and humidity)

● Mostly stable upon removal from beehive due to high sugar
qu

content
○ Contains high amounts of xerotolerant (high sugar content
sa

tolerant) and xerophilic (High sugar loving fungi) however

due to the low moisture content, these fungi are unable to
propagate.
Pa

● Effect of Storage and Handling on Meat

■ Microbial Growth
● Improper storage temperatures can lead to the growth of bacteria,
yeasts, and molds.
● Meat should be stored at temperatures below 40°F (4°C) to slow
down microbial growth. Freezing meat can further inhibit bacterial
growth.
■ Oxidation
● Exposure to oxygen can cause the fats within meat to oxidize,
leading to rancidity and off-flavors.

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 ● Proper packaging that limits oxygen exposure, such as vacuum
sealing, can help prevent oxidation.
■ Color Changes
● The color of meat can change due to oxidation or microbial
growth.
● The myoglobin in beef can oxidize, causing the meat to turn from
red to brown, which may affect consumer perception even if the
meat is still safe to eat.
■ Moisture Loss
● Improper handling and storage can lead to dehydration or freezer

ye
burn, which affects the texture and flavor of the meat.
● Maintaining proper humidity and using moisture-proof packaging
can mitigate moisture loss.

Ka
■ Cross-Contamination
● During handling, meat can become contaminated with pathogens
from other foods, surfaces, or utensils.
● Ensure good hygiene practices and keep raw meat separate from

y
other foods.
■ Physical Damage
th
● Rough handling can bruise or damage the muscle fibers in meat,
Ka
affecting its texture and appearance.
● Gentle handling and proper packaging can help maintain the
integrity of the meat.
■ Chemical Changes
n,

● Exposure to light and air can lead to chemical changes that affect
the flavor, color, and safety of meat. i.e. light can accelerate the
ia

oxidation of fats and pigments.

■
qu

Temperature Fluctuations
● Fluctuations in temperature during storage can lead to the growth
of psychrotrophic bacteria, which can spoil meat even at
sa

refrigeration temperatures
■ Shelf Life
● Proper storage and handling can extend the shelf life of meat by
Pa

slowing down spoilage processes. Conversely, poor practices can

shorten the shelf life and lead to waste.
■ Nutrient Degradation
● Over time, some nutrients in meat, such as vitamins and fatty
acids, can degrade.
● Proper storage conditions can help preserve the nutritional value
of meat.

● Sample Post-harvest defects in Meat and Animal products

○ Beef

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 ■ Spoilage: Caused by bacterial growth, resulting in off-odors, sliminess,
and discoloration.
■ Contamination: Presence of harmful bacteria like E. coli or Salmonella, or
residues of antibiotics and hormones.
■ Parasites: Such as tapeworms or Trichinella spiralis.
■ Bruising: Caused by mishandling before slaughter, affecting meat quality.
■ Fat oxidation: Leading to rancidity and off-flavors.
■ DFD: Caused by pre-slaughter stress, glycogen depletion and
○ Pork
■ Trichinosis: Caused by the parasite Trichinella spiralis.
■ PSE (Pale, Soft, Exudative) meat: Caused by stress before slaughter,

ye
affecting meat texture and color.
■ Boar taint: Unpleasant odor or taste in meat from non-castrated male

Ka
pigs.
■ Contamination: Similar to beef, with the addition of concerns about
Hepatitis E virus.
○ Poultry

y
■ Salmonella and Campylobacter: Common bacterial contaminants.

th
■ Woody breast: A condition that causes muscle tissue to be hard and
chewy.
Ka
■ Green muscle disease: Caused by damage to the wing muscles, leading
to green discoloration.
■ Feather follicles: Remnants of feathers that were not properly removed.
○ Eggs
n,

■ Cracks or breaks: Can lead to bacterial contamination.

■ Blood spots: Small spots of blood in the yolk or white, usually harmless
ia

but can be off-putting.

■ Spoilage: Rotten smell and discoloration due to bacterial growth.
qu

■ Contamination: With Salmonella being a significant concern.

○ Milk
sa

■ Bacterial contamination: Such as Listeria, E. coli, and Salmonella.

■ Somatic cell count: High levels can indicate mastitis in cows, affecting
milk quality.
Pa

■ Antibiotic residues: From treating dairy cattle with antibiotics.

■ Off-flavors: Caused by feed, oxidation, or bacterial growth.
○ Dairy Products (Cheese, Yogurt, etc.)
■ Mold and Yeast Contamination: Unintended mold or yeast growth can
spoil the product and may produce toxins.
■ Separation or Curdling: Improper storage or handling can lead to
separation in products like cream or curdling in yogurt.
■ Off-flavors and Odors: Can be caused by bacterial contamination, poor
hygiene during processing, or storage issues.
■ Texture Defects: Graininess in yogurt or crumbliness in cheese that is not
characteristic of the product type.

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 ■ Foreign Objects: Such as pieces of packaging material or other
contaminants.
○ Honey
■ Crystallization: While natural and reversible, it can be seen as a defect by
consumers who expect liquid honey.
■ Fermentation: Caused by too much moisture in the honey, leading to an
alcoholic or sour taste.
■ Contamination: With pesticides or antibiotics used in beekeeping.
■ Adulteration: Dilution with other sugars or syrups to increase volume.
■ HMF (Hydroxymethylfurfural): A chemical that can form in honey during

ye
heating or storage, indicating degradation.

Processing Technology

Ka
● Minimal Processing
○ Referred to as lightly processed or fresh-cut commodities
■ Washing and Sanitizing: Removal of soil and surface debris on the

y
commodity

th
■ Peeling and Cuttingfor plant commodities and Slabbing and Dressing for
animal commodities
Ka
■ Mostly associated with preparation of Different cuts which are ready to
cook
● Temperature/ Atmospheric Packaging
○ Cold Chain management of commodities to ensure maximum shelf-life
n,

■ Appropriate temperature settings based on commodity

■ Maintained at designated temperatures to ensure that there is little to no
ia

damage during storage

○ Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)/ Controlled Atmospheric packaging
qu

(CAP)
■ MAP- Adjusted Gas composition in storage conditions of the meat in
sa

order to minimize biochemical processes and

■ CAP- Reduction of oxygen levels and increasing of Carbon dioxide
● Grading/ Criteria analyses
Pa

○ Varies across different commodities and is mainly based on regional differences

Standards of identity are based on established criteria or standards (Refer to Quality assurance
section on Quality analysis and standards)

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FOOD QUALITY ASSURANCE

Outline:
Introduction and Definitions
Defectives, Defects, and Types of Defects
Quality Management Systems
Quality Control Sampling
Basic Quality Tools
Quality Analysis and Standards for Some Common Food Products

ye
Introduction and Definitions

Ka
● Definitions of Quality
○ Degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements
○ Capacity of a commodity or service to satisfy human wants
○ Five definitions of quality according to Garvin (1984)

y
■ Transcendent
■ Product-based
■ User-based th
Ka
■ Manufacturing-based
■ Value-based
● Process - set of interrelated or interacting activities which transforms inputs into outputs
● Product - result of a process which may be categorized as a service, software, hardware
n,

or a processed material
● Service - result of at least one activity necessarily performed at the interface between
ia

the supplier and customer; characterized as intangible, inseparable, variable and

qu

perishable
● Supplier - organization or person that provides a product or service
● Customer - organization or person that receives a product or service
sa

● Quality management - coordinated activities to direct and control an organization in

relation to quality
○ Quality Planning - setting quality objectives and specifying necessary operation
Pa

processes and related resources to fulfill the quality objectives

○ Quality Control - fulfilling quality requirements; focused on identifying quality
issues in manufactured products that could affect customer satisfaction
○ Quality Assurance - providing confidence that quality requirements will be
fulfilled; focuses on preventing quality issues
○ Quality Improvement - increasing the ability of organization to fulfill quality
requirements
● Effectiveness - extent to which planned activities are realized and planned results
achieved
● Efficiency - relationship between the result achieved and the resources used

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 ● Verification - confirmation, through the provision of objective evidence, that specified
requirements have been fulfilled
● Validation - confirmation, through the provision of objective evidence, that the
requirements for a specific intended use or application have been fulfilled

Defectives, Defects, and Types of Defects

● Nonconformity
○ Non-fulfilment of a requirement
○ Instance in which a part or product’s characteristic value falls outside its
associated specification limit
● Defect

ye
○ Non fulfillment of a requirement related to an intended or specified use
○ May include different types of hazards (i.e., physical, chemical, microbiological),

Ka
packaging issues, improper or insufficient processing conditions
○ May be detected using sensory evaluation through samples products
● A defective product yields performance way below expectation resulting in products
being unsafe or unusable for its intended purpose.

y
th
Possibilities any given quality characteristic value (Allen, 2006)

Performance Related Status

Ka
Conformance
Status
Defective Non-defective
n,

Medium case – unnecessary

Bad case – if not fixed, the
ia

Nonconforming expense fixing unit might

unit could harm the customer
occur
qu
sa

Worst case – likely to slip

Best case – unit fosters good
Conforming through and harm customer
Pa

performance and meets specs

● Types of Defects
○ Minor defect - small, insignificant issues that do not affect the function or form of
the product; defect may be unnoticeable to the customers or will not likely return
the product to the supplies
■ Examples:

○ Major defect - deviates significantly from the buyer’s product specification

adversely affecting its function, performance or appearance; defect is noticeable

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 to the customers and will likely return the product, file a complaint or request a
refund
■ Examples:

○ Critical defect - most serious type of defect resulting in the product completely
unusable and/or cause harm to the user or someone in vicinity of the product;
defect may result in liability issues, lawsuits and product recalls
■ `Examples:

Quality Management Systems

ye
● A formalized system including quality control, assurance, planning, and improvement
activities that documents processes, procedures, and responsibilities for achieving

Ka
quality policies and objectives
● Benefits of Quality Management Systems
○ Defining, improving, and controlling processes
○ Reducing waste

y
○ Preventing mistakes
○ Lowering costs
th
○ Facilitating and identifying training opportunities
Ka
○ Engaging staff
○ Setting organization-wide direction
○ Communicating a readiness to produce consistent results
● Quality Management Principles
n,

○ Customer focus_ - understand current and future customer needs, meet

customer requirements and exceed customer expectations
ia

○ Leadership - create and maintain the internal environment in which people can
become fully involved in achieving the organization's objectives
qu

○ People Engagement - full involvement of people at all levels of the organization

enabling their abilities to be used for the organization's benefit
sa

○ Process Approach - activities and related resources are managed as a process

to achieve desired results more efficiently
○ Relationship Management- identify, understand and manage interrelated
Pa

processes as a system contributes to the organization's effectiveness and

efficiency in achieving its objectives
○ Continuous improvement - continual improvement of the organization's overall
performance as a permanent objective of the organization; also known as
KAIZEN
○ Evidence-based Decision Making - effective decisions based on the analysis of
data and information
○ Mutually beneficial supplier relations - interdependency of organization and its
suppliers a mutually beneficial relationship to enhance the ability of both to create
value

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● Total Quality Management - involves the understanding and implementation of quality
management principles and concepts in every aspect of business activities including
participation of employees at all levels, stage and department of an organization
○ Four Stage Process of TQM Implementation (TQM Cycle)
■ Plan - identifying and collecting information about the organization in the
prime areas where improvement will have most impact on the
organization’s performance; Preparing the detailed basic work for the
improvement of all organization’s activities
■ Do - making sure that the management understands the objective and
methodology of TQM and are prepared to adopt them all the time.
■ Check - identifying and addressing quality issues by management-led

ye
improvement activities through a process of involvement of management
and supervision in a proper scheme of training and communication

Ka
■ Act - starting a new initiative with new targets and taking the complete
improvement process to everybody indicating supplier and customer links
in the quality chain; Obtaining information about progress and
consolidating success.

y
● ISO 9000 family - family of standards developed to assist organizations, of all types and

th
sizes, to implement and operate effective quality management systems
○ ISO 9000 - describes fundamentals of quality management systems and
Ka
specifies the terminology for quality management systems.
○ ISO 9001 - specifies requirements for a quality management system where an
organization needs to demonstrate its ability to provide products that fulfill
customer and applicable regulatory requirements and aims to enhance customer
n,

satisfaction.
○ ISO 9004 - provides guidelines that consider both the effectiveness and
ia

efficiency of the quality management system. The aim of this standard is

qu

improvement of the performance of the organization and satisfaction of

customers and other interested parties.
○ ISO 19011 - provides guidance on auditing quality and environmental
sa

management systems.
● Lean Six Sigma - a fact-based, data-driven philosophy of improvement that values
defect prevention over defect detection.
Pa

○ It drives customer satisfaction and bottom-line results by reducing variation,

waste, and cycle time, while promoting the use of work standardization and flow,
thereby creating a competitive advantage.
○ Six sigma focuses on reducing process variation and enhancing process control,
whereas Lean drives out waste (non-value added processes and procedures)
and promotes work standardization and flow.
○ Lean Six Sigma Phases (DMAIC)
■ Define - the problem, improvement activity, opportunity for improvement,
the project goals, and customer (internal and external) requirements
■ Measure - process performance

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 ■ Analyze - the process to determine root causes of variation, poor
performance (defects)
■ Improve - process performance by addressing and eliminating the root
causes
■ Control - the improved process and future process performance
○ Lean Six Sigma Techniques
■ Kanban - an inventory control system used in manufacturing that involves
workflow management practices, such as work visualization and limited
work in progress, which maximize efficiency and promote continuous
improvement.; limit excess inventory and prevent bottlenecks in

ye
production line
■ Kaizen - practices that engage employees and promote a work
environment that emphasizes self-development and ongoing

Ka
improvement; involves creating a conducive work environment that
promotes employee engagement and camaraderie
■ Value Stream Mapping- employs a flowchart documenting every step in
the process to combine material processing steps with information flow,

y
along with other important related data

th
■ 5S - a methodology that results in a workplace that is clean, uncluttered,
safe, and well organized to help reduce waste and optimize productivity
Ka
● Seiri (Sort) - to separate needed tools, parts, and instructions from
unneeded materials and to remove the unneeded ones
● Seiton (Set in order) - to neatly arrange and identify parts and
tools for ease of use
n,

● Seiso (Shine) - to conduct a cleanup campaign.

● Seiketsu (Standardize) - conduct Seiri, Seiton, and Seiso daily to
ia

maintain a workplace in perfect condition

● Shitsuke (Sustain) - to form the habit of always following the first
qu

four S’s.
sa

Quality Control Sampling

● Sampling Methods (Refer to Lecture Guide 2 under METHODS OF RESEARCH IN
FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY for overview of sampling and other types of
Pa

sampling in the context of R&D)

● Acceptance Sampling - process of randomly inspecting a certain number of items from a
lot or batch in order to decide whether to accept or reject the entire batch.
○ Lot-by-lot
■ Single Sampling Plan - involves one sample of size n being randomly
selected from a lot of size N . The lot is rejected when the number of
defective items (d) exceeds the number of acceptable defects (c)
■ Double Sampling Plan - involves obtaining another sample of size n after
having an inconclusive decision of whether to accept or reject the current
lot. The results of both samples will then be combined and considered to
come up with a final decision for the lot

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 ■ Multiple Sampling Plan - an extension of double sampling where more
than two samples are needed to reach a conclusion with predetermined
finite number of samples to be made
■ Sequential Sampling Plan - an extension of multiple sampling where
samples are selected from the lot one at a time and a decision is made
after each inspection. There is predetermined finite number of samples to
be made in this sampling as compared to multiple sampling
○ By procedure
■ Attribute Sampling - method of measuring quality that consists of noting
the presence (or absence) of some characteristic (attribute) in each of the

ye
units under consideration and counting how many units do (or do not)
possess it
● Example: ANSI/ASQ Z1.4, ASTM E2234-2009, ISO 2859-1974,

Ka
MIL-STD-105
■ Variable Sampling - uses the actual measurements of sample products
for decision making rather than classifying products as conforming or
nonconforming, as in attributes sampling plans

y
● Example: ANSI/ASQ Z1.9

Basic Quality Tools th

Ka
● Seven (7) Basic Quality Tools for Improvement
○ Fishbone Diagram - identifies several possible causes for an effect or problem
that can be used to structure a brainstorming session due to immediately sorting
ideas into useful categories.
n,

■ Major categories of causes of the problem/defects/nonconformity may be

identified using the 5M+E (e.g. manpower, machine, materials, methods,
ia

measurement, environment)
qu
sa
Pa

Sample Fishbone Diagram

○ Check sheet - a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data when
(1) data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same person or at the
same location, (2) collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events,

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 problems, defects, defect location, defect causes, or similar issues and (3),
collecting data from a production process

ye
Ka
y
th
Ka
Sample Check Sheet

○ Control chart - a graph used to study how a process changes over time
■ Has a central line for the average, an upper line for the upper control limit,
n,

and a lower line for the lower control limit

■ Used when controlling ongoing processes by finding and correcting
ia

problems as they occur

■ Comparing current data to historical control limits leads to conclusions
qu

about whether the process variation is consistent (in control) or is

unpredictable (out of control, affected by special causes of variation
sa
Pa

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 ye
Ka
Sample Control Chart

y
■ Variable control charts

th
● Also known as Shewhart control charts and are the most
commonly used statistical process control tool in QA
Ka
● Some examples include the X-bar R chart used for continuous
measurements and X-bar S chart used when sample size remains
constant
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

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 Formulas and factors for calculation of variable control charts
(Vasconcellos, 2005)

ye
Ka
y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

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 ■ Attribute control charts
● Used when measurements are impossible, impractical or several
characteristics are combined in one chart
● p-Charts is used when nonconforming fraction (p) is known or is
given as a standard by the management
● np-Charts reports defects in actual numbers rather than as a
fraction; fixed sample size
● c-Charts reports the number of defects by inspection unit and are
used when a number of different defects may be found in a unit;
sample size varies
○

ye
Histogram - most commonly used graph to show frequency distributions to show
how often each different value in a set of data occurs
■ Can be used when the data is numerical and you want to see the shape

Ka
of the data’s distribution

y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu

Sample Histogram

○ Pareto chart - a bar graph wherein the lengths of the bars represent frequency or
sa

cost and are arranged with the longest bar on the left and shortest bar to the right
■ Used to analyze the frequency of problems or causes in a process and
identify the most significant
Pa

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 ye
Ka
Sample Pareto Chart

y
Scatter diagram - graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable on each axis,
to look for a relationship between them

th
■ Can be used to determine the relationship between two variables in to
supplement fishbone diagram and control chart results
Ka
■ Can be used when dependent variable has multiple values for each value
of the independent variable
■ Points will fall along a line or curve if variables are correlated
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

Sample Scatter Diagram

○ Stratification - technique involves sorting data, people, and objects into distinct
groups or layers that can be used in combination with other data analysis tools to
check for possible patterns

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Quality Analysis and Standards for Some Common Food Products

● Canned Products
○ Due to the very low tolerance for defects in canned foods, most quality
assurance done is process-based
■ I.e. Checking if production/QA plans have been met
● Ex. Time-temperature with thermocouples, sanitary quality of can
cooling water, quality of raw materials
○ Common quality issues in canned products include:
■ Defects in canning process
● Overfilling

ye
● Buckling
● Denting

Ka
● Sealing defects
■ Defects in packaging
■ Spoilage of products due to:
● Prior microbial spoilage of raw materials

y
● Underprocessing
● Leakage and contamination
th
● Chemical spoilage (production of hydrogen gas in high-acid
Ka
canned foods)
○ Aside from adequate process control, spoilage issues can only be observed
through visible changes in the packaging structure (ex. Swollen cans)
■ Flat: both ends concave (sunken, indicating vacuum), if spoiled = “flat
n,

sour” spoilage
■ Flipper: both ends concave but one end bulges out when can is brought
ia

down on a flat surface, this bulge can ‘flip’ back in with sufficient pressure
■ Springer: one end convex (bulged), this bulge can ‘flip’ back in with
qu

sufficient pressure but will cause the other end to flip out
■ Soft swell: both ends convex, ends can be pushed in somewhat with
sa

thumb pressure
■ Hard swell - both ends convex, ends cannot be pushed with thumb
pressure, can eventually burst
Pa

○ External Quality
■ External appearance
■ Presence of defects
● Minor = No likely effects on can seal
○ ex. Scuffs, surface rust, superficial dents and scratches
● Major = Possible effects on can seal
○ Ex. Dents near double seam, rust with pitting
● Critical = Severe effects on can seal
○ Ex. Compromised double seam, holes
■ Testing for leaks (including micro-leaks)
○ Internal Quality

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 ■ Internal appearance
■ Can measurements

ye
Ka
Appearance of can double seam during 1st and 2nd operation rolls. Some internal can

y
measurements taken during can double seam teardown are shown on the right.
■ Seam tightness
th
● Measures compression during 2nd operation roll
Ka
● Measured by visual inspection of stripped cover hook
■ %Overlap
● Various possible formulas, one example:
%Overlap = 100 x (BH+CH+T- SH)/[SH-((2xT) + BPT)]
n,

Where
BH = body hook length
ia

CH = cover hook length

qu

T = cover plate thickness

SH = Seam Height
BPT = Body Plate Thickness
sa

%Overlap should be greater than or equal to 50%

Pa

■ Vacuum
■ Product characteristics
● Physicochemical
○ pH
○ Color
○ Total Soluble Solids
● Sensory
○ Appearance
○ Color
○ Odor
○ Texture

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 ○ Flavor (not to be assessed for potentially compromised
products)
● Microbiological characteristics
○ Confirmation of commercial sterility
○ Further investigation as needed

ye
Ka
y
Tests for the investigation of low-acid (left) and high-acid (right) canned foods. (CMM= cooked

th
meat medium; BCP= bromocresol purple dextrose broth; LVA = liver-veal agar, NA = nutrient
agar, SAB= Sabouraud's dextrose agar) (Lifted from FDA BAM, 2001)
Ka
■ net weight, and and drained weight
○ Methods for quality measurements
■ Destructive
n,

● Can double seam teardown

○ Visual inspection
ia

○ Measurements (seam micrometer, calipers)

● Product homogenization for physicochemical, and microbiological
qu

tests
● Product preparation for sensory evaluation
sa

● Product opening for net and drained weight

■ Non-destructive
● External can inspection
Pa

● Use of optical sensors

● Gross weight
○ Standards
■ Philippines
● FDA 2022-012 (Microbiological Quality)
● FDA 2014-0030 (Labeling)
■ USA
● FDA Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM)
● NFPA Flexible Package Integrity Bulletin, BUL 41-L with an
accompanying Flexible package Defect Pictorial Guide, 1989

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 ● Military Specification "Packaging and Thermal Processing of
Foods in Flexible Pouches".
● USDA Regulations 9, CFR Parts 318 and 381 "Canning of Meat
and Poultry Products" dated 12/19/86.
● 1982 USDA bulletins "Test Cycles for Small Size Semirigid
Containers", "Test Cycles for Small Size Flexible Retortable
Pouches" and "Test Cycles for Large Size Flexible and Semirigid
Containers".
■ International/Others
● Various Codex standards (CXS), such as:
○ CXS 37-1991 (Standard for Canned Shrimps or Prawns)

ye
○ CXS 297-2009 (Standard for Certain Canned Vegetables)
○ CXS 319-2015 (Standard for Certain Canned Fruits)

Ka
● Fruits and Vegetables (Produce)
○ Wide physical and biological variation between fresh fruits and vegetables =
quality indicators vary
○ However, some of the most common characteristics measured from fruits and

y
vegetables include the following:
○ External
■ Maturity indices th
Ka
■ Firmness
■ Appearance (size, shape, presence of defects)
■ Skin and flesh color
■ Weight (and weight loss)
n,

■ Gas production (ex. Ethylene, carbon dioxide)

○ Internal
ia

■ Moisture content
■ pH
qu

■ Total Soluble Solids (TSS)

■ Texture
sa

■ Flavor
○ Methods for quality measurements
■ Destructive
Pa

● Cutting (flesh color)

● Sensory Analysis
● Grinding (for physicochemical analysis
● Penetrometer (firmness)
■ Non-destructive
● Optical methods
● Colorimeter (skin color),
● weighing,
● visual inspection,
● Knocking,
● mechanical (low mass impact tests),

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 ● Acoustics,
● Gas Sensor Array (e-nose)
○ Standards
■ Philippines
● Various PNS Standards, such as:
○ PNS/BAFS 233:2018 - Code of Hygienic Practice for Fruits
and Vegetables
○ PNS/BAFS 51:2021 Fresh vegetables - Garlic - Grading
○ PNS/BAFS 19:2005 Vegetables - Head Lettuce - Grading
and Classification
■ USA

ye
● U.S. Standards for Grades of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables, Fruits
and Vegetables for Processing, Nuts, and Specialty Crops

Ka
■ International
● Codex Committee on Fresh Fruits and Vegetables (CJW-731)
● Various Codex Standards (CSX), such as:
○ CXS 218-1999 (Standard for Ginger)

y
○ CXS 348-2022 (Standard for Onions and Shallots)

th
○ CXS 349-2022 (Standard for Berry Fruits)
● UNECE Fresh Fruit and Vegetables (FFV) Standards, such as:
Ka
○ FFV-50 - Apples
○ FFV-23 - Melons
○ FFV-35 - Strawberries
● Meat Products
n,

○ Quality of meat is affected by numerous factors during the rearing, slaughter, and
post-harvest process
ia

■ Rearing
● Genetic propensity
qu

● Nutrition
● Age
sa

● Growing environment
■ Slaughter
● Stress and fatigue
Pa

● Nutritional state
● Stunning methods
■ Post-slaughter
● Exsanguination method
● Aging (tenderization)
● Exposure to oxygen
● Storage temperature
○ Characteristics used to assess meat quality include:
■ Tenderness
■ Water-Holding Capacity (WHC)
■ Fat content

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 ■ Presence of intramuscular fat (‘marbling’)
■ Fatty acid composition
■ Antioxidant capacity
● thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value - indicates oxidative rancidity
■ Color
■ Sensory characteristics
■ Microbial quality
■ Level of additives
○ Methods for quality measurements - Destructive:
■ Sensory evaluation (cooked)
■ Homogenization (mincing) for further physicochemical and microbiological

ye
analysis
■ Warner-Bratzler Shear Force (Tenderness)

Ka
○ Methods for quality measurements - Non-destructive:
■ Swabbing (instead of mincing) for microbiological analysis
■ Visual inspection (i.e. for grading)

y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

Sample guidelines for beef grading from Japan and the US. BMS = Beef Marbling Score, IMF =
Intramuscular Fat

■ Drip Loss (WHC)

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 ■ Optical Methods
● Spectrophotometry
● Colorimetry
■ Measurement of volatile compounds
● Gas chromatography / mass spectrophotometry (GC/MS)
● Electronic nose (e-nose)
○ Sample standards
■ Philippines
● PNS/BAFS 83:2018 Beef primal cuts
● PNS/BAFS 41:2018 Pork Cuts
● PNS/BAFS 326:2022 Pork Carcass - Product Standard - Grading

ye
● PNS/BAFS 285:2019 Chicken Cuts
● PNS/BAFS 314:2021 Animal Carcass - Chicken - Grading

Ka
● PNS/BAFS 339:2022 Prepackaged Fresh Chilled and Fresh
Frozen Meat - Product Standard - Labeling
■ USA
● United States Standards for Grades of Carcass Beef

y
● United States Standards for Grades of Pork Carcasses
● Beverages
th
○ Follows quality assurance standards of canned products, with differences in
Ka
internal composition if product is sold as bottled or canned beverage
○ Mainly differs in Internal quality, based on the composition and pre-existing
standard
■ Drinking Water
n,

● AO 0010 s. 2017- Philippine National Standards for drinking water

of 2017
ia

■ Milk and dairy products

● PNS/BAFPS 36:2008 - Fresh milk
qu

● PNS/BAFS 210:2017 - Code of hygienic practice for milk

■ Fruit Juices and similar beverages
sa

● CXS 247-2005- General standard for Fruit Juices and Nectar

● PNS/BAFPS 28:2006- Chilled young coconut water/drink
● PNS/BFAD 09:2007- Mango Beverage Standard
Pa

● PNS/BFAD 10:2007- Recommended code of practice for the

Processing and Handling of Mango Beverage Products
● PNS/BFAD 11:2007- Citrus Beverage Standard
● PNS/BFAD 12:2007- Recommended code of practice for the
Processing and Handling of Citrus Beverage Products

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BUSINESS MANAGEMENT AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Outline:
Overview of Business and Its Classification
Business Plan Development
SWOT Analysis
Financial Analysis

Overview of Business and Its Classification

ye
● Business - an organization or entity that aims for profit, in most cases by offering goods
and services desired by its customers

Ka
○ Products - tangible item, manufactured by businesses that is put on the market
for acquisition, attention, or consumption
○ Services - intangible offerings of businesses that can’t be held, touched, or
stored which arises from the output of one or more individuals

y
● Relevant terms in food businesses

th
○ Abattoir - any premises used for or in connection with the slaughter of animals
whose meat is intended for human consumption
Ka
○ Commissary - a place where food can be stored, processed or packaged and
prepared in individual portions for service at a food service establishment;
rentable commercial kitchens where food service operators can prepare and
store their food
n,

○ Restaurant - Any business activity where articles of food, drink or condiment are
customarily prepared or served to patrons for consumption on or off the premises
ia

(i.e., bars, cocktail lounges, the dining rooms of hotels, and all caterers)
■ Quick Service Restaurant - a restaurant which offer certain food items
qu

that require minimal preparation time and are delivered through quick
services
sa

● Types of Businesses (by size)

Pa

Type Total Assets No. of Employees

Micro Php 3,000,000.00 or less 1-9

Small P 3,000,001.00 to Php 15,000,000.00 10-99

Php 15,000,001.00 to Php

Medium 100-199
100,000,000.00

More than Php 100,000,000.00

Large 200 and above

● Types of Businesses (by ownership)

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 Type Ownership Advantages Disadvantages

Easier to start up;

Owner pays all bills;
One person in
Ends with owner’s
charge, his/her own
death; Limited
Sole Owned and managed boss; Low start-up
access to start-up
Proprietorship by a single person costs; Fewer legal
money; Owner
requirements; Easy
does everything;
to keep control;
Unlimited Liability
Easy to terminate

ye
Partners share in
the control & profit

Ka
of business; Joint
Two or more people responsibility is
Owned by two or more
share costs and made for any poor
individuals that are
management; More decision made by
Partnership responsible for the
capital for start-up; one partner;

y
liabilities of the
Risks/Losses can Decisions made by
business or firm

th
be shared one partner is
binding to all
Ka
partners; Unlimited
Liability

Complicated legal
Separate legal entity Limited liability for start-up; Taxed
n,

created by owners; Easier to more heavily; More

shareholders; owners get capital; rules and
ia

Corporation are not personally Ownership changes regulations to

liable for the easily; Continues follow; Major
qu

company’s debts or even if a stock decisions have to

legal disputes owner dies be approved by the
board of directors
sa

● Entrepreneurship - the process of creating something different with value by devoting the
necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychic, and social
Pa

risks, and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and
independence
○ Entrepreneur - person who undertakes the risk of starting a new business
venture
○ Soft skills required to become a food entrepreneur
■ Leadership skills
■ Communication skills
■ Attention to detail
■ Active listening skills
■ Organizational skills
■ Risk-taking skills

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 ■ Resourcefulness
■ Time management skills
■ Customer service skills
■ Networking skills

Business Plan Development

● General requirements to operate a business in the Philippines

○ Barangay Clearance
○ Mayor’s Business Permit
○ BIR Registration Documents

ye
○ Registration from SSS, Philhealth and PAGIBIG
○ Special permits (e.g., License to Operate) if applicable

Ka
● Requirements to start a sole proprietorship or partnership
○ Register business name with DTI (Sole proprietorship) or SEC (partnership)
○ Obtain certificate of business registration from Barangay office

y
○ Secure Mayor’s Permit

th
○ Acquire a certificate of registration from BIR
○ Register with SSS, Philhealth, and PAGIBIG, and FDA (if applicable)
Ka
● Requirements to start a corporation
○ Register business name with SEC
○ Open corporate bank account
n,

○ Register business with SEC

○ Register business with BIR
ia

○ Register with SS, Philhealth and PAGIBIG

○ Acquire Mayor’s or Business Permit
qu

○ Get a license to operate from FDA (if applicable)

● Business plan - a written summary of an entrepreneur’s proposed business venture, its

sa

operational and financial details, its marketing opportunities and strategy, and its
managers’ skills and abilities; may be used for pitching a business idea
Pa

○ Executive Summary- synopsis of the entire business plan; may include a table of
contents, company background, market opportunity, management overviews,
competitive advantages, and financial highlights; written version of the “elevator
pitch”
○ Business Description - describes the industry, your product and the business
being presented; include other details such as strategic relationships,
administrative issues, intellectual property you may own, expenses, and the legal
structure of your company
■ Brand identity image and tagline
■ Problem being solved by the product or service offered
■ Key features and value proposition

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 ● Key features - specific jobs that the product or service offered
accomplishes or assists
● Value Proposition- a statement about why someone needs or
would choose your product or service
○ Industry Analysis - describe the market in terms of size, structure, growth
prospects, trends, and sales potential
○ Market Research and Analysis - Discusses market segmentation strategies and
market position in terms of price, distribution, promotion, and sales potential
■ Market segmentation - creates subsets of a market based on
demographics, needs, priorities, common interests, and other

ye
psychographic or behavioral criteria used to better understand the target
audience
● Behavioral segmentation - describes what benefits do customers

Ka
want, and how do they use the product
● Demographic segmentation - describes the age, race, and ethnic
background of customers
● Geographic segmentation - describes customers’ location and

y
how they can be reached; What products they buy based on their
locations
th
● Psychographic segmentation - describes what customers think
Ka
about and value
■ Market targeting - a process of selecting the target market from the entire
market.
● Target market - consists of group/groups of buyers to whom the
n,

company wants to sell their products or services

■ Market positioning - establish the image or identity of a brand or product
ia

so that consumers perceive it in a certain way relative to its competitors

○
qu

Competitive Analysis - describes the business strategy in relation to competitors

such as competitive advantage unique features that matters to the customers
○ Operations and Management Plan - describes how the business will be managed
sa

including organizational structures, backgrounds, experiences, qualifications,

expertise, and the whole management team
○ Marketing Plan - describe the overall marketing strategy and sales management
Pa

plan
■ Marketing Mix - includes multiple areas of focus as part of a
comprehensive marketing plan
● Product - represents an item or service designed to satisfy
customer needs and wants
● Price - reflects how much the consumers are willing to pay for the
product or service being offered.
● Place - refers to distribution channels; where the product or
service will be sold or distributed

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 ●Promotion - activities that create awareness of the product or
service being offered such as advertising, sales promotion,
personal selling, and public relations.
○ Financial Plan - describes the company’s financial projections including sales
forecast, estimated project cost, pro forma financial statements, breakeven
analysis and financial ratios

SWOT Analysis

● SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis - a framework

ye
used to evaluate a company's competitive position and to develop strategic planning.

Ka
Positive Negative

Internal/ Strengths Weaknesses

controllable

y
External/ Opportunities Threats
uncontrollable
th
Ka
● Strengths - describes what an organization excels at and what separates it from the
competition
○ Examples:
n,

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
ia

● Weaknesses - stop an organization from performing at its optimum level; areas where
qu

the business needs to improve to remain competitive

○ Examples:
________________________________________________________________
sa

________________________________________________________________

● Opportunities - favorable external factors that could give an organization a competitive

Pa

advantage
○ Examples:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

● Threats - factors that have the potential to harm an organization

○ Examples:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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Financial Analysis

● Financial Analysis - involves using financial data to assess a company’s performance

and make recommendations about how it can improve going forward
● Income Statement - focuses on the revenue, expenses, gains, and losses reported by a
company during a particular period

Revenues - Expenses = Net Income

○ Revenues - the money generated from normal business operations, calculated

as the average sales price times the number of units sold

ye
○ Expenses - the cost of operations that a company incurs to generate revenue;
cost required to spend on obtaining something.
○ Net Income - sales minus cost of goods sold (COGS) and other expenses

Ka
● Balance Sheet - reports a company's assets, liabilities, and shareholder equity at a
specific point in time

y
Assets = Liabilities + Equity

○
○ th
Assets - including cash, equipment, inventory or supplies
Liabilities - things that the company owes to others such as loans, monthly
Ka
utilities and accounts payables
○ Equity - remaining value of the owner’s interest in a company after subtracting all
liabilities from total assets
●
n,

Cash flow statement - provides aggregate data regarding all cash inflows that a
company receives from its ongoing operations and external investment sources. It is
ia

composed of three areas:

○ Cash from Operating Activities - includes any sources and uses of cash from
qu

business activities; how much cash is generated from a business products

and/services
○ Cash from Investing Activities - includes any sources and uses of cash from
sa

company’s investments, purchases or sales of assets, loans made to vendors or

received from customers, or any payments related to mergers and acquisitions
○ Cash from Financing Activities - includes sources of cash from investors, banks,
Pa

dividends, payments for stock repurchases

● Product Cost - the cost that are incurred in producing products including direct labor,
direct materials, and manufacturing overhead.

Product cost = Direct Labor + Direct Materials + Manufacturing Overhead

Product Cost Per Unit = Total Product Cost / Number of Units Produced

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 ○ Direct labor - includes wages, benefits, and insurance that are paid to employees
directly involved in manufacturing and producing goods
○ Direct materials - includes costs of raw materials or parts that go directly into
producing products
○ Manufacturing overhead - includes direct factory-related costs incurred when
producing a product such as cost of machinery and utilties

● Pricing - setting the right amount or selling price for products and services based on
product costs and other factors

ye
Product cost + Mark-up = Selling Price

Ka
y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

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FOOD PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATION

Outline:
Introduction to Food Product Development
Objectives
Types of New Food Products
Requirements
The Product Life Cycle
Stages in Product Development
Conceptual Models

ye
Stage-Gate Model
Acceptance Criteria

Ka
Introduction to Food Product Development

y
● Like any business, food businesses continually strive for growth

th
○ Growth = increase in market share and profitability
○ One of the primary ways to achieve this is through the development of new and
Ka
innovative food products that will continue to satisfy the constantly changing
desires of consumers.
■ Over 15,000 new food products enter the market each year
n,

● New Product Development (NPD): the entire process of introducing a new product to
market
ia

○ Includes every step from designing, producing, and commercialization

○ Requires the combined input of various teams within the food business
qu

● New Product: a product not previously manufactured and introduced by a company, in a

sa

specific form, in a certain market, this includes:

○ Entirely new products
○ New forms of products
Pa

○ Existing products introduced to new markets

Objectives

● As mentioned prior, the main objective of NPD from a business standpoint is to

increase market share by meeting consumer demands. Depending on the product
being developed, NPD will have one or more of the following objectives:
○ Maintain current target markets
○ Capture new target markets
○ Change market perception of existing products
○ Improve safety or quality of existing products

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 ○ Reduce costs related to existing products.
● Achieving these objectives will ideally bring several benefits to consumers:
○ Continuous access to a wide variety of new products
○ Continuous improvement of available products
○ Reduction in cost of existing products
○ Improvement of food industry standards due to market competition

Types of New Food Products

ye
1. Line extension
● Addition of variants to a established product category
● Can include different flavors, packaging, or formulations of the

Ka
same product.

y
th Del Monte 100% Pineapple
Juice product line includes
Ka
various formulations, packaging
designs, and sizes to target
different market segments.
n,
ia

2. Repositioning of existing product

● Changing consumer perception of an existing product.
qu

● Require extensive marketing efforts but with generally little other investments.
○ May come with other new food product types (ex. New or additional
packaging formulations, or line extensions to suit new market position)
sa

Nestlé reformulated and repackaged many products in its cereal line to

support their repositioning as a healthy and wholesome break fast food
Pa

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3. Reformulation of existing product
● Food products may be reformulated for one or more of the following reasons:
○ Reduction of potentially harmful ingredients (salt, added sugar, saturated
or trans fats, allergens, additives)
○ Addition of beneficial ingredients (protein, fiber, micronutrients, prebiotics)
○ Change the sensory profile of the product.
○ Improve product stability
○ Reduce costs.

ye
Coca-Cola was reformulated into New Coke to reduce added sugars.
However, the resulting backlash led Coca-Cola to re-release the old
formulation as Classic Coke, which experienced significantly increased sales

Ka
compared to prior the introduction of New Coke.

y
th
Ka
4. Repackaging of existing product
● Food product packaging may be changed entirely for one or more of the following
reasons:
n,

○ Improve product quality and shelf-life

○ Reduce costs (from materials and/or distribution)
ia

○ Change product size offered

● Investments required for repackaging can be highly variable depending on the
qu

packaging to be shifted into.

○ Most minor changes would only require procurement of new packaging
sa

types.
○ Extensive changes in packaging would require modification or even total
replacement of processes and equipment.
Pa

■ Ex. 1: Shifting from conventional tin cans to retort pouches would

require slight modifications in thermal processing

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 Most fresh milk products have been repackaged from the
traditional glass bottles (left) to lighter, more convenient,
and over all cheaper shelf-stable cartons (right) as
technology improved.

5. Entirely new products

●

ye
Introduction of entirely new products would vary
significantly in required investment depending on the
degree of innovation and technology required.

Ka
○ Generally extensive especially for large-scale commercialization.
● New products can be further divided into the following:
○ New-to-the-company: Product types which are already existing in the
market but have not yet been offered by the company

y
th
Unmeat represents a new-to-the-company brand of plant-based foods
from Century Pacific Food Inc. (proprietor of Century Tuna and various
Ka
other brands)
n,
ia
qu

○ New-to-the-world: Product types that have never been introduced to

consumers before. These generally create new markets.
sa

’Alt-Steak’ was introduced in 2020 by Redefine Meat as the

world’s first commercially available 3D-printed plant-based
Pa

steak.

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 Required Extent of investment
Type
R&D Processes Facilities Marketing Logistics

Line extension Low Minimal Minimal Low None

Repositioning Variable Variable Variable High Low

Reformulation Moderate Low Low Low Low

Repackaging Variable Variable Variable Low Low

ye
Entirely new Highly variable depending on the nature of innovation

Ka
Requirements
● Due to the variety of expertise required, NPD requires the participation of various teams
which usually correspond to different teams or organizations within a company
○ Both upper management must be aware and committed to the goals and aware

y
of the scope and limitations of each NPD project and

th
○ NPD team leaders must communicate effectively with all teams involved to
ensure alignment in status and goals
Ka
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

Summary of the required disciplines in new food product development (Earle, Earle, and
Anderson, 2001)

● Typical teams involved and the role in NPD are as follows:

○ Upper Management

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 ■ Provide guidance and oversight in NPD strategies
■ Level of involvement depends on the company strategy (priorities, NPD
scope, type of NPD)
● May be directly in charge of NPD (i.e. part of Product
Development Team, see below)
● Participation may be limited to decision-making and strategic
problem solving
○ Product Development Team
■ Main team in charge of the entire NPD process
■ May be an ad hoc or a dedicated team depending on the company
■ Usually comes from the Research and Development (R&D Team) and/or

ye
a combination of various teams
■ Duties may include:

Ka
● Formulation and process development
● Sensory, shelf-life, nutrition, and safety evaluations
● Costing
● Other responsibilities depending on the organizational chart

y
○ Quality Assurance / Quality Control

th
■ Development and implementation of PRPs, HACCP, GMP, and other
Food Safety Management Systems or QA/QC Systems for the new
Ka
product
■ Testing of raw materials and packaging
■ Process checks
■ Microbiological analyses
n,

■ Other QA/QC activities related to the new product

○ Engineering and Production
ia

■ Equipment design and maintenance

■ Process controls
qu

■ Employee training
■ Sanitation
sa

■ Production schedule
■ Handling
■ Production costs
Pa

○ Procurement and Purchasing

■ Activities related to potential suppliers for raw materials and packaging,
these would include
● Research and coordination of possible suppliers
● Biddings and negotiations for contracts and pricing
● Coordination with Production to ensure availability and delivery
schedule of raw materials
● Reviewing raw material and packaging quality in coordination with
QA/QC team
○ Marketing and Sales

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 ■ Intensive coordination with various teams for target market and
positioning
■ Confirming or creating product demand
■ Ideation for product name and marketing strategy
■ Advertising strategy
■ Monitoring competing products
■ Assist with product packaging design (aesthetics)
○ Regulatory
■ Legal matters related to the new product such as:
● Product name
● Product codes

ye
● Nutrition labeling
● Compliance with other relevant standards (ex. Standard of

Ka
Identity)

The Product Life Cycle

y
●
th
The stages a new product/product goes through during development and
commercialization can be described through the Product Life Cycle/Product
Ka
Development Life Cycle (PDLC)
● This is composed of five stages as follows:
○ 1. Development (NPD)
■ Covers most of the stages involved in New Product Development
n,

■ Involves negative profits in the form of NPD investments as discussed

above
ia

■ No sales as there is no product to commercialize yet

○ 2. Introduction
qu

■ Introduction of new product into the market

■ Also involves extensive investments particularly in the form of promotions,
sa

advertising, and other marketing activities

■ Sales volume initially low due to lack of product awareness
■ Towards the end of this stage, profits slowly approach breakeven as
Pa

sales increase
○ 3. Growth
■ If the product is successful, first-time consumers begin repeat buying and
attracting new customers via word-of-mouth.
■ These events lead to rapid growth with increase in sales and profitability.
○ 4. Maturity
■ The number of consumers reaches its maximum as the market becomes
saturated and stagnates.
■ Sales eventually peak and decrease due to the introduction of new
competitors combined with increasing consumer indifference.
■ Possible Product Extensions and other activities can extend this stage
○ 5. Decline

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 ■ If no activities are conducted to address market stagnation, sales will
begin to decline rapidly.
■ Sales will continue to stagnate until a certain level
■ Companies can either engage in extension activities to increase sales for
the product or initiate further NPD efforts to start the PDLC with new
products.

ye
Ka
y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu

Diagram showing the Product Life Cycle/Product Development Life Cycle (PDLC)

Stages in Product Development

sa

Conceptual Model
Pa

Strategies for NPD can be described by a simple conceptual model showing outcomes and
decision-making based on outcomes per key stage.
Key stages in conceptual model
1. Product strategy development
● Sample outcomes: Idea, Market strategy, Feasibility, Market analysis (Recall
4Ps)
● Decision: Whether to proceed with product and process design and
development.
2. Product design and process development
● Sample outcomes: Product formulation, process design, prototypes,
specifications, product feasibility

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 ● Decision: Whether to proceed to commercialization (market entry, PDLC
Introduction and onwards) of the developed product.
3. Product commercialization
● Sample outcomes: Costing, Test consumer feedback, Final feasibility studies
● Decision: Whether to proceed to Product launch, starting the Introduction phase
of the PDLC
4. Product launch
● Outcomes for continuous monitoring: Sales, revenue, market share,
consumer feedback

ye
Ka
y
th
Ka
n,
ia
qu
sa

Figure showing the conceptual model of new food product development (Earle & Earle, 2000)
Pa

Stage-Gate Model

● A technique to assess the viability of a new product by dividing the NPD process into
different ‘stages’ and ‘gates’.
○ Stages: Parts of the NPD process
○ Gates: Decision points between stages to assess the current product and
reassess the course of action as necessary.
■ To increase objectivity, each Gate should have clear and visible
acceptance criteria
■ A Stage-Gate Model works like a “funnel” of ideas

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One sample Stage-Gate model for new food product development (Gilbert and Prusa, 2021)

Stage 1. Ideation

ye
● Coming up with the initial product idea
● May be based on a variety of sources:

Ka
○ Line extension of existing brand
○ Ideas from close brand competitors
○ Follow current or predicted market trends
● Common ideation issues include:

y
○ Regionality of trends and preferences
○ Market share and segmentation
○ Target market size and predicted share th
Ka
○ “Reading” market trends
■ Current market trends may not be relevant by the time the new product is
launched
■ Predicted market trends may be incorrect
n,

Gate 1. New Product Concept Check

● Research and scoping will narrow down ideas to those with market potential
ia

Stage 2. Formulation / First Prototype

qu

● Development of new product in a small scale

○ Generally lab or kitchen scale.
sa

● Testing of small scale new product using various quality filters:

○ Compliance with standards and guidelines
○ Consumer interest
Pa

○ Sensory evaluation
Gate 2. Market Check
● Does the test product have the expected/desirable quality?
● Does the product have enough consumer interest?
● Does the product pass necessary standards and guidelines?

Stage 3. Processing / Large Scale Prototype

● Adaptation of lab/kitchen scale prototype into a larger scale
● Use of new facilities or equipment for large scale production
○ Pilot-level production or larger
○ Simulates actual processing when the product is launched

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● Product and processes are subjected to more in-depth checks for safety, quality, and
compliance.
Gate 3. Feasibility Check
● Is the product of desirable quality after adaptation into large-scale production?
● Is the product safe?
● Can the product be produced consistently, efficiently, and economically.
● Is the product shelf-life of sufficient length for its intended use? (i.e. To allow for
production, storage, shipping, distribution, purchase, and consumption)

Stage 4. Commercialization
●

ye
Readies the product for launch
● Final packaging design, including labeling and aesthetics
● Coordination with relevant retail stores

Ka
● Marketing and advertising
● Final costing
● Final sensory testing
Gate 4. Competitive Product Check / Decision to Launch

y
● “Final check” to ensure nothing has been missed by the Product Development Team

th
○ Are the reviews and documentation performed of sufficient quality and accuracy?
○ Are the marketing strategies appropriate?
Ka
○ Is the product competitive in the current market?
Stage 5. Product Launch
● Continuous evaluation throughout the PDLC
n,

Acceptance Criteria
ia

● Criteria used by upper management/product development team to objectively determine

qu

the status of the product and the NPD process at each Gate.
● must be effective (for example, following the S.M.A.R.T. criteria)
○ Specific - a tight, well-defined parameter of the NPD Project is assessed
sa

○ Measurable - can be objectively quantified or answerable by yes/no

○ Achievable - must be easy to use and assess
○ Realistic - information to assess this criteria is readily-available
Pa

○ Time-bound - a given acceptance criteria should be immediately relevant to the

gate it is assigned (i.e. not too early or too late in the Stage Gate process)
● Decisions that are often made using acceptance criteria include the following:
○ Go/Kill Decisions: Whether to proceed (‘Go’) or not proceed (‘Kill’) with the new
product development process
○ Prioritization Decisions: How the existing tasks within an NPD project should
be arranged with regards to importance. (i.e. How much resource should be
allocated for each task? Which tasks should be completed first?)
● Based on these decisions, acceptance criteria can be categorized into:
○ Must-meet: criteria answerable by yes or no and that must be met in order to
accept a new food product (i.e. Criteria used in Go/Kill Decisions)

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 ■ Examples:
● Compliance with standard of identity
● Compliance with legal and regulatory guidelines
● Alignment with overall company strategy
● Significant chance of positive Returns on Investment
○ Should-meet: criteria which may be scored by a numerical scheme which rates
highly desirable criteria (i.e. Criteria used in Prioritization decisions. Garnering
consistently low ratings in several should-meet criteria, however, may be grounds
for a ‘Kill Decision’ to be made for the NPD Project by the product development
team or upper management.
■ Examples:

ye
● Marketability
● Product Advantage (Unique Selling Proposition/USP)

Ka
● Cost effectivity
● Technical and operational feasibility
● Risk of investment

y
\

th
Ka
n,
ia
qu
sa
Pa

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